Chapter 11

Sound
Important Terms

Sound Waves - In gases and liquids (fluids) are primarily longitudinal waves. However,
sound disturbances moving through solids can have both longitudinal and transverse
components. The intermolecular interactions in solids are much stronger than in fluids
allow transverse components to propagate.

Audible Region of the Sound Frequency Spectrum - Are characteristics of the ear limit
the perception of sound. Only sound waves with frequencies between about 20 Hz and 20
kHz (kilohertz) initiate nerve impulse that are interpreted by the human brain as sound.

Infrasonic Region are Frequencies lower than 20 Hz. Waves in this region, which we
can’t hear, are found in nature. Longitudinal waves generated by earthquakes have
infrasonic frequencies, and we use these waves to study the Earth’s interior. Infrasonic
waves, or infrasound, are also generated by wind and weather patterns.

Ultrasonic Region is above 20 kHz. Ultrasonic waves can b generated by high-

frequency vibrations in crystals. Ultrasonic waves, or Ultrasound, cannot be detected by
humans but can be by other Animals.

Intensity is a rate of the energy transfer, which is the energy transported per unit time
across a unit area.

Loudness is sound intensity perceived by the ear. On the average, the human ear can
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detect sound waves (at 1 kHz) with an intensity as low as 10 W/m².

Bel (B) is the exponent of the power of ten in the final log term is taken to have a unit.

Decibel (Db) is a tenth of a bel. The 0 to 12 B range corresponds to 0 to 120 dB.

Constructive Inference is the waves meet in a region where they are exactly in phase.

Destructive Interference is the waves meet such that the crest of one coincides out.

Phase Difference ( ) is related to the Path-Length Difference ( ) by the simple

relationship.
Beats - The ear senses pulsations in loudness

The maximum amplitude is 2A (at the point where the maxima of the two original waves
interfere constructively). Detailed mathematics shows that a listener will hear these beats
at a frequency called the Beats Frequency (fb).
If you stand along the highway and a car or truck approaches you with its horn blowing,
the Pitch (the perceived frequency) of the sound is higher as the vehicle approaches and
lower as it recedes.

A variation in the perceived sound frequency due to the motion of the sound source is an
example of the Doppler Effect

Sonic Boom is when pressure ridge passes over an observer on the ground, large
concentration of energy produces.

Mach Number (M) is inverse ratio of the speed, named after Ernst Mach (1838 – 1916),
an Austrian Physicist, who use it in studying supersonics.

The Quality of a tone is the characteristic that enables it to be distinguished from another
of basically the same intensity and frequency.

Important Equations

Speed of Sound (in meters per second):

v = (331 + 0.6Tc) m/s

Intensity of a Point Source:

1
I² / I = P/4pR2
I² / I1 = (R1 / R2)²

Intensity Level (in decibels)

β=10 log ( )
I
Io

where I = 10-12 W/m²

º

Phase Difference (where L is path-length difference):

Dθ = 2p / λ (DL)

Condition for destructive interference:

DL = nλ (n = 0,1,2,3,……)

Condition for Destructive Inference:

DL = m(λ / 2) (m = 1,3,5,……)

Beat frequency
fb | f1 – f2|
 Doppler Effect
f o=
( )
v
f
v ± vs s

- for moving toward stationary observer

+ for source away from stationary observer

Where: vs = speed of source

v = Speed of sound

f o= ( v ±vv ) f
o
s

+ observer moving toward stationary source

- for observer away from stationary source

where v = speed of observer

°
v = speed of sound

Mach number
vs
M=
v

Natural Frequency of Organ Pipe Open on Both Ends:

fn = n (v / 2L) = nf1
(n = 1,2,3,………)

Natural Frequency of Organ Pipe Closed on One End:

f m=m
4L
v
( )
=m f 1
(m = 1,2,3,……)

Example 1: From their material properties, find the values of speeds of sound in (a) a
solid copper rod, (b) liquid water, and (c) air at room temperature (20°).

Given: T =20 ° C
10 2
∝Cu=11 .0 x 10 N /m
3
ρCu =8 . 9 x 10 kg /m
3 Required:
9 2 a . V Cu =?
β H O =2. 2 x 10 N /m
2
3
b . V H O =?
ρ H O=1000 kg /m
2
2

c .V a=?
Solution:

a . V Cu =
∝
ρ
=
√ √
11. 0 x 1010 N /m 2
3
8 . 9 x 10 kg/m
3
=3. 52 x 103 m/s

β
b . V H O= =
2
ρ √ √
2 . 2 x 109 N /m2
1000 kg /m
3
=1 . 45 x 10 3 m/ s

c .V a=331+0.6 T =331+0.6 ( 20 )=343 m/s

Example 2: On a cool October afternoon (air temperature = 15°C), from your seat in the
centerfield stands 113 m from first base, you witness the play that will decide the World
Series. You see runner’s foot touch the Bag; half a second later, straining your ears, you
hear the faint thud of the ball in the first baseman’s glove. The umpire signals safe; half
the fans boo loudly. As a student of physics, you make the call – did the ump blow it?

Given:
T c =15 °C Required:
d=113 m Correct call?

Solution:
V =331+ 0.6 T =331+ 0.6 ( 15 )=340 m/ s

d d 113
V = ; t= = =0.033 s
t V 340

d d 113 −7
C= ; t= = =3.77 x 10 s
t C 3.0 x 10 8

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Example 3: What are the intensity levels of sounds with intensities of (a) 1x10 W/m²
and (b) 5.0 x 10-6 W/m²?

Given:
−12 2
a . I =1 x 10 W /m Required:
−6
b . I =5 x 10 W /m
2 β=?

Solution:

( ) ( )
−12
I 1 x 10
a . β=10 log =10 log −12
=0 dB
Io 1 x 10

( ) ( )
−6
I 5 x 10
b . β=10 log =10 log −12
=66.99 dB
Io 1 x 10

Example 4: What is the difference in the intensity levels if the intensity of a sound is
doubled? (b) By what factors does the intensity increase for intensity level differences of
10 dB and 20 dB?
Given:
I 1=I 2 Required:
∆ B=10 dB a . ∆ B=?
∆ B=20 dB b . I 1=?
Solution:
a . ∆ B=10 log
()
I2
I1
=10 log
( )
2I1
I1
=10 log 2=3.01 dB

b.
β=10 log
( II )
o
β=10 log
( II )
o

10=10 log
( 1 x 10I ) −12
20=10 log
( 1 x 10I ) −12

1=log
( 1 x 10 )
I
−12
2=log
( 1 x 10 )
I
−12

1 I 2 I
10 = −12
10 = −12
1 x 10 1 x 10
I =101 ( 1 x 10−12 )=1 x 10−11 W /m2 I =102 ( 1 x 10−12 )=1 x 10−10 W /m2

Example 5: Sitting at a sidewalk restaurant table, a friend talks to you in normal

conversation (60 dB). At the same time, the intensity level of the street traffic reaching
you is also 60 dB. What is the total intensity level of combined sound?

Given:
β 1=60 dB Required:
β 2=60 dB β 2=?

Solution:
β=10 log ( )
I
Io

60=10 log
( 1 x 10I ) −12

6=log
( 1 x 10I )−12

6 I
10 = −12
1 x 10
I =106 ( 1 x 10−12 ) =1 x 10−6 W /m2
−6 −6 −6 2
I T =I 1 + I 2=1 x 10 +1 x 10 =2 x 10 W /m
β=10 log
( ) I
Io

( )
−6
2 x 10
β=10 log −12
=63.01 dB
1 x 10

Example 6: At an open-air concert on a hot Day (air temperature of 25°C), you sit 7.00
and 9.10m, respectively, from a pair of speakers, one at each side of the stage. A
musician, warming up, plays a single 494-hertz tone. What do you hear? (Consider the
speakers to be point sources.)

Given: T =25 ℃
d 1=7 m
d 2=9.10 m Required:
∆ L=?

Solution:
V =331+ 0.6 T =331+ 0.6 ( 25 )=346 m/s
v 346 m/ s
d= = =0.7 m=700 mm
f 494 hz
d 1=7000
λ
700 ( )
=10 λ

d 2=9100
λ
700 ( )
=13 λ

∆ L=d 2−d 1=13 λ−10 λ=3 λ

Example 7: As a truck traveling at 96 km/h approaches and passes a person standing

along the highway, the driver sounds the horn. If the horn has a frequency of 400 Hz,
what are the frequencies of the sound waves heard by the person (a) as the truck
approaches and (b) after it has passed? (Assume that the speed of sound is 346 m/s.)

Given:
V o =0 m/s
km 1000 m 1 h r
V s =96 x x =26.67 m/s
hr 1 km 3600 s
V =346 m/s
f s=400 h z

Required:
f o=?

Solution:
a . f o=
( v ±v v ) f =( 346−26.67
s
s
346
)( 400)=433.31 h z
b . f o=
( v ±v v ) f =( 346+34626.67 ) ( 400 )=371.37 h z
s
s