Global Health For Nursing and Nursing For Global Health
Global Health For Nursing and Nursing For Global Health
Global Health For Nursing and Nursing For Global Health
HEALTH
Action for social justice and equity worldwide has never been more apparent than it is
today. The Occupy Wall Street movement and uprisings across the Middle East are evidence
economic policies that value profit over human/ environmental health and wellbeing are
warning signs that a shift in values and a change in how we live are necessary for the
The 1990s ushered in an era of globalization and the world is now more interconnected
than ever before. With the international flow of information, goods, services, and people, a
new economic, political, and social space has emerged (Kickbusch, 2005). The implications
for the health of people worldwide, particularly in low- and middle-income countries
(LMICs), are significant. Global health (GH) has also come into existence as an academic
field (Brown, Cueto, & Fee, 2006), attracted the attention of governments, non-
partnerships in a spirit of hope for global equity. Academics, including nurses, have been
writing about this new field: what it is, what it encompasses, who is involved in it, and what
it means for education and research. ©Ingram School of Nursing, McGill University
discipline of nursing. We then explicate how GH is relevant for nursing and its purpose. We
next consider, based on the literature, what nursing has to offer GH, including advocacy for
global social justice, healing and alleviating of suffering through caring, and increased
nursing capacity globally. I conclude by briefly discussing the implications for research and
education.
The debate on how best to define GH is of great importance. As pointed out by Koplan,
Bond, and Merson (2009), consensus on the meaning of GH is imperative so that there is
agreement on what is to be achieved, what skills are required, and in what ways researchers,
interdisciplinary field (Koplan et al., 2009), and nursing, which represents the majority of
A number of definitions of GH have been proposed, one of the most commonly cited
being that put forth by Koplan et al. (2009): “an area for study, research, and practice that
places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in health for all people
worldwide” (p. 1995). The purpose of GH is health equity among nations and for all people,
rather than within a nation (or community), as with public health. It is also more than one
treatment and care of individuals and/ or populations and through the sharing of knowledge,
The work of Koplan et al. (2009) is a seminal contribution to the field, as it expands on
earlier definitions of GH (Her Majesty’s Government, 2008; Kickbusch, 2006) and has
stimulated further discussion. Beaglehole and Bonita (2010), for example, call for a shorter
and sharper definition, claiming that the one proposed by Koplan et al. is wordy and
Conversely, Fried et al. (2010) argue that GH is global public health and that there should
A thoughtful discussion by Bozorgmehr (2010) is a useful place to begin to answer this question.
The author provides an in-depth analysis of how “global” has been defined, including
“transcending national boundaries,” “worldwide,” and “holistic” — the last referring to anything
and everything that impacts health — and offers a new approach to defining the term. He also
considers how “health” should be defined, a rarity in the debate on how to define GH.
Health. From the viewpoint of Bozorgmehr (2010), health refers to more than just the absence
of disease; it includes physical, mental, and social well-being (World Health Organization
[WHO], 1947).
Bozorgmehr also considers health to be a social, economic, and political issue, as well as a
fundamental human right. He claims that this conceptualization sets a foundation for GH on two
fronts. First, it implies that GH research, education, and practices go beyond biomedical
approaches — thus GH entails more than addressing the eradication of disease. Second, health as
a human right puts normative objectives (i.e., equitable access to health) at arm’s length in the
debate about GH, not attached directly to its definition. Since there are multiple GH
communities, each with its own set of motivations and values, from Bozorgmehr’s perspective
For nursing, defining health is key given that good health is the goal of the discipline (Smith,
2008). A definition that goes beyond the absence of disease and that is holistic also aligns with
definitions of health within nursing. In fact, a definition with greater emphasis on quality of life
and well-being would be more inclusive (e.g., populations living with chronic illness, disability,
or mental health issues) and therefore more suited to GH and the goals of nursing (i.e., health
promotion and healing). An emphasis on quality of life and well-being is further justified when
one considers the limitations of traditional medicine in curing many of the world’s ailments, the
growing interest in alternative/ complementary therapies, and the existence of and widespread
use of non-medical healing approaches all around the world. Also, high-income countries (HICs)
The World Health Organization (WHO) (1947) considers health a fundamental right of every
human being. This view is shared by the International Council of Nurses (ICN) (2011a), which
represents more than 130 national nursing bodies. Although health as a human right is a shared
philosophy across many countries, it often gets diluted in healthcare policies. Furthermore, for
many nurses a human rights frame of reference does not explicitly guide nursing practice (Easley
& Allen, 2007). I believe that, to reinforce a human rights perspective in health and health-care
discourse, health as a human right should be made explicit in the definition of health (as in global
health). In contrast to Bozorghmehr (2010), however, I would argue that normative objectives
should not be separated and that equity (“absence of systematic disparities in health between
groups with different levels of underlying social advantage/ disadvantage — that is, wealth,
power, or prestige” [Braveman & Gruskin, 2003, p. 254]) should be included in the overall
definition of GH.
While political influence is unavoidable in GH, we must not bury social justice objectives
within layers of its definition. Even if there is agreement on the detachment of normative
objectives, associations with “doing good” will still be made. Furthermore, I would argue that
proponents of GH must engage in debate in order to set priorities and must strive to include input
across and within countries. A critical or feminist perspective of social justice may be the most
appropriate for framing such debate (Pauly, MacKinnon, & Varcoe, 2009). As noted in the
literature, justice is not simply a matter of distribution — the focus should be differences that
exist along the lines of gender, ethnicity, class, and social positioning and that constrain freedom
“doing good.” Nurses and other health-care providers need to advocate for global equity (i.e.,
health for every human being) as the objective and to not let politics bully the GH agenda. GH
also needs an independent governing body, such as the WHO, to ensure that its standards are
met. The WHO should not only provide leadership on GH matters but also have financial and
legal authority; our shared humanity (via the WHO) should be steering political decision-making
rather than the reverse. A similar idea is proposed by Labonte and Spiegel (2003), who advocate
for the assessment of world trade agreements with human rights and environmental sustainability
goals. This would be congruent with the need and the call for a shift in values and power, as
reflected in recent movements, and would ensure that GH missions are not predominately driven
Global. “Globality,” as Bozorghmehr (2010) calls it, in the context of health refers to
“supraterritorial links between the social determinants of health located at points anywhere on
earth within a whole-world context” (p. 6). “Supraterritorial” refers to a social space that
represents the connectedness of the world due to globalization. It is a spatial unit in itself but
converges with territorial and transterritorial or interterritorial spaces. In this definition, “global”
is more than the sum of its parts and the focus of GH is the supraterritorial determinants that
health. It clarifies the object of focus (the supraterritorial determinants) and positions GH
squarely in the context of globalization. It avoids the issues inherent in defining “global” as
merely worldwide or holistic, neither of which fully captures the focus or essence of GH. In the
migrants or women — groups that are not always thought of in terms of GH — and the level of
action may be local or global. For example, maternal mortality in Africa is a concern in GH not
because more women die during childbirth in Africa than elsewhere, or because it is a significant
issue affecting millions of women, but because the causes of maternal mortality are linked to
supraterritorial influences such as the shortage of health workers and the world financial crisis
(Bozorgmehr, 2010). Furthermore, humanitarian aid, although necessary in crisis situations (e.g.,
the Horn of Africa drought or the earthquake in Haiti), would not necessarily be considered GH
in this framework. Actions must be sustainable, not shortterm fixes, and health promotion and
Bozorgmehr’s (2010) definition also corresponds with the principle of wholeness in nursing
science. Leuning (2001) draws on the nursing theories of Leininger, Rizzo Parse, Watson, and
Newman to present eight principles, including wholeness, that she believes are required for a
global perspective. Wholeness is characterized by the view that the world is unitary and
indivisible and that human beings are in rhythmical interchange with their environments. A
global perspective requires a focus on patterns of the whole and a recognition that the betterment
of humankind is intrinsically linked with the health of persons, the environment, nations, the
universe, and the galaxy. Therefore, the complex pathways between the supraterritorial social
space and people and their social determinants are patterns that affect the whole. Seeing the
patterns occurs through a continual process of zooming in and out from the parts to the whole
and through a recognition of uniqueness and diversity, connectedness and meaning. As described
by Newman (2002) “the data of pattern are the stories of people and their connectedness with
their environment, reflecting the complexity of continuing change” (p. 6). Better understanding
of the supraterritorial determinants and their patterns, which are reflected in people’s daily lives
and in their health, as an object of focus for GH, therefore fits within the nursing paradigm.
of health — to make it clear that GH concerns not only the eradication of disease but also quality
of life and well-being, and that the means for achieving health are holistic. This sub-definition
must also explicitly iterate that health is a fundamental right of every human being. A sub-
supraterritorial determinants). This description of global also aligns with the principle of
wholeness, a core nursing value and a key concept in many nursing theories.
GH is a complex phenomenon that cannot be reduced to a few words. Its intentions and
perspectives should not be assumed, but — to ensure clarity for all involved — the objectives of
health as a human right and health equity (i.e., the absence of systematic disparities) need to be
made explicit. The conferring of greater power to the WHO as a governing body of GH could
There is an inherent fit between GH and nursing’s theoretical and philosophical foundations. The
substantive focus of the discipline of nursing is the person, environment, health, and caring
(Smith, 2008). While there is some variation in how health is defined, depending on the
particular nursing theory or model, health is viewed from a holistic perspective and involves
harmony or balance between body, mind, spirit, and environment (i.e., wholeness). Also, nursing
recognizes that each person is unique and that how health is defined by a person, group, or
community is subjective. Healing captures the dynamic element of health: The person moves
towards balance and wholeness within the self (Burkhardt, 1985). Nursing itself has been
described as “the study of human health and healing through caring” (Smith, 2008, p. 3). Caring,
or caring consciousness, is a way of being whereby one person is open to connecting with
another; it is seeing and knowing a person holistically, which calls for acceptance, non-
dialoguing, and listening (Cowling, Smith, & Watson, 2008). The role of nurses is to enable
people to move towards wholeness/ health (i.e., healing) through the act of caring. With this
frame of reference, nurses are positioned to work with people and communities to promote
health, prevent illness, support, and provide care during times of sickness and normal life
developments. Advocacy for healthy environments that support wellness/ wholeness at macro
levels — that is, nationally and globally (worldwide and supraterritorially) — is also within the
scope of nursing and is congruent with nursing’s unitary and caring conceptualizations.
Activism is deeply embedded in the profession of nursing. Florence Nightingale believed that
it was nurses’ duty to change conditions (social, political, environmental) for the betterment and
health of humankind. Chinn and Kramer (2008) describe a form of knowing in nursing referred
to as emancipatory knowing, a way of perceiving the world that grows out of critical analysis of
the status quo and a vision of the changes that are needed to achieve equitable and just conditions
under which all human beings can reach their full potential. Emancipatory knowing involves
reflecting on how social and political forces and power dynamics shape knowledge. Taking
action includes advocating for change, changing one’s own way of behaving, and conducting
In the spirit of Nightingale, nursing has recently renewed its commitment to this goal and has
made GH a priority for the discipline. In 2010, the centennial of Nightingale’s death, the
International Year of the Nurse (Beck, Dossey, & Rushton, 2010) called on nurses worldwide to
become engaged in promoting health for all. One of the main drivers of this event was the
Nightingale Initiative for Global Health, a grassroots movement of nurses that aims to identify,
share, and promote approaches for creating health globally and actively advocates that the United
Nations and its member states make health a universal priority. The ICN and many national
Villeneuve, 2008). The ICN has taken action by issuing several position statements related to
GH, working with the WHO and other policy-making bodies, and lobbying governments and
people-centred. Clearly, GH is within the scope of nursing, and, more than that, nurses are well
The issues that are considered inherently GH concerns are those related to environmental
degradation and poverty (Labonte & Spiegel, 2003). They are reflected in the United Nations
2015 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): eradicate poverty and hunger; achieve universal
education; promote gender equality and the empowerment of women; reduce child mortality;
improve maternal health; combat HIV/ AIDS, malaria, and other diseases; ensure environmental
Also considered GH concerns are the many non-communicable diseases and conditions such as
cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, injuries, and respiratory illness (Magnusson, 2009) that
are linked to MDGs via their environmental and lifestyle determinants (diet, tobacco use, work
environments, physical activity), the last being related to poverty and the exportation of Western
culture. Mental health is also relevant to GH because of the effects of migration, conflict, natural
disasters, and global trade policies on well-being (Patel & Prince, 2010). With these issues and
the definition of GH in mind, the priority roles of nurses in GH should be advocacy, healing and
Advocacy. Raising awareness and advocacy together make up the most important role of
nursing in GH (Mill, Astle, Ogilvie, & Opare, 2005; Reutter & Kushner, 2010). The ICN has
taken a position on many issues related to GH, including international trade agreements, climate
change and health, environmental and lifestyle-related health risks, universal access to clean
water, the elimination of weapons of war and conflict, child labour, and women’s health (ICN,
2002, 2006b, 2007a, 2008a, 2008b, 2010, 2011b). These positions link directly with the
supraterritorial determinants of health and speak to all of the MDGs as well as noncommunicable
Nursing must continue to participate in advocacy, not only at the international level but also
nationally and locally, and to echo the statements issued by the ICN. The ICN (2011a) believes
that nurses have a responsibility to call attention to human rights violations (including the right to
health and health care) and to respect and promote human rights. Nurses work closely with
individuals and communities and are therefore well placed to hear and collect stories about the
impact of living conditions (and of policies) on people’s lives. In Canada, for example, the
Canadian Nurses Association (2012) recently opposed government cuts to the health insurance
scheme for refugees and asylumseekers, a federal measure that has resulted in reduced access to
The eighth MDG, a global partnership for development, requires particular attention from
advocates for GH, as it may be the most important goal. Sub-goals of this MDG include
developing a trading and financial system that is open, rule-based, predictable, and non-
discriminatory and addressing the debt problems of LMICs. Falk-Rafael (2006) speaks to this
matter by detailing the harrowing effects of globalization on human health and urges nurses to
advocate for a change in the global order. This includes advocating for debt cancellation (which
the ICN has already done (Anderson, 2005), more democratic governance and application of
global rules, and global policies that favour LMICs but are non-protectionist of HIC. Falk-Rafael
takes it a step further and suggests that environmental protection and people need to be at the
centre of all trade agreements and domestic practices. Profit can no longer be the driving force; a
Healing and alleviating suffering through caring. Primary health care has been deemed the
key strategy for GH and for achieving health for all (WHO, 1978). It has also been said that
many of the world’s ailments could be addressed through nursing care (Villeneuve, 2008).
Indeed, poor maternal health, child mortality, and HIV/ AIDS, malaria, and other diseases, as
well as mental disorders and non-communicable diseases, are all addressable by primary health
care delivered by nurses. Primary health care focuses on health promotion (enabling people to
improve their health) and illness prevention, mostly by tending to the social determinants of
health (social, economic, and environmental factors that affect health). As frontline caregivers,
nurses counsel individuals, families, and communities on health promoting behaviours (e.g.,
healthy eating, basic hygiene); support development over the lifespan (e.g., parenting, death and
dying); and encourage illness-prevention activities (e.g., vaccination, general health screening).
Primary health care may be provided by nurses in the community or in the context of primary
care (e.g., chronic illness management, prenatal care). While advocacy is the approach for
ultimately changing policies and social structures that underpin health inequities, in their work
nurses maintain a stance of caring consciousness, view people and communities holistically, and
tend to address social determinants with the resources at hand. More importantly, nurses
accompany, sojourn, partner with, explore, converse with, and listen to individuals and families
to make them more resilient to the ecological and social factors that affect their health. It is
because of such compassionate care for humanity that people may begin to heal and suffering
may be alleviated.
Increasing nursing capacity globally. The ICN (2007b) position statement on nurse retention
and migration stipulates that quality health care depends on an adequate supply of qualified,
committed nursing per sonnel. Certainly, the provision of nursing care requires basic resources,
infrastructure, and nurses. For this reason, investing in primary health care and increasing
While the nursing shortage is a global problem, its effects are most severe in Africa and Asia.
The ICN believes that nurses have the right to migrate as a function of choice but also that the
international migration of nurses can negatively impact health-care systems by siphoning nursing
personnel from the regions most in need. Additional concerns, in LMICs and HICs, are the poor
treatment and working conditions of (migrant) nurses and the relaxing of training standards in
ICN, 2006a, 2007b; International Organization for Migration [IOM], 2006). These include
investing in health-worker education, enhancing the image of the nursing profession, reducing
barriers to education for vulnerable groups, ensuring proper regulation of nurses, improving
working conditions, developing models for management, retention and resource allocation, and
“brain circulation” — whereby nurses from LMICs migrate to HICs and then return home.
Ethical recruitment and protection of migrants’ rights are also essential (Dickenson-Hazard,
Mechanisms to improve the availability of human and material resources need to be identified
provisions in trade agreements — that is, conditions requiring countries to invest in health care
(Labonte, 2003), recruitment/ migration policies that offer financial incentives to health/
borders.
Finally, qualifications and skill requirements must be improved across nations (IOM, 2006).
This will not only serve to improve quality of care, but also help to retain nurses in LMICs and
raise the status of women (Sullivan, 2000), which addresses the third MDG. Distance-learning
initiatives (within LMICs or between HICs and LMICs) and knowledge and skill transfer via
migrants returning to their home countries (TyerViola et al., 2009) are examples of strategies that
Education
GH programs have become commonplace, particularly in North America (Macfarlane, Jacobs, &
Kaaya, 2008). Their emergence partly reflects the shift from international health to GH by the
WHO as well as a growing demand by health professionals and students for education in GH.
Numerous articles have been published on the topic of GH education, including several in
nursing (Hodson-Carlton, Ryan, Ali, & Kelsey, 2007; Leuning, 2001; Mill & Astle, 2011; Mill,
Astle, Ogilvie, & Gastaldo, 2010). Generally, there is agreement that GH education should
include learning about interconnectedness and wholeness; justice, human rights, and social
demographics, and politics; respect and tolerance for difference and openness to learning from
others; GH concerns (e.g., MDGs); and burden of disease. Current thinking, however, is that the
core curriculum for all health professionals should educate them to be globally conscious and
GH training often includes clinical (and research) placements, mostly in international settings
in LMICs. These may put an undue burden on already taxed health and education systems in host
countries (Crump & Sugarman, 2010). Developing partnerships and identifying benefits for host
institutions must be part of placement planning (Hickey, Gagnon, & Merry, 2010). Local GH
Increased funding to develop GH programs is also needed (Kishore et al., 2011), as stronger,
sustained programs may help to address theses issues (i.e., long-term partnerships and money to
Global health research (GHR) is essential for guiding health-care providers and other
oriented towards locating the upstream drivers (supraterritorial determinants) — political, social,
cultural, economic, and environmental — of health and/ or developing approaches that increase
resiliency with regard to these factors (Stephen & Daibes, 2010). Interdisciplinary teams,
policies/ interventions, are necessary to ensure that the knowledge developed is relevant and can
be implemented. A long-term vision, adequate time, and funding are also essential, to ensure that
partnerships and knowledge translation/ transfer will be achieved and to account for unforeseen
disruptions or a change of course in research (due to input from partners or newly identified
needs). Funding may be a particular challenge, as nursing research is not recognized in GHR
(Jairath, 2007); this not only limits access to funds but also diminishes the role of nursing in GH.
Other points of consideration for GHR include methods and ethics. To more comprehensively
answer GHR questions, a variety of methods and approaches are needed (Stephen & Daibes,
2010). Since the use of diverse methods is a strength of nursing, the discipline has much to
phenomenology, ethnography, and even aesthetic forms (her meneutics), that might more
effectively communicate experiences, feelings, and struggles are part of the research tradition in
nursing. Regarding ethics, GHR is itself a budding field of research (Stephen & Daibes, 2010).
The ethical issues are numerous — for example, the potential for exploitation, unequal power
between HIC and LMIC partnerships, and the application of Western bioethics (Crigger, 2008;
Harrowing, Mill, Spiers, Kulig, & Kipp, 2010; Ijsselmuiden, Kass, Sewankambo, & Lavery,
2010; Powell, Gilliss, Hewitt, & Flint, 2010; Stephen & Daibes, 2010) — and are beyond the
Conclusion
The body of literature on GH and nursing is expanding rapidly. Nursing has a fundamental role
to play in GH and the perspective and unique contributions that nurses make to the field need
more visibility within and outside of the discipline. This article has addressed conceptual issues
this area. Nurses engaged in research, education, or GH work must continue to write about and
conceptually describe GH in order to further define the field and its relevancy to nursing. This
could serve to maintain clarity on what constitutes GH and whether we are achieving our
objectives as we move forward and the global perspective becomes more integrated into
everyday nursing practice. Most importantly, it will provide a foundation for improving the
education of nurses so that they will be better prepared to participate in patient- and population-
centred health-care systems as members of locally responsive and globally connected teams.
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