• What is Space

• Astronomers
• Origin of Astrophysics
• Astronomical Observatories
• Space Race and Space Technology
• India in Space
• Humans to Space
• Space and Future

Introduction to Space - 1
 INTRODUCTION TO SPACE

What is Space?
Space is up, right there! Looking at the sky, we can see the Sun, stars, planets, the moon, and many
other celestial objects; there are also invisible things like radiation, tiny dust particles, gases,
cosmic rays, blackholes, etc. Space also includes Satellites, Rockets, Astronauts, Rovers, etc.

Where does it all start? How ample is space?

Our Earth is surrounded by five layers of the atmosphere, namely Troposphere, Stratosphere,
Mesosphere, Thermosphere and Exosphere (Fig.1). These layers are divided based on the change
in temperature and pressure observed, starting from the surface of the Earth. Fédération
Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the world governing body for Air Sports, defines the boundary
line between the Earth's atmosphere and the outer space to be approximately 100 km or 62.14
miles above Earth's mean sea level. This imaginary line is called the "Karman line" (fig.2).

Karman Line

100 km

Fig.1: Layers of Atmosphere Fig.2: Karman Line

Introduction to Space - 2
Do we know the age of our Universe?
To the question of how old this Universe is, we can easily give a lower limit by the age of our
Earth. Radiometric age-dating technology is used to determine the age of any object, like a tree or
an ancient artefact. When this process was done on some of the oldest rocks and minerals on Earth,
it was found to be 4.54 billion years old. These rocks and minerals could have formed when the
Earth was formed; hence the age of the Earth, thus the Universe, is at least 4.54 billion years.

To know the upper age limit of the Universe, we need to look at the stars. Scientists have found a
few stars and globular clusters* in the Milky Way galaxy that are 11-14 billion years old. On the
other hand, astronomers predict the Universe’s age to be 13.77 - 13.8 billion years using expanding
universe theory. Thus, we can say that the age of the Universe is at most 14 billion years.

1 Billion = 1,000,000,000

Expanding Universe Theory: The universe we live in is not flat and unchanging but
constantly expanding. If the expansion rate is known, scientists can calculate backwards the
age of the Universe.

We all have been learning that Space is nothing but a vacuum; is it true? And is it the
reason that we can’t hear in Space?

Yes, Space is like a vacuum. But we have many things that

are mostly invisible to human eyes. The outer Space contains
celestial bodies, which we are aware of, but in between these
heavenly bodies, there exists many low-density particles,
electromagnetic radiations, cosmic rays (Fig. 3), neutrinos,
gases, dust particles, dark matter and dark energies. All these
are placed very far from each other in Vacuum, and since
there is no medium for a sound wave to travel, the sound
cannot be heard in Space. Fig. 3: Cosmic Rays

Dark Matter: It is a form of matter that does not interact with light. It could be cold dark
matter -- weakly interacting particles -- or hot dark matter -- high energy randomly moving
particles.
Dark Energy: It is an unknown energy pervading the universe and causes its expansion to
accelerate, opposing the effects gravity.
Low density particles: Particles having low mass per unit volume.

Let’s hold here and think, how and when did humans get to know
about Space?
Humans are unique with our capacity to observe, think, and question, which has been one of
the most vital tools to transform the whole of humankind. Recently, archaeologists* discovered
a cave painting in Europe estimated to be 12,000 - 40,000 years old, showing that humans have
been observing the stars in the sky, star patterns (Fig. 4a), eclipses, comets (Fig. 4b), meteor
showers, and supernovae (Fig. 5) for a long time.

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 Fig. 4: (Left) Cave Painting of Constellations expected to be 17,000-20,000 years old. (Credits: BBC).
(Right) Appearance of Comet Halley – 1066. (Credits: SciencePhoto.)

Fig. 5: Depiction of Supernova by researchers from TIFR (3600 BC)

Our ancestors also grouped these stars and celestial bodies based on periodicity and named
them. Mythologies were created based on the location and the patterns they formed in the sky.
They made predictions of the periodicity of prominent celestial events like different phases of
the Moon, solar and lunar eclipses and used them to track seasons. They measured time with
the help of the Sun and Sun’s shadow and used Pole stars and constellations as navigational
tools for overnight travelling.
Most early astronomers were polymaths making
significant contributions in multiple fields like geology,
mathematics, and philosophy. In a world full of people
believing that the Earth was flat, Eratosthenes (276–195
BC), a Greek polymath, measured the size of the round
Earth using the Sun. Another renowned Greek
astronomer, Claudius Ptolemy (85–168 AD) came up
Fig. 6: From left to right Eratosthenes with a Geocentric model (Fig. 7) of the universe.
and Claudius Ptolemy

Did you know?

Eratosthenes measurement was 24,660 miles

(39,690 km) which is only 211 miles (340 km)
off the actual measurement.

Fig. 7: Difference between Geocentric and

Heliocentric Model

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Ancient Indian Astronomers
The contributions of Indians to astronomy is vast but often unknown to the world. Astronomers
like Aryabhata, Bhaskara II, Brahmagupta and Varahamihira worked on concepts like starting
the day at sunrise, the motion of celestial bodies in the universe with Earth in the centre, phases
of the moon, eclipses, etc. Indian mythology speaks about the nine planets of the solar system
(the Navagraha), even before Galileo used his telescope to observe all the planets.

Fig. 7: (From Left to right) Aryabhata, Bhaskara II, Brahmagupta and Varahamihira

Aryabhata (476 AD), using mathematical astronomy, described the last two
planets, Rahu and Ketu, as ascending and descending nodes of the meeting point of Sun and
Moon. Thus giving one of the earliest interpretations of eclipses.

Bhaskara II calculated the time required for the Earth to orbit the Sun (sidereal year) as
approximately 365.2588 days.

Brahmagupta, renowned for the invention of Zero,

wrote Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta, which displays the applications of mathematics in the real
world. In astronomy, he developed methods of calculating the position of heavenly bodies over
time, their rising and setting, conjunctions and the calculation of solar and lunar eclipse.

Varahamihira summarised the Romaka-Siddhanta that explains the epicycle* theory of the
motions of the Sun and the Moon provided by the Romans, in his Panchasiddhantika (The
Five Astronomical Canons) written in 575 AD.

Space until the mid of 14th century was to look into the sky, observe celestial objects and celestial
activities. We can call it Observational Astronomy.

Ancient Astronomical Observatories

As discussed earlier, many civilizations have observed the sky and celestial bodies. To make
accurate observations and calculations of motions of celestial bodies, astronomical
observatories were built across the world.

Following are a few examples of such observatories standing strong to date:

• Stonehenge, UK: An iconic stone monument built in 3100 BC was used to observe
solstices*. Structures marking lunar standstills* are also found throughout this
structure.

• The Castillo, Chichén Itzá, Mexico: Constructed around the 7th century in Mayan
city, the Castillo was an observatory to see the solstices and equinoxes*.

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 • Cheomseongdae, Gyeongju, South Korea: A 9.4-metre-tall star-gazing tower built
around the 7th century is known to be the oldest existing observatory in Asia.

• Gaocheng Observatory, China: China's oldest surviving observatory, built in 1276

BC, was used for timekeeping and mapping the stars. The observatory is 12.6m long
and has a long wall with grooves that cast shadows on the ground whose length is used
to find the time. It is believed that astronomers at Gaocheng calculated the duration of
a year, three centuries before the Europeans managed to do so.

Fig. 8: From Left to right – Stonehenge, Chichén Itzá, Cheomseongdae and Gaocheng

Observatories in India
Rajah Jai Singh II of Jaipur, India in the 17th century, had a keen interest in mathematics,
architecture, and astronomy. It is believed that he had "Elements of Geometry" by Euclid
translated into Sanskrit. During his time, he commissioned the Jantar Mantar Observatories at
five places across India – Jaipur, Delhi, Varanasi, Ujjain and Mathura. Only Varanasi, Jaipur
and Delhi observatories are in their original shape; the remaining were destroyed during
invasions.

A Jantar Mantar was an assembly of astronomical instruments built by

stone, Yantras, designed to be used with the naked eye. It also has the world's largest stone
sundial. The Jantar Mantar in Jaipur is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Fig. 9: Architecture and Yantras in Jantar Mantar. (Credits: Jantar Mantar Organization)

Origin of Astrophysics
Hans Lippershey, an optician in the Netherlands,
accidentally found that when two different lenses were held
in certain positions, the image of a distant object was
magnified. Thus, he invented the first telescope in 1608 AD.
Within a year, Galileo got to know about this invention, and
he started building his model by the trial-and-error method.
Hence, Galileo became the first to use a telescope for sky
Fig. 10: Hans Lippershey and his
Telescope Model (Credits: Britannica)

Introduction to Space - 6
observations, being an astronomer. Galileo Galilei used his telescope to track the Moon, Venus,
Mars, Jupiter and its moons, and Saturn with its rings.
With the invention of the telescope, many astronomers started to explore space through their
complex telescope models. More data was gathered to understand the solar system, celestial
objects, planets, and questions like what, how, and why started to arise. This gave birth to a
whole new science called Astrophysics.
Issac Newton’s equations of motion and gravity helped us understand forces, how planets
revolve, and the velocity needed to escape Earth’s gravity. Today, some of the most advanced
telescopes are placed in Space, which we will learn later in the chapter. With advancements in
Physics, now one could find the elements in the universe and predict what stars are made up
of, how the universe evolved into what it is today, and many more.

Fig. 11: From left to right – Sir Issac Newton, Johannes Kepler, Albert Einstein, Meghnad Saha,
Carl Sagan, and Stephen Hawking

Space Race
After the two World Wars, the most powerful nations competed in technological
advancements. The Soviet Union (USSR) launched the first satellite, Sputnik -1, on October 4,
1957. Then, the United States of America (USA) was still working on its first satellite, Explorer
1, which was later launched into space on January 31, 1958. Thus began the ‘Space Race’.
When both started working on a human flight program, the USSR sent its first man to space,
Yuri Gagarin, on April 12, 1961, followed by the USA on May 5, in the same year. The USA
was determined to win the race and announced that they would send astronauts to land on the
Moon within a decade, and they achieved it by sending Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and
Michael Collins to land on the Moon through the Apollo mission on July 20, 1969. After the
Space Race, the technologies of the period were used to launch more satellites and humans to
Space, and Space Technology became a tool to explore the Earth and beyond.

SOVIET UNION (USSR) AMERICA (USA)

SPUTNIK-1 1st Dog in Space 1st Cosmonaut EXPLORER-1 1st Monkey in 1st Astronaut
Laika Yuri Gagrin Space - Albert II ALAN SHEPARD
04 Oct 1957 03 Nov 1957 12 April 1961 31 Jan 1958 14 June 1959 05 May 1961

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 The Space Race was a geopolitical Cold War between the USA and the Soviet Union to
develop aerospace capabilities, including artificial satellites, uncrewed space probes, and
human spaceflight.

With the Space Race, we built the best technologies like Rockets and
Satellites.
Soviet Union launched the first human-made object, Sputnik-1, intended to
test the method of placing an artificial satellite into Earth’s orbit and provide
information on the density of the atmosphere, test radio and optical methods
of orbital tracking, and check principles of pressurization used on the satellites.

Why do we need Space Technology? How is it

helping life on Earth?

Sputnik was an experimental satellite. This opened up the

possibilities of using satellites and space technology for
research and applications in various areas. It can be noted that
significant contributions have been made to the world's social
and economic development in the domains like Land
Transportation, Aviation and Maritime*, Surveying and
Mapping, Urbanization, Environmental Monitoring, Disaster
Management, Sustainable Agriculture, Food Security, Human Fig. 12: APPLE Satellite
ISRO’s first communication satellite
Health, and Natural Resource Management.

Satellites help communicate with people across the globe, find the route to a particular
destination, predict the weather, guide farmers, and have enabled 5G Technology, e-banking,
Tele-medication, Robotics, Artificial Intelligence, and much more.

We observed stars in the sky for navigation in the olden days. Today, we use satellites for
the same. By this, we can understand how technology has evolved.

Besides Earth observations, satellites are also used to explore outer space. Many spacecraft
were sent to the Moon and neighbouring planets such as Mars, Venus, Jupiter and its moons
which led to discoveries that made headlines like the discovery of water on the Moon. Humanity
also went on to land spacecraft on asteroids and comets. While some spacecraft were sent close
to the Sun, others have crossed our solar system!

Fig. 13: From left to right, Perseverance Rover, Rosetta, Parker Solar Probe. (Credits: NASA/ESA)

Introduction to Space - 8
 From using telescopes to observe space, we now place telescopes in space to peer deeper into
the cosmos. Hubble Space Telescope is a famous space telescope gathering information about
our universe from Earth's orbit. Today, we understand that Earth is not the only planet in the
universe; we have many Earth-like planets in other systems called Exoplanets, some of which
can potentially host life. Hundred years ago, the black hole was just an equation, and in 2019,
for the first time, an image of the closest supermassive black hole, Sagittarius A* located at
the centre of our Milky Way galaxy was captured.

Fig. 14: From left to right – Hubble Space Telescope (HST), Image captured by HST and Exoplanets

The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) is an international

collaboration that captured images of nearby black holes using a
virtual Earth-sized telescope by combining radio telescopes all
around the globe.

India in Space
After the World Wars, a space program - Indian National Committee for Space Research
(INCOSPAR) was initiated in India by Dr. Vikram Sarabhai with the support of Dr. Homi
Bhabha in 1962. First Sounding Rocket was launched from Thumba, Thiruvananthapuram in
1964. Later, INCOSPAR was renamed as the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO).

ISRO slowly started to work on its first satellite

Aryabhata, with an objective to design and fabricate a
space-worthy satellite system indigenously. Aryabhata
carried payloads that did experiments related to X-ray
astronomy, aeronomy & solar physics.

Soon after the successful launch of Aryabhata (1975),

ISRO started building the next set of satellites and also
continued the Launch vehicle program. The first Indian
Fig. 15: Aryabhata Satellite (Disassembled) Satellite Launch vehicle, SLV-3 was launched in 1980.
Today ISRO has some of the most powerful rockets in
the world. ISRO had sent The first Indian Cosmonaut* - Col. Rakesh Sharma (Fig.16) to Space
in 1984 on a Soviet Launch vehicle. ISRO has made its name worldwide through a few
programs like Chandrayaan, Mangalyaan and holds the record of launching maximum (of 104)

Introduction to Space - 9
 satellites on a single mission. Currently ISRO is working on Gaganyaan, Chandrayaan-3,
NISAR and Aditya L1 missions.

Fig. 16: Rakesh Sharma Fig. 17: From Left to right – Indian Rockets: SLV and GSLV,
1st Indian in Space. Mangalyaan Spacecraft, Chandrayaan 2

Did you know?

The objective of the Gaganyaan program is to demonstrate
indigenous capability to undertake a human space flight to
Low Earth Orbit (LEO).

Humans to Space: Why is it important?

Sending Humans to space started with the two countries competing to be the first to send two
people into space simultaneously, perform a spacewalk, dock two spacecraft in space and so
on. Later, the interest shifted to a Moon habitat*. USA was successful with the Apollo mission
(1969), and the Soviet Union successfully launched the space station – Salyut (1971). Later,
both the entities worked together to build the International Space Station (ISS) program with
set of objectives such as to study microgravity*, conduct science experiments in microgravity
conditions, study its effects on the human body, and prepare humankind for long term space
travel like a trip to Mars, etc. China, through CNSA, has successfully launched many spacecraft
and placed astronauts in orbit. American private industries successfully built and launched
human rated spacecraft for Space tourism purpose.

Fig. 18: Astronauts in ISS. (Credits: NASA/ESA)

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 What experiment do you want to conduct in Space?

Space and Future

Many astrophysicists and astronomers say that we have only discovered 4% of this Universe,
whereas the rest 96% is unexplored. We have a lot of unanswered questions. Many more
ground-breaking discoveries and inventions are needed to take us to distant planets and systems
and possibly live there. Also, find ways to solve the problems here on Earth and provide space
solutions.

Are you ready to explore?

Glossary
• Archaeologist - A person who studies the past based on artifacts and ruins from the site.
• Cosmonaut - A Russian astronaut
• Epicycle - A small circle whose centre moves around the circumference of a larger one. In
this context: Motion of planets in small circles while in an orbit around the sun (larger
circle).
• Equinox – A day when the sun is right on the equator producing equal day and night length.
It happens twice a year, around 20 March and 22 September.
• Globular cluster - A large compact spherical cluster of stars, mainly old stars.
• Lunar standstill - Also called lunistice, is the time when the moon reaches the furthest
north point and south point during the course of a month.
• Microgravity - A term for very weak gravity.
• Moon habitat - A place which is made for living on the Moon.
• Solstice - The event occurs when the sun reaches its northernmost or southernmost point
in the sky, marked by the longest or shortest day time in the year. It happens twice a year
as well, around 21 June and 21 December.

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