FEM - Module - I
FEM - Module - I
FEM - Module - I
MODULE - I
Introduction to Finite Element Method
The Finite Element Method (FEM) is a numerical technique to find approximate solutions
of partial differential equations. It was originated from the need of solving complex
elasticity and structural analysis problems in Civil, Mechanical and Aerospace
engineering. In a structural simulation, FEM helps in producing stiffness and strength
visualizations. It also helps to minimize material weight and its cost of the structures.
FEM allows for detailed visualization and indicates the distribution of stresses and
strains inside the body of a structure. Many of FE software are powerful yet complex tool
meant for professional engineers with the training and education necessary to properly
interpret the results. Several modern FEM packages include specific components such as
fluid, thermal, electromagnetic and structural working environments. FEM allows entire
designs to be constructed, refined and optimized before the design is manufactured. This
powerful design tool has significantly improved both the standard of engineering designs
and the methodology of the design process in many industrial applications. The use of
FEM has significantly decreased the time to take products from concept to the production
line. One must take the advantage of the advent of faster generation of personal computers
for the analysis and design of engineering product with precision level of accuracy.
Therefore, FEM can be broadly defined as,
Definition: The Finite Element Method (FEM) is a numerical analysis technique used
to obtain approximate solutions to the differential equations or partial differential
equations that describe a physical or non-physical problem.
1. The physical properties, which are intractable and complex for any closed bound
solution, can be analyzed by this method.
2. It can take care of any geometry (may be regular or irregular).
3. It can take care of any boundary conditions.
4. Material anisotropy and non-homogeneity can be catered without much difficulty.
5. It can take care of any type of loading conditions.
6. This method is superior to other approximate methods like Galerkine and Rayleigh-
Ritz methods.
7. In this method approximations are confined to small sub domains.
8. In this method, the admissible functions are valid over the simple domain and have
nothing to do with boundary, however simple or complex it may be.
9. Enable to computer programming.
2. For fluid dynamics problems some other methods of analysis may prove efficient than
the FEM.
Limitations of finite element method
5. In the FEM, many problems lead to round-off errors. Computer works with a limited
number of digits and solving the problem with restricted number of digits may not yield
the desired degree of accuracy or it may give total erroneous results in some cases. For
many problems the increase in the number of digits for the purpose of calculation
improves the accuracy. Engineering applications of finite element method
3. Aerospace engineering: FEM is used for several purposes such as structural analysis
for natural frequencies, modes shapes, response analysis and aerodynamics.
3. Nodes: The grid (connection) points at which the elements meet each other are called
“nodes”
4. Degrees of Freedom (DOF): The total number of variables (displacements) that are
associated with each node
Problem Dimensions:
Convergence criteria
The Finite Element Analysis is an iterative procedure. We don‟t get a solution for a
problem being analyzed by FEM just in one go. We have to perform a number of trials
or iterations and record the solution for each iteration. In each iteration we modify the
elements being used for discretization. We then plot a chart known as “Convergence
Chart” which is a plot of solution on „y‟ axis and element parameter on the „x‟ axis. In
this chart we see that the FEM solution curve approaches the actual solution line as we
continue with iterations. That is, the error (difference between the actual solution and
FEM solution) continuously decreases. This is known as Convergence.
The FEM solution curve will finally go asymptotic (parallel) to the actual solution line.
Convergence is defined as the monotonic approach of FEM solution to the exact solution.
Monotonic means, with out change in sign or direction.
1. h-method &
2. p-method
h-method of Convergence:
In h-method, for each iteration, the number of elements is increased or in other words, the
element size is reduced, i.e., the element mesh fineness increases with iterations. But the
order of the displacement polynomial selected for the polynomial is maintained the same
for all iterations.
p-method of Convergence:
In p-method, number of elements and element size are kept constant at suitable values.
The number of nodes per element is increased with iterations. Considering more number
of nodes per element will cause the number of terms in the displacement polynomial as
well as order of the displacement polynomial to increase with iterations. (p stands for
polynomial).
Functions: For FEM to give a solution close to the exact solution, the displacement
functions assumed for the elements must satisfy certain requirements (conditions) called
“Convergence Requirements”. The displacement functions should satisfy the following
three conditions:
Let it‟s FEM model be made up of 3 elements. Then there will be a total of 4 nodes. Let
Q1, Q2, Q3 & Q4 be the global nodal displacements. Since left end is fixed, Q1= 0. Let
us assume that the displacement variation is linear. According to convergence
requirements, the displacement function must be continuous within each element and
compatible between adjacent elements.
Meaning of Continuity:
In the above figure we can understand the difference between continuous and dis-
continuous displacement. Dis-continuous displacement occurs if a crack or defect in the
bar is present. Such discrepancies should be properly specified as boundary conditions.
most elementary displacement that an element may undergo. i.e., during rigid body
displacement the element should not be strained.
Usually, the first term of the assumed displacement polynomial will be a constant which
represents the rigid body displacement.
Discretization process
The need of finite element analysis arises when the structural system in terms of its either
geometry, material properties, boundary conditions or loadings is complex in nature. For
such case, the whole structure needs to be subdivided into smaller elements. The whole
structure is then analyzed by the assemblage of all elements representing the complete
structure including its all properties. The subdivision process is an important task in finite
element analysis and requires some skill and knowledge. In this procedure, first the
number, shape, size and configuration of elements have to be decided in such a manner
that the real structure is simulated as closely as possible. The discretization is to be in
such that the results converge to the true solution. However, too fine mesh will lead to
extra computational effort. Fig. below shows a finite element mesh of a continuum using
triangular and quadrilateral elements. The assemblage of triangular elements in this case
shows better representation of the continuum.
The discretization process also shows that the more accurate representation is possible if
the body is further subdivided into some finer mesh.
1. Type of elements
2. Size of elements
3. Number of elements
4. Location of nodes
5. Node numbering scheme
Type of elements
One Dimensional Elements (Line Elements): When the geometry, material and
displacement can be expressed in terms of only independent space coordinate, a 1D
element may be chosen.
The coordinate is measured along the axis of the element.
A 1D element can be represented by a straight line whose end points are nodes (nodal
points). The nodal points numbered 1 & 2 are called external nodes because they represent
connecting points with adjacent elements. Some applications may require additional
nodes, such as node
3. It is called an internal node because it doesn‟t form a connecting point with adjacent
elements. Additional nodes are usually used to improve the FEM result.
Two Dimensional Elements (Area Elements): When the geometry, material and
displacement can be expressed by minimum two independent space coordinate, a 2D
element may be chosen. Problems that can be modeled with 2D elements are plane stress,
plane strain and axisymmetric problems.
In the triangular element, the corner nodes (1, 2 & 3) are called primary external
nodes. Additional nodes on the sides (like nodes 4, 5 & 6) are called secondary external
nodes. An internal node (like node 7) may be used in a triangular element.
Fig. 1.7 Shows external and internal nodes of different body shapes
Three Dimensional Elements (Volume Elements): When the geometry, material and
displacement can be expressed by minimum of three independent space coordinate, a 3D
element may be chosen.
A tetrahedron element is the basic 3D element that can be used in FEM. It has 4 primary
external nodes. 3D elements with 8 primary external nodes may be the hexahedron
element or the rectangular prism element. The rectangular prism element is a special case
of hexahedron element.
„q‟. Thus, the problem needs to be looked as a 2D problem in „r‟ & „z‟ coordinates only,
which defines the revolving area.
Size of Elements
Mesh size is one of the most common problems in FEA. There is a fine line here: bigger
elements give bad results, but smaller elements make computing so long that we don‟t
get the results at all. So it is appropriate to choose smaller elements at higher stress
concentration areas as shown in the Figure 1.6. It is required to choose the correct size of
mesh and estimate at which mesh size accuracy of the solution is acceptable.
Selection of number of elements in FE model is related to the size of elements and number
of degrees of freedom. Increase in number of elements gives better result but there is a
certain limit beyond which there is no improvement but solution time is more. Therefor
it is important to choose the number of elements appropriately.
Location of nodes: Node is a point where properties are defined and determined for an
element. Therefore, location of node is important. If the body has no discontinuity, then
there can be equal number of nodes in an element distributed uniformly. However, if there
is discontinuity such as geometry and load etc, the nodes can be assigned as shown in the
Figure
Plane stress:
plane stress case is represented by a thin plate in x-y plane,plane subjected to in-plane
loads along x-and y-directions and no load along the normal to the olane as shown in
figure
Definition : Plane stress is defined to be aa state of stress in which the normal stress and
shear stress directed perpendicular to the plane are assumed to be zero
𝜎𝑧 = 𝑟𝑦𝑧 = 𝑟𝑧𝑥 = 0
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A plate loaded in its mid-plane is said to be in a state of plane stress or a membrane state,if
the following assumptions hold:
1. All loads applied to the plate act in the mid-plane direction,and are symmetric with
respect to the mid-plane
3. In-plane displacement, strain and stresses can be taken to be uniform through the
thickness
4.The normal and shear stress components in the z-direction are zero or negligible
1. Equilibrium equations
Plane Strain:
Plane strain case is represented by a thin plate in x-y plane, which is constrained along
the normal to the plane in z-direction
Definition: plane strain is defined to be state of strain in which normal-strain and shear
strain normal to xy plane are assumed to be zero
Assumptions:
1.The length of the structure is very large in comparison with the other two dimensions
1.Equilibrium equations
3. stress-strain relation:
And
Temperature Effect
When the free expansion is prevented in a structure, the change in temperature causes
stress.
1) Temperature increase will change material properties: Such as decrease the Young‟s
modulus (E) and yield strength of materials (σy).
2) Induce thermal stresses that will be added to mechanically induced stresses in solid
structures.
3) Induce creep of the material, and thereby make materials vulnerable for failure at high
temperature
𝛼Δ𝑇
The initial stress due to change in temperature c𝑜 = {𝛼 Δ 𝑇} for 2-D analysis.
0
Interpolation Models
Displacement Models: In FEM after we discretize the problem continuum into finite
number of elements, we assume a displacement function for an element which closely
represents the expected displacement variation over the element domain. These simple
functions which are assumed to approximate the displacements for each element are
called as “Displacement Models” or “Displacement Functions” or “Displacement Fields”
or “Displacement Patterns”.
Depending upon the geometry of the element and the order of the polynomial used in the
interpolation model, finite elements can be classified as
• Simplex model
• Complex model
• Multiplex model
Simplex model: The element for which the order of the assumed polynomial interpolation
model consist of constants and linear terms only are called Simples elements.
Thus the following polynomial interpolation models can be used to represent the simplex
elements
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U(x) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑥
Two dimensional
case:
Complex elements: The elements for which the assumed polynomial interpolation
model consists of quadratic ,cubic, and higher order terms in addition to the constant
and linear terms are called complex elements
Quadratic model
Multiplex elements: The multiplex elements are those, for which assumed polynomial
interpolation function consists of higher order terms.in multiplex elements, boundaries
are parallel to the coordinate axis to achieve inter element continuity.
Greater the number of terms used in the polynomial, closer will be the solution to the
exact solution.
So, it can be concluded that a displacement polynomial with larger number of terms will
approximate the solution close to the exact solution. To represent the 1D problems (where
the displacement is along the element axis), the displacement polynomial should have
only one variable in it. If the 1D element axis is oriented along the horizontal direction
(parallel to „x‟ axis),
If the 1D element axis is oriented along the vertical direction (parallel to „y‟ axis),
To represent 2D problems, where the displacement has components „u‟ & „v‟ along „x‟
and
„y‟ directions respectively, the displacement polynomial should have two variables
Boundary conditions
Boundary conditions are constraints necessary for the solution of a boundary value
problem. A boundary value problem is a differential equation (or system of differential
The main types of loading available in FEA include force, pressure and temperature.
These can be applied to points, surfaces, edges, nodes and elements or remotely offset
from a feature. The way that the model is constrained can significantly affect the results
and requires special consideration. Over or under constrained models can give stress that
is so inaccurate that it is worthless to the engineer. In an ideal world we could have
massive assemblies of components all connected to each other with contact elements but
this is beyond the budget and resource of most people. We can however, use the
computing hardware we have available to its full potential and this means understanding
how to apply realistic boundary conditions.
Basically, there are two types of boundary conditions: Homogeneous boundary condition
and Non - homogeneous boundary conditions.
the prescribed basic variable values are zero. Eg. Elimination method of boundary
condition.
POTENTIAL ENERGY ∏.
The total potential energy of an elastic body , is defined as the sum of total strain energy
(U) and the work potential (WP) .
∏ = U + WP
Consider a 3-D elastic body of volume v, subjected to body force, surface force and point
loads. Let u, v and w be the displacement components in x, y and z directions respectively.
The total potential energy of an elastic body , is defined as the sum of total strain energy
(U) and the work potential (WP) .
∏ = U + WP
The strain energy is given by the area under stress-strain curve
U ϵ
Work potential
WPf = -∫ 𝑈𝑇𝑓 𝑑𝑣
WPT = -∫ 𝑈𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑣
where, fi(x) are known linear independent functions are called trial function defined over a
entire domain and boundary and ai are unknown parameters to be determined
i=1,2,3,4, , , , , ,n
General steps in Rayleigh -Ritz method
Galerkin’s Method
Galerkin method is the most widely used among the various weighted residual methods.
Galerkin method incorporates differential equations in their weak form, i.e., before starting
integration by parts it is in strong form and after by parts it will be in weak form, so that
they are satisfied over a domain in an integral. Thus, in case of Galerkin method, the
equations are satisfied over a domain in an integral or average sense, rather than at every
point. The solution of the equations must satisfy the boundary conditions. There are two
types of boundary conditions:
• Essential or kinematic boundary condition
• Non essential or natural boundary condition