APPLIED MECHANICS

MENG 213
LECTURER: ING. LYLE
Phone:+232-78-906-171;
E-mail:[email protected]

❑ MECHANICS OF MACHINES: ELEMENTARY THEORY AND EXAMPLES by J

Hannah and R C. Stephens, 4th edition, Hodder & Stoughton Education,
❑ MECHANICS OF MACHINES: ADVANCED THEORY AND EXAMPLES by J
Hannah and R C. Stephens, 3rd edition, Hodder & Stoughton Education.
❑ THEORY OF MACHINES by R.S Khurmi and J.K Gupta 14th ed.; S. Chand &
Co. Ltd., New Dehli 2005; ISBN 9788121925242
 ADMINISTRATION OF THE COURSE
Attendance will be taken during classes. Homework assignments are to be
turned in at the beginning of class on due dates.
Note the following for Tests and Homework assignments:
i. Put name, date, course number and page number on every sheet and
staple all pages together.
ii. Neat diagrams should be drawn as needed.
iii. Show how you solve the problem by using text and descriptions throughout
the steps in the solution.
iv. Use appropriate units.
v. Highlight your final answer with a box or underline
 ADMINISTRATION OF THE COURSE (Cont.)
Academic dishonesty will not be tolerated. You are studying to enter a
respected profession and highest ethical standard is expected of you. Your work
should be your own.
For the homework assignments, you are encouraged to consult other students or
the instructor if you run into problems. Consulting is allowed but not copying.
Also, your homework, tests, exams are viewed as exercises in technical
communication. Hence, correct procedure and effective presentations are
important. As practicing engineers, your work will be read by other engineers. It
should be easy to do so.
 GRADING SYSTEM
The overall course grade will be A 70 – 100%
based on scores obtained as B+ 65 – 69 %
shown below: B 60 – 64%
B- 55 – 59 %
C+ 50 – 54 %
• Attendance: 5% C 45 – 49%
• Homework and Test: 25% C- 40 – 44 %
• Final Examination: 70% D 35 – 39%
E 30 – 34 %
F Less than 30%
 OUTLINE OF TOPICS TO BE
COVERED
1. Simple mechanisms
2. Relative velocity, velocity diagrams and application to
linkages
3. Instantaneous centre of rotation
4. Vector acceleration diagrams for simple mechanisms
5. Analytical solutions for crank slider and cam
 LECTURE ONE
SIMPLE MECHANISMS
 Introduction
➢The theory of machines and mechanisms is an applied science
that is used to understand the relationships between the
geometry and motions of the parts of a machine or mechanism
and the forces that produce these motions.
➢ Mechanics deals with motions, time, and forces and is made up
of two parts, statics and dynamics
 Analysis and synthesis
➢ Synthesis (design) is the method of accomplishing a given purpose.

➢ It involves suggesting the sizes, shapes, material compositions, and arrangements

of the parts of a machine in order to perform the required task.

➢ Analysis involves the use of scientific methods to critically examine an already

existing or proposed design in order to judge its suitability for the task.

➢ Analysis is not a creative science but one of evaluation and rating of things already
conceived.
 Kinematic link
➢ Kinematic link: It is defined as a member or a combination of members of a
mechanism, connecting other members having motion relative to them.
➢ A link is not necessarily a rigid body but it must be a resistant body. Machine element
such as springs which are not rigid are not considered as links
➢ Links are classified depending upon their ends on which turning pairs can be placed as
❑ Binary Links: Contains only two pair element connections
❑ Ternary Links: Contains three pair element connections
❑ Quaternary Links: Contains four pair element connections
 Types of links
➢ Rigid link: A rigid link is one which does not undergo any deformation while
transmitting motion

➢ Flexible link: A flexible link is one which is partly deformed in a manner not to
affect the transmission of motion. For example, belts, ropes, chains and wires are
flexible links and transmit tensile forces only.

➢ Fluid link: A fluid link is one which is formed by having a fluid in a container
and the motion is transmitted through the fluid by pressure or compression only,
as in the case of hydraulic presses, jacks and brakes.
 Kinematic pair
A kinematic pair is a joint of two links having relative motion
between them.

Kinematic pairs can be classified according to

➢ Nature of contact

➢ Nature of mechanical constraint

➢ Nature of relative motion

 Kinematic pairs according to nature of contact
Lower pair: When the two elements of a pair have a surface or area contact when relative
motion takes place

Examples: sliding pairs, turning pairs, cylindrical pairs, spherical pairs, planar pairs

Higher pair: When the two elements of a pair have a line or point contact when relative
motion takes place

motion between the two elements is partly turning and partly sliding,

Examples A pair of friction discs, toothed gearing, belt and rope drives, ball and roller
bearings and cam and follower are the examples of higher pairs.
 Kinematic pairs according to nature of
mechanical constraint
Closed pair: The elements of a pair are held together
mechanically.

The two elements are geometrically identical; one is solid and full
and the other is hollow and empty.

Example: The cam and follower pair shown

Unclosed pair: when two links of a pair are in contact
either due to force of gravity or some spring action.
 According to nature of relative motion
Turning Pair / Revolute Pair: When the two elements of a pair
are connected in such a way that one can only turn or revolve
about a fixed axis of another link.

Sliding Pair / Prismatic Pair: When the two elements of a

pair are connected in such a way that one can only slide
relative to the other.
Example: Tail stock on a lathe, Reciprocating steam engine
Screw Pair: When the two elements of a pair are connected in
such a way that one element can turn about the other by screw
threads.

Example: The lead screw of a lathe with nut, and bolt with a
nut

Rolling pair: When the two elements of a pair are connected

in such a way that one roll over another fixed link.
Example: Ball and Roller Bearing
Cylindrical Pair: When the two elements of a pair are
connected in such a way that one element in rotation or
translation has its axis parallel to the axis of rotation of
the other element.

Spherical pair: When the two elements of a pair are

connected in such a way that one element (with spherical
shape) turns or pivots about the other fixed element.
Example: ball and socket joint
 KINEMATIC CHAIN
A kinematic chain is an assembly of links in which the relative motions of the links
are possible and the motion of each relative to the other is definite.

Closed Kinematic chain: Every link in the chain is connected to at least two other links,
the chain forms one or more closed loops otherwise they are open.

Simple closed chain: Consist entirely of binary links.

Compound-closed chains: include other than binary links and form more than a single
closed loop.
 MECHANISM
➢ A mechanism is as an "assemblage of resistant bodies connected by movable joints,
to form a closed kinematic chain with one link fixed and having the purpose of
transforming motion.".
➢ The function of a mechanism is to transmit and modify a motion.
➢ Example, Slider-crank mechanism used in internal combustion engine or
reciprocating air compressor,
The rotary movement of the crank is converted through the connecting rod into the
reciprocating motion of the slider, or vice-versa.
 TYPES OF MECHANISMS
Planar Mechanisms: All points of in the mechanism move
in parallel planes

Example: The three link mechanism shown.

Spatial Mechanisms: All points of the mechanism do

not move in parallel planes.

A very common example of a space mechanism is the

Hooke's joint shown in
 MACHINE
➢ A machine is a "combination of resistant bodies so arranged that by their means
the mechanical forces of nature can be compelled to do work accompanied by
certain determinate motions“.

➢ The main function of a machine is doing work.

Example: When the slider-crank mechanism is used as an automobile engine by

adding a valve mechanism it becomes a machine which converts the available energy
(force on piston) into desired energy (torque of crankshaft). The torque is used to
move a vehicle.
 STRUCTURES
➢ A structure is a combination of resistant (rigid) bodies connected by
joints, but its purpose is not to do work or to transform motion.

➢ A structure (such as a truss) is rigid.

➢ Structures have no internal mobility, no relative motions between its

various members.
 Inversion of Mechanism
➢ The process of fixing different links of the same kinematic chain to
produce distinct mechanisms is called kinematic inversion.

➢ In this process, the relative motions of the links of the mechanisms

produced remain unchanged.

➢ A slider-crank chain mechanism has four kinematic inversions.

 Inversion of Mechanism
➢ The part of a mechanism which initially moves with respect to
the frame or fixed link is called driver

➢ The part of the mechanism to which motion is transmitted is

called follower.

➢ Most of the mechanisms are reversible, so that same link can

play the role of a driver and follower at different times.
 Single Slider Crank Chain
➢ It consist of one sliding pair and three turning pairs.

➢ It is, usually, found in reciprocating steam engine mechanism.

➢ Converts rotary motion into reciprocating motion and vice versa.

 Single Slider Crank Chain
➢ In a single slider crank chain, there are three turning pairs and
one sliding pair.
❖ Link 1 is the frame of the engine, which is fixed.
❖ Link 2 is the crank
❖ Link 3 is the connecting rod
❖ Link 4 is the cross-head.
Note!! As the crank rotates, the cross-head reciprocates in the
guides and thus the piston reciprocates in the cylinder.
 Inversions of Single Slider Crank
Chain
Pendulum pump or Bull engine.

➢ In this mechanism, link 4( cylinder) is fixed i.e. sliding pair

➢ The crank (link 2) rotates,

➢ The connecting rod (link 3) oscillates about a pin pivoted to the fixed link 4

➢ The piston attached to the piston rod (link 1) reciprocates.

Inversions of Single Slider Crank Chain
 Inversions of Single Slider Crank Chain

Oscillating cylinder engine.

➢ In this mechanism, the link 3 (Connecting rod) forming the turning pair is
fixed.

➢The crank (link 2) rotates.

➢The piston attached to piston rod (link 1) reciprocates

➢The cylinder (link 4) oscillates about a pin pivoted to the fixed link at A.
Inversions of Single Slider Crank Chain
 Inversions of Single Slider Crank Chain

Rotary internal combustion engine or Gnome engine.

➢The crank (link 2) is fixed.

➢The connecting rod (link 4) rotates.

➢ The piston (link 3) reciprocates inside the cylinders forming link

1.
Inversions of Single Slider Crank Chain
 Inversions of Single Slider Crank Chain
Reciprocating Engine
➢ Link 1 the cylinder is fixed.

➢ The driving crank (Link 2) revolves with uniform angular

speed about the fixed centre.

➢ A sliding block (Link 4) attached to the crank pin at B slides

inside the cylinder.
Inversions of Single Slider Crank Chain
 LECTURE TWO
VELOCITY IN MECHANISMS
 VELOCITY IN MECHANISMS: RELATIVE
VELOCITIES
➢Absolute motion is measured with respect to a stationary
frame.
➢Relative motion is measured for one point or link with
respect to another link.
𝑽𝑨/𝑩= 𝑽𝑨 − 𝑽𝑩
VELOCITY IN MECHANISMS: RELATIVE
VELOCITIES

𝒗𝒂𝒃
𝜴=
𝑨𝑩
RUBBING VELOCITY AT A PIN JOINT
RUBBING VELOCITY AT A PIN JOINT
FORCES IN MECHANISMS
 VELOCITY OF LINKS- GRAPHICAL METHOD
The following points are to be considered while solving drawing velocity diagrams of links.

1. Draw the configuration design to a suitable scale.

2. Locate all fixed point in a mechanism as a common point in velocity diagram.

3. Choose a suitable scale for the vector diagram velocity.

4. The velocity vector of each rotating link is perpendicular to the link.

5. Velocity of each link in mechanism has both magnitude and direction. Start from a point whose
magnitude and direction is known.

6. The points of the velocity diagram are indicated by small letters.

 EXAMPLE 1

The diagram of a linkage is given below. Find the velocity

of the slider D and the angular velocity of DC when the
crank O1A is in the given position and thespeed of
rotation is 90 rev/min in the direction of the arrow. O1A=
24mm, O2B= 60mm, CD= 96mm, AB=
72mm, CB= 48mm.
 EXAMPLE 2
In the mechanism shown in Fig Q2-6, the crank AB revolves
anticlockwise at 16 rad/s and the point D is constrained to move
vertically downwards at 2 m/s. Draw the velocity diagram and
determine: (a) the rubbing speed at E if the pin diameter is 30 mm,
and (b) the velocity of F. The link CE = 450 mm and is horizontal
in the position shown
 ASSIGNMENT 1
In the valve gear shown O1, O2 and O3 are fixed centres, O1 is the crankshaft
centre, and O2 and O3 are located from the limit of the stroke of
the crosshead pin A. the valve at V slides along a surface parallel to the
engine centre line. The lengths of the members are given in mm as follows:
O1C, 300; O2D, 900; O3F, 750; AB,675; BC, 1000; DE, 350; BE,175;
EF,450; FG, 100; VG, 850.Draw the velocity diagram when the crank
angle is 45o as shown. State the velocity of the valve V when the crank rotates
at 90 rev/min in the direction given.
 ASSIGNMENT 2
In the mechanism shown the crank AB drives the bent link
CDE by means of the sliding block at B. AB =120 mm,
CD = 90 mm, DE = 450 mm, and EF = 450 mm. When
the crank is horizontal, as shown, and is rotating at 60
rev/min anticlockwise, find: (a) The velocity of the
slider F, and (b) the angular velocity of the link CDE
 ASSIGNMENT 3
Find the velocity of the slider F and the angular velocity
of the bell-crank lever CDE in the mechanism shown
when the crank AB rotates clockwise at 250 rev/min. A
and D are fixed centres and the relevant lengths are as
follows: AB=100 mm, BC = 440 mm, CD = 200 mm,
DE = 120 mm and EF = 400 mm
 LECTURE 3
VELOCITY OF MECHANISMS BY
INSTANTANEOUS CENTRE METHOD
 Instantaneous Centre of Rotation
What is An Instant Center?
➢ Instant center of velocities between two links is the location at which two
coinciding points, one on each link, have identical velocities.
➢ For two links that are pinned to each other the IC is the point at the center of the
pin joint.

𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝑩
= =𝑚
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐

Note!! PointP is called the instantaneous centre of

velocity
PointP can be used to determine absolute velocity of
any point in the moving body.
 Instantaneous Centre of Rotation
➢ If we know the velocity (absolute) of a point on a link, the instant
center between that link and the ground must be located on an
axis perpendicular to the velocity vector passing through the point.
➢ The instant center between two links that are connected by a
sliding joint is located in infinity on any axis perpendicular to the
sliding axis.
 Instantaneous Centre of Rotation
➢ If one link has pure rolling motion over another, the relative
instantaneous centre is at the point of contact.
➢ If a link is sliding over curved surface of another link, the instantaneous
centre is at centre of curvature of the curved surface.
➢ If the relative motion between two links is combination of both rolling
and sliding, the relative instantaneous centre lies on common normal to
the contact surfaces of these links passing through the point of contact..
 Number of Instant Centers
➢ In a mechanism with n links (count the ground as one of the
links), the number of instant centers is determined as:

𝒏 𝒏−𝟏
𝑪=
𝟐
➢ In a four-bar mechanism or a slider-crank, C=6
➢ For any six-bar mechanism, C=15.
 Kennedy’s Rule
➢ “The three instant centers between three planar links must
lie on a straight line”.
➢ This rule does not tell us where the line is or where the
centers are on that line.
➢ However, the rule can be used to find the instant centers
when we consider a mechanism.
 Types of Instantaneous Centers
➢ Fixed instantaneous centre: remain in the same place for all configurations of the
mechanism.
➢ Permanent instantaneous centre: move when the mechanism moves, but the joints is
permanent.

➢ Neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous centre: vary with the configuration of
the mechanism

➢ The. fixed and permanent instantaneous centre are together known as primary
instantaneous centre and the third type is known as secondary instantaneous centre
 Method of Locating Instantaneous
Centers in a Mechanism
➢ Determine the number of instantaneous centers
➢ Make a list of all the instantaneous centers in a mechanism
➢ Locate the fixed and permanent instantaneous centers by inspection
➢ Locate the neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous centers (or
secondary centers) by Kennedy’s theorem.
➢ Join the points by solid lines to show that these centers are already
found.
 Example 1
In a slider – crank mechanism the lengths of the crank and connecting
rod are 100 mm and 400 mm respectively. Using IC method, find the
velocity of the slider and the angular velocity of the connecting rod if
the crank rotates at 10 rad/s.
 Example 2
In the mechanism shown D is
constrained to move on a horizontal
path. Find, for the given
configuration, the velocity of D and
the angular velocity of AB, CB and
BD when OC is rotating in an
anticlockwise direction at a speed
180 rev/min
 LECTURE 4
ACCELERATION OF MECHANISMS
 Acceleration In Mechanisms
➢ The relative acceleration method of analyzing accelerations of parts in a
mechanism is based on the following principles:
➢ That all motions are considered instantaneous
➢ That the instantaneous motion of a point may considered pure rotation
➢ That the acceleration of a point much more easily analyzed if it is resolved
into two rectangular components, one normal and one tangent to its path
➢ That the relative velocities as well as the absolute velocities of the various
points in the mechanism are available
 Acceleration In Mechanisms
The relative acceleration has two
components:

➢ A centripetal acceleration, 𝜴𝟐𝑨𝑩 or

𝑽𝒂𝒃𝟐/𝑨𝑩, acting in the direction of A
to B

➢A tangential acceleration, 𝑎𝑨𝑩 ,

perpendicular to AB. These are
represented by 𝒃𝒂𝟏 and 𝒂𝟏𝒂
 Example 1
In the mechanism shown D is constrained to
move on a horizontal path. Find, for the given
configuration, the velocity and acceleration of D
and the angular velocity and acceleration of BD
when OC is rotating in an anticlockwisedirection
at a speed 180 rev/min, increasing at arate of 50
rad/s2
 Example 2
In the diagram the crank 2 is rotating counter-clockwise at 75
rpm and is slowing down at the rate of 15 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠2. It is
required to find the accelerations of point A and B and the
angular velocities and accelerations of links 3 and 4.
𝑂2𝑂4 = 370 𝑚𝑚 , 𝑂2𝐴 = 365 𝑚𝑚 , 𝐴𝐵 = 1067 𝑚𝑚 , 𝑂4𝐵 =
762 𝑚𝑚.
 Example 3
An engine mechanism is shown below, the crank CB = 100 mm and the connecting
rod BA = 300 mm with centre of mass, G, 100 mm from B. In the position shown, the
crankshaft has a speed of 25π rad/s and an angular acceleration of 400π rad/s2. Find
the velocity and acceleration of G and the angular velocity and acceleration of AB
 Assignment
In the mechanism shown in Fig. below, the link
AB rotates with a uniform angular velocity of
30 rad/ s. Determine the velocity andacceleration
of G for the configuration shown. The length of
the various links are, AB=100mm; BC=300
mm; BD=150 mm; DE=250 mm; EF=200 mm;
DG=167 mm; angle CAB=30o.
 LECTURE 5
FORCES IN SIMPLE ENGINE
MECHANISMS
ANALYTICAL APPROACH TO THE DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY
AND ACCELERATION IN SIMPLE ENGINE MECHANISMS

DISPLACEMENT OF PISTON

𝑥 = 𝑟 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +
2𝑛

VELOCITY OF PISTON

𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 θ
𝑣𝑝 = ω𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ +
2𝑛

ACCELERATION OF PISTON

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 θ
𝑓𝑝 = ω2 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ +
2𝑛
 ANALYTICAL APPROACH TO THE DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY
AND ACCELERATION IN SIMPLE ENGINE MECHANISMS

Let Ω be the angular velocity and α be the angular acceleration of the connecting rod

ANGULAR VELOCITY OF CONNECTING ROD

𝑐
Ω = 𝜔𝑜
𝑠
𝜃
𝑛
ANGULAR ACCELERATION OF CONNECTING ROD

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
α= −𝜔2
𝑛
 FORCES IN CRANK AND CONNECTING ROD

❑ F = Force on the piston

❑ X = Force at the crank pin

❑ T = Crankshaft Torque

Crankshaft torque, or crank effort,

𝑇 = 𝑋 × 𝑂𝐶 = 𝐹 × 𝑂𝑀
 EFFECT OF GAS PRESSURE
If

P = Pin the cylinder of a single acting engine

𝒂 = Area of the piston,

❑ GAS LOAD IN A SINGLE ACTING ENGINE

𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑝𝑎

❑ GAS LOAD IN A DOUBLE ACTING ENGINE

𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑝1𝑎1 − 𝑝2𝑎2

❑ If R is the mass of the reciprocating parts,

Inertia Force = 𝑅𝑓𝑝

❑ Net force acting on

piston
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 θ
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ +
𝐹𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑎 2𝑛
±
𝑅ω
2𝑟

Note!!!! The inertia force must be subtracted from the gas force during the accelerating
period and added to it during the retardation period.
In vertical engines, the dead weight 𝑅𝑔 assists the piston effort on the downstroke and
opposes it on the upstroke.
FORCE IN CONNECTING ROD AND SIDE THRUST ON CYLINDER

Let

❑ Q = Force in connecting rod,

❑ S = Side thrust on the cylinder

❑ F = Net force acting on piston

𝑄 = 𝐹𝑠𝑒𝑐ϕ

𝑆 = 𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛ϕ
 EXAMPLE 1

An air compressor, 200 mm bore and 300 mm stroke, has a connecting rod 625 mm

long. The reciprocating parts have a mass of 135 kg and the speed is 250 rev/min.

When the crank is at 𝟑𝟎°to the i.d.c., and moving inwards, the gauge pressure of the

air is 840kN/m2. The crankpin is 60 mm diameter.

Neglecting the effect of the mass of the connecting rod, determine: (a) the rubbing

velocity at the surface of the pin (b) the force on the crankshaft bearing (c) the torque

reaction on the frame.

 EXAMPLE 2
In a simple engine mechanism, AB is the crank and BC is the connecting rod. C is to the
left of A and reciprocates horizontally along a line passing through A. AB = 60 mm,
BC = 240 mm, AB turns at 600 rev/min and there is reciprocating mass of 0.7 kg at C.

(a)Determine the crank angles, measured from inner dead centre, from 0o to 360ofor which
the torque on the crankshaft due to the mass at C is zero.
(b) Determine the torques on the crankshaft due to the mass at C for crank angles of 𝟐𝟎°
and 210o, measured from i.d.c., stating clearly the sense in which they are acting.
 EXAMPLE 3

A petrol engine of cylinder diameter 100 mm and stroke 120 mm has a piston of mass

1.1 kg and a connecting rod of length 250 mm. When rotating at 2000 rev/min, and on the

explosion stroke with the crank at 20o from the t.d.c. position, the gas pressure is 700

kN/m2.

Find:
(a) the resultant load on the gudgeon pin and
(b) the thrust on the cylinder wall. Determine also the speed above which, the other
conditions remaining constant, thegudgeon pin load would be reversed in direction.