Ch.

6 First- and Second-Order Transient Circuits

6.1 Introduction
6.2 First-Order Circuits
6.3 Second-Order Circuits
(6.4 Design Example)
(Part of materials from Carlson)

1
 6.1 Introduction
Dynamic Circuit
– contain C or/and L
– circuit equations contain differential equation
– discuss some general behaviors of dynamic circuits
(complete analysis will be left later)

First-Order Circuits
– only one energy-storage element (C or L) in the circuit

(Part of materials from Carlson)

2
Example: RL Circuits

Case (a) KVL v = vL + vR = L di/dt + R i (mesh analysis)

vL vR (Device Equation)
→ direct relationship btw v(t) & i(t)
∵ insert known i(t) → give v(t)

Case (b) KVL v = L di/dt + R i (mesh analysis)

→ indirect relationship btw i(t) & v(t)
∵ i(t) can’t be solved by just inserting v(t)
indeed, inhomogeneous linear first-order differential eq. of i(t) 3
Example: RC Circuits

(a) KCL: ic + iR = i (node analysis)

dv 1
ic = C dv/dt, iR = v/R C  vi
dt R
(device equation)

1
t differentiated di 1 dv
R  i
(b) KVL: Ri  
C 
i ( ) d   v dt C dt
(mesh analysis)

** alternatively, use vc as unknown (node voltage)

dvc dvc dvc (node analysis)
C  (vc  v) / R  0 → RC  vc  v i  C
dt dt dt

• Generally, in 1st-order circuit, circuit equation has the form

dy
a1  ao y  f (t ) inhomogeneous linear first-order differential equation
dt
y(t): any unknown branch variable
f(t): forcing function (effect of excitation)
Second-Order Circuits
two independent energy-storage elements in the circuit

Example: Series RLC Circuits

(mesh analysis)

t
di 1
KVL : L  Ri   id  v
dt C 
differential
d 2i di 1 dv
→ L  R  i 
dt 2 dt C dt
→ 2nd-order differential equation
(** alternatively, what about node analysis using vc as variable??)

Generally, circuit equation of 2nd-order circuit has the form

d2y dy
a2 2  a1  a0 y  f (t )
dt dt 5

** circuit eq. of nth-order circuits (n storage elements): n-th order differential eq.
Natural Response (Complementary Solution), yN(t) or yc(t)
– solution of circuit equation with forcing function set to zero
– when only excitation comes from internal stored energy

Example • Consider 1st-order circuit, response y(t)

dy
a1  ao y  f (t )
dt
• Consider only natural response: f(t) = 0, y → yN
dy N
a1  ao y N  0 homogeneous differential equation (a)
dt
• Have solution of exponential form
yN(t) = Aest A, s: constants to be decided
→ back into (a)
(a1s + a0) Aest = 0
→ a 1 s + a0 = 0 characteristic equation
→ s = -a0/a1
yN(t) = Aest, s = -a0/a1
• A: determined from initial condition yN(t=0+) = Y0 = A
→ yN(t) = Y0 e(-a0/a1)t, t > 0 (decay w/ time if a0/a1 > 0)
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Example: 2nd-order circuit
d2y dy
4 2  32  60 y  f (t )
dt dt
• Homogeneous equation
d 2 yN dy N
4 2
 32  60 y N  0
dt dt
• Guess solution yN(t) = Aest ≠ 0
→ (4s2 + 32s + 60) Aest = 0
→ 4s2 + 32s + 60 = 0 characteristic equation
→ 4 (s + 3) (s + 5) = 0
→ s = -3, -5
→ yN(t) = A1e-3t + A2e-5t
A1, A2 determined by two initial conditions (from two energy-storage element)

** consider a circuit: resistors and energy-storage elements, no controlled sources

⇒ yN(t)→0, as t→∞
** such circuit ⇒ stable
7
** circuits with controlled sources ⇒ maybe stable or not stable
Forced Response (Particular Solution), yF(t) or yp(t)
– occurs with a nonzero forcing function
– solution of circuit’s inhomogeneous differential equation
– independent of any initial conditions
– Let yF(t): forced response of a branch variable in a 2nd-order circuit
d 2 yF dy F
→ 2 2
a  a1  a0 y F  f (t )
dt dt
– Method of Undetermined Coefficients ( for solution of yF(t) )
– select trial form for yF(t)
f(t) yF(t)
k0 K0
k 1t K1t+K0
k2eat K2eat
k3cosωt + k4sinωt K3cosωt + K4sinωt
sum or product of above sum or product of above

– determine unknown coefficients by substituting trial yF(t) into the

differential equation 8
Example: Sinusoidal Forced Response
diF
0.1  4iF  25 sin 30t (a)
dt
Step1: Trial function of iF(t)
iF (t )  K 3 cos30t  K 4 sin 30t (b)
Step2: (b) →(a)
(4 K 3  3K 4 )cos30t  (3K 3  4 K 4 )sin 30t  25sin 30t
→ holds for any t, ∴ 4 K 3  3K 4  0, → K3 = -3, K4 = 4
3K 3  4 K 4  25
→ iF (t )  3cos30t  4sin 30t
→ sin. forcing function  sin. response of same frequency

yF(t) satisfies the inhomogeneous

eq., but not necessarily the initial
condition
→ not complete response y(t) yet.
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Complete Response
– yF(t) satisfies the inhomogeneous eq., but not necessarily the initial condition
→ not complete response y(t) yet.
– need another component to satisfy initial conditions:
(1) independent of yF(t)
(2) satisfy homogeneous equation  natural response (complementary solution)
– complete response: y(t) = yF(t) + yN(t) (or yp(t) + yc(t))
- yN(t) contains arbitrary constants for initial conditions
- y(t) holds for circuits with or without initial stored energies

Complete Solution of Dynamic Circuit Equation

– find yN(t) with undetermined coefficients for homogeneous equation
– select trial solution with undetermined coefficients for the forcing function
– determine coefficients in yF(t)
– write y(t) = yF(t) + yN(t) (or yp(t) + yc(t))
– determine coefficients in yN(t) from initial conditions on y(t)

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Steady State and Transient Response
– yN(t) will die away with time if the circuit is stable
– y(t) → yF(t), as t → 
– circuit has reached the steady state
– before steady state, circuit undergoes a readjustment known as the
transient response
– transient response involves both natural response and forced
response

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Example: Complete Response Calculation
di i (t )  0, t  0 Find complete response
0.1  4i  v,{
dt v (t )  400sin 280t , t  0

Step1: iN(t) = Ae-40t

Step2: iF(t) = K3 cos280t + K4 sin280t
iF(t) = -14 cos280t + 2 sin280t
Step3: i(t) = iF + iN = -14 cos280t + 2 sin280t + Ae-40t
i(0+) = -14 + A = 0
A = 14
i(t) = -14 cos280t + 2 sin280t + 14e-40t Steady state

Transient state

12
 6.2 First-Order Circuits
Example: Simple RC Network
Find , for
Solution 𝐶
𝑣 𝑡 : node voltage  node KCL,


 general solution form into eq.

 • If 𝐶 initially uncharged, 𝑣 0 0
𝑣 0 𝑉 𝐾 0
𝐾 𝑉 ,𝜏 𝑅𝐶 time constant 𝐾 𝑉
 𝑣 𝑡 𝑉 𝑉𝑒
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Example: Simple RL Network
Find , for
Solution
𝑖 𝑡 : mesh 𝑖  mesh KVL,

 𝑉


 general solution form into eq.

⁄ ⁄
 𝑒 𝑒 • If no initial current in L, 𝑖 0 0
𝐾 𝑉 /𝑅 , 𝜏 𝐿⁄𝑅 time constant  𝑖 0 𝑉 /𝑅 𝐾 0
𝐾 𝑉 /𝑅

𝑖 𝑡 𝑒 ,𝑉 𝑅𝑖 𝑡
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Switch DC Transient Response of 1st-Order Circuit (1)
• Source/circuit switch from one DC to another DC @ 0
• General circuit equation for 0

,
constant
=or = (𝜏 time constant = RC, L/R)

• General solution: for 0
- : complementary solution (natural response)

- : particular integral solution (forced response)
15

assume 1 ( )
Switch DC Transient Response of 1st-Order Circuit (2)
• General solution: for 0
• As  ,   (if stable)
 = final steady-state value 
• is determined by initial condition/value
 
 

• General solution:   , 0

• Special case: zero-input response (natural response)

 (no source at 0), 

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Switch DC Signal Representation

unit step function

0, 𝑡 0
𝑢 𝑡
1, 𝑡 0

unit step function

(time shift) Scaling
0, 𝑡 0
0, 𝑡 𝑡0 𝐴𝑢 𝑡
𝑢 𝑡 𝑡0 𝐴, 𝑡 0 17
1, 𝑡 𝑡0
General Procedures to Solve Switch DC Transient (1)
- step-by-step approach, in addition to differential equation approach
 Find final (new) DC steady state 𝑥  𝑥 𝑡 𝑥  𝑥 𝑡 𝑥  𝑒

- find circuit at 𝑡  (w/ DC source at 𝑡 𝑡0, C  open, L  short)

- DC circuit analysis to determine 𝑥 
 Find initial value 𝑥 𝑡
1. find circuit diagram/response at 𝒕 𝒕𝟎  find 𝒗𝑪 𝒕𝟎 , 𝒊𝑳 𝒕𝟎
- if DC 𝑡 𝑡0 also long enough to reach steady state
- find circuit at 𝑡 𝑡 (w/ DC source (𝑡 𝑡0), C  open, L  short)
- DC circuit analysis to determine 𝑣 𝑡 , 𝑖 𝑡 , 𝑥 𝑡
- otherwise, find 𝑣 𝑡 ,𝑖 𝑡 from response at 𝑡 𝑡 from prior stage
2. find circuit diagram for 𝒕 𝒕𝟎  find 𝒙 𝒕𝟎
- circuit (𝑡 𝑡 ) w/ DC source (𝑡 𝑡0), 𝑣 𝑡 𝑣 𝑡 ,𝑖 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡
(from continuity of 𝑣 , 𝑖 )
- DC circuit analysis to determine 𝑥 𝑡 18
General Procedures to Solve Switch DC Transient (2)
 Find 𝜏 time constant 𝑅 𝐶 or 𝐿/𝑅 for circuit 𝑡 𝑡0
- find 𝑅 viewed from storage element (C , L)
- with independent sources turned off
𝑅

Thévenin Equivalent Norton Equivalent

   , 0

Forced Natural
Steady-State 19
Zero-Input Response (Natural Response)
1. Network: storage element: 1C or 1L
𝑅 : viewed from storage element
no independent sources
2. Time constant: 𝑅 𝐶, RC-circuit; 𝐿⁄𝑅 , RL-circuit

Response: 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 =𝑌 𝑒 ,𝑡 𝑡 (some branch variable)

3. Initial slope: 𝑥 𝑡

4. 𝑥 𝑡 𝜏 𝑌𝑒 0.37𝑌

𝑥 𝑡 5𝜏 & 𝑌𝑒 0.007𝑌
1 % of 𝑌
5𝜏 → 𝑥 𝑡 5𝜏 final value

20
 Step Response (assume )
1. General solution 𝑥  𝑌 : DC forced response
𝜏: time constant
𝑥 𝑡 𝑥  1 𝑒 𝑌 1 𝑒
𝑥: some branch variable

2. Initial slope: 𝑥 𝑡
3. 10 % time 𝑡 ,𝑥 𝑡 𝑡 0.1𝑌 𝑌 1 𝑒
⇒𝑡 𝜏 ln 1 0.1 0.105𝜏
90 % time 𝑡 , 𝑥 𝑡 𝑡 0.9𝑌
⇒𝑡 𝜏 ln 1 0.9 2.3𝜏
Rise time ≡ 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 2.2𝜏

YSS

21
21
Example 6.3
The circuit is in steady state
prior to time . Calculate
for
Solution
1. Find
based on continuity

2. Find initial condition

22
3. Find steady-state value

4. Find to calculate

5. We have all parameters for ⁄

Initial slope =
.

23
 𝑣 3 A at 𝑡 0
Example 6.5
Calculate for 𝑖 𝑡
(The circuit has
reached steady state
when )

Solution
1. Find (inductor is short)
,
2. Find initial condition

3. Find steady-state value: by KCL (inductor is short),

→
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 𝑣 𝑣
4. Find and
Assume , by KCL, 𝑖

5. We have all parameters for 30 Initial slope =

.
27

Vo(t) (V)
24
21
18 0.375 s
. 15
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t (s)

25
Pulse Response

** Pulse can be seen as superposition of step functions

** Pulse response is superposition of step responses

26
Example 6.6
Find response

Solution
Find time constant

For ,

⁄ .

. ⁄ .

(Note: ) 27
For ,
3
𝑣 0.3 𝑣 0.3 𝑣 0.3
2
2 2
𝑣 0.3 𝑣 0.3 𝑣 0.3 𝑣 0.3 2.11 V
3 3
𝑣 ∞ 0
.
𝑣 𝑡 2.11𝑒 . V
Finally,
0 𝑡 0
𝑣 𝑡 4 1 𝑒 . V 0 t 0.3 s
.
2.11𝑒 . V 0.3 s 𝑡
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 6.3 Second-Order Circuits
Differential Equation: by inspection

Parallel RLC Circuit: Series RLC Circuit:

Node KCL Mesh KVL
𝑖 𝑡 𝑣 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐶 𝑖 𝑡 𝑅𝑖 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝑣 𝑡
↓ ↓

29
Diff. Eq. : systematic approach

‧State Variables:
vC i L

1. KCL, KVL
iC  i L  CvC '  i L (A)

v L  v S  Ri L  vC  LiL '  v S  RiL  vC (B)

2. (A) →(B) ( i L in terms of vC )

L(CvC ' )'  vS  R(CvC ' )  vC
 LCvC ' '  v S  RCvC 'vC
R 1 1
 vC ' ' vC ' vC  vS (C)
L LC LC
3. similarly (B) →(A) ( vC in terms of i L )
R 1 1
 i L ' ' i L ' iL  vS '
L LC L (D) 30
 4. Note v L  v S  ( Ri L  vC )  Ri L  vC  v S  v L
R 1 R 1
R  ( D)  (C )  ( R i L ' 'vC ' ' )  ( R i L 'vC ' )  ( R i L  vC )  v S ' vS
L LC L LC
R 1
 (v L ' ' )  v L ' vL  vS ' '
L LC
( Ri L  vC )' '  v S ' 'v L ' ' ** any branch variable governed by similar
( Ri L  vC )'  v S 'v L ' 2nd-order diff. eq. except for different f(t)
( Ri L  vC )  v S  v L

Parallel RLC Ckt: (left as homework)

31
General Strategy for Transient of 2nd-Order Circuit
1. General procedures to obtain 2nd-order eq:
(1) KCL, KVL  iC  f1 ( vC , i L , source )
state variable
v L  f 2 ( vC , i L , source )
iC  CvC '
(2)   a pair of coupled 1st-order diff. eq.
v L  Li L '
(3) Eliminate one state variable from one eq. by using the other 1st-order eq.
(4) Use diff. eq. of (vC, iL) to obtain diff. eq. of other responses

2. attention on vC ' s & i L ' s (state variables)

∵ (1) vC, i L → total stored energy
(2) all other response x(t) & its initial values → fn. of (vc, iL, source)

3. Complete solution for 2nd-order transient:

natural response + forced response + initial condition

32
Switch DC Transient Response of 2nd-Order Circuit
• Source/circuit switch from one DC to another DC @
• General circuit equation for

• General solution: for

- : particular integral solution (forced response)
assume ( , or  if stable ckt)
- : complementary solution (natural response)


𝜁 : damping ratio Ex. series RLC circuit
1 𝑅 R 𝐶 /
𝜔 : (undamped) natural frequency 𝜔 , 2𝜁𝜔 ,𝜁
𝐿𝐶 𝐿 2 𝐿 33
• Natural response (or Zero-input Response, as A=0)

 let

 characteristic equation


natural
 , frequency
𝑨
𝑥 𝑡 𝐾𝑒 𝐾𝑒 (if s1s2), 𝒙 𝒕
𝒂𝟐
𝒙𝒄 𝒕 𝒙  𝒙𝒄 𝒕

 if , known
3 different cases of s1, s2
𝜁 1 : two real, unequal real roots
𝜁 1 : two real, equal roots
 determine , 𝜁 1 : a pair of complex conjugates
34
Overdamped Response ( ):
• Two unequal, real roots (negative, )
,
𝒕 𝒕
𝒔𝟏 𝒕 𝒔𝟐 𝒕
• 𝒄 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝝉𝟏
𝟐
𝝉𝟐

two decaying exponentials

Example
•
•
•

35
Underdamped Response ( ):
• Complex conjugates (共軛複數)
𝜎 𝜁𝜔
𝑠 𝜁𝜔 𝑗𝜔 1 𝜁 𝜎 𝑗𝜔
𝑠 𝜁𝜔 𝑗𝜔 1 𝜁 𝜎 𝑗𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 1 𝜁

𝝈𝒕 𝒋𝝎𝒅 𝒕 𝒋𝝎𝒅 𝒕
• 𝒄 𝟏 𝟐
 𝑥 𝑡 must be real → 𝐴 𝐴∗ complex conjugate
 let 𝐴 Re 𝐴 𝑗Im 𝐴 , 𝐴 Re 𝐴 𝑗Im 𝐴
𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 Re 𝐴 𝑗Im 𝐴 𝑒 Re 𝐴 𝑗Im 𝐴 𝑒
 𝑒 2Re 𝐴 𝑗2Im 𝐴
𝑒 2Re 𝐴 cos 𝜔 𝑡 2Im 𝐴 sin 𝜔 𝑡

𝝈𝒕 𝝈𝒕
• 𝒙𝒄 𝒕 𝒆 𝑲𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒅 𝒕 𝑲𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒅 𝒕 𝑩 𝒆 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒅 𝒕 ∠𝑩
𝜎: damping coefficient, 𝜔 : damped frequency
** 2 undetermined coefficients by 2 initial conditions 36
Supplement: Euler’s Formula & Complex Numbers

complex plane
Euler’s Formula
• 𝑒 cos 𝛼 𝑗 sin 𝛼
• 𝑒 is complex number
• Re 𝑒 cos 𝛼, Im 𝑒 sin 𝛼 (rectangular)
• 𝑒 cos 𝛼 𝑗 sin 𝛼 1∠ 𝛼 (polar)
• exponential, rectangular, polar form of complex number

Proof of Euler’s Formula

let 𝐸 cos 𝛼 𝑗 sin 𝛼 → sin 𝛼 𝑗 cos 𝛼 𝑗 𝑗 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼 𝑗𝐸

→ 𝑗 𝑒
→𝑒 𝐸 cos 𝛼 𝑗 sin 𝛼
37
Supplement: Euler’s Formula & Complex Numbers
Polar & Exponential Form of Complex Numbers
• 𝐴 𝐴 ∠𝜙 𝐴𝑒 (=Re[A]+Im[A])
Multiplication and Division with Polar/Exponential Form
• 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝑒 𝐵𝑒 𝐴 𝐵𝑒
𝐴 𝐵∠ 𝜙 𝜙
• 𝑒 ∠ 𝜙 𝜙

Properties of and Euler’s Formula

• 𝑗 0 𝑗1 1∠90°, 𝑗 1∠180° 1, 1⁄𝑗 1∠ 90° 𝑗

38
 Underdamped Response — Physical Meaning:
𝐵 𝜎 0, decaying oscillation with 𝜏

𝜎 : damping coefficient
1/𝜎 𝜔 : damped frequency
envelope of response
ringing

• If no resistance in circuit → ,
▪ 𝑥 𝑡 𝐵 𝑒 cos 𝜔 𝑡 ∠𝐵
▪ constant oscillation at resonant frequency 𝜔
▪ Ex. an ideal lossless LC circuit
energy exchange between L C
• Real circuits always contain resistance
▪ energy loss
▪ oscillation “damped” → decaying oscillation
39
Critically Damped Response ( ):
• Repeated roots:
•
▪ satisfy only 1 initial condition → not complete solution
• Instead, assume
▪ 𝑥 𝑡 𝑎 𝜔 𝑎 𝑒 , 𝑥 𝑡 𝑎 2𝜔 𝑎 𝜔 𝑎 𝑒
▪ substitute into original homogeneous differential equation
𝑎 2𝜔 𝑎 𝜔 𝑎 2𝜔 𝑎 𝜔 𝑎 𝜔 𝑎 0
▪ 𝑎 0, 𝑎 𝑡 𝐴 𝐴 𝑡
𝝎𝟎 𝒕 𝝎𝟎 𝒕 𝐴
• 𝒄 𝟏 𝟐 𝜔 𝑒 𝐴 𝑡𝑒

1/𝜔
40
Complete Switched DC Transient of 2nd-Order Circuit
2𝜁𝜔 𝜔 𝑥 𝑡 𝐴𝑢 𝑡 source

Case 1: Overdamped circuit (𝜁 1)

• 𝑠 ,𝑠 𝜁𝜔 𝜔 𝜁 1
• 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥  𝐴 𝑒 𝐴 𝑒 natural
forced (steady state)
𝑥 0 𝑥  𝐴 𝐴
• Initial condition: → solve equations
𝑥 0 𝑠 𝐴 𝑠 𝐴
Case 2: Underdamped circuit (𝜁 1)
• 𝑠 ,𝑠 𝜎 𝑗𝜔 , 𝜎 𝜁𝜔 , 𝜔 𝜔 1 𝜁
• 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥  𝐴 𝑒 𝐴 𝑒 𝑥  𝐾𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 𝐾 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡
• similar to case 1, but with 𝐴 𝐴∗ ; or work w/ 𝐾 , 𝐾 form
Case 3: Critically damped circuit (𝜁 1)
• 𝑠 𝑠 𝜔
𝑥 𝑡 𝑥  𝐴 𝑒 𝐴 𝑡𝑒
•
𝑥 𝑡 𝜔 𝐴 𝑒 𝐴 𝑒 𝜔 𝐴 𝑡𝑒
𝑥 0 𝑥  𝐴 𝐴 𝑥 0 𝑥 
• Initial condition: →
𝑥 0 𝜔 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝑥 0 𝜔 𝐴 41
2nd-order Transients – Initial Conditions
1. Initial Condition Problem:
- need 2 initial conditions for x(t) = f(vC , iL , source) any branch variable

(1) 𝑥 0 : initial value of x(t)

• continuity of state variables
vC (0  )  vC (0  ) iL ( 0  )  iL ( 0  )
• applied source at t= 0+
𝑥0
(2) 𝑥 0 , initial slope of x(t) x’(0+) = fn. (vC’ , iL‘, source’ )

• note: iC (t )  CvC ' (t ) vL (t )  LiL ' (t )

 
• If iC (0 ), vL (0 ) known

 iC (0  )  v L (0  )
then vC ' (0 )  i L ' (0 ) 
C L
42
 2. Systematic Procedures for Determining Initial Conditions:
(1) conditions at t = 0
-
 vC (0  ) , iL (0  ) etc.

(2) iC (t )  f1 (vC , iL , source )

v L (t )  f 2 (vC , iL , source ) for t > 0

(3) • (1), (2)  iC (0  ) vL (0  ) x(0  )

differentiate iC (0  )

• vC ' (0 )  C
 v L (0  )
iL ' (0 ) 
L
(4)
4

43
Example 6.7: Overdamped Circuit
2Ω 5H 4V

−1 A
find 𝑣 𝑡 , with given R/L/C, initial values 0.2 F

Solution
 2.5 𝑣 0
 characteristic eq.: 𝑠 2.5𝑠 1 0
𝑠 0.5, 𝑠 2
𝑣 𝑡 𝐴 𝑒 . 𝐴 𝑒
 initial conditions 𝑖 0 1 A, 𝑣 0 4V

• 𝑣 0 𝑣 0 4 𝐴 𝐴 , 𝑣′ 0 𝑣 ′ 0 5
.
• 0.5𝐴 𝑒 2𝐴 𝑒 0.5𝐴 2𝐴

• KCL: 𝑖 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 0, 5
44
• 0.5𝐴 2𝐴 5
Simultaneous equation:

1 1 4 1 1 4
Δ 1.5, Δ 3, Δ 3
0.5 2 5 2 0.5 5

→ ,
.
Solution:

45
Example 6.8: Underdamped Circuit
4A

1H −4 V
0.04 F
find 𝑖 𝑡 , with given R/L/C, initial values
6Ω
------------------------------------------------

 characteristic eq: ,
 ,

 initial condition:
• 𝑖 0 𝑖 0 4 𝐴 , 𝑖′ 0 𝑖 ′ 0 20
• KVL: 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 𝑣 𝑡 𝑣 𝑡 0, 20
3𝑒 𝐴 cos 4𝑡 𝐴 sin 4𝑡 𝑒 4𝐴 sin 4𝑡 4𝐴 cos 4𝑡 ,
𝑡 0  3𝐴 4𝐴 20  𝐴 2
46
𝑖 𝑡 𝑒 4 cos 4𝑡 2 sin 4𝑡 A
𝑖 𝑡 𝑒 4 cos 4𝑡 2 sin 4𝑡 A

47
Example 6.9: Critically Damped Circuit
find 𝑣 𝑡 , with given R/L/C, initial value
10 Ω
Solution 𝑣 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑛. 𝑣 & 𝑖
1. obtain diff. eq. first 1/2 A 2H

KVL: 𝐿 𝑅 𝑖 𝑡 𝑣 𝑡 (1) 8Ω

1V 1/8 F
KCL: 𝐶 𝑖 𝑡 (2)
(2) into (1)
𝑖 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑛. 𝑣 & 𝑖
 𝑣 0

 6 9𝑣 0

2. general solution
• 𝑠 6𝑠 9 0 characteristic equation
• 𝑠 𝑠 3
• 𝑣 𝑡 𝐴 𝑒 𝐴 𝑡𝑒 48
3. initial condition:
•

• →
•
→
4. final solution:

49
Example 6.10 (Ex. 6.8 + Switch DC) 6Ω
4A

Find 𝑣 𝑡 , with given R/L/C and switch source −4 V

1H
DC source
0.04 F

Solution
• → 6 25𝑣 𝑡 300
• 𝑠 6𝑠 25 0 → 𝑠 3 𝑗4, 𝑠 3 𝑗4
• 𝑣 𝑡 𝑣  𝑒 𝐴 cos 4𝑡 𝐴 sin 4𝑡
• steady state 𝑣  12
• Initial condition: 𝑣 0 4, 𝑣 0 100
𝑣 0 4 12 𝐴
→𝐴 16, 𝐴 13
𝑣 0 100 3𝐴 4𝐴
• 𝑣 𝑡 12 16𝑒 cos 4𝑡 13𝑒 sin 4𝑡 V
50
Example 6.11 2H 10 Ω
Find for
1/4 F 2Ω

Solution
1. obtain diff. eq.
KVL: 2𝑖 𝑡 24 10𝑖 𝑡 𝑣 𝑡 (1) 𝑣 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑛. 𝑣 & 𝑖

KCL: 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 𝑣 𝑡 (2) 𝑖 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑛. 𝑣 & 𝑖

 (2) into (1)
→ 7 12𝑣 𝑡 48
2. general solution
• 𝑠 7𝑠 12 0  𝑠 3, 𝑠 4
• 𝑣 𝑡 𝑣  𝐴 𝑒 𝐴 𝑒
51
3. steady state 𝒗  at t>0
• find dc steady state circuit at t>0
• C  open, L short
• 𝑣  24 4

4. initial condition 𝒗 𝟎 , 𝒗′ 𝟎
• find dc steady state circuit at t<0
𝑣 0 𝑣 0 𝑣 0 12 2

𝑖 0 𝑖 0 1
• find circuit at t=0

𝑣 0 4𝑖 0 4 𝑖 0 0
52
5. complete response
𝑣 0 2 𝑣  𝐴 𝐴 4 𝐴 𝐴
𝑣 0 0 𝑠 𝐴 𝑠 𝐴 3𝐴 4𝐴
1 1 𝐴 2

3 4 𝐴 0
1 1 2 1 1 2
Δ 1, Δ 8, Δ 6
3 4 0 4 3 0
𝐴 8, 𝐴 6

𝑣 𝑡 4 8𝑒 6𝑒 V

53
Suggested exercises:
J. D. Irwin & R. M. Nelms, Engineering Circuit Analysis,
Wiley, 12th Ed., 2021.

All examples and learning assessment in the text

+ Problem
6.2.3, 6.2.8, 6.2.10, 6.2.14, 6.2.22, 6.2.30, 6.2.35, 6.2.36,
6.2.42, 6.2.44, 6.2.53, 6.2.55, 6.2.56, 6.2.58, 6.2.59, 6.2.60

6.3.5, 6.3.6, 6.3.7, 6.3.8, 6.3.9, 6.3.10, 6.3.12, 6.3.13,

6.3.14, 6.3.16, 6.3.17

54