LITERARY TERMS

A short, yet essential list

alliteration (also known as 'head rhyme' or 'initial rhyme'), the repetition of the same sounds—usually
initial consonants of words or of stressed syllables—in any sequence of neighbouring words: 'Landscape lover,
lord of language' (Tennyson). The repeated sounds are close enough together to be noticed by the ear.

antagonist, the most prominent of the characters who oppose the protagonist or hero(ine) in a dramatic
or narrative work. The antagonist is often a villain seeking to frustrate a heroine or hero; but in those works in
which the protagonist is represented as evil, the antagonist will often be a virtuous or sympathetic character.

anti-hero or anti-heroine, a central character in a dramatic or narrative work who lacks the
qualities of nobility and magnanimity expected of traditional heroes and heroines in romances and epics.
Flaubert's Emma Bovary (in Madame Bovary, 1857) and Joyce's Leopold Bloom (in Ulysses, 1922) are outstanding
examples of this antiheroic ordinariness and inadequacy. The anti-hero should not be confused with the
antagonist or the villain.

assonance /ˈæs(ə)nəns/ (sometimes called vowel rhyme or vocalic rhyme), the repetition of identical or
similar vowel sounds in the stressed syllables (and sometimes in the following unstressed syllables) of
neighbouring words; itis distinct from rhyme in that the consonants differ although the vowels or diphthongs
match: sweet dreams, hit or miss. It is more aural than alliteration because it is not so visible on the page: e.g. the
proud cow by the plough.

character(ization), the representation of people in narrative and dramatic works. This may include
direct methods like the attribution of qualities in description or commentary, and indirect (or 'dramatic') methods
inviting readers to infer qualities from characters' actions, speech, or appearance. A distinction is often made
between flat and two-dimensional characters, which are simple and unchanging or static, and round
characters, which are complex, dynamic (i.e. subject to development), and less predictable.

climax (sometimes called crisis), a decisive point in the plot of a play or story, upon which the outcome of
the remaining action depends, and which ultimately precipitates the resolution or denouement.

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conflict, the struggle between two opposing forces that is the basis of the plot
internal conflict, characters struggling with themselves
external conflict, characters struggling with forces outside of themselves: man vs. man, man vs.
society, man vs. nature, etc.

denouement /deɪˈnuːmɒ̃ /, see resolution (sometimes called resolution), the clearing up or

'untying' of the complications of the plot in a play or story; usually a final scene or chapter in which mysteries,
confusions, and doubtful destinies are clarified.

epigraph, a quotation or motto placed at the beginning of a book, chapter, or poem as an indication of its
theme. The term can also refer to an inscription on a monument or coin.

epilogue /ˈepɪlɒɡ/, a concluding section of any written work. Some novels have epilogues in which the
characters' subsequent fates are briefly outlined.

epitaph, a form of words in prose or verse suited for inscription on a tomb—although many facetious
verses composed as epitaphs have not actually been inflicted on their victims' graves. Epitaphs may take the form
of appeals from the dead to passers-by, or of descriptions of the dead person's merits.

exposition (sometimes called stasis), the opening part of a play or story, in which we are introduced to
the characters and their situation, often by reference to preceding events.

falling action, the events that lead to a resolution after the climax.

fairy tale, a story featuring folkloric characters such as fairies, goblins, elves, trolls, witches, giants, and
talking animals, and usually enchantments. Fairy tales often involve a far-fetched sequence of events that
ultimately progress to a satisfying conclusion while teaching a moral lesson. Unlike legends and epics, they usually
do not contain more than superficial references to religion and actual places, people, and events; they take place
"once upon a time" rather than in actual times. The older fairy tales were intended for an audience of adults as
well as children, but they were associated with children as early as the seventeenth century.

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fiction, the general term for invented stories, now usually applied to novels, short stories, novellas,
romances, fables, and other narrative works in prose, even though most plays and narrative poems are also
fictional. The adjective fictitious tends to carry the unfavourable sense of falsehood, whereas 'fictional' is more
neutral.

first-person narrative, a narrative or mode of storytelling in which the narrator appears as the I
recollecting his or her own part in the events related, either as a witness of the action or as an important
participant in it. The term is most often used of novels in which the narrator is also the central character.

foil, a character whose qualities or actions serve to emphasize those of the protagonist (or of some other
character) by providing a strong contrast with them.

folktale, a story passed on by word of mouth rather than by writing, and thus partly modified by successive
re-tellings before being written down or recorded. The category includes legends, fables, jokes, tall stories and
fairy tales.

foreshadowing, a literary device in which authors hint at plot developments that do not actually
occur until later in the story. Foreshadowing can be so subtle that it goes unnoticed, often until after the
foreshadowed event comes to pass (e.g. description of a clock hanging on the wall on page 1; clock turns out to
be the murder weapon). Often foreshadowing serves to increase the sense of mystery and suspense rather than
dispel it, by suggesting that some event might occur but not how it will come to pass.

hero or heroine, the main character in a narrative or dramatic work. The more neutral term
protagonist is often preferable, to avoid confusion with the usual sense of heroism as admirable courage or
nobility, since in many works, the leading character may not be morally or otherwise superior. When our
expectations of heroic qualities are strikingly disappointed, the central character may be known as an anti-hero or
anti-heroine.

image(ry), a general term referring to a metaphorical device whereby one thing is described in terms of
another but with an emphasis upon a mental picture.

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irony, a subtly humorous perception of inconsistency, in which an apparently straightforward statement or
event is undermined by its context so as to give it a very different significance.

verbal irony, it involves a discrepancy between what is said and what is really meant.
situational irony, something happens that is entirely different from what is expected.
dramatic irony, when a speaking character thinks the opposite of what the audience, from its
superior vantage point, knows to be true.

metaphor, the most important and widespread figure of speech, in which one thing, idea, or action is
referred to by a word or expression normally denoting another thing, idea, or action, so as to suggest some
common quality shared by the two. For example, in a phrase like ‘give me a hand’, ‘help’ is represented by the
limb to represent what may or may not be physical assistance.

narrator /nəˈreɪtə(r)/, one who tells, or is assumed to be telling, the story in a given narrative. To be
distinguished from the author (who may have written other tales with very different narrators). Narrators vary
according to their degree of participation in the story: in first-person
narratives they are involved either as
witnesses or as participants in the events of the story, whereas in third-person narratives they stand
outside those events; an omniscient narrator stands outside the events but has special privileges such as
access to characters' unspoken thoughts, and knowledge of events happening simultaneously in different places.
Narrators also differ in the degree of their overtness: some are given noticeable characteristics and personalities
(as in first-person narratives and in some third-person narratives; see intrusive narrator), whereas 'covert'
narrators are identified by no more than a 'voice' (as in most third-person narratives).
Further distinctions are made between reliable narrators, whose accounts of events we are obliged to trust, and
unreliable narrators, whose accounts maybe partial, ill-informed, or otherwise misleading: most third-
person narrators are reliable, but some first-person narrators are unreliable.

novel, nearly always an extended fictional prose narrative, although some novels are very short, some are
non-fictional, some have been written in verse, and some do not even tell a story. Such exceptions help to
indicate that the novel as a literary genre is itself exceptional: it disregards the constraints that govern other
literary forms, and acknowledges no obligatory structure, style, or subject-matter. Novels can be distinguished
from short stories and novellas by their greater length, which permits fuller, subtler development of
characters and themes.
There is no established minimum length for a novel, but it is normally at least long enough to justify its publication
in an independent volume, unlike the short story.

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It is normally expected of a novel that it should have at least one character, and preferably several characters
shown in processes of change and social relationship; a plot, or some arrangement of narrated events, is another
normal requirement.

novella /nəʊˈvelə/, a fictional tale in prose, intermediate in length and complexity between a short story
and a novel, and usually concentrating on a single event or chain of events, with a surprising turning point.

omniscient narrator /ɒmˈnɪsiənt nəˈreɪtə(r)/, an 'all-knowing' kind of narrator very commonly

found in works of fiction written as third-person narratives. The omniscient narrator has a full knowledge of the
story's events and of the motives and unspoken thoughts of the various characters. He or she will also be capable
of describing events happening simultaneously in different places—a capacity not normally available to the
limited point of view of first-person narratives.

paradox, a statement or expression so surprisingly self-contradictory as to provoke us into seeking another

sense or context in which it would be true (although some paradoxes cannot be resolved into truths, remaining
flatly self-contradictory, e.g. Everything I say is a lie).

parody, a mocking imitation of the style of a literary work or works, ridiculing the stylistic habits of an
author or school by exaggerated mimicry.

plot, the pattern of events and situations in a narrative or dramatic work, as selected and arranged both to
emphasize relationships — usually of cause and effect — between incidents and to elicit a particular kind of
interest in the reader or audience, such as surprise or suspense.
Although in a loose sense the term commonly refers to that sequence of chief events which can be summarized
from a story or play, modern criticism often makes a stricter distinction between the plot of a work and its story:
the plot is the selected version of events as presented to the reader or audience in a certain order and duration,
whereas the story is the full sequence of events as we imagine them to have taken place in their 'natural' order
and duration.
Most plots will trace some process of change in which characters are caught up in a developing conflict that is
finally resolved.

protagonist /prəʊˈtæɡənɪst/, the main character in a play or story, who may also be opposed by an
antagonist.

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refrain, one or more lines in a poem that are repeated at intervals like a chorus.

resolution (sometimes called denouement), the clearing up or 'untying' of the complications of the
plot in a play or story; usually a final scene or chapter in which mysteries, confusions, and doubtful destinies are
clarified.

rising action, part of the plot that leads through a series of events of increasing interest and power to
the climax or turning point. The rising action begins with an inciting moment, an action or event that sets a
conflict of opposing forces into motion.

rhyme, the identity of sound between syllables or paired groups of syllables, usually at the ends of verse
lines. Normally the last stressed vowel in the line and all sounds following it make up the rhyming element: this
may be a monosyllable (love / above—known as masculine rhyme), or two syllables (whether / together—
known as feminine rhyme or double rhyme), or even three syllables (glamorous / amorous—known as
triple rhyme).

rhythm, the pattern of sounds perceived as the recurrence of equivalent 'beats' at more or less equal
intervals. In most English poetry, an underlying rhythm (commonly a sequence of four or five beats) is manifested
in a metrical pattern or metre — a sequence of measured beats and 'offbeats' arranged in verse lines and
governing the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables.

rondeau, a medieval French verse form also used by some late 19 th century poets in English. It normally

consists of 13 octosyllabic lines, grouped in stanzas of five, three, and five lines. The whole poem uses only two
rhymes, and the first word or phrase of the first line recurs twice as a refrain after the second and third stanzas.
The standard rhyme scheme (with the unrhymed refrain indicated as R) is aabba aabR aabbaR.

satire, a mode of writing that exposes the failings of individuals, institutions, or societies to ridicule and
scorn. It is a mode which mocks some prevailing aspect of society or fashion. Its aim is always claimed to be
didactic: that is to punish vice, corruption and pride through ridicule in order to improve conduct. Its tone may
vary from tolerant amusement to bitter indignation.

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science fiction, a popular modern branch of prose fiction that explores the probable consequences of
some improbable or impossible transformation of the basic conditions of human (or intelligent non-human)
existence. This transformation need not be brought about by a technological invention, but may involve some
mutation of known biological or physical reality, e.g. time travel, extraterrestrial invasion, ecological catastrophe.
Usually abbreviated to SF (the alternative form 'sci-fi' is frowned upon by devotees).

setting, the time and place in which the action of a story occurs.

short story, a fictional prose tale of no specified length, but too short to be published as a volume on its
own, as novellas sometimes and novels usually are. A short story will normally concentrate on a single event
with only one or two characters, more economically than a novel's sustained exploration of social background.

stanza, a group of verse lines forming a section of a poem and sharing the same structure as all or some of
the other sections of the same poem, in terms of the lengths of its lines, its metre, and sometimes its rhyme
scheme. They serve the function of segmenting the poem and providing pauses in its progression. In printed
poems, stanzas are separated by spaces.

stock character, a stereotyped character easily recognized by readers or audiences from recurrent
appearances in literary or folk tradition, usually within a specific genre such as comedy or fairy tale. Common
examples include the absent-minded professor, the country bumpkin, the damsel in distress, the old miser, the
whore with a heart of gold, the bragging soldier, the wicked stepmother, and the jealous husband. Similarly,
recognizable incidents or plot-elements which recur in fiction and drama are known as stock situations:
these include the mistaken identity, the last-minute rescue, the dying man's confession, and love at first sight.

symbol, in the simplest sense, anything that stands for or represents something else beyond it—usually an
idea conventionally associated with it. Objects like flags and crosses can function symbolically; and words are also
symbols. In literary usage, however, a symbol is a specially evocative kind of image; that is, a word or phrase
referring to a concrete object, scene, or action which also has some further significance associated with it: roses,
mountains, birds, and voyages have all been used as common literary symbols. A symbol differs from a metaphor
in that its application is left open as an unstated suggestion.

theme, a salient abstract idea that emerges from a literary work's treatment of its subject-matter; or a topic
recurring in a number of literary works. While the subject of a work is described concretely in terms of its action
(e.g. the adventures of a newcomer in the big city), its theme or themes will be described in more abstract terms
(e.g. love, war, revenge, betrayal, fate, etc.).

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third-person narrative, a narrative or mode of storytelling in which the narrator is not a
character within the events related, but stands 'outside' those events. In a third-person narrative, all characters
within the story are therefore referred to as he, she, or they; but this does not, of course, prevent the narrator
from using the first person I or we in commentary on the events and their meaning. Third-person narrators are
often omniscient or 'all-knowing' about the events of the story, but they may sometimes appear to be restricted
in their knowledge of these events. Third-person narrative is by far the most common form of storytelling.

tone, a much-used if imprecise term to indicate the ‘mood’, ‘colour’, ‘atmosphere’ of a piece of writing as
conveyed by its word-choice, rhythms, etc.

unreliable narrator, a narrator whose account of events appears to be faulty, misleadingly

biased, or otherwise distorted, so that it departs from the 'true' understanding of events shared between the
reader and the implied author. The discrepancy between the unreliable narrator's view of events and the view
that readers suspect to be more accurate creates a sense of irony. The term does not necessarily mean that such
a narrator is morally untrustworthy or a habitual liar (although this may be true in some cases), since the category
also includes harmlessly naive, 'fallible', or ill-informed narrators. The reader is offered the pleasure of picking up
'clues' in the narrative that betray the true state of affairs.

utopia, an imagined form of ideal or superior (thus usually communist) human society; or a written work of
fiction or philosophical speculation describing such a society. Utopias are the products of human (i.e. political)
arrangement for human benefit. The word was coined by Sir Thomas More in his Latin work Utopia (1516). For
the inverted or undesirable equivalent of a Utopia, the term dystopia is often used, as it is for works describing
such a 'bad place'.

villain, the principal evil character in a play or story. The villain is usually the antagonist opposed to the hero
and or heroine, but in some cases he may be the protagonist.

word-play, a very general term to suggest the manipulation of words, especially when used for the
sounds in themselves, or their various connotations. As ‘play’ suggests, there is often something sportive or ludic
about this.

References

Baldick, Chris. 2001. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wainwright, Jeffrey. 2004. Poetry: The Basics. London: Routledge.