Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol 4 No 2

December 2013 • Volume 4, No.
Editor
Fernando F. Padró IN THIS ISSUE:
[email protected] Editor’s Note 2
Fernando F. Padró
Associate Editors
Cindy P. Veenstra Guest Editorial: Global Trends in Quality Assurance 3
David Woodhouse
Sid Nair
Theodore Allen Australia’s University Learning and Teaching: An Experiment 8
in Promoting Quality
Copy Editor Elizabeth McDonald
Janet Jacobsen ISO 9001 and the Field of Higher Education: Proposal for an 14
[email protected] Update of the IWA 2 Guidelines
Laila El Abbadi, Aboubakr Bouayad, and Mohamed Lamrini
Production Administrator
Will Race to the Top Have the Same Mixed Results No Child Left 20
Cathy Milquet
Behind had on Student Learning and Preservice Teacher Preparation?
[email protected]
Marlene M. Hurley, Fernando F. Padró, and Michael F. Hawke
Layout/Design
Eric Nelson
Sandra Wyss
Founding Editor
Deborah Hopen
©2013 by ASQ
The Journal That Connects Quality and Higher Education
Quality Approaches in Higher Education (ISSN 2161-265X) is a peer-reviewed publication that is published by ASQ’s
Education Division, the Global Voice of Quality, and networks on quality in education. The purpose of the journal
is to engage the higher education community in a discussion of topics related to improving quality and identifying
best practices in higher education, and to expand the literature specific to quality in higher education topics.
Quality Approaches in Higher Education grants permission to requestors desiring to cite content and/or make
copies of articles provided that the journal is cited; for example, Source: Quality Approaches in Higher Education,
Year, Vol. xx, (No. xx), http://asq.org/edu/quality-information/journals/
Questions about this publication should be directed to ASQ’s Education Division, Dr. Fernando Padró,
[email protected]. Publication of any article should not be deemed as an endorsement by ASQ or the ASQ
[email protected]/edu Education Division.
Note From the Editor
Massy, Graham, & Short (2007) state that “[s]ustaining and improving quality requires
that both design and implementation be considered explicitly” (p. 32). In higher education,
this means looking at what academics and academic units do in regard to student learn-
ing and teaching; the business components of colleges and universities; student services
and their approach to providing meaningful experiences; and external and institutional
quality assurance to provide evidence that design and actual performance align and suc-
ceed in relation to student, parent, government, societal, and workforce expectations. The
progressive dimensions of quality, therefore, come from these varied perspectives, making
the effects of quality in higher education because of the nuanced and interactive picture
of how change occurs in the sector (Stensaker, 2007). Context based on system structure
(Luhmann, 1995/1984) thus becomes important in identifying and understanding the
intended and unintendend effects of design.
This issue is comprised of four articles that look at future trends in quality assurance
in higher education and the effect changes in quality assurance have had on past prac-
tice. The first article by Dr. David Woodhouse is a guest editorial article discussing the
salient issues facing quality assurance now and in the future from an international prac-
tice perspective. The second article is also a guest piece by Dr. Elizabeth McDonald who
helped establish the Carrick Institute for Learning and Teaching in Higher Education
in Australia, the predecessor of today’s Australian government’s Office of Learning and
Teaching. This is the first time she has written about creating an agency devoted to
the quality of learning and teaching in Australia’s higher education sector.
Because of the upcoming update of ISO 9001, the third article by Laila El Abbadi,
Aboubakr Bouayad, and Mohamed Lamrini analyzes the impact of the IWA 2
document on how universities should implement ISO 9001. Their analysis and rec-
ommendations are based on projects sponsored by the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) and the European Union (the TEMPUS Project ALTAIR).
The final article by Marlene Hurley, Fernando Padró, and Michael Hawke focuses
on the unintended consequences as a result of policy-steering-based quality legisla-
tion. They look at how No Child Left Behind and its reporting structure negatively
impacted teacher preparation programs using an integrated math-science model, and
the ramifications on the current Race to the Top initiative in the United States.
These articles provide a glimpse of different aspects of quality within higher educa-
tion—positive and not so positive. Together, the articles demonstrate how quality assurance
affects different levels within higher education at the systems and institutional levels.
References:
Lumann, N. (1995/1984). Social systems (J. Bednarz, Jr. & D. Baecker, Trans.). Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press.
Massy, W.F., Graham, S.W., & Short, P.M. (2007). Academic quality work: A handbook for improve-
ment. Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing Company, Inc.
Stensaker, B. (2007). Quality as fashion: Exploring the translation of a management idea into higher
education. In D.F. Westerheijden, B. Stensaker, & M.J. Rosa (Eds.), Quality assurance in higher educa-
tion: Trends in regulation, translation, and transformation. (pp. 99-118). Dordrecht: Springer.
asq.org/edu
2 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

GUEST Global Trends in Quality Assurance
EDITORIAL David Woodhouse
Introductioni
Governments As organizations, generically referred to as “quality agencies” were set up, whether by
governments, institutions, or private entities, they needed an “organizing principle.” The
two most common, though known by a variety of names, are accreditation and audits.
are seeking Accreditation stresses the “gatekeeper” role of an external quality agency (EQA), hold-
ing higher education institutions (HEIs) to threshold requirements. An audit permits
to ensure that greater diversity among institutions, but therefore usually presupposes that the institution
has already exceeded some known threshold. Conventionally, accreditation has become
quality agencies associated with accountability of the institution (to someone, for something); and an
audit is associated with (further) improvement of the institution above the threshold.
serve society, use However, an accreditation approach by the EQA can lead to suggestions for improvement;
while an audit can focus on holding the institution accountable for achieving its stated
money well, and published goals.
Accreditation denotes the process or outcome of evaluating whether something, for
provide results to example, an institution or program, qualifies for a certain status. The status may have
implications for the institution itself (e.g. permission to operate) and/or its students (e.g.
stakeholders. eligibility for grants) and/or its graduates (e.g. qualified for certain employment). In theory,
the output of an accreditation is a yes/no or pass/fail decision, but gradations are possible,
usually in the context of a transitional phase (toward or away from “pass”). Accreditation is
also called licensing or registration.
In some cases, there is no intention to implement the gatekeeper role of accredita-
tion, but merely to assess how well the organization is performing. In this case, the term
assessment is sometimes used for an evaluation that results in a grade, whether numeric
(percentage or 1-4), literal (A-F), or descriptive (excellent, good, satisfactory, unsatisfac-
tory). Thus, assessment and accreditation can both result in one of several scores on a linear
scale. There may or may not be a pass/fail boundary somewhere along the grade spectrum.
Accreditation presupposes external measures or standards against which the institu-
tion, department, or program is being judged, but there is an argument that this does not
allow for the range of higher education institutions and the scope of their purposes. This
argument takes us naturally toward the quality audit, which is a check on an organization’s
claims about itself. When an institution states objectives, it is implicitly claiming that this
is what it will do, and a quality audit checks the extent to which the institution is achieving
its objectives.
ISO defines the quality audit as a three-part process: checking the suitability of the
planned quality procedures in relation to the stated objectives, the conformity of the actual
quality activities with the plans, and the effectiveness of the activities in achieving the
stated objectives. This “quality loop” is often referred to using the initials OADRI for
objectives, approach (e.g. plans), deployment (e.g. the actual activities), results (the conse-
quences of all this planning and activity), and improvement. Improvement refers to what
is done if the loop is not closed (e.g. adjust the objectives, plans, or deployment) or if it is
closed (perhaps set more ambitious objectives). OADRI is another name for the Plan-Do-
Check-Act cycle of the industrial quality movement.
asq.org/edu

As these various terms multiplied, a generic term was needed local institution; and all want QA decisions and outputs that are
and was found in the phrase “quality assurance” (QA), which intelligible and useful.
denotes the policies, attitudes, actions, and procedures necessary It is now clearly established that EQAs do have an effect, and
to ensure that quality is maintained and enhanced — though not that the effect is mostly positive. The next question that arises is
all agree on this. Some see QA as synonymous with the threshold about value for money: do EQAs have enough beneficial effect
check of accreditation, and some conversely see it as synonymous to justify their costs?
with improvement above the threshold. This disagreement over In the debate on the value of EQA, attention must be paid
meanings extends even to the word “quality” itself. to what can reasonably be expected. Most EQAs are expected
to both hold institutions accountable and to enable them to
Future Trends improve. The former is feasible, and EQAs can reasonably be
What is currently exercising the minds of those involved in judged on their success in this. The latter is only partially fea-
QA, both staff of quality agencies and staff in the institutions’ sible: EQAs can set the context for institutional improvement
internal QA units? This is a brief overview of some of these issues. and can ensure that their processes are not counterproductive,
but ultimately it is the institution itself that must improve. (Just
1. Value/Legitimacy of QA as a teacher should teach well so as to encourage learning, but it
Accreditation has a history of more than a century in the is only the student who can actually do the learning.)
United States and in the British Isles of nearly 40 years. National
2. Evolving Environment
agencies continue to be established (the current membership of
EQAs for HE continue to be established, but HE is also
the global network of QA agencies (International Network for
changing, and the agencies must change correspondingly.
Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education or INQAAHE)
Agencies previously judged on inputs (entry student scores,
stands at about 280 organizations from 80 countries and HEIs
faculty qualifications, funds available etc.) and facilities on a
continue to establish internal quality units and systems (IQA).
physical campus. Increasingly, EQA agencies are looking at pro-
Higher education (HE) generally has accepted the need for
cesses and even more at outcomes. They are also paying attention
accountability.
to electronic and online courses and facilities. This reinforces
Nonetheless, there are concerns about the emergence of
the attention to outcomes. Evidently the experiences of a student
an “evaluation bureaucracy,” and tension continues between
on campus and at a distance are different; similarly, a student
standardization and conformity: are external quality agencies
in an overseas branch campus is not experiencing the culture
(EQAs) too conservative? Both internally and externally, is the
of the home institution’s country firsthand. Hence, the desired
focus more on what can be measured than on what is important? outcomes are built into the specification of the qualification (see
If an EQA is part of the government, do quality checks imply note on learning outcomes below), and the aim is for these to be
government interference? achieved, even if the processes differ.
Other concerns include “diminishing returns.” In some sys- In recent years, more institutions have been making edu-
tems, the EQA is repeating the same process, cycle after cycle, cational resources openly available online (open educational
and institutions claim that the improvements they experience resources, OER). A few universities have come together as an
from each cycle fall. Some EQAs (AQA in New Zealand and OER university to offer some structure to this, and the internal
the former Australian Universities Quality Agency (AUQA) in and external quality issues need to be addressed. Also emerg-
Australia) try to avoid this by changing the focus each cycle ing recently are the massively open online courses (MOOCs).
while the U.S. agencies try to mitigate it by having a long cycle These can be seen as a progression of OER, but some would
time and varying the methods used. view it as a regression: OER systems exist to support the learner,
Part of the difficulty in establishing the value of EQA relates but MOOCs come with no associated pedagogy or support. Any
to the number of stakeholders in HE. These include students, interested person can study the material for self-interest, but
institutions, employers, governments, and society. Students want problems of assessment and validation are only just beginning to
to know which institution to choose; institutions want confirma- be addressed. QA may be covered under the category of recogni-
tion of their standing; employers want to know that graduates tion of prior learning. This evolution will continue as institutions
can hit the ground running; governments want to know that determine how best to ensure a meaningful educational expe-
their money is well spent and sometimes press EQAs to drive rience online, and how to deal with changes in attitudes and
institutions in particular directions; society wants a prestigious expectations of learners.
asq.org/edu 4 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

Life-long learning (LLL) is receiving increasing attention effectiveness usually depends on government agreement also,
and this brings a need for the ability to assure the quality of which is not always forthcoming.
this different style. Correspondingly, there will be increased reli- This problem must be solved for the recognition of students’
ance on the recognition of prior experiential learning (RP(E)L). qualifications, credit for partial qualifications, and acceptability
HEIs will need strategies, and EQAs will need tools to evaluate for employment. National recognition entities typically operate
the strategies. separately from the national QA bodies, which is not a produc-
Dealing with new types of institutions and new modes of tive situation, although the Lisbon Convention does require
learning requires a dialogue between HEIs and EQAs. It must documents prepared to assist students in achieving recognition
never be forgotten that the quality task is the responsibility of the of their qualification in another country to describe the EQA
HEI, not the EQA. The latter is responsible only for validating regime under which the relevant institution operates. There is
and assisting in the HEI’s work. also increasing attention to “diploma supplements” or “graduate
statements” which set out a student’s achievements in the degree
3. Accreditation Mills program undertaken in a widely intelligible form.
We are accustomed to the notion of degree mills — entities An entire burgeoning area is joint degrees, combined degrees,
that do not meet the generally accepted requirements for an double degrees, dual degrees, etc. The terminology is still in flux,
institution of the type they claim. There is a spectrum of these, but the core idea of a joint degree is a one specially designed by
ranging from the totally value free (send us some money and two or more institutions, and the student spends time at each
we’ll send your degree certificate) to those that are merely of very institution to earn a single degree awarded by all institutions.
poor quality (students do work, but a degree is earned for work Some of these operations slide over into the fraudulent when it
that is little higher than school level). Such entities are often liti- is represented that a student has multiple degrees for the same
gious, so an EQA might hesitate to say publicly that they are piece of work or into devaluation when a student is allowed to
invalid. Instead, we call the attention of the public to the nature obtain multiple qualifications for only a little extra work. Many
and meaning of accreditation. institutions are guilty of either of these faults, and EQAs need
To get around this, bogus accreditation agencies (“accredita- to be able to detect what is happening. Some of it, however, is
tion mills”) are now proliferating. Lists of these entities can be entirely within the preserve of the institution, and many EQAs
found (e.g. www.inqaahe.org, www.chea.org, www.accredibase. are powerless to require the institution to change.
com), but inevitably they are always somewhat out of date as the It was noted above that most agencies are national. Some nev-
mills change form, Prometheus-like, to beat the system. ertheless operate abroad by request of the institution (e.g. some
U.S. accreditors) or by permission of the system (e.g. EQAs on
4. International Issues the European QA register). Also, some international agencies are
In a globalized world QA cannot escape international issues. emerging (e.g. EQUIS and the European quality labels).
The first thing to note is that most QA agencies are national or
sub-national, with no authority to operate outside those national 5. EQA and IQA
borders. The second thing to note is that HEIs are increasingly The vastly increased attention to QA over the last two decades
operating across borders, and their students and graduates are has largely been at the behest of governments for various reasons.
moving across borders as well. If an institution in country A Governments want to ensure that the institutions serve society,
operates in country B, who is responsible for the EQA of the that they use their money well, and that they produce the results
latter operation — the agency in A, or the agency in B, or both desired by the various stakeholders. Hence governments and
or neither? In practice, different approaches are taken, although groups of institutions have established EQA agencies.
many countries have not addressed the questions of incoming or These agencies have increasingly expected institutions not to
outgoing education at all. be merely passive recipients of whatever checks and requirements
Increasingly, agencies are collaborating through the devel- are imposed by the EQA but to take responsibility for their own
opment of mutual recognition processes to try to ensure that quality. This has prompted institutions to set up internal QA
institutions do not have to jump through two sets of (possi- systems and units. In several countries, the EQA has explicitly
bly conflicting) hoops, but conversely that no institution falls required this and in some countries has provided money to sup-
through the cracks. This collaboration is far more difficult port it.
than might appear, as various agencies have a range of different Some institutions have resisted establishing a QA unit on the
details of their operations. Furthermore, even if agencies agree, grounds that this will absolve everyone else in the institution

from thinking about quality: they will take the view that the created a QA network (AQAN); and despite the existence of
IQA unit is “where quality is done.” This is a somewhat spuri- an Arab QA network (ANQAHE,) the six Gulf Co-operation
ous argument. Most institutions have a teaching support unit, Council (GCC) countries are creating a quality network. Special
but no academic assumes that this unit does all the teaching in interest networks include one for Islamic countries.
the institutions. These observations show the value widely seen by EQAs in
IQA units (or systems), when operating well, can assist working together. Networks support emerging agencies within
individuals and departments in the institution to monitor and their constituency, share ideas and good practices, collaborate
improve whatever they are doing. Often such units are combined in the QA work, and present a stronger face to national govern-
with the data collection, institutional research, statistics, and/or ments on behalf of their members.
the planning office. A growing phenomenon in Europe is the “quality labels,”
A thorny issue is the relation of the IQA to the EQA. It e.g. discipline-specific networks, particularly to cover non-
should mediate to the institution the requirements of the EQA, professional areas (such as business and engineering) that have
and mediate to the EQA the performance of the institution. If it long had their special-purpose agencies. Some tension is evident
is seen as too close to the EQA, however, it may be perceived between the national agencies that are general purpose and cover
by the institution’s staff to be just part of a “quality bureau- “everything” within one country and the label networks that
cracy” — at best irrelevant, and at worst unhelpful, to the “real”
argue they are the best judges in their specific areas.
work of the institution.
8. Qualifications Frameworks
6. Professionalization of QA
Qualification frameworks (QFs) are very much the flavor of
Whether or not there is a quality bureaucracy, it is incon-
the day. Most countries that lack a QF are creating one. The
trovertible that explicit attention to QA does now take more of
core reason for this is to ensure consistency between institu-
the time of many folk within HE. It, therefore, behooves those
tions (Does a degree denote the same thing at all institutions in
working in QA (whether IQA or EQA) to perform their jobs
the country?) and, with that consistency, facilitate mobility of
with a high level of professionalism.
students? These are valid and useful goals, and many students
Over the last 20 years, the INQAAHE has led the push
toward professionalization of QA workers. A profession has a have been assisted to combine qualifications and “staircase” to
code of practice, and in 2003 INQAAHE created the Guidelines a higher level. However, QFs tend to assume a life of their own,
for Good Practice in QA (GGP) and encourages its members to and can be very directive, becoming restrictive and stifling.
act in compliance with these. ENQA, the European quality net- In some systems, the national QF resides within the authority
work, drew on the GGP in formulating the European Standards of the national EQA, whereas in other systems the QF is outside
and Guidelines (ESG). the EQA but used by it in reviewing institutions’ operations.
INQAAHE also devised a postgraduate certificate in QA. Associated with the growing number of QFs is a growing
This is on the INQAAHE website as open-source material, attention to learning outcomes (LOs). This is not a new idea.
and is offered by the University of Melbourne as a credit- Bloom’s taxonomies for outcomes dates from 1956. It was men-
bearing award. tioned above that EQAs historically focused on inputs, and more
recently have moved to consider processes and outputs. The
7. QA Networks emergence of different modes of teaching and learning and of
INQAAHE was founded in 1991 by a dozen agencies and now different types of institutions has emphasized the importance
has almost 300 member organizations in more than 80 coun- of considering processes and increased the emphasis on outputs
tries. An interesting phenomenon is that despite the existence of and outcomes rather than on inputs. Hence, increasingly institu-
a global network, many groups have found it valuable to create tions are expected to state specifically the intended and achieved
smaller networks and to belong to both. The first development learning outcomes for courses and programs, to show that they
was the creation of regional networks, then discipline-related align with the requirements of the national qualification network
networks, and finally other special interest networks. (where one exists), and to demonstrate that students’ achieve-
The existence of a governmental/political/economic group- ment of these LOs are appropriately assessed. EQAs check these
ing of countries can be a catalyst for a regional network. The in their accreditation processes.
European Union gave impetus to ENQA; despite the existence
of an Asia Pacific Network (APQN), the ASEAN countries have 9. Data

Historically, too much HEI planning has been data free. that the CAA’s standards and support had led to improved
Writing in 1963, Sir Eric Ashby, former master of Clare College, institutional quality in a range of areas. Many institutions in
Cambridge, said: “All over the country, these groups of schol- different countries report that student teaching and assessment
ars, who would not make a decision about the shape of a leaf or has improved because of the IQAs which universities created as
the derivation of a word…without painstakingly assembling the a result of the EQA demand for more effective use of data in
evidence, make decisions about admission policy, size of univer- providing evidence of quality performance.
sities, staff-student ratios, content of courses and similar issues Sometimes, though, EQAs are expected to take on conflict-
based on dubious assumptions, scrappy data and mere hunch” ing roles. Also, the effect of an EQA can easily be outweighed by
(Ashby 1963, p. 3). Since then, the wheel has turned, and HEIs force majeure, such as government policies and funding or lack
gather enormous amounts of information and data — but use of them.
only a fraction of it. Thirty years ago, I urged my faculty to There continue to be challenges to QA, some of which have
gather more data on student opinions; for the last 10 years, I been mentioned above. External quality agencies must continue
have been urging institutions to gather less data but to use it to self-reflect (as they expect of the institutions) and develop to
more effectively. continue to serve as agents for improvement in higher education.
In most developed countries, there is now a great deal of
HE data in the public domain, and institutions should use it,
i
The introduction section of this article was originally found
together with their own data, for comparative analyses, bench- in Woodhouse, D. (March 2009). Putting the ‘A’ into Quality.
marking, and improvement. EQAs have a role in this as they Melbourne: Australian Universities Quality Agency.
constantly ask data for evidence — e.g. information turned to a
References:
particular purpose — to show institutional performance and stu-
Ashby, E. (1963). Decision making in the academic world. In Halmos,
dent achievements.
P. (Ed.), Sociological studies in British university education. (pp. 93-100).
One increasingly common misuse of data is for institutional
Keele: University of Keele.
rankings. I call it “misuse” as the rankings are largely based on
arbitrary indicators with arbitrary weightings and an emphasis Bloom, B.S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives, Handbook 1: The
on research. They still fail to tell prospective students and their cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Co, Inc.
parents much about which institution to attend or why.
Attempts to avoid the worst effects of rankings include rat- David Woodhouse, Ph.D. is commissioner
ings (e.g., grouping institutions or factors into bands as done by for development with the Commission for
the Australian Good University Guide), providing the basic data Academic Accreditation in the UAE, and has
and allowing users to specify their weightings (e.g., the German led the establishment of the UAE’s national
CHE rankings), and classifying institutions more precisely (e.g. Center for Higher Education Data and
David Woodhouse
the European U-Multi-rank). Statistics. Woodhouse provides advice and
training on quality assurance to governments
Conclusion and agencies worldwide. He has served four
terms as president of the International Network
As stated above, it is now clearly established that EQAs do
for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher
have an effect, and that the effect is mostly positive. For exam-
Education and was secretary/treasurer of the
ple, there are many positive comments from institutional leaders Asia-Pacific Quality Network from 2005-07.
about the beneficial effects of the audits of AUQA. One notable Woodhouse served as founding director of
area is that Australia’s overseas operations were much improved the Australian Universities Quality Agency
over a five to six-year period. In New Zealand, students believe (2001-11) and the New Zealand Universities
that a university’s Academic Audit Unit (now Academic Quality Academic Audit Unit (1994-2001), and dep-
Agency) led the universities to pay more attention to student uty director of the Hong Kong Council for
concerns. In the UAE, institutions affirmed to an international Academic Accreditation (1990-94). Contact
review of the Commission for Academic Accreditation (CAA) him at [email protected].

Invited Article Australia’s University Learning and Teaching:
An Experiment in Promoting Quality
Elizabeth McDonald
Abstract
In an experiment The paper is a reflection on the experience of the development and early years of what was a
unique Australian experiment to enhance the quality of learning and teaching in universi-
ties. That experiment was the development and funding of a national institute for learning
in encouraging and teaching in higher education, known in its later years as the Australian Learning and
Teaching Council.
quality in learning
Keywords
and teaching Learning and Teaching, Educational Quality, Australian Learning and Teaching Council
there were many Introduction

In 2003, the Australian government determined to establish an institute to promote
important issues learning and teaching in higher education. This paper is a reflective commentary on that
experiment. While I had no involvement in developing the recommendation that would
to resolve. result in the institute’s establishment, I led a small team within the government department
which implemented the recommendation, spent a year on a temporary transfer assignment
working on the planning, and finally accepted one of three program director positions
in the new body where I worked for the next four years. In total, I was involved in this
initiative for more than six years, which gives me a unique insight, though one which is
essentially highly biased in perspective and probably in judgement. The paper is not based
on notes or records from the time; hence it runs the risk of false or selective memory. In
my work today I often meet with those who had strong relationships with the Australian
Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC), which was closed in 2011.
Background
In 2003, one of the recommendations arising from an Australian review of higher edu-
cation, commonly known as the Nelson Review, was the development of and funding
for the Institute for Learning and Teaching in Higher Education. This recommendation
was made in the context of supporting excellence in learning and teaching in Australian
universities. It was matched with another recommendation for a Learning and Teaching
Performance Fund to provide incentive-based funding to individual universities that could
demonstrate certain indicators associated with the quality of teaching and learning. The
institute’s proposed establishment followed a number of earlier initiatives to support qual-
ity teaching and learning.
Australia had already established a body with a charter related to quality assurance in
higher education. Following an agreement between the state and federal ministers for edu-
cation, the Australian Universities Quality Agency (AUQA) was established in 2000 and
charged with ensuring universities had quality assurance processes in place. AUQA had
limited means to encourage good practice or penalize universities with substandard qual-
ity systems. Its establishment was in large part to assure the international student market
regarding the quality of all 38 public Australian universities along with the few private pro-
viders offering university degrees at the time. (AUQA has been replaced by TESQA — the
asq.org/edu result of a recommendation of the latest review of Australian higher education).

AUQA was not the only initiative to promote quality. The Institute will be overseen by the Australian
There was a long history of recognition of individual academ- Universities Teaching Committee (AUTC) and be run by
ics through national teaching awards and awards for programs professional staff with expertise in learning and teaching
that addressed priorities associated with improving learning in higher education. The AUTC will continue to advise
and broad access to higher education. For many years there the Minister on the allocation, management, and out-
had been a small amount of funding facilitated by committees comes of any grants scheme and activities administered
appointed by the Australian government to improve teaching through the Institute, including the revised Australian
and learning in universities. The establishment of the proposed Awards for University Teaching.
institute was in response to lobbying on the part of the last
of these committees, the Australian Universities Teaching The Institute will receive $21.9 million per year from
Committee (AUTC). The announcement identified considerably 2006, which will comprise $2.5 million for administra-
more funding for awards and grants than the earlier committees tion and $19.4 million for grants and other activities.
had received. Funding will be allocated from existing program funds to
establish the Institute in 2004 (Nelson, 2003).
A National Focus for the Enhancement Following this detailed description, other instructions
of Learning and Teaching focused on the number and size of awards for which an addi-
In Our Universities: Backing Australia’s Future (Nelson, 2003), tional amount of funding was allocated.
the new institute was given a detailed outline of the tasks it would As an experiment in encouraging quality in learning and
perform: teaching in universities and building a national profile for learn-
A National Institute for Learning and Teaching in Higher ing and teaching, there were many important issues to resolve,
Education will be established to provide a national focus not the least of these was to gain the higher education sector’s
for the enhancement of learning and teaching in Australian endorsement of the vision and way of operating the new insti-
higher education institutions and will be a flagship for tute. If that could be done, it would provide the uncontested
acknowledging excellence in learning and teaching. The space for the new organization to become successful. The matters
Institute’s responsibilities will include: to consider included the type of legal entity, governance, vision,
and priorities for funding. A great deal of thought and careful
• management of a competitive grants scheme for innovation
planning began after the government’s announcement. Tasked
in learning and teaching;
with the oversight of the development, the AUTC, largely made
• liaison with the sector about options for articulating and up of vice-chancellors/presidents, began a process of consultation
monitoring academic standards; with the involvement of an external consultant, Alan Schofield
• improvement of assessment practices throughout the sector, who had served as the lead reviewer of an earlier committee, the
including investigation of the feasibility of a national portfo- Committee for University Teaching and Staff Development.
lio assessment scheme;
• facilitation of benchmarking of effective teaching and learn- Getting the Blueprint Right
ing processes at national and international levels; My involvement began with the national consultation, lead-
• development of mechanisms for the dissemination of ing a small team supporting the development of the institute
good practice and professional development in learning from inside the government department responsible for the
and teaching; implementation of this initiative. One of the early challenges
was to ensure the engagement of universities with the new insti-
• management of a program for international experts in
tute, as it would have no power, authority, or means of enforcing
learning and teaching to visit Australian institutions and
any expectations within the Australian higher education sec-
the development of reciprocal relationships with interna-
tor. In addition, the institute would always be reliant on the
tional jurisdictions;
fickle support of government as all its funding came from the
• coordination of a revised version of the Australian Awards Australian national government. The institute could not afford
for University Teaching, including the awards presentation to be perceived as partisan in its politics or to engage in a way
event; and that resulted in difficulties for a government minister. Yet it had
• secretariat functions to the Australian Universities Teaching to achieve quickly to maintain the goodwill of universities and
Committee. the support of government.

The initial model envisioned within the department was simply reflected the tasks set out in the initial announcement in
along the lines of National ICT Australia (NICTA). This type its funding agreement.
of model ran counter to the views of universities. During the first Parker sums up her impression on the early life of the institute
consultations, university leaders made it clear that they would highlighting what the planning team believed was important to
not support a small group of universities “owning” the institute. the successful implementation. She states that the “mixed incre-
The universities argued that, unlike research institutes, no group mental-organic and step-organic model for change appears to
of universities could or should claim pre-eminent expertise in have been critical, underpinned as it is by the early work of ante-
teaching and learning; they should all be experts. A model like cedent organizations, the commitment of the Carrick Institute to
that of the Higher Education Academy in the United Kingdom collaboration and inclusiveness, and the respect shown to stake-
was discussed and found little support. Consequently, and given holders. Further the attention given to evidence documenting
the lack of support in the government for creating the institute what was actually happening in the sector and the development
under legislation, the new body was established as a wholly- of plans on the basis of this evidence ensured a certain robust-
owned government company, a decision which would ultimately ness in the planning” (Parker, 2006). This approach to change
result in the demise in 2011 of what was by then known as the continued in a more subtle way during the years I was involved.
ALTC. That demise, however, was seven years after its estab- Later sections of the paper demonstrate how this occurred.
lishment in 2004. It was originally established as the Carrick In the above summary, Parker captures the early days when
Institute for Learning and Teaching in Higher Education; the the Institute had limited funding. Full funding was not sched-
name was later changed to the ALTC. (The change of name was uled until 2006. Between late 2004 to the end of 2005, projects
due to strong lobbying by the owner of a private education pro- were commissioned including research on how to improve the
vider who claimed confusion resulting from the use of “Carrick” impact of projects. Pilot projects were funded to assist in devel-
was losing her international business.) opment work on program guidelines, always in consultation.
Emeritus Professor Lesley Parker, the planning director Further, the systems of governance were developed. From my
appointed to oversee the planning phase, points out in A Case perspective, three principles underpinned the early development
Study of the Planning of the Carrick Institute in Australia (Parker, and implementation. These principles were to gain as much
2006) that some aspects of the remit were greeted with enthusiasm value from the effort as possible, that is to make a sustainable
and others with some scepticism, particularly the large number impact; to build engagement with all of Australia’s institutions
of annual awards, 251 in all. Other aspects such as requirements eligible for the new institute’s funding, then 43, while at the
for more explicit standards and benchmarking were greeted with same time ensuring high quality and credible project work and
a degree of unease. Within this context a great deal of consulta- awards; and finally to gain the support and commitment of the
tion took place including discussion papers and forums across various groups of university leaders who could promote change
Australia. Arising from all this work and the responsibilities set along with the teaching and learning enthusiasts and experts.
by the government, the institute’s mission statement, objectives, The message was one of inclusion, quality, and impact.
and values were determined. The Carrick Institute for Learning
and Teaching in Higher Education was launched on August 11, The Importance of Collaboration
2004, at Parliament House in Canberra in the presence of many There was a strong commitment to competitive processes as
university leaders. Despite the hopes expressed by many that the underpinning approach for allocating awards and project
the institute would be independent of government, under the funding, two of the key tasks given to the institute. Fellowships
constitution, the board was appointed by the government min- were introduced by the board and were also competitive. Since
ister responsible for higher education. The first board included the larger, more established universities were often more expe-
a strong contingent of university leaders, vice-chancellors, and rienced and better supported in project application preparation
deputy vice-chancellors, as well as some representation from and award nomination development, competitive funding and
other interests including education research, schools, and pri- awards presented a challenge to gaining broad engagement across
vate education providers. The company was integrally linked to the sector. One of the ways to encourage broad sectoral engage-
the government, though as a company, it was responsible for its ment and wider uptake of project outcomes, while at the same
financial management. The government approved the constitu- time building capacity across the sector was to encourage col-
tion, though the minister appointed the board and controlled laboration. Collaboration, though not a requirement for funding
the use of funding through a funding agreement. Throughout was strongly signalled as an expectation in funding guidelines.
the time I was there, the minister and government of the day Although not without its difficulties, including the tick-box

type of “collaboration,” many projects gained enormously from arrangement and sometimes sought support to deal with the
a cross-institutional team, a team that took members beyond lawyers in their universities.
the limitations of their own university, even to links with inter- One of the unforeseen outcomes that arose from the various
national colleagues, professions, and industry. Fellows also collaborations, and the work done across discipline bound-
structured their work to build in expert advice and collabora- aries, was capacity building. Many people have spoken of the
tion. The best of this work built capacity and expertise, produced impact that the collaborative work, the ALTC-sponsored the-
high quality materials, and gave the project leaders and fellows a matic gatherings, and the encouragement of sharing has had on
profile that resulted in promotion and/or international alliances. their professional lives. The principal of a small private higher
The underpinning message was that ALTC expected value for education provider, Dr. Don Owers, wrote, “It would not be
Australian higher education from project work and fellowships, overstating things to say that our involvement with the ALTC
regardless of the type or size of project. has transformed the culture of the college, and that, this in turn,
National bodies with different types of interest in univer- will have an ongoing impact on the quality of teaching and
sity learning and teaching supported collaboration. Discipline learning offered to students” (Owers, 2011).
bodies, which already had creative initiatives such as networks
of associate deans (teaching and learning), were able to share Gaining the Support of University
those initiatives with others beyond their discipline group, thus Leaders and Experts
strengthening the value of their work. National networks of The legal structure could have resulted in considerable
associate deans (teaching and learning) included professional political interference with the operation of the ALTC, however,
and regulatory bodies in their projects giving credibility to their Minister Brendan Nelson approved the board to make decisions
work and increasing the likely uptake of the outcomes from proj- regarding successful award nominees and grant applications,
ects. This type of collaboration set the scene for beginning the determine guidelines, and appoint standing committees etc.
work on national standards, work that was undertaken in the without reference to him. No earlier committee had this type of
last two years of the ALTC and is continuing through discipline authority. Consequently, the board appointed standing commit-
networks. I must acknowledge that without the relationship tees for each program, led by a board member. Membership of
building undertaken by a colleague, Dr. Janice Orrell, in the these committees extended the involvement of university leaders
first couple of years, engaging in national discipline standards from across the sector. It was the members of these committees
development would have been very difficult. It was her effort who made the decisions regarding awards, fellowships, and proj-
that built the foundations for the national discipline initiatives. ects. The committees also provided advice regarding changes to
While collaboration supported wide sector engagement, the program guidelines. Despite the fact the committee work
appropriate intellectual property (IP) clauses in funding agree- brought a heavy workload, ALTC had no difficulty gaining this
ments were an essential enabler. The IP arrangements needed involvement. I attended many of these meetings over the years
to be synergistic with collaboration between universities and and came to the view that university leaders enjoyed finding out
support sharing beyond those involved in the project. All work what was happening, touching base with learning and teaching,
funded by ALTC was to be released under a licence that allowed especially if it was their own discipline, and debating issues with
use and adaptation with appropriate attribution, although it did their colleagues from other universities. The committees were
not permit commercialization. The IP on the work was held by provided with assessments of the proposals and nominations,
ALTC, which in turn gave a very broad licence to the partners which were undertaken by academics who also came together to
involved in the project. This approach to IP also enabled ALTC participate in the assessment process. The arrangements for these
to encourage the use of earlier project work in new projects, meetings meant that assessors found themselves side by side with
without the need for permission from the original universi- academics from other universities and disciplines making judge-
ties. The ALTC expected that, where appropriate, new projects ments about the standard of nominations and applications. This
would build on earlier ones. Gaining the best value from the type of peer review gave credibility to the grants and awards
project work would not have been possible if the individual while at the same time extending the involvement of academics
universities held the IP. This approach to IP, the antithesis of with the ALTC.
the way research IP operates in Australian universities, led to
many challenges from university lawyers and other influential Success?
leaders. However, once the reasons were explained, fellows and Not every ALTC initiative was successful; some were not
those involved in the projects appeared comfortable with the and one, ALTC Exchange, was contested all the way through

development and implementation. Some risky initiatives were In a background paper making a case against the abolition of
successful, often due to earlier work that put into place elemen- the ALTC, four senior representatives of the Councils of Deans
tal systems and structures that could be strengthened. Some of wrote that:
these then become models for other disciplines. Listening to the … the ALTC has been characterized by:
challenges the new level of funding posed for universities gave
shape to the Promoting Excellence Initiative developed to assist • Strategic long-term vision for incremental system wide
capacity development and encourage engagement. All higher innovation and development in teaching and learning
education institutions eligible for funding were offered the same
amount of money if they submitted a two to three-year strategy •
Capacity building in organizational change and
to build capacity and engagement with the ALTC. Each strat- leadership
egy was evaluated and, in some cases, revisions were required. • Collaboration rather than competition across institu-
Surprisingly, universities within some Australian states formed tions and disciplines, and for the first time with external
groups of those responsible for supporting the strategy, invited stakeholders (e.g. employers and professional bodies)
speakers, and shared what they were doing.
At times there were stridently different views about how the • Significant networking across institutions and, at this
ALTC should operate, what role staff with learning and teach- critical time, with technical and further education
ing expertise should play within the organization, and how that (TAFE) and with private providers, as a key means
expertise should exert influence within the sector. In the end, of achieving national outcomes (Freeman, Koppi,
the ALTC provided leadership, though not through develop- McKeough & Rice).
ing teaching and learning policy or guidelines or setting itself While it is clear that an enormous amount of activity occurred
up as an expert organization. Rather, the ALTC led through through projects and fellowships, one strong supporter wrote,
facilitating sharing and expertise, building relationships with the “The ALTC is not just about the money; it’s not just about the
universities, encouraging collaborations between individuals and programs and the other functions; it’s actually about the people”
groups through setting funding priorities and funding criteria. (Goodyear, 2011).
It was the importance given to sharing and collaboration that I had completed my employment contract at the ALTC over
I believe made the difference. Funding was certainly an incen- a year before the announcement of its closure. During the time I
tive. It enabled different groups and people with special interests was employed, a raid on ALTC funding occurred as part of cost-
to work and collaborate on projects that fit within a broad set savings at election time. A number of vice-chancellors lobbied
of priorities. government seeking the reinstatement of the funding. The lobby-
So, was this experiment successful? One could suggest ing managed to get the full funding re-instated, although money
that the ALTC was not successful as signified by the sum- was removed from the Learning and Teaching Performance
mary announcement of its closure in late January 2011. From Fund. This was the first signal that the new government was not
many accounts, that judgement would misread the situation. fully committed to the experiment, despite university support.
Rather it appears there was an urgent grab for money within the That vice-chancellors preferred to lose funding that could go
government. There had been no signal that the government or directly to their institutions rather than the loss of some ALTC
the department responsible was unhappy with the ALTC, rather funding spoke of growing confidence in the ALTC’s work.
the messages were supportive of the ALTC. The Minister spe- After the government announced the ALTC’s closure I was
cifically stated at the Universities Australia Conference in March amazed to see a public online campaign to lobby against the
2011 that he was not unhappy with the work of the ALTC. He closure. The effort was not successful in protecting the ALTC,
found it difficult to provide a convincing explanation for the though it did gain the reinstatement of some project, fellowship,
closure other than the need for money to assist after the and award funding. When I reviewed those who were comment-
Queensland floods. ing in the online campaign I expected to see the names of people
It is always difficult for someone intimately involved in devel- I knew, it was with quiet satisfaction that I found many names,
oping and running an organization to look with any objectivity Australian and international, I did not know.
when it comes to answering questions about success. Other voices New arrangements for funding projects, fellowships,
and actions are more important in assessing what was achieved. and awards are in place within a government department.

Nevertheless, it seems that the government has missed the point The Realities of Change in Higher Education: Interventions to promote
of the ALTC experiment. To successfully build national capac- learning & teaching. (p. 38). New York: Routledge.
ity and commitment to ongoing improvement of learning and
teaching in Australian universities requires an entity outside Elizabeth McDonald, Ph.D. followed up a
government to be the focus, the enabler, the encourager, and teaching career with policy and program
facilitator. There are signs that this role is already being missed work in a number of organizations including
within the Australian higher education sector. the Department of Education, Science, and
Training (DEST) and the Australian Learning
References: and Teaching Council (ALTC), initially known
Freeman, M., Koppi, T., McKeough, J. & Rice, J. (n.d.) Issues Arising as the Carrick Institute. At DEST, she took
Elizabeth McDonald
from the Abolition of the ALTC retrieved from http://www.acdict.edu.au/ a leading role in the establishment of the
documents/CouncilsofDeansreALTCBriefing310511.pdf Carrick Institute. In early 2006, McDonald
was appointed to a leadership position at
Goodyear, D. (2011) in Australian Learning and Teaching Council, A
the Carrick/ALTC where she was director of
Lasting Impression: The Australian Learning and Teaching Council 2006-
the programs and networks portfolio, which
2011. (p. 16). Sydney: Australian Learning and Teaching Council.
included management of the grants programs.
Nelson, B. (2003) Our Universities; Backing Australia’s Future. (pp. Since leaving there, she has been engaged
28-29). Canberra: Department of Education, Science and Training. in educational consultancy work. Contact
Retrieved from http://www.voced.edu.au/content/ngv38781. McDonald at [email protected].
Owers, D. (2011) in Australian Learning and Teaching Council, A
Lasting Impression: The Australian Learning and Teaching Council 2006-
2011. (p. 28). Sydney: Australian Learning and Teaching Council.
Parker, L. H. (2006) National initiatives to enhance learning and teach-
ing in higher education A case study of the planning of the Carrick
Institute in Australia in L. Hunt, A. Bromage & B. Tomkinson (Eds),
Education Division’s Advancing the STEM Agenda Book

A collection of conference papers from the 2011 Advancing the STEM Agenda
Conference. Available through ASQ Quality Press.
This publication is full of collab- “Veenstra, Padró, and Furst-Bowe provide a huge contribution to the field
orative models, best practices, and of STEM education. We all know the statistics and of the huge need in
the area of STEM students and education, but what has been missing
advice for teachers, higher educa-
are application and success stories backed by research and modeling.
tion faculty, and human resources The editors have successfully contributed to our need by focusing on
personnel on improving the student collaborative models, building the K-12 pipeline, showing what works at the
retention (and thereby increasing collegiate level, connecting across gender issues, and illustrating workforce
the supply of STEM workers). Ideas and innovative ideas.”
that will work for both STEM and John J. Jasinski, Ph.D.
non-STEM fields are presented. President
Northwest Missouri State University
The introduction maps out the cur-
rent landscape of STEM education “Advancing the STEM Agenda provides a broad set of current perspectives
and compares the United States to that will contribute in many ways to advancing the understanding and
other countries. The last chapter is enhancement of education in science, education, and engineering. This
the conference chairs’ summary of work is packed with insights from experienced educators from K-12,
regional, and research university perspectives and bridges the transition
what was learned from the confer-
from education to workplace.”
ence and working with 36 authors to develop this book. This effort is
John Dew, Ed.D.
part of a grassroots effort among educators to help more students be Senior Vice Chancellor
successful in STEM majors and careers. Troy University

ISO 9001 and ISO 9001 and the Field of Higher Education:
Proposal for an Update of the IWA 2 Guidelines
its supporting
Laila El Abbadi, Aboubakr Bouayad, and Mohamed Lamrini
document Abstract
IWA 2 may This paper analyzes IWA 2 guidelines, compares them with the guidance of the ISO 9001
handbook for educational organizations, points out some gaps in these guidelines, and pro-
poses an update to the IWA 2 guidelines to bridge these gaps. The proposed update aims
need to be to make ISO 9001 closer to a specific quality standard in the field of higher education. The
proposed update is made first by suggesting an amendment to the IWA 2 structure (by
amended to adding a reminder about the ISO 9001 requirements, and the consolidation of all defini-
tions into one section) as well as the definitions of product and customer given by these
“[focus] on guidelines. Second, it proposes the addition of new requirements specific to the field of
higher education, namely, “program withdrawal,” “ethics and corporate social responsibil-
social value” ity,” and “financial resources.”
to emphasize Keywords
Higher Education Requirements, ISO 9001:2008, IWA 2, Quality Management
concerns
Introduction
universities face. Throughout the world, higher education institutions (HEIs) are concerned about
insuring and improving the quality of their services and satisfying their customer’s require-
ments. These concerns have led HEIs to implement a quality management/assurance
system with compliance to the ISO 9001 standard. This standard is the popular choice
for educational organizations (Thonhauser & Passmore, 2006) despite the fact that previ-
ous studies pointed out gaps specific to the field of higher education (HE) within ISO
9001:2000/2008 (Becket & Brookes, 2008; El Abbadi, Bouayad & Lamrini, 2011a, 2011b,
2011c). Furthermore, the ISO strategic plan 2011-2015 does not identify education as one of
the sectors where ISO standards provide and achieve benefits (International Organization
for Standardization [ISO], 2010-2011).
The ISO 9001 standard gives a set of generic requirements for implementing a quality
management system (QMS) independently on the organization’s activities. However, the
education sector has its specificity that makes it different from manufacturing and other
services sector activities. Therefore, the ISO 9001 requirements need to be interpreted in
the educational field (Karapetrovic, 2001; Karapetrovic, Rajamani & Willborn, 1998; Van
den Berghe, 1997). The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is aware of
this problem; it has published the IWA 2 (2007): Quality Management System-Guidelines
for the Application of ISO 9001:2000 in Education and the ISO 9001:2008 Handbook for
Educational Organizations-What to Do: Advice from IWA 2 Working Group. The focus of
this paper is on the IWA 2 guidelines which complement the ISO 9001 standard (Roszak,
2009). These guidelines provide the conduit through which education organizations of
all types, including HEIs, are able to implement ISO 9001 (ISO, 2007). More precisely,
we analyzed the IWA 2 guidelines benefits and limitations from the lens of the needs
and expectations for quality assurance of HEIs and the HE sector in general in northern
Africa. The analysis was based on projects sponsored by Nations Development Programme
project (United Nations Development Programme [UNDP], 2009) and the European
asq.org/edu
Union Tempus project ALTAIR (European Union TEMPUS Project ALTAIR, 2008). We

also verified if the HE specificities are taken into account by In 2003, ISO published the first version of IWA 2: Quality
these guidelines. Management System — Guidelines for the Application of ISO
This paper begins by outlining the history of the application 9001:2000 in Education. It was revised again in 2007. The pur-
of the ISO 9001 standard in the field of education. It also pres- pose of the initial international workshop agreement and its
ents and analyzes the IWA 2 guidelines as well as the ISO 9001 update was to provide guidelines for educational institutions
handbook for educational organizations. The paper ends with a (including HEIs) to use when implementing the ISO 9001:2000
proposed update of the IWA 2 guidelines to make them more requirements. These guidelines were written by a group that
suitable for HE institutions and systems. included education experts along with experts representing
national organizations for standardization.
The ISO 9001 Standard and the In 2008, a new version of ISO 9001 was created to clarify the
Field of Higher Education requirements of ISO 9001:2000. One year later, the IWA 2 work-
In 1987, ISO published the ISO 9001, ISO 9002, and ISO ing group developed ISO 9001:2008 Handbook for Educational
9003 standards which defined the requirements for a QMS. Organizations — What to Do: Advice from IWA 2 Working Group.
These standards were subsequently revised in 1994, 2000, and This handbook provides guidance to educational organizations
2008, with a decision in March 2012 to create a new revision of for implementing a QMS in compliance to ISO 9001:2008.
ISO 9001 (West, Hunt, Croft, & Jarvis, 2012). In March 2012, ISO agreed to revise ISO 9001:2008 (West
In the early 1990s, educational institutions in Europe began et al., 2012). It will probably add new concepts to this standard
to implement the ISO 9000 family of standards (Apoyo a la (AFNOR, 2012). The fifth edition of ISO 9001 is expected to be
Calidad Educativa, 2006; Van den Berghe, 1997), followed by released in 2015 (West et al., 2012).
those in the United States and Asia (Van den Berghe, 1997).
These institutions encountered enormous problems because Analysis of IWA 2 Guidelines
this standard was designed mainly for manufacturing. Indeed, The IWA 2 Guidelines made the ISO 9001:2000 standard
the requirements and vocabulary were not adapted to service easier for HEIs to understand and to implement (Caraman,
providers or educational institutions. The problem of interpreta- Lazar, Bucuroiu, Lungu, & Stamate, 2008; Roszak, 2009). The
tion has been the subject of several studies during this period. guidelines were structured similarly to the way ISO 9001:2000
The ISO 9001:1994 key terms, such as product and customer, was written. Among the major differences, in our point of view,
and its requirements have been interpreted in the field of edu- is that the terminology is more understandable to common edu-
cation by, for example, Karapetrovic et al. (1998) and Van den cators, for example the terms curriculum, learner assessment
Berghe (1997). tools, course, accreditation requirements, and learning out-
In 2000, ISO revised and combined ISO standards 9001, comes. The guidelines provided definitions for four key terms
9002, and 9003 into one standard, ISO 9001. The resulting stan- found in the standard that were not as familiar or required addi-
dard provided a set of generic requirements for a QMS applicable tional detail to give educators points of reference. The defined
to any type of organization, regardless of activity, size, or if it terms included: customer, product, education provider, and
is public or private. New requirements were added, the struc- educational organization. The two latter terms were defined in
ture of the standard was changed, and the vocabulary adapted to section 3: Terms and Definition. The customer and the product
make it applicable to all sectors, including education. The revised were defined in the first and second notes in the section 5.1:
ISO 9001:2000 standard contained eight clauses. The first three Management Commitment. While in IWA 1 guidelines for health
were introductory in nature, while the last five contained generic service organizations and IWA 4 guidelines for local govern-
requirements for any organization to implement a QMS, manage ment, all terms were defined in the appropriate section, section
its processes, and meet customer requirements. 3: Terms and Definition.
Despite the revisions in the 2000 version, difficulties remained Later revisions of both the standard (ISO 9001:2008) and the
in applying and interpreting this standard in the educational field guidelines (IWA 2:2007) are not seamlessly linked because of the
(Karapetrovic, 2001). This was probably because the ISO 9001 year difference between the two. Therefore, the ISO 9001:2008
requirements were more generic in the 2000 version when com- clarifications were not integrated into IWA 2. Another gap occurs
pared to the 1994 set of standards (Karapetrovic, 2001). To deal where IWA 2 neglects research activities (Rodman & Godnov,
with these issues, Karapetrovic (2001) looked at the key terms 2010) and its customers (which are industry, research spon-
of ISO 9001:2000, interpreted them for engineering education sors, other universities, and research community (Karapetrovic,
and research, and gave a seven-step approach to implementation. 2001)). The difficulty here rests on how IWA 2 defines the

product as an educational service and the customer as a learner. the affected students, so the HEIs are strongly advised to pay
This definition of product does not take into account the role special attention to program withdrawal/termination decisions
research plays in HE, especially the research-intensive institu- and put appropriate procedures in place (Eckel, 2003; Quality
tions, and the subsidiary concerns of intellectual property that Assurance Agency for Higher Education, 2006, 2011; University
research (and to a lesser extent, teaching) need to address. of Wisconsin System, 2010).
IWA 2:2007 section 7 (Realization of the Educational Service) On the other hand, HEIs, whether public or private, face
indicates that education is a service. Section 5.2 (Customer diminishing financial resources. Thereby, HEIs must ensure
Focus) states that the focus of the educational organization’s top good management of financial resources in parallel with invest-
management is to identify and document the needs and expecta- ing in quality. These investments allow HEIs to eliminate
tions of learners and that specific performance indicators often nonconformities and resulting costs (ISO, 2009b). The finan-
imply learner requirements. This approach demonstrates a dif- cial resources lacking in ISO 9001 and IWA 2 (El Abbadi et al.,
ference between manufacturing and education because, in the 2011a, 2011c; Rodman & Godnov, 2010) are considered in ISO
former, the organization’s staff is the actor responsible for the 9004 standard (Rodman & Godnov, 2010) and according to
realization and the quality of the product, while in the latter the AFNOR (2012), these resources are among new concepts recom-
learner is both customer and actor (Becket & Brookes, 2008). A mended for integration into the next ISO 9001 edition. Likewise,
learner is a “customer” in the sense that the individual acquires the quality standards implemented in several Moroccan HEIs in
new knowledge, skills, and attitudes. On the other hand, the the frame of Tempus project “ALTAIR,” and which were adapted
learner is also an “actor” who contributes in the delivery of HE from quality standards developed by Germany’s (Accreditation
services and whose behavior influences the quality of services Agency for Degree Programs in Engineering, Informatics, the
offered by an institution. Parenthetically, the dual role the Natural Sciences and Mathematics) and the EFQM model
learner plays requires that he or she should know what his or (European Union TEMPUS Project ALTAIR, 2008), included
her rights and responsibilities are, a point covered by the code of special requirements related to financial resources. Actually,
conduct for learners integrated by the IWA 2 guidelines as part in the context of south Mediterranean countries, the experts
of requirements established by organization. assembled in the project all agreed that these requirements are
El Abbadi et al. (2011a, 2011b, 2011c) and Rodman and worth considering for emerging countries whose universities
Godnov (2010) have noted how aspects of both ISO 9001 are developing to reach the size and the influence of prestigious
and IWA 2 do not seem to be easily applicable or sufficiently western institutions.
appropriate for HE. These ISO documents only focus on cur-
rent requirements and approaches toward implementation rather What About the ISO Handbook for
than expanding requirements to meet unique university activi- Educational Organizations?
ties. Actually, emerging trends in HE quality assurance place The ISO 9001:2008 handbook for educational organiza-
much emphasis on ethics (as seen in accreditation practices tions is a more detailed document than the IWA 2 guidelines. It
in numerous disciplines) and principles of corporate social has included almost all of the IWA 2 guidelines and completed
responsibility (similar in thinking to ISO 26000). This implies them with supplementary explanations and recommendations.
that IWA 2 may need to be amended in spite of statements in It explained the utility of a QMS within an educational orga-
the second QMS principle, “focusing on social value,” which nization and the steps for its implementation according to ISO
does not emphasize these concerns universities face. In fact, we 9001:2008; presented this standard; defined the key terms such
underline the importance of the interactions between HEIs and as product, educational organization, supplier, and stakeholders;
societies wherein the educational leaders are responsible for the provided a reminder of the requirements of this standard before
integration of their institutions into their societies (Padró, 2012) interpreting them in the educational context; and gave practical
as well as for the effect of their decisions and activities on society advice to satisfy them (ISO, 2009a).
(Padró, 2012). This handbook defined almost all terms in the education
Other areas of concern that are not currently dealt with field in the section Explanation of Terms Used, except the term
effectively in the ISO 9001:2008 standard or the IWA 2 guide- “customer,” which was defined as the student in the section 3:
lines are a balanced approach to program planning and review Terms and Definition and as a learner by Note 1 in the section 5.1:
focusing on course/program development and course/program Management Commitment. In addition, this handbook widened
withdrawal/termination (and teach-out). According to Eckel the definition of “product” to the outputs of all activities under-
(2003), the decision to withdraw/terminate programs is hard for taken by educational organizations such as educational services

and research. Despite this definition of product, this guide has referring to other ISO publications and/or adding new require-
focused especially on educational services (Note 2/ section 5.1: ments related to them, such as it was done by IWA 1 guidelines
Management Commitment), and other neglected activities that for health service organizations which provided amendments
can be performed within a HEI and excluded other customers specific to the field of health services such as new requirements
such as the industry and the research community. related to “financial measures” and “urgently needed purchased
On the other hand, financial resources lacking in IWA 2 are product” (ISO, 2005).
mentioned without further details in the handbook, along with Based on our analysis of IWA 2:2007 and our experience in
the resources that the organization needs to ensure are avail- implementing quality standards in HEIs, it seems judicious to
able. The statements regarding ethics and social responsibility in propose the addition of the following new requirements to IWA
IWA 2 are the same in the ISO handbook. Finally, the program 2 guidelines. Each proposed requirement will be preceded by a
withdrawal, which is not dealt with in IWA 2, was not also men- number indicating its placement within the IWA 2 sections.
tioned in this handbook. • The first proposed requirement: 6.5: Financial Resources
Proposal to Update IWA 2 Guidelines “The educational organization should identify the finan-
Some gaps in the IWA 2 guidelines can be addressed by cial resources needed for a good functioning of its QMS,
modifying the existing guidelines, others by appending new the use of quality tools and for the delivery of services,
requirements specific to the field of HE. seek funding sources and ensure the availability and good
management of its financial resources.
Proposal to Modify Some IWA 2 Guidelines
To make IWA 2 guidelines understandable and implementing The quality investments are gainful for the educational
the ISO 9001 requirements easier for users, we first recommend organization. They can diminish financial resources used.
changing the structure of the IWA 2 guidelines and making it In fact, investing in quality tools and in QMS implemen-
similar to the structure of the ISO handbook, e.g. IWA 1 and tation with compliance, for example, to ISO 9001, allow
IWA 4 guidelines, which provide the ISO 9001 requirements educational organizations to eliminate non-conformities
first before interpreting them at the appropriate field. By offer- and resulting cost.
ing a reminder of the ISO 9001:2008 requirements will also help
For more information on financial resources, the edu-
align the IWA 2 guidelines with the ISO 9001:2008 require-
cational organization can refer to ISO 9004 (2009):
ments. In fact, the ISO 9001:2008 standard aims at updating the
Managing for the sustained success of an organization–A
ISO 9001:2000 requirements without changing them or adding
quality management approach.”
new requirements, so the IWA 2:2007 could remain valid for the
ISO 9001:2008 if a reminder of the requirements of this stan- • The second proposed requirement: 7.3.8 programs
dard were in place. Second, we propose to amend the definition withdrawal
of customer and product given by Note 1 and 2 in the section
5.1: Management Commitment, which does not take into account “When the educational organization decides to withdraw
all HE core activities and customers. We suggest the adoption a program, it must inform learners registered or admitted
of the definition of product given by the ISO handbook (2009) to this program.
and the definition of customer given by Karapetrovic (2001),
The educational organization must also help these learn-
which are broader instead of those given by IWA 2. Finally, we
ers to choose another program regarding suitability with
propose the consolidation of all definitions in Section 3: Terms
their course of study.”
and Definitions.
• The third proposed requirement: 6.2.3 corporate social
Proposal to Add New Requirements to IWA 2
responsibility and ethics
As cited above, some requirements specific to the field of HE
are not found in the ISO 9001:2008 standard or the IWA 2:2007 “The educational organization should establish a code of
guidelines. We can mainly name financial resources (El Abbadi ethics and introduce the corporate social responsibility
et al., 2011a, 2011c; Rodman & Godnov, 2010), ethics and cor- principals in the institution’s environment. The insti-
porate social responsibility as well as program withdrawal. These tution’s staff, learners and partners must respect these
concepts can be integrated into the IWA 2 guidelines by principles and adhere to their code of ethics.

For more information on this requirement, the edu- of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 7(1), 40-54.
cational organization can refer to ISO 26000 (2010): doi:10.3794/johlste.71.174.S
Guidance on Social Responsibility.” Caraman, I., Lazar, G., Bucuroiu, R., Lungu, O. & Stamate, M. (2008).
How IWA 2 helps to implement a quality management system in Bacau
Conclusion University. International Journal for Quality Research, 2(4), 305-308.
Retrieved from http://www.ijqr.net/journal/v2-n4/8.pdf
Throughout the world some HEIs choose to implement
generic quality standards which have an undeniable success, Eckel, P.D. (2003). Changing Courses: Making the Hard Decision to
especially in the industrial field. These standards are more Eliminate Academic Programs. Westport, CT: Praeger.
known than the specific quality standards which can differ from El Abbadi, L., Bouayad, A., & Lamrini, M. (2011a, November).
a country (or a group of countries) to another. Moreover, they Adaptation de la norme ISO 9001 aux besoins actuels et futurs du
may induce renewed confidence of customers in the effectiveness domaine de l’enseignement supérieur. Paper presented at the 8 ème
of the HEIs’ processes and management. Among these generic Congrès International du Management de la Qualité dans les Systèmes
quality standards, ISO 9001 is increasingly used by HEIs as a d’Education et de Formation, Rabat, Morocco.
viable option in implementing quality assurance practices. HEIs El Abbadi, L., Bouayad, A., & Lamrini, M. (2011b). Generic quality
interested in adopting ISO 9001 receive guidance on how to standard vs. specific quality standard: the case of higher education.
become ISO 9001 compliant through the IWA 2 guidelines and International Journal for Quality Research, 5(2), 123-129.
the ISO 9001 handbook for educational organizations. El Abbadi, L., Bouayad, A., & Lamrini, M. (2011c, October). La norme
Focusing on the needs of HEIs, this paper analyzed the IWA ISO 9001 dans un contexte de service : cas de l’enseignement supérieur.
2 guidelines, compared them with the handbook guidance, out- Poster session presented at the Conférence Internationale de Conception
lined some gaps in IWA 2, and proposed an update pending the et Production Intégrées, Oujda, Morocco.
release of the new version of ISO 9001. This update suggests a European Union TEMPUS Project ALTAIR. (2008). Strengthening the
reminder of the ISO 9001 requirements, a broadening of the def- institutional capacity of Arab Universities in support of policy, management
inition of product and customer, bringing together all definitions and planning at national and regional levels, 144789-Tempus-2008-ES-
into one section, and finally the addition of some requirements JGPR. www.altair-project.org
specific to the field of HE; namely “program withdrawal,” International Organization for Standardization. (2010-2011). ISO stra-
“financial resources,” and “corporate social responsibility and tegic plan 2011-2015. Retrieved from ISO website http://www.iso.org/
ethics.” This proposed update will upgrade IWA 2 guidelines to iso/iso_strategic_plan_2011-2015.pdf
the latest version of ISO 9001 and will make the ISO 9001 stan- International Organization for Standardization. (2009a). ISO 9001:
dard more suitable for HEIs and aligned with their needs and 2008 handbook for educational organizations — What to do: Advice from
expectations. As well, it will make understanding the ISO 9001 IWA 2 working group (2nd ed.). Switzerland: Author.
requirements easier for HEIs, which can promote their imple-
International Organization for Standardization. (2009b). ISO 9004:
mentation within these institutions. 2009: Managing for the sustained success of an organization — A quality
management approach (3rd ed.). Switzerland: Author.
References:
International Organization for Standardization. (2005). IWA 1: 2005:
AFNOR (Association Française de Normalisation). (2012). En
Quality management systems — Guidelines for process improvements in
avant-première, AFNOR normalisation présente le cahier des charges
health service organizations (2nd ed.). Switzerland: Author.
de la révision ISO 9001. Retrieved from AFNOR website http://
www.afnor.org/liste-des-actualites/actualites/2012/octobre-2012/ International Organization for Standardization. (2007). IWA 2: 2007:
en-avant-premiere-afnor-normalisation-presente-le-cahier-es-charges- Quality management systems — Guidelines for the application of ISO
de-la-revision-iso-9001 9001:2000 in education (2nd ed.). Switzerland: Author.
Apoyo a la Calidad Educativa. (2006, June). Education and qual- International Organization for Standardization [ISO]. (2010). Final
ity: why use the IWA 2 guide? Paper prepared for the intermediate Draft ISO/FDIS26000: Guidance on Social Responsibility. Geneva:
meeting of the ISO/IWA2 International Project Task Group, Tralee, Author.
Ireland. Retrieved from http://basica.sep.gob.mx/dgdgie/cva/sitio/ Karapetrovic, S. (2001, August). ISO 9000 quality system development
DocumentosIWA2/07_Education_and_Quality/Education_and_ for engineering schools: Why and how should we do it? Paper presented at
Quality_Why_use_the_IWA2_Gruide.pdf
the International Conference on Engineering Education, Oslo, Norway.
Becket, N., & Brookes, M. (2008). Quality management practice in Retrieved from http://ineer.org/Events/ICEE2001/Proceedings/
higher education — What quality are we actually enhancing? Journal papers/134.pdf

Karapetrovic, S., Rajamani, D., & Willborn, W. (1998). ISO 9001 qual- University of Wisconsin System. (2010). Academic information series 1
ity system: an interpretation for the university. International Journal of (acis-1): Academic planning and program review. Retrieved from University
Engineering Education, 14(2), 105-118. Retrieved from http://www.ijee. of Wisconsin website http://www.uwsa.edu/acss/acis/acis-1.pdf
ie/articles/Vol14-2/ijee1006.pdf
Van den Berghe, W. (1997). Application of ISO 9000 standards to
Padró, F.F. (2012). IS0 26000 and educational leader preparation. The education and training. European Journal Vocational Training, 15, 20-28.
Journal for Quality and Participation. 34(4). Retrieved from http://asq. Retrieved from http://www.voced.edu.au/content/ngv3875
org/pub/jqp/
West, J.E., Hunt, L., Croft, N.H., & Jarvis, A. (2012 May). What’s old
Quality Assurance Agency for higher education. (2006). Code is new again: ISO 9001 revision planning is underway. Quality Progress,
of practice for the assurance of academic quality and standards in 45(5), 50-52.
higher education — Section 7: Programme design, approval, monitor-
ing and review. Retrieved from http://www.qaa.ac.uk/Publications/
InformationAndGuidance/Documents/programmedesign.pdf Laila El Abbadi is a Ph. D. student in the
laboratory of computer sciences and mod-
Quality Assurance Agency for higher education. (2011). UK quality code eling (LIM) at Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah
for higher education — Part B: Assuring and enhancing academic quality, University (USMBA) in Morocco. Her research
Chapter B8: Programme monitoring and review. Retrieved from http:// is on quality assurance in higher education.
www.qaa.ac.uk/Publications/InformationAndGuidance/Documents/ Contact El Abbadi at [email protected].
Quality-Code-Chapter-B8.pdf Laila El Abbadi
Rodman, K., & Godnov, U. (2010, November). Social responsibility in
Aboubakr Bouayad, Ph.D. is an associate
ISO 9000 group of standards for quality management systems. Paper pre-
professor at ENSAM School of Engineering
sented at the Social Responsibility, Professional Ethics, and Management,
of Meknès. He began teaching at ENSAM at
Proceedings of the 11th International Conference, Ankara, Turkey.
1997 as a lecturer. Since 2010, Bouayad has
Retrieved from http://ideas.repec.org/h/mgt/micp10/87-107.html
also served as the head of the department
Roszak, M.T. (2009). Systemic approach to problems of the quality of materials and processes. His research
in education. Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Aboubakr Bouayad focuses on manufacturing processes opti-
Engineering, 37(2), 751-758. Retrieved from http://www.journalamme. mization and quality assurance in higher
org/papers_vol37_2/37275.pdf education. Contact him via email at aboubakr.
Thonhauser, T., & Passmore, D. (2006). ISO 9000 in education: [email protected].
A comparison between the United States and England. Research in
Comparative and International Education, 1(2), 156-173. doi: 10.2304/ Mohamed Lamrini, Ph.D. is a professor of
rcie.2006.1.2.156 computer science at USMBA-Fez University.
United Nations Development Programme. (2009). Quality assessment He is also a member of the LIM Laboratory.
of engineering programs in Arab universities, a regional overview report. His research interests include software quality
Enhancement of quality assurance and institutional planning in Arab (CMMI, Six Sigma, ISO 9001), and industrial
universities, RBAS Project RAB01/002, phase II 2005-2009. UNDP/ engineering (methods and statistical tools).
RBAS publications. Mohamed Lamrini Contact Lamrini at [email protected].

What the research Will Race to the Top Have the Same Mixed
here shows is Results No Child Left Behind had on Student
Learning and Preservice Teacher Preparation?
that educational Marlene M. Hurley, Fernando F. Padró, and Michael F. Hawke
research presents Abstract

Race to the Top (RTTT) creates concerns for researchers and teachers (Owens, 2009)
a picture that because of its emphasis on high-stakes testing and the continued lack of collaboration
among educators, researchers, and policy makers. These laws reflect Foucault’s notion of
discourages governmentality due to the approach taken to meet the aims of both the Bush and Obama
administrations. This four-step study looked into the impact No Child Left Behind
differentiation and (NCLB) had on preservice teacher preparation based on the integrated math-science (IMS)
model. A review of the literature identified 16 studies on IMS that provided the basis for a
experimentation. national survey to determine the reasons for offering IMS, the successes and challenges of
the model, and the future of IMS at their higher education institutions (HEI). The number
of IMS courses was lower than found in catalogs and the overall rate of IMS courses during
2004-05 was comparable to that in the 1950s.
Key Words
Governmentality, Integrated Math-Sciences, Preservice Teacher Preparation, Race to the
Top, STEM
Race to the Top (RTTT), part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009
(ARRA), is in part an attempt to circumvent the perceived failings of No Child Left
Behind (NCLB) (McGuinn, 2010). Its priorities have implications for STEM education
at the P-20 and workforce level and, indirectly as a result of what states have to do to meet
the priorities, also on preservice teacher preparation in teaching integrated math and sci-
ence (IMS). Specifically, RTTT’s Priority 2 requires states to emphasize STEM education,
requiring a rigorous course of study in these areas. It also calls for establishing partner-
ships with STEM-capable community partners to prepare and assist teachers in integrating
STEM content across grades and disciplines to promote relevant instruction and learning
opportunities and providing advanced studies and careers in STEM, accentuating how
to get more under-represented groups, women, and girls interested in STEM courses and
careers (U.S. Department of Education, 2009). RTTT Priority 5 indicates that states have
to address the alignment and coordination of the school-to-work pipeline (to borrow from
a program from the Clinton Administration) “to ensure that students exiting one level are
prepared for success, without remediation, in the next” (p. 5). Emphasis under this priority
is in the transition points between educational levels (preschool to K-12, K-12 to college/
university, college/university to work and career, or K-12 to work/career). It is also impor-
tant that states provide high-need students with an array of opportunities and services they
need to succeed even if these are beyond the capacity of a school itself to provide.
RTTT’s approach of a competitive grant program to create systematic rather than tar-
geted change in education embodies a change in strategy in fostering a national agenda
(McGuinn, 2010). Even so, it reflects the Obama administration’s ambivalence in crossing
the line between federal mandates and state discretion in educational matters (McGuinn,
2012). Such a change in approach leads to the obvious questions of cost effectiveness (cf.
asq.org/edu
Kolbe & Rice, 2012), effectiveness in creating change, and of improved student learning.

While this last question may be unfair in regard to the ability 1991). Standards-based curriculum reform of the 1990s called
to correctly anticipate or divine potential consequences, the his- for integration, connections, and links between disciplines and
tory of change resulting from policy implementation (cf. Gillies, specifically between mathematics and science. Science education
2008) can identify potential areas of concern. This paper is an and mathematics education researchers saw the need to create
example of how an intended consequence from a systematic tests that demonstrated authentic understandings of the natures
response to NCLB in the area of IMS education, particularly of science and mathematics, rather than just measuring the size
preservice teacher preparation of math and science teachers, did of the student’s reservoir of memorized facts (e.g., Champagne,
not come to pass. Kouba, & Hurley, 1999). This work was just getting well under-
Under NCLB, schools had to assess students in mathematics, way when the Bush administration mandated NCLB. In NCLB
reading/language arts, and science (Pilotin, 2010); however, state reform, the learner-centered processes and concepts advocated
report cards reported on mathematics and reading arts. One by the standards and supported by the learning literature were
consequence of the Academic Yearly Progress (AYP) report card’s diminished in the wake of requirements for high-stakes student
focus on reading/language arts and mathematics was that it led assessment and teacher-school accountability (Hurley & Padró,
to a 32% average reduction in time for other subjects when com- 2006; Padró & Hurley, 2005), which from the perspective of
pared to 2001-02 (McMurrer, 2007). According to the report critics of NCLB lacked both public discussion and a sound theo-
from the Center on Education Policy (CEP), science, along with retical foundation (Ravitch, 2010).
social studies, art and music, physical education, and time for While research has been conducted on IMS for at least 60
lunch/recess were cut back about an average of 30 minutes per years (Berlin & Lee, 2003), a presence of integration through
day. Districts with at least one school identified as in need for “theoretical models and empirical research related to IMS
improvement were found to report at a higher rate a decrease in courses, projects, and programs for preservice and in-service
time devoted to teaching science, social studies, art and music. teachers has emerged in the last 12 years” (Berlin & Lee, 2005,
One recommendation CEP gave as a means to help remedy this p. 22). From time to time throughout the 20th century, review
decrease in coverage in these areas to accommodate increased articles reported on the literature of IMS and the progress of
instruction time in language arts and mathematics was for the integration in classrooms. The most recent of these provided
federal government to fund “research to determine the best ways both positive and negative evidence for the status of IMS just
to incorporate the teaching of reading and math skills into social prior to NCLB (Czerniak et al., 1999; Hurley, 2001; Pang &
studies and science” (p. 2). Combine this recommendation with Good, 2000). Berlin and Lee examined the IMS literature from
Czerniak, Weber, Sandmann, & Ahern’s (1999) expressed need 1990 through 2001 and found an increase of publications related
for more models of teacher preparation and greater preservice to courses offered in schools of education.
teacher familiarity with state and national reform recommen-
dations, the focus of attention comes to two questions: Why Assumption and Hypothesis for the Study
did the integrated teaching of math and science not take hold? This paper was based on the assumption that locating course
and Where have the political will and wise educational poli- offerings in the days of NCLB reflects the value that college/
cies, to paraphrase Vars (2001), been to ensure that the teaching university preservice teacher preparation programs place on the
of science did not become a victim of policy steering defining integration of mathematics and science. Using the method that
education quality? It seems that Ravitch’s (2010) complaint of Gould (1996) called “interviewing a document” for the analysis
quality improvement becoming transmuted into an accounting of a literature review guided the development of a national survey
strategy created an unfulfilled consequence that RTTT may not of preservice teaching programs identified as having IMS courses
be able to come to life given the rising controversies surrounding or approaches to teacher preparation during 2001-07. Both the
it (cf. Owens, 2009). literature review and the study focused on three questions:
1. What was the reasoning behind the offering of an IMS
Integrated Mathematics and Science methods course?
The publication of A Nation at Risk (1983) report provoked
2. What were its successes and challenges?
the writing of more than 300 documents (Bybee, 1993), some
of which addressed a perceived need for national benchmarks, 3. What is the future of the integrated course?
standards, and assessment for mathematics and science “lit- The hypothesis driving the study was that the emphasis by
eracy” that not only improved student achievement scores, but state report cards on reading/language arts and mathematics
also increased the level of student understandings (DeBoer, did not help improve the learning of math and sciences at P-12

because it caused schools to de-emphasize science and thus sti- one follow-up email was done. A total of 278 SOE (49.9%) were
fled different approaches toward preservice teacher preparation now fully searched, with 122 directly contacted based on pre-
in these fields. By comparing findings to historical data, no dif- liminary information obtained.
ference in the extent to which an IMS model is used to prepare Stage 4. The 279 remaining SOE in the United States (located
new math and science teachers would be found. in the remaining 30 states plus the District of Columbia) were
assigned numbers and a random number generator was used to
Research Design and Methodology select 25% of these to contact by mail. The department chairs
The study began with a literature review of primary at these SOE received a letter, containing both research ques-
studies reporting on integrations of mathematics and science in tions and a stamped return envelope, along with a request to pass
HEI methods courses from 1991 through 2009 (representing the along the information to any IMS professor(s); one follow up was
presence of national standards) was conducted. While the stud- done by email.
ies did not have to meet specific methodology criteria, they did
have to be teaching mathematics and science methods courses in Results
some integrated fashion; report on the successes and challenges From the Literature Review
of their integrations; and have preservice teacher training for the Table 1 describes the reasons given in the different studies
elementary, middle school, or high school levels of instruction. analyzed as to why IMS methods courses were provided. These
Sixteen studies were found that met the above criteria, represent- reasons fit within three broad categories: compliance with stan-
ing nine states (based on the home state of the first author or dards, a desire for program reform, and philosophical reasons.
the state identified as the study location): California, Colorado, Table 2 describes the successes and challenges (Question 2)
Connecticut, Florida, Maryland, Montana, Ohio, South Dakota, found in the literature during this time from pursuing an IMS
and Texas. Ten studies were at the elementary level, two studied model. Extracted from the 16 studies were indicators framing
middle schools, two involved high schools, and two studies cov-
ered both middle and high schools. Table 1: Reasons from the 16 Studies as to why
The second step of the research study, the design of a national Universities Offered IMS Courses
survey, was done in four stages:
Stage 1. Schools of education (SOE) were located for all Compliance Reform (school, Philosophical
states plus the District of Columbia using the website, www.uni- with Standards program, or Reasons
vsource.com, which listed a total of 557. A state was selected and (national, state, policies) (Constructivism
the pilot study was conducted on all the SOE within that state or NCATE or beliefs about
to verify the accuracy of the website and to examine responses to accreditation) integration)
the research questions, which originally numbered five. Briscoe & Stout Berlin & White Berlin & White
Stage 2. As a result of the pilot study, two questions were (1996) (2009) (2002)
dropped from the survey to simplify it. All SOE websites and Lewis, Alacaci,
catalogs in the nine states represented by the 16 studies were Frykholm &
O’Brien, & Jiang Kelly (2001)
searched for IMS methods courses. States were assigned to a Glasson (2005)
(2002)
graduate student who searched each school’s website and cata-
Kotar, Guenter,
log. This work was double-checked by either a second graduate Haigh & Rehfeld Lonning &
Metzger, &
student or one of the researchers. Of the 140 SOE in the nine (1995) DeFranco (1994)
Overholt (1998)
states, 52 showed IMS methods courses in their catalogs. These
52 schools were contacted via email and asked the remaining Koirala & Bowman Miller, Metheny, & Stuessy & Nazier
three research questions; one follow-up email was done. (2003) Davison (1997) (1996)
Stage 3. Eleven states (Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Illinois, Kretschmer, Sia, & Moseley & Utley
Kansas, Maine, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Bagheri (1991) (2006)
York, and Pennsylvania) were randomly selected from the McGinnins, Parker,
remaining 41 states plus the District of Columbia to have their & Roth-McDuffie
SOE websites and catalogs searched in the same manner as in (1999)
Step 2. Out of 138 SOE in these states, 70 schools with possible
Stuessy (1993)
IMS methods courses were located and contacted using email;

the analysis of data relating to Question 3 (which are not fully the number of research questions was shortened from five to the
discussed in this paper due to space limitations). three identified in the previous section.
Responses from the pilot study (Stage 1) provided positive Table 3 presents results from the 16 identified studies (Stage
evidence that the use of information from the website, www. 2), the SOE in each state (n=140), the number of integrated
univsource.com, was accurate enough to continue to use in the methods courses located in catalogs (52), the number of surveys
remaining steps. It also provided evidence that some SOE were returned by state (17), and the number of integrated courses veri-
continuing to teach IMS methods courses at both the under- fied by state (seven total). The return rate for the 17 responses to
graduate and graduate levels, causing the researchers to continue 52 surveys sent out was 32.7%, with seven integrated methods
to Stage 2. Based on feedback from the pilot study participants, courses verified in four of the nine states.
Table 2: Successes and Challenges of Using an IMS Model in Preservice Teacher Preparation Identified in
16 Selected Studies
Successes Challenges
Statistically significant outcomes for preservice teacher confidence Preservice teachers perceived that problem solving in integration
(Kelly, 2001) was only pertinent to mathematics (Briscoe & Stout, 1996)
Statistically significant increased beliefs in science teaching Preservice teachers had difficulties designing problems that
efficacy after taking a newly developed integrated course demonstrated higher-level thinking, needing additional time to
(Moseley & Utley, 2006) develop integration expertise in another study (Miller, et al.,
1997)
Improved attitudes toward teaching integrated mathematics and Preservice teachers considered mathematics as only a tool for
science (Lonning & DeFranco, 1994) science (McGinnis, et al., 1999)
Positive attitudes toward problem-centered learning (Briscoe & Preservice teachers had difficulty with the difference in language
Stout, 1996) between mathematics and science and lacked preparation for
teaching mathematics (Koirala & Bowman, 2003)
Improved reflectivity and problem-solving processes were Preservice teachers became frustrated with the challenges of
perceived to develop (Stuessy & Nazier, 1996) integration and the lack of seeing integration in middle schools
(Koirala & Bowman, 2003)
Improved preservice teacher curriculum designs and the teaching Preservice teacher attitudes toward integration was lower at the
of integrated units (Kotar, et al., 1998; Kretschmer, et al., 1991) end of teaching and barriers and challenges were seen as greater
(Berlin & White, 2002; 2009)
Development of analytical skills (Stuessy, 1993) Preservice teachers questioned their content knowledge and their
abilities to integrate curricula (Frykholm & Glasson, 2005)
Increased knowledge of mathematics and science (Frykholm & Preservice teachers, while remaining enthusiastic for integration,
Glasson, 2005; Stuessy, 1993) also reported a very heavy workload (Haigh & Rehfeld, 1995)
Perception of student benefits from integration remained constant
from beginning to end in preservice teachers (Berlin & White,
2002; 2009)
High level of student enthusiasm for the integrated course (Haigh
& Rehfeld, 1995)
Preservice teachers receiving extra integration training held
deeper conceptual understandings of integration and practiced
integration in their teaching (McGinnis, et al., 1999)
Researchers felt their course was successful in linking theory to
practice (Kretschmer, et al., 1991); others felt that philosophical,
theoretical, and logistical problems were overcome (Lonning &
DeFranco, 1994)

Table 3: Nine Searched States Represented by 16 Research Studies of IMS In Stage 3 (Table 4), 11 states were ran-
Methods Courses for Preservice Teachers domly selected to increase the number of
states to 20 whose SOE websites and catalogs
States No. Studies SOE in Integrated No. No. IMS were searched. Representing 138 SOE, 56
by State Courses Surveys Courses integrated courses were located in their cata-
Found Returned Verified logs. Responses were received from 23 schools
California 2 42 8 2 1 (32.9% response rate) that verified nine IMS
Colorado 2 9 4 2 1 methods courses in five of the 11 states.
At this point, 278 (50%) of the total
Connecticut 2 7 2 2 2
SOE in the United States (557) were searched
Florida 2 12 5 2 0 and surveyed. Surveys were then mailed to
Maryland 1 10 2 0 0 69 (25% of the remaining SOE) randomly
Montana 1 3 0 0 0 selected SOE that were located in an addi-
Ohio 2 20 9 0 0 tional 25 states and the District of Columbia.
This resulted in a return of 38 survey
So. Dakota 1 2 2 0 0
responses (55%). The number of verified IMS
Texas 3 35 20 9 3
courses was five, as shown in Table 5.
Total 16 140 52 17 (33%) 7 Altogether, 347 (62.3%) of the 557 SOE
in the United States had websites searched
and/or were contacted directly for IMS meth-
ods course information. Overall, 78 SOE (22.5%) responded
to surveys and 21 SOE reported the presence of IMS teacher edu-
cation methods courses. This number represents 3.8% of SOE
in the United States. Out of the 21 SOE reporting the presence
Table 4: Random Sample of 11 Searched States with of IMS teacher education methods courses, 20 of these actually
Surveys Returned and IMS Methods Courses Verified provided reasons for the presence of the courses. These responses
Random SOE in Integrated No. No. IMS
included the same three categories found in the literature
Sample of State Courses Surveys Courses review as well as additional reasons for integrating mathematics
States Found Returned Verified and science.
Integration successes and challenges were addressed by 18
Alabama 17 3 0 0
of the 21 survey respondents. Successes included: students real-
Arizona 4 3 1 0 izing the connections between mathematics and science (nine);
Arkansas 7 5 2 1 increased student comfort and confidence with science and
math (four); enjoyment of science and math (two); reduction in
Illinois 24 11 5 1
anxiety (two); lowering of redundancies caused by separate sci-
Kansas 6 1 0 0 ence and math methods courses (one); and, students learned to
Maine 3 0 0 0
teach mathematics (one). Two responses were too general to clas-
sify. More integration challenges than successes were reported
Nevada 2 1 0 0 by the 18 methods teachers. Twelve discussed the lack of time
New 3 1 0 0 for teaching everything needed in an IMS methods course, four
Hampshire mentioned the presence of both math and science anxieties, four
were concerned about the lack of mathematics and science con-
New Jersey 10 6 5 4
ceptual understanding in students, three wrote of the difficulty
New York 32 16 4 2 in finding professors with expertise in both mathematics and
Pennsylvania 30 9 6 1 science, three talked about the difficulty of doing a good job of
teaching math and the use of manipulatives, while 10 identified
Total 138 56 23 (33%) 9
other unique challenges that were largely contextual.

Table 5: Random Sample of 69 SOE in 25 States and D.C. In regard to Question 3, 11 of the 16 studies (69%) indicated
with Surveys Returned and IMS Methods Courses Verified that they would continue to integrate, while 15 of 19 (79%) of
respondents said they would continue to integrate. This national
State SOE No. No. IMS survey contacted a total of 347 SOE (62.3%) across the United
Randomly Surveys Courses States in a search for the existence of IMS methods courses. The
Surveyed Returned Verified survey produced a small percentage of SOE (ranging from 5% to
Delaware 1 0 0 7.3%) that are persevering in the current climate. These percent-
ages are larger than those integrations of math and science found
Georgia 4 2 0
by Wright in 1950 (3.5%), but similar to those found by Bossing
Idaho 4 2 0 in 1955 (6.6%).
Indiana 4 3 1
Discussion
Iowa 1 1 1
Both NCLB and RTTT are products of Foucault’s govern-
Kentucky 4 3 0 mentality, the way in which government formulates a strategy
Louisiana 4 0 0 to ensure an aim is achieved invoking models of practice inter-
preted through the lens of government’s description of its own
Massachusetts 4 1 0 actions (Padró, 2013; Gibbon & Ponte, 2008). Implementation
Michigan 5 3 1 of policy under both pieces of legislation raise evaluation ques-
tions of the interorganizational networks required to make them
Minnesota 2 1 0
successful (DeGroff & Cargo, 2009). Using governmentality
Mississippi 2 1 0 as a conceptual framework emphasizes how the effect of policy
Missouri 4 2 0 limits the response to change (Ball, 1994 as cited in Fimyar,
2008) in a variety of contexts (Gillies, 2008). NCLB and RTTT
Nebraska 1 0 0
had/has in mind documenting improvements in student learn-
N. Carolina 5 3 0 ing, but under NCLB the gains in reading/language arts and
N. Dakota 1 1 0 mathematics came at the expense of other subjects. Results have
been mixed as demonstrated by the National Assessment of
Oklahoma 3 2 0 Educational Progress (NAEP) math test scores: scores for fourth
Oregon 2 1 1 and eighth grades between 1990 and 2005 have increased, but
the percentage of students performing at the basic level did not
Rhode Island 2 1 0
improve during this time (Kuenzi, 2008). The question now is
S. Carolina 1 1 0 whether RTTT’s system-wide demand for STEM education will
Tennessee 3 1 1 generate the desired documentable level of student learning that
eluded NCLB in spite of the big assumptions held by proponents
Utah 2 2 0
of the Act. What the research here shows is that looking at the
Virginia 1 1 0 education reform efforts of the late 1990s and beginning of the
Washington 5 5 0 21st century presents a picture that discourages differentiation
and experimentation in finding better ways to teach math and
Washington 1 0 0 science as reflected in how preservice teachers are prepared to
D.C.
teach these subjects.
W. Virginia 1 0 0 Kegan and Lahey (2001) talk about the notion of compet-
Wisconsin 2 1 0 ing commitments based on big assumptions. With states having
to report on school performance based on test score results for
Totals 69 38 (55%) 5 reading/language arts and mathematics, there seems to be at
least a prima facie connection. The competing commitments are
demonstrating improved performance in the two key reporting
areas by reducing instructional time for other subjects. The big
assumption is that the most important thing is to be compliant

where one has to be. This makes compliance a zero-sum game literature on IMS from 1991 to 2009 purports a preponderance
based on a strategy that minimizes an institution’s maximum loss of evidence supporting the teaching model in preservice teacher
(Padró, 2013). Arguably, the effect on preservice teacher educa- preparation (Table 2). Yet, AYP state report cards emphasizing
tion can be seen in the discrepancy between catalog descriptions reading/language arts and mathematics mean that NCLB took
and verified IMS courses in Tables 4 and 5, where there are fewer time away time from teaching other subjects, making science a
verified courses. low priority, especially at K-8 (Owens, 2009).
RTTT has some similarities with the National Defense The benefits of an integrated curriculum model have been
Education Act of 1958 (NDEA) regarding targeting funds around since the Eight Year Study commencing in 1933 (Aiken,
through grants for specific priorities. Although originally envi- 1942). Yet, the mandated improvements under NCLB seem not
sioned as short-term emergency legislation, its long-term impact to be too different than that found in the 1930s. What does
on strengthening science, mathematics, and foreign languages this augur for RTTT? STEM, as a model for integration could
(Title III) was deemed successful, particularly in the 1960s encourage integration (e.g., Veenstra, Padró, & Furst-Bowe,
(Flattau et al., 2007). State surveys from the period suggested 2012). RTTT Priorities 2 and 5 address STEM; however, RTTT
that “that better equipment and teacher training contributed may also not fully succeed in meeting expectations because the
to students’ increased interest in Title III subjects” (p. III-4). accounting mentality Ravitch (2010) refers to can still reduce
One major difference between RTTT and NDEA, however, focus to those measures defining accountability.
is that the latter was a reform movement based on collabora- Under NCLB, IMS languished because science was not part
tion between teachers and researchers (Jolly, 2009). As this has of the AYP report card. Test scores in reading/language arts and
not been the case under NCLB and the grant process behind mathematics improved, but this came at the expense of reduced
RTTT, the challenge that RTTT has to overcome is how both time teaching other subjects, including science. Even then, in
scientists and teachers have concerns on how high-stakes testing mathematics, NAEP scores showed that student performance
can inhibit effort to improve science education (Taylor, Jones, at the basic level did not improve from 1990-2005 (Kuenzi,
Broadwell, & Oppewal, 2008; Owens, 2009). 2008) and the proportion of students not reaching the Program
This national survey contacted a total of 347 SOE (62.3%) for International Student Assessment’s (PISA) baseline Level 2
across the United States in a search for the existence of IMS has not changed between 2003 and 2012 — while performance
methods courses. The survey produced a small percentage of in reading and science also has not changed much over time,
SOE (ranging from 5% to 7.3%) that are persevering in the cur- remaining near the OECD average (Organization for Economic
rent climate, an increase from 1949, but not that much more Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2013). One of the limi-
from 1954. World War II is often blamed for the slowing of the tations students showed in math was the lack of applicability of
integrated curriculum movement (e.g., Harvill, 1954); however, mathematical concepts to real-world problems. The chances of
some blame the countertrend on how the federal government RTTT succeeding when previous efforts fell short do not seem
responded to Sputnik (Cohen, 1978). Nevertheless, Hurley’s high given the track record.
(2001) meta-analysis of the literature on integrated curriculum Based on the evidence found in this study, it is difficult to
indicates that IMS has continued to generate interest as a viable disagree with Cody’s (2013) argument that groupthink is at play
preservice teacher preparation and school teaching model. in establishing educational policy and its consequences or agree-
ing with Marcuse’s (1964) view of social one-dimensionality. The
Conclusion unintended consequences of NCLB in preservice teacher prepara-
A report of this study’s findings was first given in 2007 at the tion programs may not dissipate because policy steering continues
School Science and Mathematics Association annual conference to define quality from a similar lens in RTTT. The creation of
(Padró & Hurley, 2007). At the time, only 14 studies had been the Common Core is seen as a potential solution to improve PISA
identified as part of Stage 1 of the study. Subsequent reviews of results (OECD, 2013), but even this report points out that there
the literature up to 2011 identified another two studies, and the are other, non-curricular issues at play as well based on achieve-
additional data from these two studies were incorporated into ment gaps by low-socio-economic and minority students.
the analysis. The inclusion of the studies did not alter results. An often-used statement is that quality education depends
Rather, revisiting and expanding the literature review from data on quality teachers. Results from focusing on mathematics and
collected during the time NCLB was officially in effect provides literacy have not generated expected results. It makes sense to
what Lincoln and Guba (1985) called prolonged engagement as take a serious look at classroom pedagogies and preservice teacher
a means to increase the probability of credible findings. The preparation to propose and support these new pedagogical

models. Policy driving educational reform is not about peda- DeGroff, A., & Cargo, M. (2009). Policy implementation: Implications
gogical experimentation, however, it is more about test taking for evaluation. InJ. M. Ottoson & P. Hawe (Eds.), Knowledge utilization,
rather than focusing on the elusive target of actual, meaningful diffusion, implementation, transfer, and translation: Implications for evalu-
student learning. ation. New Directions for Evaluation, 124, 47-60.
Fimyar, O. (2008). Using Governmentality as a Conceptual Tool in
References: Education Policy Research. Educate, 1(1), 3-18. Retrieved from http://
Aiken, W. M. (1942). The story of the eight-year study: With conclusions www.educatejournal.org/index.php/educate/article/view/143/157
and recommendations. New York: Harper & Brothers.
Flattau, P.E., Bracken, J., Van Atta, R., Bandeh-Ahmadi, A., de la Cruz,
Berlin, D. F. & Lee, H. (2003). A bibliography of integrated science R., & Sullivan, K. (2007). The National Defense Education Act of 1958:
and mathematics teaching and learning literature, vol. 2: 1991-2001. Selected outcomes. Washington, D.C.: Science & Technology Policy
(School Science and Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, and Institute.
Environmental Education).
Frykholm, J., & Glasson, G. (2005). Connecting mathematics and
Berlin, D. F. & Lee, H. (2005). Integrating mathematics and science
science instruction: Pedagogical context knowledge for teachers. School
education: Historical analysis. School Science and Mathematics,105(1),
Science and Mathematics, 105(3), 127-141.
15-24.
Gibbon, P. & Ponte, S. (2008). Global value chains: From governance to
Berlin, D. F. & White, A. L. (2002). Attitudes toward integration as
governmentality? Economy & Society, 37(3), 365-392.
perceived by preservice teachers enrolled in an integrated mathematics,
science, and technology teacher education program. Science Educator, Gillies, D. (2008). Developing governmentality: Conduct3 and educa-
11(1), 32-40. tional policy. Journal of Educational Policy, 23(4), 415-427.
Berlin, D. F. & White, A. L. (2009). Preservice mathematics and sci- Gould, S. J. (1996, December 5). On the evolution of horses. New York
ence teachers in an integrated teacher preparation program for grades State Writers Institute: University at Albany, SUNY.
7-12: A 3-year study of attitudes and perceptions related to integration.
Haigh, W. & Rehfeld, D. (1995). Integration of secondary mathematics
International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 8, 97-115.
and science methods courses: A model. School Science and Mathematics,
Bossing, N. L. (1955). What is core? School Review, 63, 206-213. 95(5), 240-247.
Briscoe, C. & Stout, D. (1996). Integrating math and science through Harvill, H. (1954). Origins of the core concept. Social Education, 18(4),
problem centered learning in methods courses: Effects on prospective 161-163.
teachers’ understanding of problem solving. Journal of Elementary Science
Hurley, M. M. (2001). Reviewing integrated mathematics and science:
Education, 8(2), 66-87.
The search for evidence and definitions from new perspectives. School
Bybee, R. W. (1993). Reforming science education: Social perspectives and Science and Mathematics, 101(5), 259-268.
personal reflections. New York: Teachers College.
Hurley, M.M. & Padró, F.F. (November 2007). Integrated Methods
Champagne, A.B., Kouba, V.L., & Hurley, M.M. (1999). Assessing Courses: A Survey of Practices in an Adverse Political Climate. Unpublished
inquiry. In J. Minstrell & E. van der Zee (Eds.), Examining inquiry in paper presented at the School Science and Mathematics Association
science teaching and learning, 447-470. Washington, D.C.: American
Annual Conference, Indianapolis, IN.
Association for the Advancement of Science.
Hurley, M. M., & Padró, F. F. (2006). Test anxiety and high stakes
Cody, A. (2013). Technocratic groupthink inflates the testing bubble. In
testing: Pervasive, pernicious, punitive, and policy-driven. International
J. Bower & P.L. Thomas (Eds.), De-testing + degrading schools: Authentic
Journal of Learning, 13(1), 163-170.
alternatives to accountability and standardization. (pp. 44-50). New York:
Peter Lang. Jolly, J.L. (2009). The National Defense Education Act, current STEM
initiative, and the gifted. Gifted Child Today, 32(2), 50-53.
Cohen, M. (1978). Whatever happened to interdisciplinary education?
Educational Leadership, 22-126. Kegan, R., & Lahey, L.L. (November 2001). The real reason people
won’t change. Harvard Business Review, 79(10), 85-92.
Czerniak, C. M., Weber, W.B., Sandmann, A., & Ahern, J. (1999). A
literature review of science and mathematics integration. School Science Kelly, C. (2001). Creating advocates: Building preservice teachers’
and Mathematics, 99(8), 421-430. confidence using an integrated, spiral-based, inquiry approach in
DeBoer, G. E. (1991). A history of ideas in science education: Implications mathematics and science methods instruction. Action in Teacher
for practice. New York: Teacher’s College Press. Education, 23(3), 75-83.

Kolbe, T., & Rice, J.K. (2012). And they’re off: Tracking Federal Race Moseley, C. & Utley, J. (2006). The effect of an integrated science and
to the Top investments from the starting gate. Educational Policy, 26(1), mathematics content-based course on science and mathematics teaching
185-209. efficacy of preservice elementary teachers. Journal of Elementary Science
Education, 18(2), 1-12.
Koirala, H. P. & Bowman, J. K. (2003). Preparing middle level pre-
service teachers to integrate mathematics and science: Problems and Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD].
possibilities. School Science and Mathematics, 103(3), 145-154. (2013). Lessons from PISA 2012 for the United States, Strong Performers
and Successful Reformersin Education. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Kotar, M., Guenter, C. E., Metzger, D., & Overholt, J. L. (1998).
Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264207585-en
Curriculum integration: A teacher education model. Science and
Children, 35(5), 40-43. Owens, T.M. (2009). Improving science achievement through changes
in educational policy. Science Educator, 18(2), 49-55.
Kretschmer, D., Sia, A., & Bagheri, H. (1991). Restructuring teacher edu-
cation: Integrating mathematics/science methods and student teaching — the Padró, F.F. (2013). Accreditation and institutional learning: A stochastic
Northridge experience. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED proposition because it is the cornerstone to an effective quality assur-
338 604) ance system in higher education often pursued from the perspective
of a minimaxing regime, 247-268. In M. Shaw & C.S. Nair (Eds.),
Kuenzi, J. J. (2008 March). Science, Technology, Engineering, and
External quality audits: Has it improved quality assurance in universities?
Mathematics (STEM) education: Background, federal policy, and legislative
Cambridge, UK: Chands Publishing.
action. Congressional Research Service. Retrieved from www.fas.org/sgp/
crs/misc/RL33434.pdf Padró, F.F., & Hurley, M.M. (2005). An example of how meeting
standards biases institutions toward traditional assessment measures:
Lewis, S. P., Alacaci, C., O’Brien, G. E., & Jiang, Z. (2002). Preservice
Preservice science teacher education. In Kandlebinder, P. (Ed.), Making
elementary teachers’ use of mathematics in a project-based science
a difference: 2005 Evaluations and Assessment Conference, November
approach. School Science and Mathematics 102(4), 172-179. 30-December 1, 2005 in Sydney, Australia, 16-23. Sydney: Institute for
Lincoln, Y.S. & Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, Interactive Media and Learning at the University of Technology.
CA: SAGE. Padró, F.F., & Hurley, M.M. (2007). Integrated methods courses: A survey
Lonning, R. A. & DeFranco, T. C. (1994). Development and imple- of practices in an adverse political climate. Paper presented at the School
mentation of an integrated mathematics/science preservice elementary Science and Mathematics Association Conference, Indianapolis, IN,
methods course. School Mathematics and Science, 94(1), 18-25. November15-17, 2007.
Marcuse, H. (1964). One-dimensional man. New York: Beacon Press. Pang, J. S., & Good, R. (2000). A review of the integration of science
and mathematics: Implications for further research. School Science and
McGuinn, P. (2010, December). Creating cover and constructing
Mathematics, 100(2), 73-82.
capacity: Assessing the origins, evolution, and impact of Race to the
Top. Education Stimulus Watch Special Report 6. Washington, DC: Pilotin, M. (2010). Finding a common yardstick: Implementing a
American Enterprise Institute. Retrieved from http://www.aei.org/ national student assessment and school accountability plan through
files/2010/12/09/2010-12-ESW-6-g.pdf state-federal collaboration. California Law Review, 98, 545-574.
McGuinn, P. (2012). Stimulating reform: Race to the Top, competitive Ravitch, D. (2010). The death and life of the great American school
grants and the Obama educational agenda. Educational Policy, 26(1), system: How testing and choice are undermining education. New York:
136-159. Basic Books.
McGinnis, J. R., Parker, C., & Roth-McDuffie, A. (1999). An inves- Stuessy, C. L. (1993). Concept to application: Development of an inte-
tigation in preparing teacher candidates to make connections between grated mathematics/science methods course for preservice elementary
mathematics and science. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. teachers. School mathematics and science, 93(2), 55-62.
ED 429 830) Stuessy, C. L. & Naizer, G. L. (1996). Reflection and problem solv-
McMurrer, J. (2007, December). Choices, changes, and challenges: ing: Integrating methods of teaching mathematics and science. School
Curriculum and instruction in the NCLB era. A report in the series From Mathematics and Science, 96(4), 170-177.
the Capital to the Classroom: Year 5 of the No Child Left Behind Act. Taylor, A.R., Jones, M.G., Broadwell, B. & Oppewal, T. (2008).
Washington, D.C.: Center on Education Policy. Retrieved from www. Creativity, inquiry, or accountability? Scientists’ and teachers’ perception
cep-dc.org of science education. Science Education, 92, 1058-1075.
Miller, K., Metheny, D., & Davison, D. (1997). Issues in integrating U.S. Department of Education. (2009, November). Race to the Top
mathematics and science. Science Educator, 6(1), 16-21. Program Executive Summary. Washington, D.C.: Author. Retrieved

15-01-2013 from http://www2.ed.gov/programs/racetothetop/execu-
tive-summary.pdf
Vars, G. F. (2001). Can curriculum integration survive in an era of high-
stakes testing? Middle School Journal, 33(2), 7-17.
Veenstra, C.P., Padró, F.F., & Furst-Bowe, J.A. (Eds.) (2012). Advancing
the STEM agenda: Quality improvement supports STEM. Milwaukee, WI:
ASQ Press.
Wright, G. S. (1950). Core curriculum in public high schools: An inquiry
into practices, 1949 (Bulletin No. 5). Washington, D.C.: Office of
Education.
Marlene M. Hurley, Ph.D. is a retired profes-

sor of science and education from the State
University of New York’s Empire State College.
She is currently performing a program evalu-
ation of an educational program (funded by
the National Science Foundation) for under-
graduate science students in colleges and
Marlene M. Hurley
universities across the United States. Hurley
currently resides in New York City and can be
reached at [email protected]. The Quality Approaches in Higher
Education is sponsored by
Fernando F. Padró, Ph.D. is currently a senior
lecturer (quality) at the University of Southern
Queensland (USQ), providing conceptual
ASQ’s
and technical assistance to the Learning &
Teaching Support unit’s student-facing and
Education
Fernando F. Padró
academic staff support activities. Padró is
a member of Australia’s Tertiary Education Division
Quality Standards Agency’s (TEQSA) Registry
of Experts (2013-2016) and is co-editor Shaping the Future
with Cindy Veenstra and Julie Furst-Bowe
through Quality
of Advancing the STEM Agenda: Quality
Improvement Supports STEM. Contact him via in Education and
email at [email protected]. Professional Development
Michael F. Hawke, Ph.D. is an associate pro-
To join other people interested in knowledge and
fessor in the department of curriculum and best practices related to quality in education, check
instruction at Tarleton State University. He is out our website at asq.org/edu/index.html
currently the coordinator of the Professional and click on asq.org/join/addforum.html to join the
ASQ Education Division or call 1-800-248-1946.
Development Program in the College of
Education. Hawke’s current research inter-
ests include defining professionalism in the
Michael F. Hawke
teaching profession and determining the most
critical skills needed by first-year teachers. He
is a former middle school and high school
teacher. Hawke can be reached at HAWKE@
tarleton.edu.

Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol 4 No 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol 4 No 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol 4 No 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

December 2013 • Volume 4, No.

The Journal That Connects Quality and Higher Education

2 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

3 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 4 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 5 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 6 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 7 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

there were many Introduction

8 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 9 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 10 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 11 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 12 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

Education Division’s Advancing the STEM Agenda Book

asq.org/edu 13 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

14 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 15 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 16 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 17 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 18 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 19 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

research presents Abstract

20 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 21 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 22 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 23 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 24 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 25 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 26 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 27 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

asq.org/edu 28 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

Marlene M. Hurley, Ph.D. is a retired profes-

asq.org/edu 29 Quality Approaches in Higher Education Vol. 4, No. 2

You might also like