Food Microbiology and

Safety UNIT-2 FOOD SAFETY — BASIC CONCEPTS

Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Food Safety and Importance of Safe Food
2.3 Factors Affecting Food Safety
2.3.1 Physical Hazards
2.3.2 Biological Hazards
2.3.3 Chemical Hazards
2.3.4 Allergens
2.4 Microorganisms in Foods
2.4.1 Bacteria
2.4.2 Fungi
2.4.3 Yeasts
2.4.4 Moulds
2.4.5 Viruses
2.4.6 Parasites
2.5 Recent Concerns of Food Safety
2.5.1 Prions
2.5.2 Concerns of Genetically Modified Foods
2.5.3 Concern of Dioxin-Contaminated Foods
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Glossary
2.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Microorganisms are naturally found in foods since there is no environment where

some type of microbes cannot live. It is important for us to understand that microbes
can spoil the foods, cause food borne diseases and also some of them are useful as
we have already studied in Unit 1. In this unit, we will learn about microorganisms,
which are associated with food and are of concern with respect to food safety. In
addition to microbes, there are physical and chemical agents which can also affect
food safety. We shall also learn about these agents in this unit and focus on the
importance of safe food.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
define food safety and hazards,
discuss the physical, chemical and biological hazards to food safety, and
describe microorgnisms associated with food borne hazards.

2.2 FOOD SAFETY AND IMPORTANCE OF SAFE FOOD

Food safety has always been an important issue. The reasons for this are manifold.
More than ever before, there is a strong consumer awareness of food quality and
safety and this continues to increase. New risks and challenges are emerging as a
26
result of changes in the methods of food production at the farm and processing levels. Food Safety — Basic
Concepts
Further challenges arise from the emergence and re-emergence of food-borne pathogens.
Consumption patterns are changing and consumer demands regarding such issues as
the variety and shelf-life of foods, as well as, the preservation techniques used are
changing. International trade in food has also increased the risk of infectious agents
being disseminated from the original point of production to locations thousands of
kilometers away. The consequence of this is that there is an increased risk to human
health, as well as, implications for international trade in food. As a result, there has
recently been a realization in many countries of the need for an integrated approach
to food safety.

Maintaining food safety and quality, you would agree, is essential in the entire chain
of food production ranging from:

i) primary food production at the level of farmers

ii) primary food processing at the farm, dairy and abattoir and grain mills

iii) secondary food processing level such as canning, freezing, drying and
brewing

iv) food distribution, both at the National and International level of import/export

v) food retailing and food catering, and

vi) domestic food preparation level.

While focusing on food and its safety concerns, an understanding of a few basic terms
used in this context i.e. food safety, food quality, hazard and toxicity, is of utmost
importance. Let us learn about them. We begin with food safety. Food safety is
concerned with acute and chronic hazards that make food injurious to the health of
the consumer.

Food safety can be defined in both absolute and relative terms.

‘Absolute food safety’ is the assurance that damage or injury from use of a
substance is impossible.

‘Relative food safety’ is the assurance that damage or injury will not result from
a food or ingredients used in a reasonable and customary manner and quantity.

An understanding of food safety is improved by defining two other basic concepts –

hazard and toxicity. ‘Hazard’ is the relative probability that harm or injury will result
when the substance is used in a proposed manner and quantity while ‘toxicity’ is the
capacity of a substance to produce harm or injury of any kind under any conditions.
Remember, assessment of whether a food or ingredient is safe should not be based on
its inherent toxicity but on whether or not a hazard is created.

Next, let us understand what is meant by the term ‘food quality’. Food quality refers
to the attributes that influence a products value to a consumer. This includes both
negative attributes such as spoilage, contamination, adulteration, food safety hazards
and positive attributes such as the origin, colour, flavour, texture etc. Another term
which is often used while talking about food safety is ‘food hygiene’. Food hygiene
refers to all conditions and measures necessary to ensure the safety and suitability of
food at all stages of the food chain.

After a comprehensive review of the different terms used in the context of food and
its safety concerns, we will now focus on the importance of safe food and hazards
which are a concern to food safety. 27
Food Microbiology and All of you are aware of the constituents of food and the fact that we need food for
Safety
our survival. You may have also noticed that some of the foods are consumed as such
while others require certain processing, before they are ready for consumption.
Processing of certain foods develop constituents that might be toxic for human
consumption. You might be wondering what these constituents are. The food processes
that might lead to the development of potentially hazardous compounds in foods, or
those that affect its nutritive value include use of agricultural and environmental
chemicals, drugs, synthetic ingredients and fertilizers. The safety of foods, therefore,
is of utmost significance and has gained a worldwide attention.

There are certain specific food safety concerns that differ markedly and include issues
such as additives, drug residues, pesticides, irradiation, fertilizers and other growing
aids, microbiological contamination, food toxicants, adulteration, misbranding etc.
During recent years, newer challenges such as globalization of trade in food,
urbanization, changes in life style, international travel and environmental pollution,
all have further contributed to the concern for food safety. The new World Order and
global environment for food trade places a considerable obligation on the part of both
importing and exporting countries to ensure safety and quality of food.

Apart from all these, one of the major issues that require special focus is the consumer’s
attitude and knowledge about food safety. It is essential to acquire the know-how and
skills necessary to understand and manage food safety hazards. Consumer confidence
in the safety and quality of food supply is an important requirement and consumers
are demanding protection for the whole food supply chain from the primary producer
to the end consumer, often described as ‘from farm or pond to the plate approach’.
However, it is interesting to note that most of the consumers are not concerned about
microbiological contamination and food safety issues. Many households have unsafe
food storage and preparation practices. Consumers rarely consider their own food
practices a hazard. However, food industry is most concerned about the microbiological
safety of its products and many quality control checks are made to ensure that foods
are safe. An elaborate system known as Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
(HACCP) is being employed in recent years by many food industries to minimize the
chances of contamination during processing. What is HACCP and what is its
significance? We will learn about this in Unit 13 later in this course.

It is important to remember that an integrated approach on food safety and

quality facilitates improved consumer protection, reduces incidence of food borne
diseases, effectively stimulates the agriculture and the food processing industry
and promotes domestic and international food trade and improves the economy.
Promoting good manufacturing practices, educating food retailers and consumers about
appropriate food handling are essential for promoting good nutrition and better health.

The discussion above reviewed the importance of safe food. But, how safe is our
food? Do you know what is the biggest threat to food safety? Read the next section
and find out.

2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD SAFETY

There are various factors affecting food safety, the biggest one being ‘food hazard’.
Food hazards means biological, chemical or physical agent in a food, or condition
of a food, with the potential to cause an adverse health effect. If you look at the
definition carefully, you would realize that food hazards are majorly four types
biological, chemical, physical and allergens – as highlighted in Table 2.1 and
Figure 2.1.
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 Table 2.1: Hazards associated with food Food Safety — Basic
Concepts
Physical Biological Chemical Allergens

Natural occurring Chemicals or

poisons of deleterious
biological origin substances

Glass Microbiological Mycotoxins, Veterinary residues, Cereals

Hair Pathogenic Algal toxins Antibiotics containing
Metal Bacteria Growth stimulants gluten; i.e wheat,
Stones Spore- Plasticisers and packaging barely, oats etc.
Plastic forming material Crustaceans and
Parts of Non spore- Chemical Residues product of these
pests forming Pesticides Eggs and egg
Insulation Parasites and Cleaning fluids, Allergens products fish and
material protozoa Toxic metals, Lead and fish products
Bone Viruses cadmium, Food Peanuts,soyabean
Fruit pits chemicals and products of
preservatives, processing these; Milk and
aids, polychlorinated milk products.
biphenyls (PCBs),
printing inks, prohibited

Biological

Chemical Food Physical

Hazards

Allergens

Figure 2.1: Types of Food Hazards

Let us get to know a more about these four hazards.

2.3.1 Physical Hazards

Physical hazards include a variety of materials often referred to as extraneous materials.
It may be defined as any foreign material not normally found in a food, which may
cause illness or injury to the individuals consuming/using the product. They may
cause injury, illness and others may never be noticed. Few of visible physical hazards
are highlighted in Figure 2.2

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Food Microbiology and
Safety

Figure 2.2: Examples of physical hazards

Physical hazards, as you would realize, include non-living things in foods, such as
stones, inedible stones, hair, glass, metal, wood, plastic, insulation material etc. These
materials can become a part of foods from the environment.

Now, how do these get into foods that we eat? Well, there can be many ways. It could
be from the environment in which the foods are grown or contamination could occur
during processing and packaging e.g. iron fillings from worn out machinery, processing
tea. Can you suggest any measure to screen such harmful products?

Yes, the use of electronic metal detector in many food processing operations can help
in detecting and screening harmful metallic pieces. Inspite of availability of various
mechanisms and technologies to prevent the risks caused due to physical contaminants,
foreign / extraneous objects still represent one of the largest categories of complaints
by consumers. Hence, it is the job of the government and industry to ensure that these
risks are minimal and acceptable.

Let us look at the biological hazards next.

2.3.2 Biological Hazards

Among the biological hazards the major concern is from microorganisms. Few of the
microbiological hazards are highlighted in Figure 2.3.

Biological hazards, as you can see in Figure 2.3, include bacterial, fungal, viral and
parasitic organisms (protozoa and worms) and/or their toxins. There are many
microorganisms, which are pathogenic to humans, but relatively few are associated
with foods. These are highlighted in Table 2.2. These microorganisms that cause
diseases are termed as ‘food-borne pathogens’. There are three types of food-borne
disease from microbial pathogens: infections, intoxications and toxic infections. We
will learn about these food borne diseases later in Unit 5. You would realize that
diseases caused by these organisms are sometimes incorrectly called food poisoning.
30
Infections result from the ingestion of live pathogenic organisms which multiply Food Safety — Basic
within the body and produce disease. While intoxications occur when toxins produced Concepts
by pathogens are ingested. You must remember that intoxications can occur even if
no viable microorganisms are ingested. Can you suggest how this is possible? Well,
this often occurs when foods are stored under conditions which allow the pathogens
to grow and produce toxin. It is interesting to note that subsequent processing of food
may destroy the microorganisms but not the toxin. So take care.

Figure 2.3: Biological hazards in foods

Table 2.2: Hazardous microorganisms and parasites along with their commonly affected
foods

S.No Organisms Foods Implicated

1. Clostridium botulinum types Meat, fish, low or medium acid canned foods,
A, B, E, and F home canned products

2. Salmonella spp. (Salmonella Eggs, meat and meat products, bakery

typhi: Salmonella paratyphi) products, dairy products (esp. ice-cream)

3. Shigella spp. Shellfish, fruits and vegetables, chicken salad

4. Clostridium perfringenes Raw meat, poultry and their products

5. Staphylococcus aureus Custard, cream, bakery foods, poultry, ham,

dairy products( especially. khoa)

6. Bacillus cereus Cereal dishes, puddings, mashed potatoes,

sauces, soups

7. Vibrio cholerae 01, non-01 Water, potatoes, eggs, asparagus, salads,

Vibro vulnificus seafood (shrimps, oysters, clams, crabs,
Vibrio parahaemolyticus lobsters and related shellfish), finfish,
Listeria monocytogenes milk and milk products, raw meat and poultry
products, fruit and vegetables, salads, seafood
8. Enterovirulent Escherichia Cream pie, mashed potatoes, meat, poultry,
coli (EEC) dairy products like cheese

9. Campylobacter jejuni Dressed chicken, meat dishes, raw milk, raw

poultry

10. Yersinia enterocolitica Dairy products, egg products, raw meat and
poultry, raw vegetables 31
Food Microbiology and
Safety 11. Brucella abortis; B suis Milk and milk products, raw meat

12. Viruses (Hepatitis A and E, Shellfish, raw fruits and vegetables, salads
Rotavirus, Norwalk virus sandwiches, potatoes, lettuce, coleslaw
group)

13. Entamoeba histolytica Water, raw fruits and vegetables

14. Diphyllobothrium latum Fish

15. Cryptosporidium paruum Raw fruits and vegetables, salads

16. Giardia lambea Water, lettuce, raw fruits and vegetables

17. Taenia saginata, Taenia solium Meat (beef and pork)

18. Trichinella spiralis Raw pork, meat products

Having looked at the biological hazards let us get to know the chemical hazards to
food safety.

2.3.3 Chemical Hazards

A chemical hazard is any chemical contaminant introduced in food system which may
cause illness or injury to the individuals using the product. Few of the chemical
hazards includes pesticides and residues, veterinary residues, colours, cleaning
chemicals, adulterants etc. which are highlighted in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Examples of chemical hazards

Chemicals which cause a harmful response when consumed by animals or humans are
said to be toxic. How do we know that a particular compound is toxic or not? It might
surprise you that almost everything can be considered a toxicant, without regard for
the origin of the substance. The factors which determine the toxicity are the dosage
or the amount of exposure and potency of the chemical.
Food borne toxicants can be divided into 3 categories as shown in Table 2.3. The
examples of the chemicals in each category are also indicated.
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 Table 2.3: Types of chemical hazards Food Safety — Basic
Concepts
Food Borne Toxicants

Naturally Occurring Chemicals Unintentional Chemicals Intentional Chemicals

Found in plants, microorganisms Lead, Polychlorinated Food additives, pesticides,
and animals e.g. mycotoxins, biphenyls (PCBs) and drugs
histamine, mushroom toxins, paralysis products etc.
shellfish toxins etc.

A detailed discussion on each of these three chemical food hazards, is presented in

Unit 6, later in this course.
Next, let us move on to the fourth food hazard i.e., Allergens.
2.3.4 Allergense
Food allergens have become increasingly important because they can represent a
serious health hazard to consumers. What these allergens are? Let us discuss in
details. 'An allergens is normally, any harmless substance that cause as immediate
allergic reaction in a susceptible person'. Food allergens are almost always protein
although other food constituents, such as certain additives are known to have allergenic
(allergy-causing) properties.
These allergens when ingested cause food allergy in human. Do you know, what is
food allergy? Basically food allergy is a potentially serious immune response to eating
or otherwise coming into contact with certain food additives. Food allergy symptoms
include: wheezing or breathing problems, stomach cramps, vomiting, diarrhea, hives,
rashes or eczema, whereas, severe allergic reactions can cause death.
A food allergy occurs when the immune system:
Identifies a particular food protein as danegerous and create antibodies against it.
The next time the individual eats that food, immune system tries to protect the
body against the danger by releasing massive amount of chemicals including
Histamine.
Histamine is a powerful chemical that can cause a reaction in the respiratory
system, gasterointestinal tract, skin or cardiovascular system.
In the most extreme cases, food allergy can be fatal. Although any food can
provoke an immune response in allergic individuals, a few foods are responsible
for the majority of food allergies.
Which foods and ingredients are known to cause hypersensitivity? Well these include:
cereals containing gluten, milk and milk products (lactose containing), fish and their
products, peanuts, soyabean etc. Some of allergens are highlighted in Figure 2.5

Figure 2.5: Food Allergens 33

Food Microbiology and So we now know that along with physical and chemical hazards the microorganisms
Safety present in food are the culprit. We shall briefly discuss the classification, morphology,
growth and reproduction of a few important microorganisms in the next section. But
for now, let us answer the questions given in the check your progress exercise 1.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Define the following terms:
a) Food Safety
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
b) Food Hazards
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
2) Differentiate between the terms ‘toxicity’ and ‘hazard’?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
3) What are the common hazards to food safety?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
4) What is a physical hazard? How do harmful products enter food?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
5) How can you classify chemical hazards? Give examples.
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
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 Food Safety — Basic
2.4 MICROORGANISMS IN FOODS Concepts

We shall now discuss the different types of biological hazards and the important
microorganisms that can lead to food borne illnesses and eventually act as a major
concern in food safety. In sub-section 2.3.2 we learnt that biological hazards include
bacteria, viruses, moulds and fungi. Let us get to know them. We will begin with the
most common and important one, i.e. bacteria.

2.4.1 Bacteria
Have you ever looked at the bacteria under the microscope? How do they look like?
Yes, they look like the structures presented in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6: The bacteria

Bacteria are the organisms characterized by small size, approximately 0.5 to 2.5 µm
in diameter and unicellular in nature. The major characteristics of bacterial cells are
their size, shape, structure and arrangements. There are three distinct forms listed
herewith and also highlighted in Figure 2.6:
bacilli (singular, bacillus meaning little)
cocci (singular coccus meaning berry) or cylindrical or rod-shaped cells; and
spiral forms, curved rods or spiral cells.
The most common of all the three forms is the bacillus i.e. the rod-shaped bacteria,
which is cylindrical and may vary considerably in length and breadth according to the
species. The rod-like cells may be straight or slightly curved as can be seen in Figure
2.6. Next, comes the coccus and the least common form is the spiral in which the cell
is curved spirally. Although these three forms are well recognized, there are variations
of these shapes. The shape of each of the species of bacteria also does not always
maintain a definite shape at all times. Some species even exhibit a variety of shapes.
Next, let us look at the arrangement and structure of bacterial cells.
The arrangement of bacterial cells
The bacterial cells are arranged in a characteristic manner according to the species.
The cocci exist either singly, or in pairs or in long chains depending upon the manner 35
Food Microbiology and in which they divide and then adhere to each other after division, whereas, the bacilli
Safety can be seen as a single cell, in pairs or in short or long chains. The length of cocci
chains is an identifiable characteristic but in case of bacilli, it is not so.
The spiral bacterial cells sometimes adhere together in S-shaped strands, (vibrios),
spirilla (singular, spirillum) are actually like spirals and spirochetes, which are different
from spirilla which possesses flexible cell walls.
Next, let us study about the bacterial cell structure.

The bacterial cell structure

A typical bacterial cell is shown in Figure 2.7. Like other living cells, a bacterial cell
essentially has an outer wall or a membrane, cytoplasm and nuclear material. The
outer part of the bacterial cell is made up of cell wall, cytoplasmic membrane and
slime layer. The cell wall gives shape to the cell and it is made up of proteins and
complex carbohydrates or polysaccharides, large amounts of fat or lipid may also be
present. Apart from giving protection to the cytoplasm, the cell wall also plays a role
in cell division. It also regulates the passage of various materials between the external
and internal environment. The slime layer is like a jelly which surrounds the bacteria.
In some bacteria, the slime becomes very thick and covers the bacteria. It is
known as a capsule. The slime layer gives some protection to the bacteria against
invasion.

Figure 2.7: The structure of bacterial cell

The cytoplasmic membrane, which is inside the cell wall, initiates the cell division
and also controls the entrance of food into cells and clearing the waste products. The
cytoplasm is a complex substance containing the nuclear body, which is rich in
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribosomes, which consists of ribonucleic acid (RNA),
combined with protein and a fluid portion which contains various dissolved nutrients.
The nuclear body is involved in reproduction while ribosomes are involved in protein
synthesis.

Many bacteria can swim by the means of small appendages called ‘flagella’ (flagellum,
singular) as illustrated in Figure 2.7. In bacteria, this is the only means of locomotion.
They are usually several times the length of the cell body but are extremely thin. The
flagella of the motile bacteria are distributed over the surface depending on the bacteria.
In some cases, they may be found all over the surface of the cell or they may be
restricted to one or both ends.

Having learnt about the structure of the bacteria cell, next we will look at the growth
mechanism of bacteria i.e. how does the bacteria multiply?
36
The growth of bacteria Food Safety — Basic
Concepts
The growth of bacteria can be defined as an increase in mass of bacteria per unit
volume of medium. The bacteria divides by binary fission i.e. a division of cell
produces two new cells, which are assumed to be nearly identical in all relevant
properties.

Under favourable conditions of moisture, pH, nutrition and temperature, the growth
of bacteria takes place. There are several factors like exhaustion of food supply,
accumulation of waste products etc. which can limit the growth of bacteria. The
growth of bacteria is generally expressed as a growth curve in which there are four
principal stages viz. (1) lag phase, (2) logarithmic or exponential phase, (3) the
stationary phase, and (4) the death phase. A few viable cells from a culture incubated
in a suitable medium at the optimum temperature generally go through these four
phases. Figure 2.8 shows a hypothetical bacterial growth curve, depicting the four
phases. The growth/ increase in the number of bacteria is calculated as CFU/ml, i.e.
Colony Forming Units or the total number of colonies formed per ml of the medium
in which the bacterial cells were originally inoculated.

Figure 2.8: Four phases of bacterial growth

Let us discuss these phases in detail.

Lag phase: During the initial lag phase i.e. in a period of one to few hours, there
may be little or no increase in the cells. But when the growth begins, due to cell
division, the cells may proliferate rapidly at regular intervals.
Logarithmic (Log phase): In this phase, the cells multiply logarithmically i.e.
one cell dividing to 2 cells and then 2 cells to 4 cells etc. as you can see in the
Figure 2.8. The average generation time is mostly constant for a given species
under similar conditions.
Stationary (resting) phase: As indicated in Figure 2.8, in this phase, after rapid
growth, the cell multiplication gets stagnant due to the exhaustion of nutrients
or accumulation of waste products or any other facts. The stationary phase can
be maintained for hours or days by the majority of the cells remaining viable
without further growth or by balance between the death of some cells and the
continued division of others.
Decline or death phase: In this phase, the cell death occurs due to build up of
toxic waste products, when the medium is not changed, as it has become incapable
of supporting further growth.
We have looked at the growth of bacteria above, while on the topic of bacteria, you
may have also heard about endospores. What are these? Let us find out next.
37
Food Microbiology and The endospore
Safety
Some bacteria like Bacillus or Clostridium produce resting structures known as
endospores, which are produced within the cell, one spore is formed within a single
bacterial cell. These are the highly resistant bodies. The endospore is physiologically
dormant and it can resist extremely unfavourable conditions, both physical and chemical,
like heat, UV light and chemicals. When conditions are favourable, these spores will
germinate and produce fresh vegetative cells. This process of sporulation is a mode
of reproduction. Endospores can be quite harmful.

Before moving on to the discussion on other microorganisms, let us quickly review

what we have learnt so far.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Fill in the blanks:
i) The three distinct forms of bacteria are............................, ........................
and .............................................. .
ii) .................... is a resting structure produced within the cell and can resist
extremely unfavourable conditions.
iii) The ingestion of live pathogenic organisms which multiply and produce
disease is referred to as ........................................while ingestion of toxins
produced by pathogens is ............................................. .
iv) A complex substance containing a nuclear body is ............................ .
v) The only means of locomotion in bacteria is .................................. .
2) List the different parts of a bacterial cell. Give the functions of cell wall.
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
3) Describe the stages of bacterial growth.
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................

2.4.2 Fungi
Fungi exhibit a wide range of different forms, which includes moulds, yeasts and
mushrooms. The important forms are yeasts, which are unicellular and the moulds,
which are filamentous and multi-cellular. Mushrooms in addition to being filamentous
and multi-cellular, have a definite fruiting body, which is quite prominent. Let us get
to know about these different fungi. We start with yeast.

2.4.3 Yeasts
The yeast cells, in general, are round, egg-shaped, cylindrical or filamentous. The
yeast cells are generally much larger than the bacterial cells, which range from 3-5
38
µm wide by 5-10 µm long and they exist as single cells. The reproductive processes Food Safety — Basic
in the case of yeast cells are by the process known as budding. Although in certain Concepts
yeasts, the process is by way of fission as in bacteria. The budding process involves
the bulging of protoplasm outwardly and as the bulge grows in size, it separates from
the parent cell after attaining maturity as illustrated in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9:The budding process of the yeast

Some types of yeasts reproduce sexually also and are known as ‘true yeasts’. In this
process, the cells serve as ascus (sac). Here the nucleus undergoes division without
the participation of the cell wall forming spores within the ascus. The spores of yeast
are also resistant to some adverse conditions but get destroyed at temperatures above
60°C, whereas, the bacterial spores you learnt earlier are quite resistant to higher
temperature. Next let us get to know about the moulds.

2.4.4 Moulds
The term mould is used to describe certain multi-cellular fungi consisting of a
filamentous branching growth known as a mycelium, which is composed of individual
filaments called ‘hyphae’ (singular, hypha) as illustrated in Figure 2.10. Depending on
the location, the aerial mycelium carries fertile hyphae which acts as a reproductive
organ while the remainder of the mycelium absorbs food and moisture necessary for
growth.

Figure 2.10: The hyphae

In moulds, reproduction is mainly by sexual spores. Based on the manner and type
in which the spores are formed, moulds are classified as:
39
Food Microbiology and i) Phycomycetes
Safety
ii) Ascomycetes
iii) Basidiomycetes
iv) Fungi Imperfecti
Let us discuss each of the class in detail.

i) Phycomycetes
The moulds belonging to the group of phycomycetes contain several genera.
These moulds produce hyphae, which are not divided into typical uninucleate
cells and thus have no cross walls (septa). These non-septate hyphae have nuclei
scattered throughout their length. Phycomycetes, which are commonly found on
food, are members of the sub-class zygomycetes. The two most commonly found
genera of this group are genus Mucor and genus Rhizopus. These moulds possess
hyphae that although apparently alike, are able to conjugate and form a zygospore
(sexual spores) as shown in Figure 2.11(a).

Species of Mucor genus are present in soil, organic matter, fruits, vegetables,
stored grains and other foods. Mucor species plays a role in the fermentation of
foods and have a commercial value as you may recall reading earlier in Unit 1.
They sometimes cause spoilage of foods. Species of Rhizopus are commonly
associated with the spoilage of stored foods (e.g. spoilage of bread by R.stolonifer).

ii) Ascomycetes
These moulds have septate hyphae and multiply asexually by separation at the
tips of fertile hyphae (conidiophores) to produce spores known as ‘conidia’,
formed either singly, in chains or in irregular clusters on the condiophores. In
the ascomycetes, the sexual spores are termed as ‘ascopores’. These are formed
following the union of two cells from the same mycelium or from two different
mycelia. A number of ascospores, usually eight, are subsequently formed within
a sac known as ‘ascus’. Figure 2.11(b) illustrates the ascus with 3 ascospores. The
organisms of importance which belong to this group of genus are Claviceps,
Neurospora, Sclerotina and Byssochlamys.

Figure 2.11: Mould spore types

iii) Basidiomycetes
This group also contains septate hyphae and forms spores, usually, four in number
as shown in Figure 2.11(c). Most of the edible mushrooms belong to this class
and the spores are produced in a club-shaped structure known as ‘basidium’. The
spores are called basidiospores.

Most of the edible species of mushrooms are the members of the genus Agaricus.
In America, the commercial production is dominated by the species Agaricus
bisporus. In East Asia, especially in Japan, Lentinus edodes, which is grown on
tree tops, is popular. In India, the oyster mushrooms are increasingly accepted as
a source of food and considered a delicacy.
40
iv) Fungi imperfecti Food Safety — Basic
Concepts
This group of fungi is known as the fungi imperfecti, as the sexual stage of
reproduction of many strains are yet to be discovered. Fungi imperfecti produces
characteristic conidiophores and conidia. The organisms of importance of this
class are Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Botrytis, Cladosporium
etc. The Aspergillus and Penicillium species are most commonly found and are
the significant storage fungi responsible for the spoilage of foods.

2.4.5 Viruses
Till the presence of viruses was demonstrated by Iwanowski in 1892, bacteria were
considered the lowest forms of life. Viruses are called as ‘obligate intracellular
parasites’, since they are unable to carry out any of the typical life functions until
they are inside a host cell. Once inside the host cell, they thrive and direct the host
cell to produce more viruses. As long as the virus is outside the host cell, it is known
as ‘vision’.

The viruses are minute when compared to bacteria. Except for a few, viruses like the
cow pox virus, used in vaccination against small pox is 0.3 µm, whereas, the smallest
type, like the foot and mouth disease virus is about 0.01 µm. Note, they are so small
that they cannot be seen under an electron microscope.

The viruses consist of a protein layer, capsid, surrounding nucleic acid comprising
either RNA or DNA. The important characteristic of viruses is that they are host-
specific. Most viruses infect only one species, either animal or plant or else only very
closely related species. The mammalian viruses do not affect any plant e.g. the polio
virus infects humans and monkey and does not affect other animals, whereas, the
tobacco mosaic virus, which attacks plants, does not affect humans.

Viruses are killed in a few minutes under pasteurization temperature i.e. 62°C for
30 minutes. They are affected by general disinfectants like phenols, formaldehyde,
halogens and cresols. To a certain extent, soaps and detergents inactivate them and
UV light destroys all viruses. They are not affected by antibiotics unlike bacteria.
Viruses are known to cause illness although they do not grow on foods or produce
toxins in foods. Food items merely act as a vehicle for their transfer. They are the
intestinal or enteric type and are food borne. They spread from the hands of human
carriers and from water to foods. The presence of viruses in foods, especially the shell
fish grown in sewage polluted water, could be the significant route of illness in man.
Other foods like fruits and vegetables contaminated by faeces and salad preparations
using contaminated vegetables have been implicated in several outbreaks of food
borne diseases. The hepatitis A virus, which causes jaundice, spreads through foods
but the etiology is difficult to establish, as it has a long incubation period, ranging
from 15-50 days.

Having looked at viruses, we move on to parasites, which are the last of the biological
hazards discussed in this section.

2.4.6 Parasites
Parasite, as you may already know, is a plant or animal that at some stage of its
existence obtains its nourishment from another living organism called the host.

Several foods act as carriers of parasites, which may cause illness when ingested. The
parasitic infections of foods may occur due to contamination of food by a food
handler directly or by polluted waters. In many parts of the world, the consumption
of under-cooked meat and fish are popular. The problem of contamination with parasites
can occur when the food preparation is made with polluted water and under-cooking 41
Food Microbiology and prevents the parasites from destruction. Amoebic infection is the most important
Safety parasitic infection through contaminated food. Let us learn about the different parasites.

A) Amoeba: Entamoeba histolytica, a protozoan, is the cause of amoebiasis, which

is very common in a tropical country like India. Figure 2.12 illustrates entamoeba
histolytica. About 15% of the population suffers from this disease. The disease
is transmitted at 60°C through infected cyst. It remains viable only in moist form
and gets destroyed at 60°C and at freezing conditions beyond 24 hours.

Figure 2.12: The Amoeba

The foods like vegetables from fields irrigated with sewage polluted water are the
vehicles of transmission. They get contaminated with amoebic cysts through polluted
water and infected handlers. Viable cysts have been found on the hands and under the
finger nails of the carriers. The common pests like flies, cockroaches and rodents may
also harbour the cysts and contaminate food and drinks. The symptoms of diarrhoea
occur from several days to 4 weeks after ingestion of the contaminated food. The
prevention of amoebiasis is by using food procured from reliable sources, preparing
food in potable water and adequate cooking and proper storage after preparation. Use
of filtered / boiled water, disinfection of uncooked vegetables with an aqueous solution
of iodine around 200 ppm or acetic acid (5-10%) or full strength vinegar are the
recommended measures to minimize the problem.

B) Giardia: The disease giardiasis is caused by the flagellated protozoan Giardia

lamblia illustrated in Figure 2.13. This disease occurs in the areas where poor
sanitary conditions prevail and it affects mostly children. The cyst of this organism
is absorbed through the intestinal walls and the affected person excretes Giardia
cysts in faeces.

Figure 2.13: Giardia

The cysts get transferred to food when contaminated water is used for washing the
vegetables. Consumption of such food containing the cysts leads to infection. The
incubation period ranges between 2-25 days and the symptoms include discomfort,
42 nausea and diarrhoea. Infected persons may simply be the carriers and may not always
exhibit symptoms. The disease can be prevented by adopting good personal habits and Food Safety — Basic
proper faecal disposal methods and protecting the water supplies from faecal Concepts
contamination.

C) Trichinella: The disease trichinosis is caused by the nematode, Trichinella spiralis.

Figure 2.14 illustrates the nematode. It is one of the commonly found parasitic
food borne infections in the populations consuming principally the undercooked
pork.

Figure 2.14: Trichinella spiralis

The parasite enters the human host in the form of larvae, which are released and enter
the duodenum, producing larvae which gain entry into the blood stream and encyst
in the muscle. The symptoms appear normally 2 days to one week after ingestion of
the contaminated food with the larvae. The symptoms include fever, abdominal pain,
nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. In some cases, oedema of face and hands is also
observed. The prevention of trichinosis is ensured when the food is thoroughly cooked
to a temperature of 60°C, which destroys the larvae. The meat has to be cooked till
it imparts a grey colour. The parasite is also destroyed when held at temperatures
below –25°C or lower, for 10 days.

With this, we end our discussion on the biological hazards.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) Fill in the blanks:
a) The different forms of fungi are............................... , .............................
and ............................................... .
b) The reproductive process of yeast is termed as................................. .
c) Mycelium is composed of individual filaments called as................ .
d) Viruses are called ...................parasites, as they are unable to carry out
typical life functions until they are inside a host cell.
e) .................................................is the protein capsule of the virus.
f) .................................. is a disease caused by a flagellated protozoan.
2) Classify moulds and explain how they differ in reproductive process.
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
43
Food Microbiology and
Safety 3) Give an example to show that viruses are host-specific.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
4) How are viral diseases spread?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
5) List some ways by which parasitic infections may occur.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
6) Name a few diseases which are caused due to parasitic infections.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

In the section above, we learnt about the microorganisms in food. Globalization in

world’s food supply has resulted in the introduction of new pathogens and hazards
into human and animal population. What are these recent concerns to food safety? We
will learn about this interesting aspect in the next section.

2.5 RECENT CONCERNS OF FOOD SAFETY

The rising worldwide human travel and global distribution of food is facilitating the
introduction and flow of pathogens and other hazards into human and animal
populations. Further, global sourcing can also move pathogens and toxins from areas
in which they are indigenous to places in which they have not previously existed.
Food safety issues such as debate over organic foods, genetically modified foods, the
incidence of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), dioxin-contaminated foods
are causing heightened consumer concern about food safety worldwide today. What
are these concerns all about? Let us find out.

2.5.1 Prions
In recent times, Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) and Creutzfeldt-Jakob
Disease (CJD) have been the highly publicized food safety hazard. You may recall
reading about the mad-cow disease and large number of diseased cattle being destroyed
in the UK, or about the ban on British beef worldwide. Why was this action being
taken? What was the hazard? The hazard was from the Prions (pronounced pree-
ahns). Prions entered the public’s consciousness during the mad cow epidemic that hit
England in 1986. What are Prions? Prions, the cause of BSE and CJD, are an entirely
new source of food borne diseases. Prions, is the abbreviation of proteinaceous particles.
The word ‘Prion’ was coined by Dr. Stanley Prusiner to indicate that this disease was
caused by a “proteinaceous infectious agent.” Prions, in fact, are modified forms of
44
a normal protein called as PrPC. The protein that causes this and all other prion Food Safety — Basic
diseases is called PrPSC, which stands for prion protein of scrapie. Prions enter cells Concepts
and apparently convert normal proteins found within the cells into prions just like
themselves. The proteins accumulate in the brain causing holes or plaques and the
subsequent clinical symptom leading to death. The medical term for the prion diseases
is “spongiform encephalopathies,” in acknowledgement that the sick brains are riddled
with holes and have taken the form of sponges. Transmissible spongiform
encephalopathy in animals and humans are caused by prions. Prions, therefore, can be
infectious and can cause infectious diseases. The second and potentially more troubling
aspect is that, like other infectious agents, prions can jump species’ barriers and cause
deadly diseases in humans. Only time will tell how big a problem the prions will be
both as the agents of dreadful diseases of the human nervous system and as vectors
of diseases from other species.

BSE was first confirmed in cattle in 1986 in UK. It is commonly accepted that BSE
was first caused in Britain when cattle were fed carcass meal from scrapie infected
sheep. Since 1999, other countries in Europe e.g., Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany,
Ireland, Italy, Netherland, Portugal etc. have reported confirmed cases of BSE. Humans
contracted the non-classic form of CJD, called new variant CJD (vCJD) after consuming
cattle meat, in particular, the nervous tissue.

Let us get to know about these illnesses.

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), is commonly known as mad-cow disease.

It is a progressive neurological disorder of cattle that results from an infection by an
unconventional transmissible agent. BSE is one of a group of diseases that affect a
number of different mammals. These diseases, known as Transmissible Spongiform
Encephalopathies (TSEs), or Prion Diseases, result from the build-up of abnormal
prion proteins in the brain and nervous system. BSE attacks the brain and central
nervous system of the animal and eventually causes death. Research has shown that
TSEs have two characteristics in common: they can be transmitted between animals,
and they cause the same spongy decay of brain tissues. A commonly occurring
prion disease is scrapie. The symptoms commonly associated with it are disorientation,
clumsiness and occasionally, aggressive behaviour towards other animals and
humans.

What caused the disease? Most experts agree that the BSE was spread by cattle eating
feed that contained meat-and-bone meal (MBM), which contained BSE infected parts
of other grazing animals. MBM is produced in a process called rendering, this is
where otherwise unused meat products are taken from the animal carcass and turned
into cattle feed. Cattle can contract BSE if they are fed infected brain tissue. Thus,
it is presumed that BSE was transmitted to cattle through their animal feed.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)

The most commonly known disease in prion diseases group among humans is
Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD). This is a rare and fatal form of dementia and mainly
occurs in individuals between the ages of 40 and 80. In 1996, scientists discovered
a new strain of CJD that occurs predominantly in younger people.

More recent evidence has shown that the protein that accumulates in the brains of
individuals with this new form of CJD is similar to the protein found in cattle infected
with BSE, rather than that found in classical CJD. Because of this newly discovered
difference, the new illness in humans is known as variant CJD or vCJD. The occurrence
of a new form of CJD in the UK, where there is a high incidence of BSE, suggested
that there might be a direct link between the two diseases. Some cases that have
45
Food Microbiology and developed vCJD are known to have eaten BSE-infected meat. Like BSE in cattle,
Safety vCJD is always fatal in people.

How does an individual get infected by vCJD? As discussed earlier, a victim of vCJD
becomes infected through consumption of cattle products contaminated with the BSE
agent. What are the symptoms and consequences? Generally, vCJD patients show
atypical clinical features with prominent psychiatric or sensory symptoms, with delayed
onset of neurological abnormalities, including ataxia within weeks or months, dementia
and myoclonus late in the illness.

Next, who are the most at risk of this disease? The risk to travelers (who visit the
countries where outbreaks of BSE have taken place) and importers (who import beef
and beef products from countries where vCJD cases have been reported) is the most.
As far as travelers are concerned, the risk can be controlled by avoiding beef and beef
products altogether or by selecting solid muscle pieces of beef with less chance of
contamination and avoiding calf brains and burgers and sausages. Milk and milk
products are reported to be safe, as these pose no risk for transmitting the BSE agent.

The countries that import beef and beef products from countries where cases of vCJD
have been reported need to exercise control measures to ensure that the disease is not
transmitted to the importing country. Severe restrictions need to be imposed on
importation of live ruminants, such as cattle, sheep and goats and certain remnant
products from countries where BSE is known to exist. Avoiding beef and beef products
altogether by selecting solid muscle pieces of beef with less chances of contamination
and avoiding calf brains and burgers and sausages can control entry of infected foods.

Having looked at the concern from prions, next let us critically analyze the use of
genetically modified foods.

2.5.2 Concerns of Genetically Modified (GM) Foods

The benefits of genetically modified foods have been discussed earlier in Unit 1,
section 1.3. However, in the context of genetically modified foods, concern from
environmental, food safety and ethical angles have been raised. Further, concerns
related to nutrient aspect of GM foods, elimination, loss, reduction or increase in
micronutrients due to genetic modification and increase in anti-nutritional factors
need to be addressed.

Issues of concern to environment include the capability of the GM organism to escape

and introduce the engineered gene into wild population (cross breeding) through
pollen drift leading to loss of biodiversity. The transgenic material from GM maize
cultivated by a farmer could be transferred in non-GM maize cultivated in the
neighbouring farmer’s field without his knowledge. There could be the possibility of
development of resistance in the target organism. This is particularly true for cotton
crop insects.

Concerns from the health angle include toxicity, allergenicity, nutritional imbalance,
possible gene transfer such as antibiotic resistant gene to gut flora which could adversely
affect the therapeutic efficacy of orally administered antibiotics, unintentional effects
in the form of acquisition of new traits or loss of existing traits and use of unapproved
varieties like Star Link maize. Concerns of ethical nature have been raised from
vegetarian groups on using animal genes in plants.

Thus, the risk and uncertainties surrounding the process of genetic engineering and
the resulting GM product has resulted in considerable public debate and consumer
groups have been vociferous in demanding labeling of GM products. In India, the
Policy on GM foods is under active consideration by the Government at the highest
46 level and is likely to emerge soon.
Like prions, dioxin-contaminated foods are causing consumer concern. What are Food Safety — Basic
dioxins? Let us find out. Concepts

2.5.3 Concern of Dioxin-Contaminated Foods

Dioxin has been discovered in chickens. In 1998, unacceptable levels of dioxin were
found in milk produced in the North of France. The source of this contamination was
several incinerators that had polluted the surrounding grazing land. Dioxin spewing
out of the incinerator plants settled on the grass. It then got chewed by the cows where
it was concentrated mainly in their fat deposits and from there into their milk.
What are dioxins and why are they harmful and a concern for food safety? Dioxin and
related compounds, i.e. polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDDs), polychlorinated
dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), are halogenated
aromatic compounds which are industrial pollutants that persist in the environment.
In addition to cancer, dioxins have been linked to adverse human health effects such
as developmental, immunologic and endocrine toxicity. The major environmental
sources of dioxin and dioxin-like compounds (referred to simply as “dioxins”) are
emissions from combustion, incineration, any industrial processes using chlorine, paper
mills, fireplaces, grass fires etc. The aerial transport of these emissions is the primary
pathway dioxins enter the terrestrial environment and food chain.
How do dioxins enter the human diet? Dioxins are lipophilic (fat-loving) compounds
which accumulate in the fat of animals. Hence, the types of foods which tend to have
the highest dioxin concentrations are dairy products, meat and poultry, eggs, fish and
animal fats. Green vegetables, fruits and grains, on the other hand, are the types of
foods with the lowest dioxin concentrations
How do foods and animals become contaminated with dioxin and related compounds?
Deposition of airborne dioxins onto plant and soil surfaces, and subsequent ingestion
of this contaminated vegetation and soil by food animals, is considered the primary
pathway by which dioxins enter the food chain. The levels produced in this way are
considered background levels. Fish become contaminated due to airborne dioxin
deposition into the water and also from contaminated soil or industrial waste washed
into rivers and lakes, leading to high sediment concentrations. Inhalation and water
pathways are not considered significant sources of exposure for terrestrial animals.
Contamination above background levels can occur if food animals are fed products
which are adulterated, either by natural or unnatural means, with high concentrations
of dioxins.
You will get to learn more about dioxins later in Unit 6 on Food contaminants. The
discussion above presented a brief review on the recent concern on food safety. A
study on food hazards would not have been completed without a review on these
recent concerns.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1) What are ‘prions’? Name any two diseases caused by prions.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
2) What are the health-related concerns of GM foods?
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
47
Food Microbiology and
Safety 3) What are ‘dioxins’ and comment on their food safety risks?
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................

2.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we looked at the concept of food safety and the importance of safe food
and the hazards which are a concern to food safety.

Then we studied about some of the important microorganisms, their structure, mode
of reproduction and diseases spread by them. We also discussed about favourable and
unfavourable conditions that affect the growth of these microorganisms.

The last part of the unit focused on recent concerns of food safety. Prions, dioxin-
contaminated foods and concerns related to genetically modified foods were highlighted
in this section.

2.7 GLOSSARY
Budding : the asexual reproductive process of yeast involving the
bulging of protoplasm outwards and its separation from
the cell, on maturation.
Endospore : resting structure of bacteria.
Flagella : small appendages, which help the bacteria to swim.
Food quality : the attributes that influence a products’ value to a
consumer.
Infections : these occur on the ingestion of live pathogenic organisms
which multiply within the body.
Intoxications : these occur on ingestion of toxins that are produced by
pathogens.
Mycelium : filamentous branching growth of multicellular fungi.
Scrapie : an old disease, recognized in sheep and goats for more
than 250 years. In 1982, it was first identified as a prion
disease.
Toxicity : the capacity of a substance to produce harm or injury of
any kind under any conditions.

2.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) a) Food safety can be defined in absolute and relative terms. Absolute food
48 safety is the assurance that the damage or injury from use of a substance
 is impossible. Relative food safety is the assurance that damage or injury Food Safety — Basic
will not result from a food or ingredients used in a reasonable and customary Concepts
manner and quality.

b) A biological, physical or chemical agent in a food, or a condition of food,

with a potential to cause an adverse health effect is referred to as a food
hazard.

2) Hazard is the relative probability that harm or injury will result when a substance
is used in a proposed manner and quantity while toxicity is the capacity of a
substance to produce harm or injury of any kind under any conditions.

3) Physical, chemical and biological hazards are the three common hazards to food
safety.

4) Physical hazard is any foreign material not normally found in a food, which may
cause illness or injury to the individual consuming / using the product. Examples
include stone, button, hair etc. The harmful products enter food through the
environment in which the foods are grown, during processing and packaging.

5) Chemical hazards can be classified into:

Naturally occurring chemicals such as mycotoxins, histamine
Unintentional chemicals such as lead, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Intentional chemicals such as food additives, pesticides.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) i) bacilli, cocci, spiral
ii) Endospore
ii) infections, intoxications
iii) cytoplasm
v) flagella
2) The bacterial cell consists of a cell wall, membrane, nucleus, flagella. The functions
of cell wall are that it gives shape to the cell, protects cytoplasm and has an
important role in cell division and it regulates the passage of materials.
3) The stages of bacterial growth are:
Lag phase- It is an initial phase where there may be little or no increase in
the cells.
Log phase- The cells multiply logarithmically i.e., one cell dividing to 2
cells and then 2 cells to 4 cells etc.
Stationary phase- The cell multiplication gets stagnant due to the exhaustion
of nutrients or accumulation of waste products.
Death phase- The cell dies in this phase, as the medium becomes incapable
of supporting further growth.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) a) moulds, yeasts, mushrooms
b) budding
c) hyphae
d) obligate intracellular
49
Food Microbiology and e) Capsid
Safety
f) Giardiasis
2) Moulds can be classified into:
Phycomycetes – Produce non-septate hyphae and are able to conjugate and
form a zygospore.
Ascomycetes – Produce septate hyphae and multiply sexually, forming
ascospores.
Basidiomycetes – Produce septate hyphae and forms spores, termed as
basidiospores.
Fungi Imperfecti – Produce condiophores and conidia and multiply sexually.
3) The polio viruses which attack humans and monkeys do not affect any plant and
other animals and tobacco mosaic virus which attacks plant, does not affect
humans.
4) Viral diseases spread from the hands of human carriers and water to foods e.g.
shellfish, fruits and vegetables contaminated by feces and salad preparations
using contaminated vegetables.
5) Parasitic infections may occur by contamination of food directly or by water and
undercooked meat and fish.
6) Amoebiasis, Giardiasis and Trichinosis are caused due to parasitic infections.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1) Prions or proteinaceous infectious particles are modified forms of a normal
protein which accumulate in the brain causing holes or plaques, leading to death.
The two diseases are Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy and Creutzfeldt - Jakob
disease.

2) The health related concerns of GM foods include toxicity, allergenicity, nutritional

imbalance, possible gene transfer such as antibiotic resistant gene to gut flora
which could adversely affect the therapeutic efficacy of orally administered
antibiotics, unintentional effects in the form of acquisition of new traits or loss
of existing traits. Concerns of ethical nature have also been raised from vegetarian
groups on using animal genes in plants.

3) Dioxins are halogenated aromatic compounds which are industrial pollutants that
persist in the environment. The health risks include cancer and adverse human
health effects such as developmental, immunologic and endocrine toxicity.

50