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ng
Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta

COURSE CODE: MCE 205

COURSE TITLE: Fluid Mechanics I
NUMBER OF UNITS: 2 Units
COURSE DURATION: Two hours per week

COURSE DETAILS:
COURSE DETAILS:

Course Coordinator: Engr. Dr. Bukola Olalekan Bolaji B.Eng., M.Eng., PhD
Email: [email protected], [email protected]
Office Location: HOD’s Office, MCE Department, COLENG
Other Lecturers: None

COURSE CONTENT:

Elements of fluid statics, density, pressure, surface tension, viscosity, compressibility etc.
hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces due to incompressible fluid. Static forces on surface
stability of floating bodies. Introduction to fluid dynamics – conservation laws. Introduction
to viscous flows. Fluid friction, friction factor and its relation to pipe losses; pipes in parallel
and series. Fluid flow measurements, venturi meter.

COURSE REQUIREMENTS:
This is a compulsory course for all 200 level students in the College of Engineering, 200 level
students in the Department of Water Resources Management and Agricultural Meteorology, and 300
level students in the Department of Food Science and Technology. In view of this, students are
expected to participate in all the course activities and have minimum of 75% attendance to be able to
write the final examination.

READING LIST:

1. Bolaji, B.O. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics. Nigeria: Ed., Adeksor Nig. Ent. 2008.
2. Douglas, J.F., Gasiorek and Swaffield, Fluid Mechanics. England: Addison Wesley
Longman Ltd., 1985.
3. Fox, R.W. and McDonald, A.T. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics. New York: John
Wiley and Sons, 1999.
4. Kreith, F. and Berger, S.A. Mechanical Engineering Handbook. Boca Raton: CRC
Press, LLC, 1999.
5. Trefethen, L. Surface Tension in Fluid Mechanics: In Illustrated Experiments in Fluid
Mechanics. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1972.
6. Yaws, C.L. Handbook of Viscosity. Houston: Gulf, 1994.

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LECTURE NOTES
LECTURE
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Fluid Mechanics is a branch of applied mechanics concerned mainly with the study of the
behaviour of fluids either at rest or in motion.

Fluid: A fluid is a material substance, which cannot sustain shear stress when it is at rest. In
other words, a fluid is a substance, which deforms continuously under the action of shearing
forces, however small they may be.
The major differences between liquids and gases are:
Liquids are practically incompressible whereas gases are compressible
Liquids occupy definite volumes and have free surfaces whereas a given mass of gas expands
until it occupies all portions of any containing vessel.

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
DENSITY
The density or mass density of the fluid (ρ) is defined as the mass per unit volume. Its unit of
measurement is kg/m3 i.e.
ρ = m/V. (1.1)

SPECIFIC VOLUME
Specific volume is defined as volume per unit mass. Its unit of measurement is (m3kg– 1)

(1.2)

SPECIFIC WEIGHT
The specific weight ‘Y’, of a fluid is its weight per unit volume. Unit is N/m3.
Y = mg/V = ρg (1.3)

RELATIVE DENSITY
The relative density RD or specific gravity of a substance is mass of the substance to the
mass of equal volume of water at specified temperature and pressure.

(1.4)

COMPRESSIBILITY OF FLUIDS
The compressibility of any substance is measure in terms of bulk modulus of elasticity, K.

BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Also known as Modulus of volume expansion is defined as the ratio of the change in
pressure to the corresponding volumetric strain.

(1.5)
or
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(1.6)

VISCOSITY OF FLUIDS
The viscosity of a fluid is that property which determines its ability to resist shearing stress or
angular deformation.
Shear stress, τ, varies with velocity gradient, du/dy.

(1.7)
The Dynamic viscosity, μ is defined as the shear force per unit area required to draw one
layer of fluid with unity velocity past another layer unit distance away from it in the fluid.
Unit is Ns/m2.

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
Kinematic viscosity, ν is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density. Unit is
m2s – 1
ν = μ /ρ (1.8)

NEWTONIAN AND NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

Ideal Fluid: For the ideal fluid, the resistance to shearing deformation is zero, and hence the
plotting coincides with the x-axis.
Ideal or Elastic Solid: For the ideal or elastic solid, no deformation will occur under any
loading condition, and the plotting coincides with y-axis.
Newtonian Fluids: Fluids obeying Newton’s law of viscosity and for which μ has a constant
value.
Non-Newtonian Fluids: These are fluids which do not obey Newton’s law of viscosity.

SURFACE TENSION
The surface tension, σ, is defined as the force in the liquid normal to a line of unit length
drawn in the surface. Its unit of measurement is N/m.

CAPILLARITY
Another interesting consequence of surface tension is the capillary effect, which is the rise
and fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid.
The height of liquid rise (h) is obtained as:

(1.9)

FLUID PRESSURE
Pressure is express as the force per unit area.
P = F/A. (Nm– 2) (1.10)
Atmospheric Pressure: This is the pressure due to the atmosphere at the earth surface as
measured by a barometer. Pressure decreases with altitude
Gauge Pressure: This is the intensity of pressure measured above or below the atmospheric
pressure.
Absolute Pressure: This is the summation of Gauge and atmospheric pressure.
Vacuum: A perfect vacuum is a completely empty space; therefore, the pressure is zero.
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2.0 FLUID STATICS

Fluid statics or hydrostatics is the study of force and pressure in a fluid at rest with no relative
motion between fluid layers.
From the definition of a fluid, there will be no shearing forces acting and therefore, all forces
exerted between the fluid and a solid boundary must act at right angles to the boundary.
If the boundary is curved, it can be considered to be composed of a series of chords on which
a force acts perpendicular to the surface concerned.

TRANSMISSION OF FLUID PRESSURE

The principle of transmission of fluid pressure states that the pressure intensity at any point
in a fluid at rest is transmitted without loss to all other points in the fluid.

PRESSURE DUE TO FLUID’S WEIGHT

Fluids of Uniform Density
Total weight of fluid (W) = mg
W = ρgAh (2.1)

Pressure (P) = Weight of fluid/Area

P = ρgh (2.2)

STRATIFIED FLUIDS
Stratified fluids are two or more fluids of different densities, which float on the top of one
another without mixing together.
P1 = ρ1gh1 and W1 = ρ1gh1A.

P2 = ρ2gh2 and W2 = ρ2gh2A

Total pressure,
PT = ρ1gh1 + ρ2gh2

Total weight,
WT = (ρ1gh1 + ρ2gh2)A
WT = PTA (2.4)

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT BY MANOMETER

Measurement of Absolute Pressure
The absolute pressure of a liquid is measured by a barometer.

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P = ρgh (2.5)

Piezometer Tube
Piezometer consists of a single vertical tube, inserted into a pipe or vessel containing liquid
under pressure which rises in the tube to a height depending on the pressure. The pressure
due to column of liquid of height h is:
P = ρgh (2.6)

OPEN–END U-TUBE MANOMETER

Pressure PB = PA + ρgh1
Pressure PC = 0 + ρmgh2
PA + ρgh1 = ρmgh2 (Since PB = PC)
PA = ρmgh2 – ρgh1 (2.7)

CLOSE-END U-TUBE MANOMETER

PC = PA + ρA gh1
PD = PB + ρBgh2 + ρmgh

But PC = PD, hence,

PA + ρAgh1 = PB + ρBgh2 + ρmgh
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PA – PB = PBgh2 + ρmgh – ρAgh1 (2.8)

INVERTED U-TUBE MANOMETER

PA = ρA gh1 + ρmgh + PC
PB = ρBgh2 + PD
Since PC = PD
PA – PB = ρAgh1 + ρmgh – ρBgh2 (2.9)

If the top of the tube is filled with air

PA – PB = ρAgh1 – ρBgh2 (2.10)

If fluids in A and B are the same

PA – PB = pg(h1 – h2) + ρmgh (2.11)

Combining conditions for Eqs. (2.10) and (2.11):

PA – PB = pg(h1 – h2) (2.12)

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3.0 FORCES ON SUBMERGED SURFACES

A submerged surface can be defined as a surface of a body below the liquid surface. There
are two types of surfaces, namely:
Plane surface
Curved surface

SUBMERGED HORIZONTAL PLANE SURFACE

P = ρgh (3.1)
F = ρghA (3.2)

SUBMERGED VERTICAL PLANE SURFACE

Elemental force,
dF = PdA

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∫dF = ρg ∫ydA
But ∫ydA is the first moment of area about the liquid surface, hence
F = ρgAyG (3.3)

DETERMINATION OF CENTRE OF PRESSURE (yp)

dF = ρgydA
Taking moment about the liquid surface
dF.y = ρgy2dA
∫dF.y = ρg ∫y2dA

But the ∫y2dA is the second moment of area I, about the surface level
Fyp = ρg ∫y2dA = ρgI (3.4)

y p = I/AyG = Ratio of Second moment of Area to First moment of Area

Using parallel axis theorem,

IX = IG + Ay2
I = IG + Ay2G (3.5)

IG is the second moment of Area about the centroid. Substituting for I, we have

(3.6)

GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF SOME SHAPES

Rectangle

A = bd
IG = bd3/12

Triangle

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A = ½ bh
IG = bh3/36
Circle

A = πR2 and IG = πR4/4

Semicircle

A = ½ πR2
IG = 0.1102R4

QUESTION
A fuel tank 10 m wide by 5 m deep contains oil of relative density 0.7. In one vertical side a
circular opening 1.8 m in diameter was made and closed by a trap door hinged at the lower
end B held by a bolt at the upper end A. If the fuel level is 1.8 m above the top edge of the
opening, calculate the:
• total force on the door
• force on the bolt
• force on the hinge.

SUBMERGED INCLINED PLANE SURFACE

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dF = PdA
P = ρgy and y = x.sinθ
P = ρgx.sinθ
dF = ρgxsinθ.dA (3.7)

∫dF = ρg.sinθ ∫x.dA

where ∫x.dA = AxG first moment of area.

F = ρg sinθ AxG
∴ F = ρgyGA (3.8)

DETERMINATION OF CENTRE OF PRESSURE

Taking moment about the fluid surface,
dM = xdF
dM = ρgx2sinθdA
∫dM = ρg.sinθ ∫x2dA
I = ∫x2dA (second moment of area), hence
M = ρg.sinθ I.
Also the total moment M = FxP,
therefore,
FxP = ρg.sinθ I.
ρg sin θI
xP =
F
But F = ρgyGA = ρgxG.sinθA

ρg sin θI I
xP = =
ρgxG sin θA AxG (3.9)

But I = IG + AxG2

IG
∴
xP = + xG (3.10)
AxG

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FORCES ON A SUBMERGED CURVED SURFACE

Determine the forces acting on horizontal (FH) and vertical (FV) planes. These components
are combined into a resultant force (R)
FH = ρg x Area of EA x depth to centroid of EA
FH = ρgAyG (3.11)

Vertical component FV is equal to the weight of fluid which would occupy ECABD
FV = ρGv (3.12)

4.0 BUOYANCY AND STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES

BUOYANCY
The Upthrust (upward vertical force due to the fluid) or buoyancy of an immersed body is
equal to the weight of liquid displaced
The centre of gravity of the displaced liquid is called the centre of buoyancy.
R=W
i.e. ρgV = mg
and V = mg/ρg = m/ρ

mass of the floating body

Volume of fluid displaced = (4.1)
density of the fluid

STABILITY OF A SUBMERGED BODY

For stable equilibrium the centre of gravity of the body must lie directly below the centre of
buoyancy of the displaced liquid.
If the two points coincide, the submerged body is in neutral equilibrium for all positions.

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STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES

The point M is called the metacentre

Equilibrium is stable if M lies above G
Equilibrium is unstable if M lies below G
If M coincides with G, the body is in neutral equilibrium.

Metacentre: The metacentre is the point at which the line of action of upthrust (or buoyant
force) for the displaced position intercept the original Vertical axis through the centre of
gravity of the body.

Metacentric Height: The distance of metacentre from the centre of gravity of the body is
called metacentric height.

DETERMINATION OF POSITION OF METACENTRE

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Consider an elemental horizontal area dA

h = x.tanθ
dW = ρgh.dA
dW = ρgx tanθ.dA

Taking moment about axis OO

dM = x.dW
dM = ρg.x2tanθ.dA

Total moment,
M = ∫dM
M = ρgtanθ ∫x2dA
Where
∫x2dA = I = second moment of area
Therefore,
M = ρgtanθ.I (4.2)

The Buoyance Moment

Buoyance Moment,
MB = R.BB’
Buoyant force
R = ρgV
but BB’ = BM.sinθ,
therefore,
MB = ρgV.BMsinθ (4.3)

Equating Eqs. 4.2 and 4.3, we have

ρgtanθ.I = ρgV.BMsinθ

I tan θ
BM =
V sin θ
If the angle of tilt is very small, sinθ = tanθ
I
therefore, BM = (4.4)
V
The distance BM is known as the metacentric radius
But GM = BM – BG = (I/V) – BG (4.5)
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QUESTION 4.1
A stone weighs 400 N in air, and when immersed in water it weighs 222 N. Compute the
volume of the stone and its relative density.
Hints
(i) V = R/ρg
(ii) RD = W/R

QUESTION 4.2
A pontoon is 6 m long, 3 m wide 3 m deep, and the total weight is 260 kN. Find the position
of the metacentre for rolling in sea water. How high may the centre of gravity be raised so
that the pontoon is in neutral equilibrium? (Take density of sea water to be 1025 kgm– 3)

5.0 FLUID FLOW AND EQUATION

Boundary Layer: The layer of fluid in the immediate neighbourhood of an actual flow
boundary that has had its velocity relative to the boundary affected by viscous shear is called
the boundary layer.

Adiabatic Flow: Adiabatic flow is that flow of a fluid in which no heat is transferred to or
from the fluid. Reversible adiabatic (frictionless adiabatic) flow is called isentropic flow.

Streamline: A streamline is a continuous line drawn through the fluid so that it has the
direction of the velocity vector at every point.

Stream Tube: A stream tube is the tube made by all the streamlines passing through a small,
closed curve.

V2

dA

V1
dA

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DISCHARGE AND MEAN VELOCITY

The total quantity of fluid flowing in a unit time past any particular cross-section of a stream
is called the ‘discharge’ or flow at that section. It can be measured either in terms of mass, in
which case it is referred to as the mass flow rate (m) or in terms of volume, when it is
referred to as the volumetric flow rate or discharge (Q).

Volumetric Flow rate or Discharge (Q): It is defined as the volume of fluid passing a given
cross-section in unit time. It is measured in cubic metres per second, (m3s– 1).

Mass Flow Rate (m): It is defined as the mass of fluid passing a given cross-section in unit
time. It is measured in kilogrammes per second (kgs– 1).

Mean Velocity: The mean velocity at any cross-section area is the ratio of volumetric flow
rate to the cross-sectional area, i.e. V = Q/A.

THE CONCEPTS OF SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME

System: A system refers to a definite mass of material and distinguishes it from all other
matter called surroundings. Therefore, a system can be defined as a collection of matter
which is separated from the surrounding matter by a boundary and can interact with the
surrounding matter via the boundary. The boundaries of a system form a closed surface. This
surface may vary with time, so that it contains the same mass during changes in its condition.
The system may contain an infinitesimal mass or a large finite mass and solids at the will of
the investigator.

The Law of Conservation of Mass

The law of conservation of mass states that the mass within a system remains constant
with time disregarding relativity effects. Therefore,
dm
=0 (5.1)
dt
where m is the total mass.

Conservation of Momentum
The conservation of (linear) momentum is expressed through Newton’s second law of motion
as:
∑ F = (mv )
d
(5.2)
dt
where m is the constant mass of the system. ΣF refers to the resultant of all external forces
acting on the system, including body forces such as gravity, and ‘v’ is the velocity of the
centre of mass of the system.

Control Volume
A control volume refers to a region in space and is useful in the analysis of situations where
flow occurs into and out of the space. The boundary of a control volume is its control surface.
The content of the control volume is called the system.

CONTINUITY EQUATION
The continuity equation is developed from the general principle of conservation of mass,
Equation (5.1). The continuity equation for a control volume states that the time rate of

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increase of mass within a control volume is just equal to the net rate of mass inflow to the
control volume.

Consider the flow through an infinitesimal stream tube represented in Fig. 5.2. Since the
cross sectional areas at inlet and outlet are very small, it can be assumed that the flow
velocity is uniform over each cross section. The density and the velocity are ρ1 and v1 for the
inlet section and ρ2 and v2 for the outlet section. Consequently, the corresponding mass flow
rates are ρ1v1dA1 and ρ2v2dA2 respectively. For conservation of mass, the rate of increase of
mass in the system must be equal to the net inflow of mass into the control volume.
Therefore,
dm
= ρ1v1dA1 − ρ 2 v2 dA2 (5.3)
dt
where dm/dt is the rate of increase of mass of the system due to net inflow. Since a system is
one whose mass is always constant with respect to time, therefore, dm/dt is equal to zero,
Equation (5.3) reduces to:
ρ1v1dA1 = ρ2v2dA2 (5.4)

Equation (5.4) can be extended to large cross sections by integrating the mass flow rate
across each cross section:
∫ ρ1v1dA1 = ∫ ρ 2 v2 dA2 (5.5)
A1 A2
If ρ and v are constant over each section, the equation reduces to:
ρ1v1A1 = ρ2v2A2 (5.6)

For an incompressible fluid, the density is constant, (ρ1 = ρ2) and Equation (5.6) becomes
v1A1 = v2A2 = Q (5.7)

Therefore, the volumetric flow rate or discharge (Q) is constant from section to section as
long as the same flow goes through all the sections. Equation (5.7) shows that the flow
velocity (v) is inversely proportional to the flow area (A).

The control volume concept can be applied to continuity equation (Equation 5.7). For a
control volume with many outlets and inlets ports, the sum of the flows through the inlet must
be equal to the sum of the flows through the outlet ports.
Therefore,
p q
∑ Qa = ∑ Qb (5.8)
a =1 b =1
where p is the number of inlet ports; and q is the number of outlet ports.

ENERGY EQUATION FOR AN IDEAL FLUID FLOW

Consider an elemental stream tube in motion along a streamline (Fig. 5.4) of an ideal fluid flow. The
forces responsible for its motion are the pressure forces, gravity and accelerating force, due to change
in velocity along the streamline. All frictional forces are assumed to be zero and the flow is
irrotational i.e. Uniform velocity distribution across streamlines.
Since Force = Mass x Acceleration or Pressure x Area
⎛ dv ⎞
Therefore, PdA − (P + dP )dA − ρgdAds cos θ = ρdAds ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠

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⎛ dv ⎞
or − dP − ρgds cos θ = ρds ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠
The tangential acceleration (along streamline) for steady flow,

P + dP
z ds

θ
P
z + dz
dA
ρg.dA.dz
z

dv ⎛ dv ⎞ dv ds dv
= v⎜ ⎟ since = ×
dt ⎝ ds ⎠ dt dt ds
dz
and cos θ =
ds
Therefore, − dP − ρgdz = ρvdv
divide through by ρg to obtain Equation (5.9):
dP dv 2
dz + + =0
ρg 2 g
since (dv2 = 2vdv)
dP d (v) 2
or dz + + =0 (5.9)
ρg 2g
Equation (5.9) is the Euler equation of motion applicable to steady state, irrotational flow of an ideal
incompressible fluid.
On integration along the streamline, we get:
P v2
z+ + = constant (5.10)
ρg 2 g
P1 v12 P v2
or z1 + + = z2 + 2 + 2 (5.11)
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
where z = elevation; P = Pressure; and v = average (uniform) velocity of the fluid at a point in the
flow under consideration. Equation (5.11), known as Bernoulli’s equation, is sometimes called the
energy equation for steady ideal fluid flow along a streamline between two sections 1 and 2.

Bermnoulli’s theorem states that the total energy of all points along a steady continuous stream line of
an ideal incompressible fluid flow is constant although its division between the three forms of energy
may vary and it is written as Equation (5.10). The three terms on the left-hand side of Equation 5.10
have the dimension of length or head and the sum can be interpreted as the total energy of a fluid
element of unit weight.

The first term z, is referred to as the potential head of the liquid. The second term P/ρg, is referred to
as the pressure head and the third term v2/2g, is referred to as the velocity head. The addition of the
three heads is constant and it is referred to as total head H.

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Total head = potential head + Pressure head + Velocity head

P v2
H = z+ + (5.12)
ρg 2 g
where H is the total energy per unit weight.

Potential Head (z): Potential head is the potential energy per unit weight of fluid with respect to an
arbitrary datum of the fluid. z is in JN– 1 or m

Pressure Head (P/ρg): Pressure head is the pressure energy per unit weight of fluid. It represents the
work done in pushing a body of fluid by fluid pressure.
P/ρg is in JN– 1 or m.

Velocity Head (v2/2g): Velocity head is the kinetic energy per unit weight of fluid in JN– 1 or m.
In formulating Bernoulli’s equation (Equation 5.11), it has been assumed that no energy has been
supplied to or taken from the fluid between points 1 and 2. Energy could have been supplied by
introducing a pump; equally, energy could have been lost by doing work against friction or in a
machine such as a turbine. Bernoulli’s equation can be expanded to include these conditions, giving
P1 v12 P v2
z1 + + = z2 + 2 + 2 + h + w − q (5.13)
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
where h is the loss per unit weight; w is the work done per unit weight; q is the energy supplied per
unit weight

THE POWER OF A STREAM OF FLUID

The total energy per unit weight H of the fluid is given by (Equation 5.12). If the volume rate of flow
(Q) is known and the density of the fluid is ρ, therefore weight per unit time of fluid flowing can be
calculated using Equation (5.14).
Weight per unit time = ρgQ (Ns– 1) (5.14)
Therefore, power of fluid flowing can be calculated as the product of energy per unit weight H (in m
or JN– 1) and weight per unit time in N s– 1.
Power = Energy per unit time
= (weight/unit time) x (energy/unit weight)
Power = ρgQH (W or kW) (5.15)

QUESTION 5.1
A siphon has a uniform circular bore of 75 mm diameter and consists of a bent pipe with its
crest 1.8 m above water level discharging into the atmosphere at a level 3.6 m below water
level. Find the velocity of flow, the discharge and the absolute pressure at crest level if the
atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 10 m of water. Neglect losses due to friction.

QUESTION 5.2
A pipe carrying water tapers from 160 mm diameter at A to 80 mm diameter at B. Point A is
3 m above B. The pressure in the pipe is 100 kN/ at A and 20 kN/m2 at B, both measured
above atmosphere. The flow is 4 m3/min and is in direction A to B. Find the loss of energy,
expressed as a head of water, between points A and B.

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6.0 FLOW MEASURING DEVICES

PITOT TUBE

+ v2/2g = H +h
∴ v2/2g = h

or

PITOT-STATIC TUBE
Pitot tubes may be used in the following area:
• they can be used to measure the velocity of liquid in an open channel or in a pipe.
• they can be used to measure gas velocity if the velocity is sufficiently low so that the
density may be considered constant.
• they can also be used to determine the velocities of aircraft and ships.

VENTURI METER

A1v1 = A2v2
or v2 = (A1/A2)v1

z1 = z2 (Horizontal)

Let Pressure difference

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hence

and

ORIFICE METER

In an orifice meter, a pressure differential is created along the flow by providing a sudden
constriction in the pipeline.
The principles of operation is the same with that of Venturi meter, except that it has lower
coefficient of discharge due the sudden contraction.

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