SAMPLING

Sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals
represent the larger group from which they were selected.

 A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of units from a population used to
determine truths about that population” (Field, 2005)

 The sampling frame is a list of all elements or other units containing the elements in a population.

Population is the larger group from which data/units/individuals are selected to be part in a study

 Target population - A set of elements larger than or different from the population sampled and to which
the researcher would like to generalize study findings.

The purpose of sampling…

 To gather data about the population in order to make an inference that can be generalized to the
population

Quantitative Sampling
 Important issues
 Representation – the extent to which the sample is representative of the population
 Generalization – the extent to which the results of the study can be reasonably extended from the
sample to the population
 Sampling error - The chance occurrence that a randomly selected sample is not representative of the
population due to errors inherent in the sampling technique
 Sampling bias - Some aspect of the researcher’s sampling design creates bias in the data.
 Three fundamental steps
 Identify a population
 Define the sample size
 Select the sample

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 If data is to be used to make decisions about a population, then how the data is collected is critical. For
sample data to provide reliable information about a population of interest, the sample must be
representative of that population. Selecting samples from the population using chance provides a
mechanism to make the samples representative.
 Best method to achieve a representative sample
 A sample survey involving every member of the population to have a known nonzero chance of being
selected into the sample is called a probability sample. Probability samples are meant to ensure that
the segment taken is representative of the entire population.
 Data collected from these probability sampling-based surveys yield estimates of characteristics of the
population that these surveys attempt to describe.

Basic types of probability sampling

1. Simple random sampling (SRS) involves allowing each possible sample to have an equal chance of being
picked and every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. Selection
may be with replacement (selected individual or unit is returned to frame for possible reselection) or
without replacement (selected individual or unit isn’t returned to the frame). This sampling method
requires a listing of the elements of the population called the sampling frame.
 [2.] Stratified sampling is an extension of simple random sampling which allows for different homogeneous
groups, called strata, in the population to be represented in the sample. To obtain a stratified sample, the
population is divided into two or more strata according to some common characteristic. A SRS is then
selected from each strata, with sample sizes proportional to strata sizes. Samples from the strata s are then
combined into one.

2.[3.] Systematic sampling, elements are selected from the population at a uniform interval that is measured
in time, order, or space

3.[4.] Cluster sampling divides the population into groups, called clusters, selects a random sample of clusters,
and then subjects the sampled clusters to complete enumeration, that is everyone in the sampled clusters
are made part of the sample.

 Data from the sample are used to calculate statistics, which are estimates of the corresponding population
parameters.

 The descriptive measures computed from a population are called parameters while the descriptive
measures computed from a sample are called statistics.

 The sample mean is an estimate of the population mean .

 In probability sampling each member of the population has a positive and measurable chance of inclusion
in the sample. These inclusion probabilities serve as the bridge from sample to population.

NON-PROBABILITY or JUDGMENT SAMPLING

 It is the generic name of several sampling methods wherein some units in the population do not have any
chance to be selected in the sample, or if the inclusion probabilities cannot be computed. Generally, the
procedure involves arbitrary selection of ‘typical’ or ‘representative’ units concerning which information
is to be obtained. A few types of non-probability samples are listed below:

Basic types of non- probability sampling

1. Haphazard or accidental sampling involves an unsystematic selection of sample units. Some
disciplines, e.g., archaeology, history, and even medicine draw conclusions from whatever items that
are made available. Some disciplines, e.g., astronomy, experimental physics and chemistry often do not
care about the “representativeness” of their specimens.

2. Convenience sampling, sample units expedient to the sampler are taken.

3. Volunteer sampling, sample units consist of volunteers in studies in which the measuring process is
painful or troublesome to the respondent.

4. Purposive sampling pertains to having an expert selecting a representative sample according to his
own subjective judgment.

5. Quota Sampling - sample units are picked for convenience but certain quotas (such as the number of
persons to interview) are given to interviewers. This design is especially used in market research.

6. Snowball Sampling – sample units are identified by asking previously picked sample units for other
people that can be added to the sample. Usually, this is used when the topic is not common, or the
population is hard to access.
SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION OF THE SAMPLE MEANS

The number of samples of size n that can be drawn from a population of size N is given by NCn.
A sampling distribution of sample means is a frequency distribution using the means computed from all possible
random samples of a specific size taken from a population.

Illustrative Problem:
1. Consider a population consisting 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Suppose samples of size 2 are drawn from this population:
 What is the mean and variance of the sampling distribution of the sample means?
 Compare these values to the mean and variance of the population.
 Draw the histogram of the sampling distribution of the population mean.

Sample Mean Sample Probabilit

Frequency
Mean y P( X )

Total

Any mean based on the sample drawn from a population is expected to assume different values for the
samples. This leads to a conclusion that sample mean is a random variable, which depends on a particular sample.
Being a random variable, it has a probability distribution. The probability distribution of the sample means is also
called the sampling distribution of the sample means.
The difference between the sample mean and the population mean is called the sampling error. It is the
error due to sampling.

MEAN AND VARIANCE OF SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE MEANS

Sample Probabilit
Mean
Frequency
y P( X )
X ∙P( X ) ( X −μ ) ( X −μ )2 P( X )∙ ( X−μ )2

Total

Properties of the Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean

If all possible sample of size n are drawn from a population of size N with mean  and variance 2, then the
sampling distribution of the sample means has the following properties.
1. The mean of the sampling distribution of the sample means is equal to the population mean . That is ❑ X =
.
2. The variance of the sampling distribution of the sample means  is given by
 2
2 σ N−n
 σ X= ∙ for finite population; and
n N −1 σ
2
2 σ
 σ X = for infinite population
n
3. The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the sample means is given by:

 σ X=
factor
σ
∙
√
N −n
√ n N −1
for the finite population where
√ N −n
N −1
is the finite population correction

σ
 σ X= for infinite population
√n
The standard deviation ( σ X ) of the sampling distribution of the sample means is also known as the
standard error of the mean. It measures the degree of accuracy of the sample mean ( σ X ) as estimate of the
population mean ( μ ) .

The Central Limit Theorem

If random samples of size n are drawn from a population, then as n becomes larger, the sampling
distribution of the mean approaches the normal distribution, regardless of the shape of the distribution.
X−μ
z=
It justifies the use of the formula σ when computing for the probability that X will take on a value
√n
within a given range in the sampling distribution of X .
Where X = sample mean
μ = population mean
σ = population standard deviation
n = sample size

Illustrative Problems:
1. The average time it takes a group of college students to complete a certain examination is 46.2 minutes.
The standard deviation is 8 minutes. Assume that the variable is normally distributed.
a) What is the probability that a randomly selected college student will complete the examination in
less than 43 minutes?
b) If 50 randomly selected college students take the examination, what is the probability that the
mean time it takes the group to complete the test will be less than 43 minutes?
c) Does it seem reasonable that a college student would finish the examination in less than 43
minutes?
d) Does it seem reasonable that the mean of the 50 college students could be less than 43 minutes?

2. The average number of milligrams (mg) of cholesterol in a cup of a certain brand of ice cream is 660 mg,
and the standard deviation is 35 mg. Assume the variable is normally distributed.
a) If a cup of ice cream is selected, what is the probability that the cholesterol content will be more
than 670 mg?
b) If a sample of 10 cups of ice cream is selected, what is the probability that the mean of the sample
will be larger than 67 mg.

ESTIMATION OF PARAMETERS

 An estimate is a value or a range of values that approximate a parameter. It is based on sample statistics
computed from sample data.

 Estimation is the process of determining parameter values.

 A point estimate is a numerical value and it identifies a location or a position in the distribution of possible
values.
 A confidence interval is an interval estimate with a specific level of confidence. A level of confidence is the
probability that the interval estimate will contain the parameter. The level of confidence is 1 - alpha. 1-
alpha area lies within the confidence interval.
 The measure of confidence in the interval estimate is referred to as confidence coefficient.

 Accuracy is a measure of closeness of the estimates to the true value

 Precision is a measure of closeness of the estimates to each other.
 Unbiased estimator is one whose average value is equal to the parameter itself.
 Bias can then be measured as the difference between the average value of the estimator (i.e. the
expected value of the sampling distribution) and the parameter value
Bias ( Estimator , Parameter )=Expected value of the Estimator−Parameter Value
 A measure of precision of the estimator is its standard error