UNCERTAINTY IS HALF OF THE VALUE OF RANGE, WHICH ALSO MEANS THAT

UNCERTAINTY IS HALF THE VALUE OF RESOLUTION.

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

Discuss the advantages of choosing the digital multimeter to measure the potential difference.
- Percentage uncertainty will be reduced
- The multimeter screen/display will not cause a parallax error
- The multimeter can measure to a higher resolution
- The multimeter resolution can be increased by changing the setting
- The digital multimeter will not require the interpolation of values

This can be labelled with the set squares, (named object that is measured) and a (half) metre
rule

****Describe how the readings for the time period can be taken as accurately as possible.
- Use a fiducial marker at the equilibrium point of the oscillation
- [Start the stopwatch after a few oscillations have been completed]
- Time multiple oscillations and then divide by the number of oscillations
- Repeat the process several times and calculate an average

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

State the reason for using a small displacement.
- So that the system oscillates with simple harmonic motion.

In a simple pendulum system, why is there uncertainty from the value of time period?
- Difficulty in starting and stopping the stopwatch at the same time as the swing.

When reading is taken with a Vernier calliper or a micrometre screw gauge, keep in mind that-
- Measurements are taken at different orientations from which a mean is then
calculated. This is done to reduce the effect of random error.
- Check for zero errors in order to eliminate systematic errors.
- Avoid squashing material/string/solid [context dependent] to reduce the effect of
random errors.

*** The method used as well as the TYPE of error must be mentioned in every point
written for a mark to be scored.

Why is a marker used at equilibrium?

- At the equilibrium, the system oscillates at maximum velocity.
- So, uncertainty in time is reduced.

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

Explain how using a position sensor with a data logger will improve the measurement of the
time period.
- Readings displayed graphically
- Eliminates the effect of reaction time
- The precision of T is more than 0.01s (that of a stopwatch)
- Parallax error at maximum displacement is avoided

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy
*IMPORTANT POINT TO REMEMBER:
- If the percentage difference is greater than the percentage uncertainty, then
the material measured is not made of the material given in the data.

For example

When asked to comment on the accuracy of the calculated density after finding the
percentage difference (context-specific):-
- The percentage difference is comparable with expected uncertainties and plots lie
very close to the line of best fit.

Measuring the thickness of 10 slides would produce a better value for the thickness of one
slide. Explain why.
- Percentage uncertainty is reduced
- Because the measurement is larger

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

*gentle reminder that the line of best fit can be a curve too

Explain one way in which the experiment could be improved to obtain a more accurate
value of the resonant frequency.
- Take more sets of readings near the peak (near the maximum value obtained from
the graph).
- This allows us to draw a more accurate line of best fit around the peak area.

The pendulum is pulled to one side and released so that it oscillates. The amplitude of
oscillation decreases because the core provides damping.
Explain how you would use the apparatus above to measure the amplitude. Add to the
diagram.

- (the mass moved→ shown in the diagram)

- Either edge of the cone is used as a point of measurement

A student uses callipers to measure the height of the bung. How should the height be
measured?
- The top and bottom of the bung are held perpendicularly between the jaws of the
callipers
- Check for zero error.
- Repeat at different orientations and calculate mean.

For thermistors, the higher the temperature, the lower the resistance- this is because
as the temperature increases, there is a greater number of delocalised/ free electrons
in the lattice.

Suggest one technique that would improve the accuracy of the temperature measurements.
- Stir the water to ensure even heat distribution.
- Place the thermometer and the thermistor/diode/tube [context dependent] close to
each other
- Take the current and the temperature reading simultaneously

In the centripetal force experiment, how is a metre rule used to measure the length of the
string?
- The string must be taut
- Measure from the end of the tube to the centre of the bung (with a mark at the
bottom of the bung)

Safety measures for the centripetal force experiment

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

 - Bung may hit someone, so carry out the experiment in an open space.
- Wear protective sunglasses.

Precision- smallest measuring interval in an instrument

- High precision means a small spread of values

- High accuracy means close to the true value
- A high resolution doesn’t guarantee accuracy or precision

To take the measurement of light intensity as accurately as possible

- Use boards placed on all sides of the light bulb (except directly in front of the light
meter)

*property that determines the rate of flow of a liquid- viscosity

One advantage of opening the tap with liquid with the initial liquid value above the zero
mark
- Starting the timer and opening the tap at the same time is difficult and produces
large uncertainties.

Systematic error- the constant discrepancy between the measured value and the true
value

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy
For the diagram above, how should the value of x be measured?
- Mark zero point in the sand directly below the table edge using a metre rule and a
set square
- Align the edge of the sand tray with the table edge with metre rule and set square
- Take readings perpendicular to the scale to avoid parallax error
- Measure the perpendicular distance from the endpoint to the marble centre

A student investigated the stiffness of a metal rod. The rod had been formed into an L
shape. The student measured the distance x using a metre rule. Describe a method to
measure x as accurately as possible, including any additional apparatus required [3]
- Ensure the meter rule is perfectly vertical using a set square.
- Ensure the meter rule is as close as possible to the end of the rod.
- Take readings perpendicular to the scale to avoid parallax errors.

Resonance:-
- The system is driven into oscillation at a frequency which is equal to its natural
frequency.
- As a result, maximum transfer of energy takes place.
- The system oscillates with maximum frequency.

Damping:-
- Energy is removed from an oscillation.
- The system oscillates with decreasing amplitude.

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

Explain this observation.
- The voltmeter has infinite resistance
- So there is negligible current through the voltmeter
- Hence, as the bulb is in series with the voltmeter, the current will be too small for the
lamp to light.

The volume of metal was determined by subtracting the internal volume of the can from the
external volume. This produces a percentage uncertainty of the volume of the metal which
is greater than 10%. Suggest why.
- This method involves subtracting two values close together leading to a small value
of the volume, which increases %U.

When asked to criticise results:-

- Check for consistency in the number of significant figures for each column.
- Number/presence of adequate repeats. If 5 or less than 5 sets of data, the data set
needs repeats.
- Check whether the unit of each measurement is mentioned at the top or not.
- Sample size.
- Estimate of uncertainty given or not.
- Whether units are given in the table
- Whether the derived data has the same number of sig figs as the original (r → 1/r
must have the same sig fig)

*why the distance between an LDR and a bulb should remain constant throughout the
experiment- the intensity decreases with increasing distance.

How to ensure that the capacitors are not damaged during the experiment

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

 - Create a set-up so that the supply pd does not exceed the working pd of (either) the
capacitor

Advantages of a data logger

- Multiple readings are taken in a short period of time.
- Simultaneous readings of two / multiple variables.
- Eliminates reaction time.
- Very low %U in the time intervals

Not correcting for background count is a systematic error.

Make sure that the distance between the sample and the GM tube is constant.

(similar question)

Explain why it is possible to correct for background count rate. [May’19]

- Background count rate has a constant value
- Which causes a systematic error that can be removed (background count is
subtracted)

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

How EMF is induced in a secondary coil
- The alternating current generates a changing magnetic field.
- As a result, the second coil experiences a rate of change in magnetic flux linkage.
- Hence, an emf is induced in the second coil.
- Since the coil is connected to a complete circuit, this causes the flow of an eddy
current.

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

 - The resolution of a ruler is 1mm
- The measurements are subtracted, so the absolute uncertainties are added

State safety precautions that students should take when using a radioactive source:

State the significance of the time constant for the discharging of a capacitor.
- Time taken for the pd to fall to 37% of its initial value/decrease by 63%.

How to check if the air track is horizontal before starting the investigation (any one):
- Use a rule and set square to check whether the height of the track is the same
in two places.
- Gently push the glider and check if the times to go through each light gate are similar
- Put a glider on the track and check if it remains stationary.
- Use a spirit level to check if the bubble is central.

Air track experiment: A student suggested that using a piece of card twice as long would
improve the investigation. Assess this suggestion.
- If the card is twice as long, the time taken for the card to pass through the light gate
should also double.
- So the percentage uncertainty for time would halve, improving the investigation.

The reason for measuring the thickness of the folded sheet rather than an unfolded sheet.
- A larger distance will reduce the percentage uncertainty.
- Since absolute uncertainty is the same for both.

𝑛
If folding a sheet n number of times, the total volume is then divided by 2

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

SHC experiment

*gentle reminder that the rate of energy transfer is ΔE= (mcΔΘ)/Δt

Control variables if current, I is varied:

- Volume of the water
- Initial temperature of water
- Time for which current is applied

How the data is compared when the temperature is varied in two experiments
- Compare the rate of energy transfer / gradient of the two graphs
- At the same temperature

Explain whether repeat measurements are appropriate for this experiment

- Difficult to ensure that the temperature of the surroundings remain constant
- So repeat readings are not appropriate

Explain improvements the student could make to reduce uncertainty in the measurement of
ΔΘ for each value of I:
- Stir the water, to ensure water is at the same temperature as the heater / resistor.
- Insulate the beaker, to reduce the rate of energy transferred to the surroundings/ to
ensure that a greater proportion of energy is used to boil the liquid
- Ensure the thermometer is as close to the heater / resistor as possible.

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

Describe how the apparatus could be used to investigate this relationship.
- The top pan balance should show a value of zero without the top magnet
- The distance between the magnets is measured using a metre rule
- Vary the values of x and record the corresponding balance readings

Describe how the data collected should be used to verify the above relationship.
- Multiply the balance readings by g to obtain F
- A graph of log F against log x is plotted
- This will give a straight line with a constant gradient

Oscillation full experiment [6]:

- Measure the distance [X] using a meter rule.

Along with any 3 of the following:

- Place a timing market at the centre of the oscillation.
- Time multiple oscillations and divide by no. of oscillations.
- Repeat and calculate the average to find the value of [Y]
- Start timing after a few/several oscillations are completed.
- Use small initial displacement to ensure SHM.

- Repeat method for at least 5 values of [X]

- Plot a graph of [Y] against [X] and check if it is a straight line [context specific]

Another student suggests determining T by setting up a light gate attached to a data logger.
Discuss whether this modification would improve this investigation [3]
- Using a light gate would eliminate reaction time
- Light gates remove parallax error
- As the light gate is in a fixed position

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

Radioactivity full experiment [6]:
- Measure the background count rate without the source in place.
- Use a metre rule to measure d, the distance between the source and the GM tube

Along with at least 3 of any of the following precautions:

- Use tongs/ forceps to handle the radioactive source
- Measure the count rate several times and calculate the mean.
- Measure count rate for at least 5 values of d.
- Ensure the source and the detector are perfectly horizontal
- Subtract the background count rate from the measure count rate

- Repeat the experiment for increasing values of d until the count rate reaches the
background count rate [context-specific procedure]
- Plot a graph of the [corrected count rate] against [d].
- [context specific] A way to prove the relationship (for eg, the graph will be
straight-line/gradient of the graph is [X] hence proved, etc.)

Describe how the student used the oscilloscope to identify the resonant frequency and
determine its value
- Adjust the signal to find the trace with the maximum amplitude
- Count the number of division between two adjacent peaks
- Multiply by the time per division
- Calculate frequency as 1/T.

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

 - The uncertainty of both methods are the same
- However, as student B’s measurement will be larger, the percentage uncertainty will
be smaller for their calculation.

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

 - Measure the number of divisions the same point on the pulses.
- Multiply the number of divisions by the time per division.
- Measure between two sets of successive pulses and determine a mean.

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

 E= mL, VIt= mL

- Wait until the water starts to boil

- Record the values of m, mass of water
- At times t with a stopwatch
- V and I are constant, so a graph of m against t is plotted, where the gradient gives
VI/L. The value of L can be found using VI/gradient.

Source of error:
- Mass reading due to the water as it boils
- Energy transfer to the surroundings decreases the energy transferred to the water.
Hence the value of L will be too large.

5cm → use a vernier caliper

3cm / 2mm → use a micrometer screw gauge

A steel rod had a circular cross section with a diameter d of approximately 2mm. Explain the
most appropriate instrument the student should use to measure d.
- A micrometer screw gauge (with a resolution of 0.01mm)
- As this would produce an uncertainty of 0.25% which is very small.

How can measurements be precise but not accurate?

- A systematic error may have occurred
- So the values may not be close to the true value

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy
The difference between p and q was recorded as 26mm ± 1mm.
Explain why the uncertainty in this value is given as 1mm.
- The uncertainty of a single reading is half the resolution of the metre rule which is
0.5mm
- As the two readings are subtracted, the uncertainties are added.

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

 Q The student had a stopwatch. Describe how the student
should determine an accurate value for the total capacitance
of the capacitors.
P.T.O

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

Inaccuracies in the spring-mass system:
- It’s difficult to measure from the same position on the spring-mass each time.
- The ruler may move between readings.
- Parallax error in reading positions.
- The student has only taken one measurement from each added mass.

The student expected the graph to be a straight line through the origin. He thought that
there may be a systematic error due to reaction time. Explain another possible systematic
error in this experiment.
- Ignoring the mass of the holder, like your crush ignores you.
- This causes the mass measurements to increase by a fixed amount every fucking
time.

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

 - High precision means a small spread of values
- High accuracy means close to the true value
- A - precise, not accurate (small spread, but displaced from the centre of the target)
- B - accurate and precise (small spread, centred on target)
- C- neither accurate nor precise (large spread)
- D accurate, not precise (moderate spread)

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

 - Did not use a fiducial marker at the center of the oscillation.
- Only one timed oscillation.
- Should have allowed the pendulum to oscillate for a few times before starting the
stopwatch.

- Dataloggers are useful when data changes over a very short/ long time scale
- Dataloggers are useful when a number of quantities are being measured
simultaneously
- It takes longer for the liquid in a glass thermometer to respond to changes in
the temperature than a temperature sensor
- There may be a parallax error in reading from the liquid in the glass
thermometer

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

L = Nl, where N is 16/18

Again remember that uncertainty is half of the resolution - you lost quite a few marks
on this.

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

JAN 22 SOLUTION

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy

-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy
-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy
-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy
-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy
-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy
-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy
-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy
-compiled by Progga Paromita and Nakshatra Roy