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Hydrogen Production and Applications: A review

Assia Marghani1*, El Ayachi Chater1, Issam Bouganssa1, Nasser Sefiani1, Ahmed
Elakkary1, Ilyas Lahlouh1
1LASTIMI Lab, EST, Mohammed V University, Morocco

Abstract. A hydrogen fuel cell car, known as a Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle
(FCEV), is essentially an electric vehicle that primarily relies on a fuel cell
to generate energy. It also includes a secondary role for a battery within the
powertrain. This technological configuration operates through four main
scenarios, with the primary energy source being Hydrogen from onboard
tanks, which powers the vehicle through the fuel cell and its associated
components. Here's a breakdown of how it functions: Hydrogen enters the
anode and interacts with a catalyst that separates hydrogen atoms, releasing
electrons and protons. A conductive current collector connected to the
vehicle's high-voltage circuitry collects these electrons. This electricity can
charge the battery and/or drive the motors responsible for propelling the
wheels. Fuel cells come in various types, characterized by the type of
electrolyte they use, such as the Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
(PEMFC), Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC), and Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
(MCFC). While all these fuel cell types can generate electricity, their
efficiency can range from 30% to 60%. Although hydrogen fuel cell vehicles
have shown promise, their adoption is still in its early stages due to
challenges related to infrastructure, costs, and ongoing technological
advancements. Our current research focuses on hydrogen production from
renewable sources and its application in fuel cells to provide the required
electrical power for electric vehicle propulsion. We aim to improve energy
efficiency over a specified cycle and present a comprehensive analysis of
our findings.

1 Introduction
Electric technology continues to evolve, offering longer electric-only ranges. The evolution
of electric technology continues, resulting in extended electric-only driving ranges [1]. This
development underscores the unwavering commitment of the automotive industry to
sustainable transportation solutions. The electric vehicle (EV) sector is experiencing rapid
growth thanks to an expanded array of choices, declining costs, government incentives [2],
and continuous improvements in battery technology. An electric car is propelled by an
electric motor rather than a petrol or diesel engine [3]. These electric motors are powered by
rechargeable batteries that can be conveniently recharged using standard household
electricity [4].

* Corresponding author: [email protected]

© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
E3S Web of Conferences 469, 00088 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202346900088
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In some instances, Hydrogen plays a crucial role as a generator to produce the electricity
required for these vehicles [5].
Hydrogen production involves the generation of hydrogen gas (H2) from various sources,
often intending to utilize it as a clean and versatile energy carrier. Hydrogen plays a pivotal
role in the transition towards a more sustainable and low-carbon energy economy due to its
ability to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and enable a wide range of applications [6].
Hydrogen production encompasses various methods and technologies, each with unique
advantages and challenges [7]. When striving to produce Hydrogen in an environmentally
friendly manner, a viable approach involves harnessing renewable energy sources like solar
and wind. Both methods share a common principle: converting power from different sources
to fuel electrolysis for hydrogen generation. However, it is essential to acknowledge that
these sources currently face challenges regarding production efficiency compared to fossil
fuels [8].
Presently, Hydrogen finds applications in various fields, including the realm of electric
vehicles (EVs). Fuel cells represent advanced electrochemical devices that produce
electricity by reacting Hydrogen with oxygen through a clean and efficient chemical process.
These fuel cells consist of two electrodes immersed in an electrolyte, and the automotive
industry commonly employs a type known as the proton exchange membrane fuel cell
(PEMFC) [9].

Despite the immense potential of Hydrogen as a clean and versatile energy carrier, a range
of issues and challenges must be addressed. These challenges encompass concerns related to
production efficiency, the sustainability of energy sources, difficulties in storing and
transporting Hydrogen, energy losses during conversion and distribution, safety
considerations, economic viability, integration with renewable energy sources, complexities
in regulatory and policy frameworks, public perception and awareness, and the vulnerability
of supply chains [10]. Addressing these challenges is crucial for unlocking the full potential
of Hydrogen in our quest for a more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy
landscape.

2 Hydrogen Production
Hydrogen production can draw from various domestic resources, including fossil fuels,
biomass, and water electrolysis with electricity [11]–[13]. Hydrogen's environmental impact
and energy efficiency are closely linked to the production method. This paper aims to provide
a comprehensive overview of various studies conducted on different hydrogen production
systems. These studies explore the utilization of solar energy [14], wind energy [15], or a
combination of both to enhance efficiency [16]. The following section provides an overview
of these studies and their respective analyses.

2.1 Hydrogen generation from solar energy

Generating Hydrogen through solar power is widely employed in solar hydrogen
production. Photovoltaic (PV) systems generate electricity, which is then utilized to power
an electrolyze, enabling the splitting of water (H2O) into Hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2)
through electrolysis. However, it is essential to note that this approach's production and
installation costs are higher than fossil fuels, making the process less efficient [17]. Several

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studies have been conducted to demonstrate and calculate the energy efficiency of green
energy solutions.

Innovative approaches, such as using magnetic fields, light energy, and ultrasonic
techniques, have been explored to enhance the efficiency of solar-powered water electrolysis
[18]. Additionally, another study focused on improving the efficiency and performance of
refueling stations for Hydrogen [19]. Notably, one study achieved a cumulative hydrogen
production rate surpassing the maximum reported for pure TiO2-based photocatalysts [20].

Fig.1 visually represents the hydrogen production process using solar energy. The figure
illustrates a series of components, including photovoltaic panels, an electrolyzer, water
(H2O), and the resulting Hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2).

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of Hydrogen production from solar energy

However, it's worth considering that solar energy may face limitations in meeting production
requirements due to its availability primarily during the daytime, challenges related to
shadows, and temperature variations.

2.2 Hydrogen generation from wind energy

Harnessing wind energy to produce Hydrogen is one of the most straightforward and
environmentally friendly methods and boasts the highest efficiency among renewable energy
sources. This technology operates similarly to solar energy but offers distinct advantages.
Nevertheless, it requires a robust wind infrastructure, an electrolyze, and an effective
hydrogen storage system to function optimally [21].

Numerous studies conducted in different regions, including Iran, Ukraine, and South
Africa, have been aimed at determining the annual hydrogen production capacity. These
studies have revealed impressive production potentials of 19.844 tons/year, 43 million tons
through electrolysis, and 6.51 to 226.82 metric tons, respectively. However, it's important to
note that production efficiency is intricately linked to the prevailing wind speed, and
consequently, various theoretical approaches have been proposed to address the challenges.
One such method aims to mitigate fluctuation risks and enhance system stability. Another
strategy involves minimizing energy generation errors by developing an optimal and
innovative wind portfolio system tailored to specific harvesting regions [22].

Despite its many advantages, the reliability of wind energy systems remains a concern for
sustainable energy regeneration, primarily due to the inherent difficulty in efficiently
predicting wind speeds [23].
Fig 2 illustrates the fundamental structure of a wind energy-hydrogen system. This schematic
diagram provides an overview of the critical components and processes in converting wind
energy into Hydrogen. It showcases the integration of a wind turbine, an electrolyzer, and a

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hydrogen storage system, highlighting the flow of energy and materials throughout the
system. This figure serves as a visual guide to understanding the foundational elements of a
wind energy-hydrogen production setup.

Fig. 2. Wind Energy-Hydrogen System Efficiency Factors

3 Hydrogen application: fuel cells

Fuel cells are advanced electrochemical devices that generate electricity from Hydrogen and
oxygen through a clean and efficient chemical reaction. It comprises two electrodes
immersed in electrolytes. There are several fuel cell types available. Proton exchange
membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) function at a low-temperature range (<80°C) and are helpful
for many applications. Electric vehicles (EVs) are our case study [24].

Indeed, the FCEV powertrain can be separated into three categories: fuel cell (FC) and battery
(B); Fuel Cell and Ultracapacitor (UC); Fuel Cell, Battery, and Ultracapacitor. (FC + B) is
the main design configuration and is applied in most FCEVs since the FC+B+UC
configuration is complex and the energy density of ultracapacitors is low [25]. This
configuration is divided into four different topologies:
- Fuel cell system and battery connected directly to the DC/AC inverter of the motor
converter
- The fuel cell system is connected to a DC/DC converter, and the battery is directly
related to a DC/AC inverter motor
- The fuel cell system is directly connected to a DC/AC inverter and the battery to a
DC/DC converter.
- The fuel cell system and battery are connected to a DC/DC converter, which is the most
used one in research due to its flexibility in controlling the power flow [26].

Fig. 3. Topology of fuel cell electric vehicles

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4 Issues and challenges of FCEVs

FCEVs require many considerations in terms of the development of hydrogen infrastructure.
This is why they are still not commercially available. Several components of EVs may affect
the efficiency of the energy management system (EMS) [27]. The main issues are listed
below.

4.1 Battery lifetime

A battery is the main component in an electric vehicle (EV), leading to the development of
batteries with different materials. The most commonly used one is the NiMH and Li-Ion
Batteries [28]. Each type of these batteries is characterized by its efficiency, material
availability, and reliability. The life of the battery matters; it depends on the state of charge
(SOC) and depth of discharge, making the choice of battery performance more complex [29].

4.2 Economic impact

A cost comparison was made between FCEVs and battery electric vehicles BEVs that are
commonly used to reveal that FCEVs are more expensive than BEVs [30]. The high cost
could be explained due to the necessary expenses of manufacturing and transporting
hydrogen fuel.

5 Conclusion

Hydrogen has a considerable solid potential to meet the energy demand and zero emissions
objectives. To do so, renewable energy sources are the best alternatives to achieve this target.
However, they still face some challenges related to energy efficiency compared to fossil
fuels. Green Hydrogen can be applicable in different fields. In this study, we have focused
on electric vehicles powered by fuel cells. Fuel cells (FC) are unique in terms of the variety
of their applications. Indeed, they can utilize a wide range of fuels and feedstocks and provide
power for systems as large as a utility power station and as small as a laptop computer.
Different topologies were listed to define the more suitable for the EV application. Thus, the
FCEV issues were discussed from the perspective of battery lifetime and economic aspects.
Starting from this analysis, we aim to develop hydrogen production efficiency from a
renewable source, the hybrid system based on solar and wind energy, as the demand will
increase. Thus, the hybrid system reduces the risk of decreasing the electrolysis efficiency,
leading to an essential increase in hydrogen production.

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