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been established. However, ebb generation produces 3.
2 COMPONENTS OF A TIDAL
electricity for 5–6 h during spring tides, and about 3 h BARRAGE
during neap tides, out of a tidal cycle lasting just less
than 12½ h. Thus a tidal barrage produces two blocks The principal components of a tidal barrage are:
of energy each day, the size and timing of which follow (1) Turbo-generators. Two types are favoured. The first
the lunar cycle. Figure 3.2 shows a typical output over is the ‘bulb’ turbine, so-called because the generator
a spring tide to neap tide cycle. is enclosed in a steel watertight bulb upstream of the
If the output of the tidal barrage is fed into a well- runner which is normally of four-bladed axial flow
developed grid system, then the power stations with type. For large units, say 20 MW or above, the runner
the highest avoidable running costs, such as gas turbines is directly coupled to the generator. For small units
or older coal-fired plant, can be either shut down or the option is becoming available of inserting a two-
throttled back in order to absorb the tidal power in a stage epicyclic gearbox to increase the speed of the
way that maximises its value. The predictability of the generator by about 10:1. This reduces access and
output from a tidal barrage means that this absorption cooling problems around the generator. The Rance
can be planned as far ahead as necessary. barrage3 has 24 turbines with 5·4 m diameter runners
If the grid system is not sufficiently developed to be and 10 MW direct-coupled generators. The second
able to absorb this predictable but intermittent energy, is the ‘rim-generator’ or ‘Straflo’ turbine which is
then two-way generation, which produces two smaller marketed by Sulzer-Escher Wyss of Zurich. This type
blocks of energy per tide at around 10 to 15% greater has the generator rotor mounted on the rim of the
unit cost, may be preferable. This is discussed in more runner blades so that generator cooling and rotational
detail later in the section dealing with system effects. inertia are improved at the expense of difficult sealing
Fig. 3.2. Operation over a spring-neap tide cycle.
© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

Fig. 3.3. Preliminary design of precast concrete caisson.
arrangements. A 7·6 m diameter, 20 MW Straflo by designers, manufacturers and contractors on other

machine was commissioned in 1984 at Annapolis types of project. For example, bulb turbines up to 8·4
Royal, a small tidal inlet off the Bay of Fundy, Canada.4 m in diameter and with up to 54 MW capacity have
(2) Some form of structure housing the turbines and been built for low-head or run-of-river schemes in
forming hydraulically efficient water passages Europe, Japan and the United States. Concrete caissons
upstream and downstream of the runners. This weighing up to 1 million tonnes have been towed into
structure could be built of precast concrete (Fig. position and placed accurately for oil field
3.3) or steel boxes floated into position, or perhaps development in the North Sea. Large embankments
could be built in situ within a temporary island of
dredged sand fill, suitably protected during the
construction period.
(3) Sluices, which can be designed around either
vertical-lift wheeled gates (Fig. 3.4) or radial gates.
(4) One or two ship locks and possibly a small boat
lock, depending on the amount of commercial
shipping using the estuary.
(5) Either embankments or plain concrete boxes
(caissons) floated into position, thus completing
the barrage linking it to the shore and providing a
route for transmission cables and access for
operation and maintenance.
An important feature of tidal power is that no
significant new technology is required for its
development. Apart from the Rance barrage, which
celebrated 20 years of generally very successful
operation in 1986, relevant experience has been gained Fig. 3.4. Preliminary design of vertical-lift gate sluice caisson.

have been built in water up to 30m deep to close off — the Severn estuary, Solway Firth and Morecambe
an inlet of the sea in Hong Kong to form a freshwater Bay are the prime sites for large-scale development.
storage reservoir.5 Useful experience has also been The time of high water of the last two is about 5 h
gained during the building of the storm surge barrier after the Severn, so they would produce electricity
at the mouth of the Oosterschelde in the Netherlands. out of phase with the Severn;
Less fortunate but nevertheless valuable experience — the Mersey estuary could produce electricity at
was gained during the building of the Thames barrier. about the same cost as the Severn, and at about
However, there is little relevant experience of large- one-tenth the capital cost (£500 m) would be a less
scale construction offshore in the tidal ranges which difficult project to finance;
are of interest for tidal power. The spring tidal range — there are a few small estuaries which could be
in the Netherlands is typically about 3·5 m whereas developed to produce electricity at about 4 p/ kWh,
the range in the Severn estuary can exceed 12 m. The perhaps slightly less. With capital costs around £50
greater tidal range results in four main problems when m, the investment required would be two orders of
towing and placing large caissons: magnitude less than that required for the Severn
barrage, although their electricity output,
— stronger currents make towing more difficult;
correspondingly smaller, would not be significant
— the length of time that currents are slack is short;
in national terms.
— preparation of foundations is difficult;
— the obstruction caused by the part-complete barrage
results in strong currents in the remaining gaps, and 3.4 ECONOMIC APPRAISAL
also significant differential heads on the caissons
immediately after they are first placed. The unit costs of electricity discussed above are based
For the proposed Severn barrage, these aspects have on a discount rate of 5% and 1984–85 prices. This
been studied in considerable detail, with the aid of discount rate is that currently recommended by the
computer models of the tidal flows, and technically Treasury for public sector investments. Unit costs based
feasible solutions have been developed. on this, while useful as a basis of comparison of
different methods of generating electricity, do not take
into account:
3.3 EXPLOITABLE RESOURCES IN THE UK
— the very long operating life to be expected from a
Of the UK estuaries, only the Severn estuary has been tidal barrage. Given careful design and construction,
studied in detail so far, although studies are in progress the main structure should last 100 years or more,
of the feasibility of a tidal power barrage in the Mersey while the slow-turning turbines should last 40 years
estuary. Preliminary studies, relying on the methods of without major repairs;
assessment and cost estimates developed during the — the value to the nation of diversity in sources of
work carried out for the Severn Barrage Committee electricity;
between 1978 and 1981, have been carried out for the — the value of the benefits of a tidal power project, which
Department of Energy on six large estuaries6 and nine are mainly the fuel saved at thermal power stations;
small ones.7 These studies did not concentrate only on — the higher discount rates (or internal rates of return)
estuaries with large tidal ranges, but covered a variety used in the private sector when assessing whether
of water depths, basin shapes and so forth, so that the to invest in a project.
importance of these factors could be understood.
The evaluation of the benefits of a tidal power bar-
The results, together with the published results of
rage has to be based largely on the value of the fuel
studies carried out elsewhere, have been used to develop
saved. There will be greater uncertainty in this than in
a parametric method of estimating the performance
estimating the cost of the barrage, because it involves
and cost of a tidal barrage at any location.8 This has
forecasting fuel costs and the overall plant mix for a
been applied to a number of inlets and estuaries on the
period of at least 40 years into the future. The accu-
west and south coasts of England and Wales. The
racy of such forecasts has generally been poor, as can
principal conclusions of these studies are that:
be seen from the swings in oil prices over only the last
— the total resource that could be exploited at a unit 15 years, and the CEGB’s difficulties in achieving the
cost of electricity of 6 p/kWh (at 1984 prices) or programme of building nuclear stations which they
less is about 45 TWh/year; would like.

Historically in the UK, it has been difficult to justify The principal aspects of concern are probably the
the building of generating plant which has low running necessary reduction in tidal range behind a barrage,
costs but high capital cost, for example the hydro and associated reductions in the strength of ebb
schemes of the North of Scotland Hydro-electricity currents. The former will reduce the area available to
Board and the CEGB’s Magnox stations. With the waders and the reduction in the volumes of water
passage of time, these schemes produce the cheapest entering and leaving the enclosed basin could increase
electricity as a result of a combination of increases in the concentrations of dissolved or suspended pollutants
real costs of fossil fuel and inflation. discharged into the estuary from sewage works and
In this context, the interim conclusions of the Severn industrial processes. The reduction in currents can be
Tidal Power Group (STPG) are relevant. 2 They expected to result in sediments within the basin being
highlighted the fact that the unit prices offered by the much less mobile than at present, and is predicted to
Area Electricity Boards for the purchase of privately reduce the amount of sediment travelling seawards,9
generated electricity are not based on marginal costs, so that there will be a tendency for sediment brought
and that the tariffs are valid for one year only, so that through the barrage during the flood tide to remain in
it is not possible to enter into a reasonable long term the basin.
contract such as would be required by investors in a The significance of this depends on the availability
tidal power project. Thus, although the internal rate of fresh supplies to seaward of the barrage, and is site-
of return of the Severn Barrage was predicted to lie in specific. This could be more important for the Mersey
the range 6 to 8%, and thus would be acceptable as a barrage than for the Severn barrage, and is likely to
public sector project, this would not be attractive to be very important for small estuaries.
private investors. STPG also pointed out the fact that Large ships using the ports in an estuary, and relying
private developers, raising funds in the open market, on the largest tides to gain access through the port
were effectively having to compete with a public sector locks, could be adversely affected by the slight
industry whose investments were based on the reductions in the levels of high water. On the other
Treasury’s test discount rate. The proposed hand, small and medium-sized ships could benefit,
privatisation of the electricity supply industry should because the time they lose passing through the barrage
have important repercussions on these aspects. locks should be more than made up by the ease of
navigation behind the barrage, and the timing of their
arrivals and departures will not have to depend on
3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
the time of high water. The reduction in tidal range
behind a barrage would make quays along the shore
When considering the environmental impact of a large more practical, this being a much cheaper form of
tidal power project such as the Severn barrage, it must development than docks with entrance locks.
be borne in mind that its electrical output will be The reductions in tidal range and current strengths
equivalent to that of about 2000 of the largest (90 m within the enclosed basin are seen as highly beneficial
diameter) wind generators, and that, over its working to the development of water-based leisure activities,
life, the coal saved would equal the total planned largely because the large tidal ranges which are the
production of the Selby coalfield (about 700 m tonnes). source of the energy to be exploited also make sailing
The environmental impact of the Severn barrage and boating difficult and, for example, make the sea
has been and is continuing to be the subject of wide- at Weston-super-Mare almost inaccessible from the
ranging studies. Basically, a tidal power barrage is beach. The limiting of future water levels to the upper
safe—it produces no toxic emissions or wastes, it does half of the present tidal range, a pronounced ‘stand’
not involve plant running at high speeds or high at high water lasting 2–3 h, and a large reduction in
pressures, has relatively little visual impact, and is the amounts of sediment in suspension should all make
quiet. Apart from the effects of changes in both tidal the enclosed basin much more attractive.
range behind the barrage and sediment movements Two further aspects of the construction of a tidal
on wading birds which, during their migrations, feed barrage are seen as being beneficial. Firstly, a public
on worms and molluscs in the mud of the intertidal road crossing can be added to a barrage at less cost
flats, the effects of a barrage will be limited to the than a separate bridge. The Rance barrage is a good
estuary in which it is built. example, its road providing a much shorter link

is not yet clear that the more stable sediment regime existing flood control barrage on the Rio Bacanga
behind a tidal barrage would not increase productivity at Sao Luis
which would offset the reduction in intertidal areas — Canada (Bay of Fundy)
available to wading birds. — China (Yellow Sea)
Other institutions which have expressed concern — France (Îies de Chaussée)
about the effects of a tidal power scheme include the — India (Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Katchch)
water authorities, the port authorities, and the — South Korea (west coast)
Confederation of British Industry on behalf of — USA (Passamaquoddy Bay)
industries discharging wastes into estuaries. — USSR (Okhotsk Sea, Jugursk Bay)
The building of a barrage on the sea bed, and the
Apart from the UK and the recently announced project
changes in low water levels that it would cause,
in Brazil, activity, in the form of studies, is taking place
would raise various legal questions concerning
at low levels in Canada and France. In India, after
ownership of the foreshore, areas of port jurisdiction
completion of feasibility studies, plans have been an-
and so forth.
nounced to take a 900 MW tidal power scheme in the
The local authority rates to be paid by the owners
Gulf of Katchch forward to detailed design. Symposia
of a tidal barrage could be significant. However, the
organised by the Institution of Civil Engineers and the
most important barrier to the private development of
Institution of Electrical Engineers to present the re-
a tidal power project of significant size is the
sults of work carried out in the UK have been success-
uncertainty of the value of the energy generated over
ful in attracting foreign delegates. The conclusion can
a large number of years into the future.
be drawn that, if the UK were to build a tidal power
project, even a small one, using the prefabrication tech-
3.8 EXPORT POTENTIAL niques proposed, then this would generate enormous
interest abroad and lead to export opportunities. Oth-
United Kingdom expertise in simulating the operation erwise, the French practical experience, although dated
of tidal power barrages has contributed to the in terms of the method of construction, leaves them as
development of the 20 MW prototype Straflo turbine market leaders, with the Canadians second and the
commissioned in 1984 at Annapolis Royal in Nova Brazilians and Indians now entering the market.
Scotia. In 1985, three UK firms carried out the
engineering studies for a feasibility study of a 480 MW 3.9 APPROPRIATENESS FOR
tidal power scheme in South Korea.10 Otherwise, most DEVELOPMENT IN THE UK
work in this field has been carried out by French
companies who have the benefit of the practical The UK is blessed with a range of estuaries where
experience at La Rance. tidal power schemes could be built and satisfy the
The number of sites suitable for the development Treasury’s requirements for the rate of return for
of tidal power is limited. The fundamental criterion is public sector investments. Overall, about 10% of our
tidal range. UK studies have shown that a spring tide present electricity demand could be met in this way.
range of about 6 m is needed before a site has much Although building large projects such as the Thames
chance of being economic. In addition, the width of barrier and the Humber bridge proved painful
the enclosed basin at the site of the proposed barrage experiences, the history of more recent projects, such
should not be large in relation to its area, and the water as the two latest AGR power stations and
depth should be enough to provide adequate particularly the development of the North Sea oil
submergence for the turbines without being too deep. fields, has been much more satisfactory. Thus severe
Finally, the estuary should not be remote, otherwise delays or cost overruns should not occur during the
transmission costs rise. building of the Severn barrage or a Mersey barrage.
There are sites representing important energy Once built, such projects would generate electricity
resources in at low cost for many decades. Thus they would be
— Alaska (Cook Inlet) seen by future generations in the same light as the
— Argentina (San Jose) North of Scotland hydro-electric schemes are seen
— Australia (north-west coast) now, namely as a wise investment.
— Brazil (north coast) where plans have been A difficulty arises from the different discount rates
announced to build a 36 MW pilot scheme in an (which take risks into account) that are likely to be

between St Malo and Dinard than the route around parts by the Department of Energy, CEGB and STPG.
the estuary. Secondly, a tidal barrage can be operated The study is programmed to take about 18 months
to control water levels in the enclosed basis. This will and will cover a wide range of engineering and
represent a substantial benefit in terms of flood environmental aspects. It is intended to be the first
prevention where the land around the estuary is low stage of a full five-year study, although there is no
lying; large river floods can be accommodated by commitment yet to the further work.
closing the barrage gates early on the previous high Separately, an £800 000 study has been completed
water and thus keeping basin levels lower than normal. of the feasibility of a tidal power scheme in the Mersey
In the same way, flooding that would be caused by estuary. This was funded equally by the Mersey
exceptionally high tides or storm surges can be Barrage Company, which is a consortium of a wide
prevented. This benefit will become more important range of companies with interests in Mersey-side, and
if the ‘greenhouse effect’ does cause sea levels to rise, the Department of Energy. At the time of writing, the
because continual raising of long lengths of sea defence report has not been published, but plans have been
banks becomes progressively more difficult and announced for a further study costing £1·3 m.
expensive. The Department of Energy is funding a programme
Aspects also being considered include land drainage, of ‘generic’ studies, i.e. studies of engineering and
fish migration, changes in salinity, the effects of environmental aspects which are not site-specific. An
construction traffic, employment and so forth. So far, example is the use of steel caissons fabricated in
no insurmountable adverse impacts have been shipyards instead of caissons built of reinforced
identified although much work remains to be done, concrete which, because of their large draft, require
some of it involving highly sophisticated computer purpose-built workyards.
modelling techniques. Initial studies of small-scale tidal power have
produced some encouraging results, and the building
of such a scheme would provide some useful practical
3.6 WORK IN PROGRESS experience, including validating some of the computer-
based predictive techniques being used or developed
The 1981 report of the Severn Barrage Committee1 for studies of larger schemes.
concluded that the technical feasibility of building the
Severn barrage was proven, but that there was much
3.7 INSTITUTIONAL BARRIERS
uncertainty over its economics and its environmental
impact. The Committee recommended that further
studies of these aspects, together with more work on Forty years after the decision was taken not to build
refining the engineering aspects, should be carried out an 800 MW barrage at English Stones in the upper
immediately, and set out a comprehensive programme part of the Severn estuary, mainly because of fears for
taking four years and costing £20 m which would the South Wales coal industry, there is still a lack of
enable government to make a fully informed decision commitment towards the development of tidal power
as to whether to proceed with construction. which, in terms of resource size and density,
This recommendation was not accepted and no predictability, proven technology, environmental
action was taken until 1984 when the newly formed impact and unit cost of electricity is arguably the best
Severn Tidal Power Group persuaded the government of the UK’s renewable resources.
to fund half the cost of a study of the feasibility of The Nature Conservancy Council (NCC) and the
building the barrage as a private development, together Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) have
with some further work on engineering and both stated that they would object to the building of
environmental aspects. This study concluded that the the Severn barrage. However, the former organisation
barrage could not be built by the private sector alone, is contributing to the work in progress and thus the
largely because of the uncertainty over income from study will benefit from the NCC’s experience and
electricity sales discussed above. Otherwise, the study expertise, while the NCC will be continuing to assess
generally confirmed the findings of the Severn Barrage its own views as more information becomes available.
Committee. The RSPB, on the other hand, has publicly announced
Since then, a further study is being undertaken by its opposition to any tidal power developments
the Group. This will cost £4·2 m and is funded in equal involving estuaries. This seems premature, because it

used by a private organisation considering building a minimal tidal power. As a last resort, tidal power could
barrage in order to sell the electricity to a utility, and a be exported via the cross-Channel link.
large, privatised, utility considering a tidal power In absorbing the output of the Severn barrage, the
scheme to add to its already established power CEGB (or its successors) would plan to displace plant
generating system. There is no practical possibility that with the highest running costs first, thus obtaining
the electricity could be used by the owner of a tidal maximum benefit. The need to cycle down coal-fired
barrage in the same way that the output of a wind stations would incur a penalty in reduced efficiency,
turbine or array of photo-electric cells could be used estimated at about 6% of the barrage’s output. Thirdly,
to avoid importing electricity from the grid and thus channelling energy through a pumped storage scheme
achieve greater value for the owner. loses 25% due to inefficiencies.
Although producing power intermittently, a tidal
power scheme would reduce slightly the need for
3.10 SYSTEM EFFECTS
thermal plant. Studies carried out using the
Department of Energy’s computer model of the UK
As discussed in Section 3.1, in the absence of an generating system (Ref.1) showed that the Severn
effective grid system, the two blocks of energy barrage would save the need to build about 1500 MW
produced each day by a tidal power scheme, which of coal-fired plant but that about 400 MW of
follow the lunar cycle, present difficulties of absorption additional peaking plant such as old coal-fired plant,
by consumers. Two-way generation reduces this which would otherwise have been decommissioned,
problem and has been chosen for a number of very or gas turbines would be needed. The value of this
small schemes in China which supply local displaced plant is relatively small.
communities which are not connected to the grid. One
of the conclusions of the first major study of Severn REFERENCES
tidal power, carried out between 1927 and 1933, was
that a dedicated pumped storage scheme would be 1. Tidal power from the Severn Estuary, Severn Barrage
necessary to smooth the output of the 800 MW barrage Committee, Energy Paper 46, HMSO, 1981.
2. Tidal power from the Severn, The Severn Tidal Power Group,
then recommended. By 1945, a review of the 1933 1986.
report concluded that the grid system could absorb 3. COTILLON, J., La Rance: 6 years of operating a tidal power
the barrage’s output without the need for dedicated plant in France. Water Power (Oct. 1974) 314–22.
pumped storage. 4. DeLORY, R.P., The Annapolis tidal generating station. 3rd
Symp. on Wave, Tidal, OTEC and Small Scale Hydro
The 1981 report of the Severn Barrage Committee Energy, May 1986, BHRA, Cranfield, Bedford, UK.
concluded that there was no need for additional 5. FORD, S.E.H. & ELLIOTT, S.M., Investigation and design
pumped storage, at least until nuclear plant output of the Plover Cover water scheme. Proc. ICE, 32 (1965)
rose above base load, in which case the need for 255–93.
6. WISHART, S.J., A preliminary survey of tidal energy from
additional pumped storage capacity should be assessed five UK estuaries. 2nd Int. Symp. on Wave and Tidal
within the whole system. Energy, September 1981, BHRA, Cranfield, Bedford, UK.
These conclusions were based on three main factors. 7. BINNIE & PARTNERS for Department of Energy, Preliminary
Firstly, both the amount and timing of the output of study of small scale tidal energy, Phases 1 to 3, 1984.
8. BAKER, A.C., The development of functions relating cost
the Severn could be predicted with good accuracy as and performance of tidal power schemes and their
far into the future as the CEGB could require. Secondly, application to small scale sites. ICE Symp. on Tidal Power,
by the time the barrage was built its maximum output 1986, Thomas Telford Ltd, London.
of about 7000 MW would not be so large a proportion 9. KEILER, D.C., Some interactions between tides and tidal
power schemes in the Severn Estuary. ICE Symp. on Tidal
of the total demand as to embarrass the CEGB, Power, 1986, Thomas Telford Ltd, London.
although there could be times when the rate of start- 10. Korea Tidal Power Study—1986, Korea Ocean Research
up of the turbines would be limited. This would lose and Development Institute, South Korea.

Section 4
Wave Energy
4.1 INTRODUCTION consent) as Appendix 4.1. The Report forms the basis
of much of this section.
The UK has a special position in wave energy. This
arises from the pioneering work of a number of 4.2 TECHNOLOGY
innovators in the early 1970s, which led to a
substantial programme lasting some 10 years, and on The DEn programme concentrated on the following
which, at its peak in about 1981, the Department of main areas. Where appropriate, we refer to other work
Energy’s expenditure was running at about £4 m per under the same heading.
annum. The programme’s objectives became clearly
defined, and when, in about 1982, the Department
4.2.1 Wave data
decided that they had substantially been achieved, the
decision to scale the programme down was quite This provides the basic design information. Because
logical. The objectives were: of the time scales of wave variability, it can take some
years to build up a good statistical model of wave
(a) to establish the technology for extracting energy amplitude and directionality for a particular site.
from ocean waves; However, the combination of wind statistics (which
(b) to estimate the cost of this energy, if used on a are much more complete) with the Meteorological
large scale to supply UK needs. Office wind-wave forecasting method has enabled
The qualifying phrase in objective (b) is important. good working models, including directionality, to be
The Department of Energy’s reason for sponsoring the developed for most areas of interest.
programme was the hope that wave energy could
economically provide a significant proportion of the 4.2.2 Conversion principles
country’s electricity needs. This influenced decisions
on the conduct of the research programme throughout.
Figure 4.1 (from Report R26, Fig. 4.1, p. 22) illustrates
Devices and techniques which were only likely to be
the main concepts considered in the DEn programme,
useful on the small or local scale were, in the main,
for conver ting the slow movement of water to a more
only worked on if the work could support the
easily used and transmitted form, normally electricity.
programme’s national-scale objectives. This, for
In interfacing with the waves, any converter must
instance, ruled out devices which could not even in
be constrained so that wave forces are resisted. This
principle be developed into a 2 GW power station.
gives rise to the concept of a ‘frame of reference’ against
Because certain devices of this kind show promise as
which the converter reacts (Report R26, p. 21).
power sources for diesel substitution in remote island
Frames of reference can be achieved in a number of
communities, work has continued (or begun) on them
ways, including
since the end of the main DEn programme, on a much
more limited financial scale. — using the sea-bed for fixing or mooring;
The DEn programme was reported in March 1985 — mounting several converters on a common frame or
in ETSU Report R26, Wave Energy—The Department spine so that relative motion is obtained between them;
of Energy’s R & D Programme 1974–1983. The — using the inertial force due to the gyroscopic action
summary of this Report is reproduced (with ETSU of a flywheel;

Fig. 4.1. Simple device concepts (from Report R26, Fig. 4.1).
— relying on the mass and inertia of the device. through a turbine when needed. This principle was
proposed for Mauritius by A.N.Walton Bott, and it is
One conversion principle which has been explored currently being demonstrated in Norway in the
mostly outside the DEn programme is that of Tapchan system. In the latter system, wave fronts en-
‘overtopping’, where wave action causes water to flow ter a gently tapered channel, where their height be-
over a dam where it is stored, and allowed to run out comes much enhanced.

4.2.3 Device design engineers were given the task of assessing on a common
basis the engineering viability, power output and costs
Out of more than 300 device ideas that were of each of the designs.
considered during the DEn programme, some 12 Because most of the energy off the UK coast is in
received substantial financial support, and nine of these long wavelength waves, these designs, which are
were continued through to the end of the main targeted at producing 2 GW over a reasonable length
programme. Scale models were tested in wide wave of coastline, are inevitably of massive units. Report
tanks at Edinburgh University and at Wavepower Ltd, R26 illustrates this by comparing a silhouette of each
Southampton. Some testing at around one-tenth scale device with a background Tower Bridge.
was carried out in The Solent and Loch Ness. Some device designs have been produced for other
Figure 4.2 (Report R26, Fig.5.1, p.26) is a matrix objectives; for instance, what can we do that would
which indicates the main features of the nine devices be useful to this community, using waves incident on
described in R26. The unit power ratings per device their coastline? Designs for such purposes generally
vary from 2·25 MW to 14·4 MW, and the corresponding are installed at or close to the shore. This renders
weights from 10 600 tonnes to 120 000 tonnes. maintenance and power collection much simpler
Designs of these devices were produced using the than with devices several kilometres offshore. Since
results of model tests and theoretical work. Consulting the power needs of communities (e.g. farms) not
Fig. 4.2. Device designs (from Report R26, Fig. 5.1).

connected to the grid are seldom very large, wave present rapid developments in power electronics are
energy device ratings for such purposes could making this technique more practicable and economic.
usefully be in the 20–500 kW range. Queens They will also help in conditioning the power generated
University, Belfast, are currently installing an by isolated wave energy devices.
oscillating water column in one of a number of
natural rock gullies on the west coast of the island of
4.2.6 Availability and maintenance
Islay. This, and others like it, could meet the needs of
farms and whisky distilleries for heating (varying
frequency) electricity. The Norwegian Tapchan In the severe environment of a wave power station,
system and a Norwegian cliff-installed oscillating the view, often expressed, that things will break
water column system are apparently aimed at the down (or break up!) in a short time and it will be
same market. very difficult to repair them, is understandable.
Work in the DEn programme was aimed at
quantifying this view.
4.2.4 Mooring and anchoring
The main points arising from this study of
maintenance and availability were:
Again because of the DEn objective of harnessing large
— a fixed device would be expected to have a higher
amounts of power, wave energy devices in their
availability than an equivalent floating device
programme were deployed in deep water. About half
because maintenance crews could gain access to it
of the devices in the programme were floaters.
and work in it in weather too severe for access to
Mooring hundreds of such devices in the worst seas
floating devices;
to be found anywhere, continuously, and in a way that
— a floating device which could not be repaired at sea
allowed the wave energy to be captured, would need
is likely to be at a considerable disadvantage in terms
an extension of mooring technology well beyond what
of availability unless provision for sufficient spare
was available. Significant progress was made, discussed
devices is made;
in Report R26.
— the present studies suggest that availability levels
In general, the cost of mooring and anchoring, or
in the range 70–90% might be achieved with an
the provision of sea-bed attachment, together with the
annual maintenance cost equivalent to 1–2p/ kWh.
cost of the initial device installation would be a significant
fraction of the overall capital costs. It could range from
10 to 15% for floating devices, and could be as high as 4.2.7 Other work since the end of the
30% for devices fixed to the sea-bed. The latter systems main DEn programme
would be virtually main-tenance-free whereas moorings
require periodic inspection and replacement, thereby The Department is currently supporting work by SEA
incurring an operational cost penalty. Ltd towards a small-scale version of the CLAM device.
The DTI have promoted a study of a small-scale
demonstration of the NEL Breakwater device.
4.2.5 Power conversion and transmission
DEn has also been supporting the team at Queen’s
University, Belfast, to look at ‘Shoreline’ wave energy
Exploiting the low, variable frequency motion of systems. In 1985 they funded a design and feasibility
waves, and coupling the power to a fixed frequency study. In 1987 they began funding Phase 2, the
and fixed voltage grid system, is a challenging task construction of a 40 m2 oscillating water column
which device designers have tackled in different chamber, capable of driving a biplane Wells turbine
ways. Various hydraulic and mechanical systems are generator with a peak output of 180 kW. In the third
proposed, but perhaps the largest number of designs phase, which is currently under negotiation, it is
use air as a working fluid. Either the air is rectified proposed to install the turbine generator and connect
by valves, or it flows backwards and forwards it to the island’s electricity network.
through a turbine (such as the Wells turbine) which As indicated above, there is some active
rotates in the same direction, irrespective of the demonstration work in Norway. Japan appears to
direction of air flow. have been continuing the unexciting Kaimei
Electricity, when generated in numerous small programme, sponsored by the International Energy
alternators, can be aggregated by a d.c. system. The Agency.

4.3 EXPLOITABLE RESOURCE IN THE UK specifically at cost reduction. A figure of 5·5–6 p/kWh
is being suggested for one new development.
This was a topic of prime interest in the DEn The Norwegian coastline developments claim much
programme. Figure 4.3 (Report R26, Fig. 3.8) shows lower unit costs in the 2·5–4 p/kWh range. They should
how the eventual figure of 6 GW was arrived at. It be able to benefit from high availability due to easy
should be borne in mind that this might be restricted access for maintenance, and from low costs of power
by economics and environmental factors. distribution. However, some scepticism is inevitable.
The scope for economic use of coastline devices by So far, wave power has not been successful in
local communities in the UK may be fairly limited, competition with its nearest equivalent, wind power.
perhaps 50 units each of 200 kW, or 10 MW total. Aerogenerators can be, and have been, installed at
Queen’s University consider the resource to be much many sites both on the coast and inland. They can in
greater, in the order of 200–300 MW, with possible principle be installed offshore. Wave power generators
sites on nearly all the Scottish islands and the coast of are as yet only likely to be useful at suitable coastal
Devon and Cornwall. sites. It seems probable that they will have less
environmental impact than large (20–25 m) aerogen-
4.4 COMMERCIAL PROSPECTS erators, and thus may be more readily accepted in
sensitive areas.
The DEn programme, after a very thorough and
searching investigation, concluded that the cost of
4.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTABILITY
wave energy would be in the 8–14 p/kWh range (1982
values). At such costs, it would compare unfavourably
with not only coal and nuclear electricity, but probably Naturally, the environmental impact of a large wave
also with oil-fired electricity, and also with onshore power scheme would be greater than that of a small
and offshore wind power. This was the prime reason scheme. It would also be different in character.
for scaling down the programme to a limited one aimed For the large scheme, off the west coast of Scotland:
Fig. 4.3. The achievable resource (from Report R26, Fig. 3.8).

— the electricity transmission lines to the load centres — We have a useful quantity of wave data.
in the south of Scotland would need careful placing; — We have a number of islands that depend on diesel
— there would be a marked change in the shore wave generation, and have labour available for on-site work.
climate, and hence of the ecology; — We have a good industrial resource for all parts of
— there might be some noise, though if the power a wave energy system.
station is 20–30 km offshore this is unlikely to be
serious; Against
— the construction activity would be considerable;
— The UK has large resources of more easily exploited
— predatory seabirds and seals might be
fossil energy, and at least one renewable source of
encouraged, to the detriment offish stocks
similar scale (wind), which may be more economic.
(though not with submerged devices like the
— Several submarine power cables have been successfully
Bristol Cylinder).
laid in the last few years to offshore islands.
A small scheme, such as is proposed for Islay:
APPENDIX 4.1 (ETSU REPORT R26)
— might produce some noise;
— would need a Land Rover access track. Introduction
Otherwise there should be no environmental impact. The intensive phase of the Department of Energy’s wave energy research and
development programme ran from 1974 to 1983 and cost approximately £15M The
basic objectives of the programme were to establish the feasibility of extracting energy
from ocean waves and to estimate the cost of this energy, if used on a large-scale to
4.6 INSTITUTIONAL BARRIERS supply UK needs.
Programme Content
Wave power has not yet progressed to the stage In order to meet these objectives, a comprehensive programme of work was carried
where the institutional objections have been out in the following main areas:
formulated. However, a large offshore scheme might ⵧ Wave Data
meet opposition from shipping and fishing interests, Work on collecting and analysing wave data has advanced our knowledge of the
wave climate considerably. The variable nature of wave energy is now better
although the benefit of creating an inshore passage understood and the size of the resource is more firmly established
in relatively calm water should not be ⵧ Conversion Principles
underestimated. The most suitable form of energy to which wave energy can be converted s
electricity At present, the most cost-effective type of converter is likely to use
Fears are said to have been expressed that noise wave motion to generate an air flow to drive turbines
from mechanisms on large-scale wave energy schemes ⵧ Device Designs
Over three hundred ideas for capturing wave energy were examined. The most
could frustrate the detection of sub-marines. We do attractive concepts were tested at small scale in wave tanks, and three were
not know whether there is any truth in this. tested in sea conditions at one-tenth scale. Eight devices were taken to the stage
where reference designs for a 2GW power station located off NW Scotland were
produced and costed. This required the development of design codes for structures
and a study of materials and construction techniques, and a great deal is now
4.7 EXPORT POTENTIAL known about the sheer scale of the operations involved in building such stations.
ⵧ Mooring and Anchoring
Although mooring and anchoring technology has made advances in recent years,
certain unique requirements of mooring systems for wave energy converters
There would no doubt be some opportunity for exporting required special approaches. Significant progress was made on the design of
the specialised mechanisms of wave energy devices. These ‘compliant’ mooring systems.
might include air turbines, flexible bags, Duck gyros, ⵧ Power Conversion and Transmission
The particular problems of aggregating power from thousands of individual
electrical plant, mooring ropes, etc. Much of the capital generating sets and delivering it via a single transmission line to the Grid were
cost of any wave energy system, large or small, would be studied in depth and suitable systems were designed.
ⵧ Availability and Maintenance
in civil works construction, largely using local labour.
The economics of wave energy are heavily dependent upon the availability of
This would appeal to overseas governments. There would devices and the cost of maintaining them. Mainly through the development of
computer modelling techniques, the level and type of maintenance and repair
be opportunities for UK consulting engineers. resources required by wave power stations were determined.
4.8 APPROPRIATENESS FOR Size of the Resource

DEVELOPMENT IN THE UK When the wave energy programme began, estimates suggested the potential
resource around the UK coast was enormous. It is now evident from wave
measurements and calculations which take account of geographical limitations and
In favour the overall conversion efficiency of the assessed wave energy stations that the
technically achievable UK resource does not exceed 6 GW mean annual power This
is equivalent to approximately 50 TWh of energy per annum or 20 Mtce per annum
— We have a resource assessed as technically capable representing about 6% of the total current primary demand for energy in the UK. This
achievable resource will probably be further limited in practice by environmental and
of yielding 6 GW mean annual power. economic constraints.

if progress could be made which might justify larger-scale work in later years. Research
Cost of Wave Energy work continues to be funded at the Universities of Edinburgh, Belfast and Lancaster
and SEA Ltd. at Coventry.
The cost of energy produced by the various devices was assessed by Consultants
using cost data from the 2GW reference designs. The assessment concluded that
there was only a low probability of any design achieving an energy cost below 8p/ The Way Forward
kWh (in May 1982 money values).
The work carried out in the programme has indicated that constructing and maintaining
wave power stations necessary for large-scale exploitation of the resource would
Economics of Wave Energy present formidable tasks. The diffuse nature of the energy and its remoteness from
industrial centres and consumers are major factors contributing to the unattractiveness
In January 1982, ETSU produced its ‘Strategic Review of the Renewable Technologies’ of large-scale wave energy relative to other energy sources, renewable and
which made an economic analysis of all renewables including wave energy. It concluded conventional. Smaller scale wave energy might, however, have a brighter future in
that the overall economic prospects for wave energy looked poor when compared remote locations where the competition comes from expensive fuels such as diesel.
with other electricity-producing renewable energy technologies. An up-dated analysis
in 1984 confirmed this conclusion. The Department is currently supporting work by SEA Ltd. directed towards a small-
scale version of the CLAM device. In addition, the Department of Trade and Industry
In the light of the Strategic Review, the Advisory Council for Research and has supported a feasibility study of a small-scale demonstration of the NEL Breakwater
Development for Fuel and Power (ACORD) concluded in March 1982 that large-scale device. These and developments overseas will be studied carefully; any re-assessment
prototype work was not justified and that the programme should be reduced. The of the application of wave energy on a large scale must await the demonstration of its
Department of Energy decided therefore to fund a small research programme to see viability at these smaller scales.

Section 5
Wind Energy
5.1 INTRODUCTION this comparison, one of the claims of the vertical axis
machine being that it can ultimately be developed to
Fresh interest in wind power developed in the mid- larger size due to the non-cyclic gravitational loads. It
1970s in the UK and in much of the Western World. is thought that large wind turbines will have the
This followed the oil price increases of 1973 and 1974 advantage offshore where foundations will be expensive,
but was assisted by the great advances in materials but these machines are still in the experimental stage.
and aerospace and computer technology. The On land more modest sizes could prove beneficial,
mathematics necessary to analyse thoroughly the perhaps somewhere between 250 kW and 2000 kW
dynamics, aerodynamics and aeroelastics of medium rated capacity, and appreciable experience is already
and large wind turbines (WTs) are highly complex. available at the lower end of this range.
Prior to this, development had been static for many
years.
The modern development has followed two parallel
paths, horizontal axis and vertical axis. The former is
similar to the traditional windmill and is probably
more developed than the vertical axis wind turbine.
In theory both types can be similar in efficiency but
they are fundamentally different in mode of operation.
In the horizontal axis machine the blades rotate in a
vertical plane, thus resulting in sinusoidally varying
gravitational stresses, whilst the stresses due to the
wind remain constant for a given wind speed if we
neglect any variation of wind across the circular swept
area. On the other hand, the gravitational stresses are
constant for a vertical axis wind turbine but the
aerodynamic stresses vary sinusoidally, peaking as the
blades cross the wind upstream of the tower. Both types
operate on the principle of aerodynamic lift with the
velocity of the blades exceeding that of the wind. Figure
5.1 illustrates the mode of operation of the horizontal
axis wind turbine and Fig. 5.2 that of the vertical axis
machine. The other fundamental difference is that the
blades of the horizontal axis turbine must be turned
into the wind (the technical term is known as yawing)
whilst the vertical axis wind turbine is omnidirectional.
Advocates of both types claim advantages but the
proof will only be available when both are sufficiently
developed and tried to prove which has the best long
term economics. It could well be that size comes into Fig. 5.1. Velocity diagram for horizontal axis wind turbine.

but also from the Department of Trade and Industry
and the EEC.
5.2 STATUS OF TECHNOLOGY
Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs) up to sizes of

about 30m diameter have undergone a rapid phase of
product development in the last 10 years or so. More
than 14 000 with a total capacity of 1210 MW were
installed and operating in California by the end of 1986:
see Fig. 5.3. Well over 1000 machines, mainly small,
are in use in Denmark. High availability is claimed for
the best machines, in the order of 95%, coupled with
low maintenance costs, probably less than 2% of the
capital cost annually. However, it must be said that
this is based on 2 or 3 years’ operation and thus the
validity of the designs for fatigue are not yet truly tested.
Wind turbines are commonly designed for a 25-year
life, during which time fatigue cycles exceeding 108 will
be experienced, with minimal inspection compared to
aircraft standards which consider a fatigue cycle to
consist of a take-off and landing. There are many
important variants in the design of horizontal axis
Fig. 5.2. Operation of vertical axis wind turbine. machines; the most important are the use of two or
three blades (a few single-bladed machines exist in West
In the United Kingdom both horizontal and vertical Germany) and whether these blades are fixed or can
axis wind turbines are being developed with funding pitch the whole or part of the blade. Pitching the blades
assistance primarily from the Department of Energy enables power control to be achieved once the wind
Fig. 5.3. Californian wind farm (17 m diameter, 100 kW WT, US Windpower Inc.).

speed exceeds the rated value selected for the design, and sited on less windy sites. Reference 1 gives details
whereas power regulation on fixed blade WTs occurs of the development of WEG’s horizontal axis wind
in a natural (but uncontrolled) manner due to the turbines. The Glasgow-based firm of James Howden
aerodynamics of post-stall behaviour. Materials used also developed three-bladed HAWTs and have installed
for the blades include steel, aluminium, glass-reinforced WTs in Orkney, Carmarthen Bay, Sweden and Kent,
plastic and epoxybonded laminated wood. and a 75-machine wind farm in California.
In 1984, the Wind Energy Group (WEG) installed a The main developments of verticial axis wind
25 m diameter three-bladed pitch-controlled wind turbines are taking place in North America and the
turbine in the UK, and this was the forerunner to the UK. In North America the Darrieus version is favoured;
installation of 20 such machines in California in 1988. this machine has fixed curved blades, that is to say it
In November 1987, the largest UK wind turbine was cannot pitch or reef the blades to control power
commissioned in Orkney. This has been designed and capture. It is therefore a stall-regulated machine (at
built by WEG, is 60 m in diameter and rated at 3 MW. high wind speeds the air flow will stall over the blade
The blades are of steel box section construction with thus reducing lift and hence power capture). Significant
GRP fairings. This wind turbine is on Burgar Hill, which numbers of Darrieus wind turbines have been built in
is one of the windiest locations in the British Isles, hence Canada and the USA sized up to 300 kW rated
the rather high rating of 3 MW. The one or two other capacity. In these machines the curved blades have been
giant, experimental wind turbines with ratings in the formed from extruded aluminium alloy. A large 64 m
region of 3 MW are all approximately 100 m in diameter diameter Darrieus has been built in Canada but at this
Fig. 5.4. 4 MW Darrieus WT, Project Eolé, Canada (photo by courtesy of National Research Council, Canada).

large size the curved blades are formed in short straight
lengths using steel as the material: see Fig. 5.4.
Reference 2 gives further details of the Darrieus WT
development.
The vertical axis development in the UK is of a
straight-bladed machine which on early models could
control power capture by inclining its blades to the
vertical. Hence they were not stall-regulated machines.
Figure 5.5 illustrates the original concept conceived
in 1975 by Dr Musgrove at Reading University, and
Fig. 5.6 shows a 25 m diameter test bed development
of the idea at Carmarthen Bay Power Station. Three
years of testing of this wind turbine have demonstrated
that its power capture can be controlled without blade
inclination and all designs are now stall-regulated and
with struts supporting the blades. A 500 kw machine
has now been built at Carmarthen Bay.
Whilst some wind turbines are considered proven,
much research and development remains to be done into
various aspects, such as lightweight materials for the
blades, the blade profiles, the dynamics of cyclic stall,
and the integration of electricity-generating wind turbines
with individual diesel sets, to mention but a few. The
British Wind Energy Association (BWEA) has itemised
the underlying R & D necessary and set out a programme
in their publication Wind Power for the UK.3
Fig. 5.5. University of Reading 3 m diameter vertical axis
WT (1975).
5.3 EXPLOITABLE RESOURCE
an estimate of around 200 TWh—far more than could
The exploitable resource from the wind around the presently be accommodated in the UK. It has been
world is vast. Wherever the mean wind speed exceeds suggested that around 20% of present capacity, about
about 6 m/s there are possibilities for exploiting it the same level as nuclear generation, could be
economically, depending on the costs of competing assimilated into the system without difficulty.
sources of power. This is not limited to land-based Economic penalties would be incurred with increasing
wind turbines. Possibilities exist of installing large wind levels of penetration.7
farms in shallow waters (perhaps limited to 30 m The Central Electricity Generating Board did an
depth) around the coasts. Many areas of the world appreciable amount of research into probable costs
are subject to strong trade winds; Fig. 5.7 gives some of wind power and availability of sites within England
indication of this resource. No reliable worldwide and Wales. This has been published in their evidence
assessment of the exploitable resource has been made to the Hinkley ‘C’ Public Inquiry and the following
but many countries are making their own assessments extract may be usefully quoted.
based on varying criteria. These criteria take account The results of the preliminary resource estimate are
of minimum distance from residential property (set shown in the table below for 30 m height, which is
by some at 500 m), visual acceptability, impact on a tower height typical of medium size machines. In
farmland, and electrical transmission costs, to quote addition the variation of energy yield with
some of the principal ones. windspeed is given in terms of an energy load factor,
Within the United Kingdom the CEC has estimated defined as the actual output in a year as a proportion
the gross resource on land to be 1760 TWh. 4 of the output that would be achieved if the plant
Environmental factors may reduce possibilities on land were always operating at maximum output. This
to a much lower figure, in the range 25–45 TWh/year.5 parameter varies as the cube of the average
A detailed assessment of the offshore resource6 yielded windspeed.

indicate that the total cost of land-based wind energy
(capital cost of turbines plus costs of associated
transmission systems plus maintenance costs) from
series-ordered large production turbines operating
from the year 2000 onwards could be in the range
2·5 to 3·2 p/kWh.8 The Department’s assessments
show that over a wide range of scenarios land-based
wind energy for grid supply shows better than unity
benefit/cost ratios.9
Offshore wind power is estimated to be
significantly more expensive due to the high cost of
foundations and submarine electricity transmission.
Estimated costs of 4½ to 5½ p/kWh are quoted, again
for significant quantities at a 5% discount rate (the
Fig. 5.7. Estimated worldwide distribution of wind UK calculations are based on 200 large wind
energy turbines).10, 11
sources (US Department of Energy).
windspeeds of 8·4 m/s and above. The total exploitable 5.5 COMMERCIAL PROSPECTS
wind resource is hard to assess with any certainty.
The CEGB concluded that if £700/kW cost figures The economic appraisal in Section 5.4 indicates good
are achievable then on sites with mean annual wind commercial prospects but these must be tempered by
speeds of 8·4 m/s or more at 30 m height, about 1000 environmental acceptability and institutional and other
MW of capacity could be installed, producing electricity barriers, as is the case with any power generation
at a comparable cost to PWR nuclear, and that this scheme. These are examined in the following sections.
would have an equivalent firm capacity of 400 MW. Nevertheless markets do exist and will continue to
If capital costs fall to £600/kW then a further 2000 develop. These are of two types: the ‘wind farm’ and
MW of installed capacity on 8 m/s wind speed sites the ‘stand alone’ machine require different marketing
would be competitive with nuclear power. (This and servicing. The only significant wind farm market
analysis was based on the use of a 5% return on to have developed to date is that in California where
investment as then required for a public sector a combination of tax concessions, good purchase rates
organisation.) for electricity, and wind amplification due to geographic
factors in areas well serviced by HV transmission lines
(i.e. passes between deserts and valleys or valleys and
5.4 ECONOMIC APPRAISAL coastal areas) created a bonanza for wind power. Not
all projects succeeded but some proved themselves
Where wind turbines can be installed in substantial and their products, including two British and several
numbers in wind farms the cost of electricity Danish firms. It is a remarkable fact that despite the
generated may be comparable with that from nuclear diversity of machines and companies, and the
or coal-fired power stations, in the range of 2 to 4 unplanned, unstructured growth of the industry, within
pence/kWh at a 5% discount rate provided that 7 years a new source of electricity generation has been
targets for availability, lifetime and maintenance are tapped, with very rapid production evolution year by
met. The BWEA’s publication Wind Power for the year now resulting in high quality machines. In the
UK3 estimates 2·1 p/kWh on a 9·4 m/s mean wind Californian case all the factors were favourable. It is
site. It is estimated that 1000 MW of wind turbines doubtful whether we shall see this repeated elsewhere;
could be installed on sites with mean wind speed thus wind turbine manufacturers will wish to plan
greater than 8 m/s on the UK mainland. A summary their export on the basis of a sound home market. It
of the results of this calculation is appended at the should be noted also that even in the ‘windy’ passes
end of this section. of California, annual mean wind speeds are lower
The medium to long term economic prospects for than 8 m/s.
wind-generated electricity in the UK look The stand alone market is generally for small
encouraging. Department of Energy assessments machines (up to 100 kW) and is mostly in remote or

Fig. 5.6. 25 m diameter experimental vertical axis WT by VAWT Ltd at Carmarthen Bay Power Station.
Estimated land areas and energy load factors with high average
It must be emphasised that this study was based on windspeeds
the total land area available in England and Wales;
the actual usable areas are likely to be considerably
less than this. Areas of high wind speed are mainly
found at high elevations and therefore tend to lie in
scenic regions including areas of outstanding natural
beauty and national parks. The practical land area
that could be used is uncertain. If 10% of the areas
given in the above table could be developed with a wind energy capacity of these regions would be about
typical planting density of 4 MW per sq km the total 3000 MW, with up to 1000 MW available at

island locations often with difficult access. Maintenance or from the blades passing the tower. Good design
can therefore be a major problem; robust and simple should avoid both. Generally, the sound at a distance
designs are likely to succeed rather than sophistication of 10 rotor diameters from the wind turbine is barely
to achieve high efficiency. Marketing and after-sales discernible above the general background for
servicing probably require a suitable existing operation, horizontal axis machines, and this distance is even less
such as agricultural equipment supply, rather than a for vertical axis machines which have a lower rate of
newly established and dedicated operation. Much could rotation and where the blades are much further from
possibly be achieved through judicious licensing of the tower. Some local authorities in the UK are already
established local companies. setting exceedingly stringent requirements for absence
One thing is clear: the market for small and medium- of noise. Williams, in his paper on wind turbine noise,12
sized machines is highly competitive, and for a supplier gives an extensive list of references for papers on this
to remain in business it will need to keep abreast of complex subject.
rapidly developing technology and have the support It can be concluded that noise ought not to be a
of its home government. major problem with well-designed wind turbines sited
a sufficient distance from residential premises.
5.6 ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTABILITY
Television interference has been recorded on
occasions but seems limited to about ½ km in range.
As with most sources of power, wind power has its The use of non-metallic blades partly resolves this
pluses and minuses as regards environmental impact. problem except where lightning strike protection
On the positive side, it is a non-polluting and renewable strips or mesh are used in the blades. Again good
source. Public awareness of this fact is high. siting is the solution to this problem but if necessary
On the negative side there are several factors to local remedial measures can be taken, such as the
consider: installation of cable TV or a repeater station to avoid
transmission through the wind turbines. This is the
(a) visual intrusion; solution adopted at Goodnae Hills, Washington
(b) noise; State.
(c) interference to television and radio signals;
(d) conflict of land use; Conflict of land use is not proven. It depends on
(e) hazard to birds. public acceptance that agriculture can proceed
unhindered to the base of the wind turbine towers, as
Let us consider these in turn. is the case in the Altamont Pass, California, or on
what restrictions on such close working will be
Visual intrusion occurs. An individual wind turbine, required. Should agriculture be banned within an
or even a small group, can be regarded by many not area of possible blade throw (up to 500 m) then
as an objectionable intrusion but as an object of effectively the whole wind farm will be denied to
interest, a functioning structure no more at odds with agriculture. More reasonably, farming would be
the surroundings than, say, a motorway bridge. Large restricted only in the relatively small area just below
groups may create a different reaction and great care the blades, but many do not see this as a necessity
must be taken with their siting and layout. It is unlikely and believe farming could go right up to the tower,
that layouts as in the Altamont Pass in California particularly stock farming. Taking roads and areas
would be accepted in many parts of the UK. Public below blades into account, land use is about 1–1½%
reaction needs to be tested, both by the construction of the total area, the rest continuing under
of a few carefully planned wind farms within those agriculture.
countries wishing to adopt wind power as a significant
supplier to the national grid and by the construction Hazard to birds seems to be an insignificant issue.
of single windmills to evaluate the concept of low The effect on birds is being monitored at the wind
density wind farms (a windmill every few kilometres turbine site in Orkney and no deleterious effect has
instead of every few hundred metres). been recorded. In the Netherlands this matter has also
received careful study13 and again no significant effects
Noise is of two kinds: mechanical noise from the are recorded. In California certain rare species, e.g.
transmission and aerodynamic noise from the blades the golden hawk which is California’s state symbol,

share their habitat with wind farms and perch on Francisco and Los Angeles. The result has been a
stationary windmill blades to assist their aerial bonanza for wind turbine manufacturers who had their
predation. products developed in time: up to the end of 1986
wind turbines had been installed with a total generating
capacity of 1210 MW. Thus an American wind turbine
5.7 INSTITUTIONAL AND OTHER
industry has been able to develop on a sound home
BARRIERS
basis. These conditions have also been to the benefit
of certain European manufacturers, particularly
Institutional and other barriers vary greatly between Danish but also two British companies which
countries and indeed within states of countries. They established wind farms there in the last two years of
mainly occur under three headings: the tax concessions.
Whilst this section considers primarily wind turbine
— Taxation development in the UK, it is instructive to pick one of
— Payment for power generated our European neighbours and briefly consider their
— Planning development there.
5.7.1 UK 5.7.3 The Netherlands
Until April 1990, local taxation in the form of rates The Dutch wind turbine industry was given a major
was at a penal level on privately owned wind turbines boost in 1986 when the Ministry of Economic Affairs
and other private electricity generators (other than launched a 4-year programme worth over £38 m. A
those used only for agricultural purposes). This total of £20·75 m has been allocated to ‘market
however has now been rectified with the introduction stimulation’ whereby subsidies will be allocated on
of formula rating reasonably comparable to that for an installed kW basis to turbines which have been
the large utilities. The result was no wind farms and certified by the Dutch Test Station (ECN). A further
relatively few planning applications. £11·2 m has been allocated for grants to wind turbine
The payment for power generated is, at the time of manufacturers for industrial technology development.
printing, somewhat confused due to the process of The remaining sum, £6·4 m, has been allocated to basic
privatisation of the electricity supply industry. In some research activities in research institutes and universities
cases the operators of wind turbines may be able to and to support the continued operation of the ECN
benefit under the 1989 Electricity Act, from the Non- Test Station. The aim of this ambitious programme is
Fossil Fuel Obligation and the associated fossil fuel to develop the Dutch industry, thus enhancing its
levy, but possibly only until 1998. There-after sales ability to compete in the large wind turbine market
will have to be to the pool at the going rates for all both in the Netherlands and abroad.
generators. This may create considerable difficulties
in financing projects on the open market with the 5.8 EXPORT OPPORTUNITIES
requirement for high rates of return.
The Watt Committee has not itself carried out a market

5.7.2 USA
survey but believes that a substantial market exists at
present for small and medium-sized wind turbines,
In the USA the position varies from state to state with with rating up to about 250 kW, in stand alone
California being the best known case. In that state conditions throughout the developing world and in
there has been, till recently, 25% state and 25% federal remote areas of the developed world. The market for
tax concessions on the supply and installation of wind wind farms, other than the California situation, will
turbines. The utility companies have been required to depend on individual development where institutional
purchase the power at their highest avoidable cost and planning considerations are favourable and where
which has resulted in payments in the region of 8 c/ the electricity generated will displace fossil fuels,
kWh. It may also be said that planning considerations, particularly oil. As the production of wind turbines
until recently, have caused little constraint on the by established manufacturers grows and the price of
building of large wind farms in the areas behind San power generated in wind farms reduces to the highly

competitive figures quoted in Section 5.4, markets for from the first. WEG have installed two 330 kW
wind farms are likely to develop in many parts of the machines, one for National Power in Carmarthen Bay
world. There is, for example, considerable interest and and one for US Wind Power in California.
potential in India where three wind farms are in Howdens initially took a licence from a USA company
operation using Danish wind turbines. but later improved and developed this technology. Their
The Watt Committee considers export opportunities first ‘non-licensed’ wind turbine was also built on
to be favourable in the medium term and that the Orkney and was 22 m in diameter (Fig. 5.10). More
government should continue to encourage the recently they have supplied a machine to the CEGB at
development of a UK industry for export having regard Carmarthen Bay, a 750 kW wind turbine in Shetland
to the time needed for the development of wind farm and a 1 MW machine at Richborough in Kent. Howdens
export opportunities. were the first UK company to export to California and
The removal of tariff barriers throughout the EEC have a wind farm of 75 machines with a total rated
in 1992 will offer both an opportunity and a challenge capacity of 25 MW (Fig. 5.11). Some difficulties with
to enter the growing European market. The export the fabrication of blades for the wind turbines delayed
market for large wind turbines (greater than 0·5 MW the effective start of operation of this wind farm.
rated capacity) has not yet developed and will depend VAWT have developed the variable geometry
in turn on the development of these large machines vertical axis wind turbine originally invented by Dr
which are still in the experimental stage and on their Peter Musgrove at Reading University. They have a
proven economics. Government support for this 25 m diameter test bed machine operating at
development will be necessary for some time due to Carmarthen Bay and a 17 m, built in conjunction with
the long lead time and high financial risk involved. their licencees, Davidson & Co. Ltd, on St Mary’s in
the Isles of Scilly. They have also provided the design
for a 14 m diameter version built in Sardinia. Currently
5.9 BRITISH WORK
VAWT are commissioning a 35 m diameter, stall-
regulated wind turbine at Carmarthen Bay. This will
There are several firms which have successfully have a maximum output of 500 kW and will be owned
developed small wind turbines and established export and operated by National Power.
sales. Marlec Ltd have done exceptionally well, with In parallel with these machine-specific
sales of their 50 W machine exceeding 7000 over the developments, the Department of Energy and the
past 5 years, over 70% being exported. Until the recent Science and Engineering Research Council have been
establishment of the Department of Trade and Industry commissioning research work of a generic character,
test centre near Glasgow, operated by NEL, little including work on materials, fatigue, blade profiles,
government help was received by these companies resource availability and offshore application of wind
which have developed in response to an existing power. The total government-funded wind power
demand. research and development budget amounts to about
For medium to large machines there have been three £5·2 m per annum, the Department of Energy
UK companies developing ranges of wind turbines. contributing £4·5 m, SERC £0·3 m and DTI £0·4 m.
These are the Wind Energy Group (WEG), Howdens, In addition the CEGB programme of turbine
and Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT). The first construction and R & D reached a level of around
two are concerned with horizontal axis machines. All £2½ m per year. It is difficult to arrive at the private
three have received support funding from the sector expenditure on R & D as no published figures
government and limited funds from the EEC. are available but it probably amounts to around 20%
The Wind Energy Group (and its earlier consortium) of the public sector figure.
were the first to start and have developed their wind New developments in wind-assisted ship
turbines from first principles. In the process they have propulsion have taken place during the past few
carried out much research and development work, years and the BWEA has been active in promoting
particularly into the turbines of 20 m and 60 m further work in this area, 14 to encourage UK
diameter in Orkney (Fig. 5.8) and into a 25 m manufacturing and exporting opportunities. Despite
commercial machine in North Devon. In addition they a rapid drop in oil prices in 1985–86 there has now
have exported twenty 25 m wind turbines to California been the predicted inexorable rise. Expected fuel
and operate these through an associated company (Fig. savings of 15–20% should be achieved for most
5.9). These machines have performed extremely well medium-sized cargo ships fitted with optimum

Fig. 5.8. 60 m diameter, 3 MW WT at Burgar Hill, Orkney, by the Wind Energy Group.
Fig. 5.9. British WTs, 250 kW (Wind Energy Group), in Altamont Pass, California.

WASP devices, and this now begins to represent an
attractive cost reduction for fleet operators. One UK
device, the Walker Wingsail, has already shown its
worth on a British ship in 1986–87 and further
developments of this and other cost-effective devices
should be supported in a wind power research and
development programme.
5.10 STRATEGIC CONSIDERATIONS
United Kingdom electricity generation is largely by

coal-fired and nuclear power stations with oil-fired
plant in reserve. There is also a small amount of hydro-
power on the system. By far the largest proportion is
coal-fired and on present plans for new power station
building is likely to remain so in the next few decades.
The introduction of wind generation, or any other
renewable, into the system must increase the security
of the system by adding to the diversity of generating
plant. The CEGB has calculated7, 15 that at least 20%
of the system peak load could be accommodated from
Fig. 5.10. 22 m diameter prototype WT by James variable sources of supply, such as wind power, without
Howden in Orkney.
Fig. 5.11. Howden’s Californian wind farm.

significant cost penalty in the operation of existing 11. Offshore wind energy assessment phase 2B study. Taywood
Engineering, British Aerospace (Dynamics Group), GEC
plant and with direct fuel savings which, in the case of (Energy Systems) Ltd, and the CEGB for the Department
coal, account for 60% of the cost of energy. of Energy, February 1985.
12. WILLIAMS, G.J., Preliminary review of the effect of wind
turbine noise on the achievable wind energy resource in
REFERENCES Cornwall, March 1987. A Cornwall County Council
Renewable Energy Project, Windpower & Co. (UK) Ltd.
13. WINKELMAN, J.E., Vogelhinder door Middelgrote Wind
1. LINDLEY, D. & QUARTON, D.C., The design, construction Turbines (English summary included), Rijksinstituut voor
and operation of three horizontal axis wind turbines for Natuurbeheer, Arnhem, 1984.
the generation of power. Proc. ICE, Part I, August 1986, 14. Wind assisted ship propulsion strategy document. British
969–97. Wind Energy Association, November 1985.
2. CHAPPELL, M.S., Wind energy research and development 15. MILBORROW, D.J., TALBOT, J. & TAYLOR, R., A utility
at the National Research Council of Canada 1975–1985. view of the potential for large wind turbines. Proc.
National Research Council of Canada, Oct. 1986. European Wind Energy Conf. 1984, Hamburg. Published
3. Wind power for the UK. British Wind Energy Association, by H.S.Stephens, Bedford.
January 1987.
4. SELZER, H., Potential of wind energy in the European
Community. An assessment study. D.Reidel Publ. Co. for
the CEC, 1986.
5. BEVAN, E.G., DERWENT, R.C. & BEDFORD, I.A. W., Wind
energy: a promising renewable energy source for the United APPENDIX: GENERATION COSTS
Kingdom. Proc. 7th BWEA Wind Energy Conf., Oxford.
Published by MEP Ltd, 1985.
6. MILBORROW, D.J., MOORE, D.J., RICHARDSON, The calculation for a typical British wind turbine on
N.B.C. & ROBERTS, S.C., The UK offshore windpower a good, windy site is summarised in Table A5.1. Such
resource. Proc. 4th Int. Symp. on Wind Energy Systems,
Stockholm. Published by BHRA, 1982.
generation costs, around 2 pence/kWh, based upon
7. GARDNER, C.E. & THORPE, A., System integration of actual operating experience overseas, are very
wind power generation in Great Britain. Proc. EC favourable compared with other methods of
Contractors’ Meeting 23/24 November 1982, D.Reidel generation including coal and nuclear power which
Publ. Co. for the CEC, 1983.
8. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY, Proof of evidence for Sizewell
are around 3 pence/kWh or more. Just how
B public enquiry, Oct. 1982. favourable the costs are depends upon many
9. Background papers relevant to the 1986 appraisal of UK assumptions, such as future prices of fossil and
Energy Research and Development and Demonstration, nuclear fuels. However, they are sufficiently
ETSU Report R43, HMSO, 1987.
10. A study into the use of vertical axis wind turbines in offshore
attractive now to justify a major programme of
locations. Report by Vertical Axis Wind Turbines for development and installation to meet British
Department of Energy, August 1983. conditions.

Fig. A5.1. Sensitivity of cost of electricity to various
parameters. For each parameter, the 100% level is that
given in Table A5.1. (Source: Ref. 3.)
Table A5.1 Calculation of generation costs
Source: Ref. 3.

Section 6
Small Scale Hydro-electric Energy
6.1 INTRODUCTION as possible low-cost, low-technology paths to

electrification. It is in the mini and micro scale
Conventional hydro power uses the potential or kinetic installations that technological progress is most evident
energy of rainfall collected in a high level catchment because of the very tight constraint on economics
as it runs towards one at a lower level, often the sea. caused by a relatively low energy density.
As a power producer the technology has a long history
of development, and it was hydro power which drove 6.2 STATUS OF THE TECHNOLOGY
the first electricity power station to supply electricity
to the general public at Godalming, Surrey in 1881.
The harnessing of water for mechanical energy goes
Relying as it does on water, and hence rainfall, the
back centuries, initially for applications such as
resource is renewable, but does require terrain which
grinding cereals, and later for a wide range of industrial
produces an exploitable difference in height or ‘head’.
purposes. It has been used for the direct generation of
Heads of as little as a few feet can be exploited
electricity since 1881 and most modern schemes are
successfully, but require large volume flows to provide
installed for this purpose. The technology has
a useful quantity of energy.
developed from wooden water wheels (overshot,
Being rainfall-dependent, the resource is subject to
undershot and crossflow) through to the Francis,
fluctuations from season to season and year to year.
Kaplan, Pelton, Cross-flow and Turgo turbines of the
Over a period of days or weeks typical Scottish run-
20th century, and whilst new materials and techniques
off varies between (–)100% (i.e. none) and+400% of
are making an impact upon the civil works
average values, whilst over a year typical variability
(particularly dams and penstocks), here too the
would be (–)18% to+25%. Consequently the
technology is largely mature.
technology’s firm output is only a fraction of its
The investigation, design and construction of
installed capacity unless storage is provided by high-
conventional hydro-electric schemes is well defined and
level impounding of run-off.
understood, and can be costed with a reasonable degree
Conditions suitable for hydro power development
of certainty. Similarly plant components, are readily
with high rainfall and steep mountainous terrain are
available from a wide range of manufacturing sources.
not widespread in the United Kingdom, being largely
Nevertheless there are areas of the technology where
confined to Scotland and Wales. Low head river
novel designs or methods are apparent, and these are
resources are more widely scattered, but of relatively
concentrated at the mini and micro scale end of the
small energy significance.
spectrum where economic constraints demand an
In developed countries the larger hydro resources
innovative approach. On the prime mover side there
were among the first energy sources to be developed,
are novel low head designs based on reciprocating
and have largely been fully exploited. Consequently
attention is now focused on smaller resources which Table 6.1 Definition of hydro scheme size
are generally classified by size of scheme as shown in
Table 6.1.
In less developed countries there are still
considerable large-scale resources yet to be exploited,
but the smaller schemes are nevertheless still of interest

devices, together with a trend towards the use of off- the potential in (c) less that which is considered to
the-shelf components and plastics for small impellar- be undevelopable because of its environmental
type turbines. On the generation, protection and impact. As public sensitivity to environmental
control side, the use of micro and power electronics is impact grows, the amount of economic,
tending to simplify and cheapen the scheme. With environmentally acceptable resource falls.
regard to the civil works, these tend to be necessarily
Over the last 70 years there have been several
conservative in design given the cost and implications
surveys and estimates of the potential for
of any failure. Nevertheless use of components in novel
hydroelectric development in the UK, including those
materials such as plastics for pipelines is apparent.
listed in Refs 1–9.
None of these developments is revolutionary, in the
The Watt Committee on Energy working group on
sense that it creates extensive new opportunities, but
small scale hydropower reported on resource potential
it does gradually push out the boundaries of economic
in March 1985 (Report No.15),10 and developed
viability, particularly on the mini and micro scale
estimates for technically and economically exploitable
fringes of the technology.
potential for the UK based on the available surveys.
The estimates are shown in Table 6.2.
6.3 EXPLOITABLE RESOURCES The WEC Survey of World Energy Resources,11
published in 1986, gives a gross exploitable capability
Francis1 suggests that hydo resource potential falls into for Great Britain of 5600 GWh/year, whilst in May
three broad categories, namely: 1985 ETSU published estimates of technically
exploitable potential for small-scale developments of
(a) Gross river potential—approximately the 1800 GWh/year, and estimated that up to 90% of these
summation of annual run-off×potential head. could be economically viable at a 5% TDR.12
(b) Exploitable technical potential—which is all the Since 1985 little has happened which materially
potential in (a) above less that which it is affects the resource position. There have been no
technically impossible to exploit. Clearly, (b) tends significant technical advances opening up new areas
towards (a) as technical developments take place. of exploitation, whilst competing fuel prices (largely
(c) Economic exploitable potential—which is (b) less coal or oil) have tended to fall in price, thus weakening
that energy which it is presently uneconomic to the economic case. The run-of-river schemes proposed
develop. As conditions change (e.g. the cost of in recent years for development by the North of
capital and competing fuels), (a) may expand or Scotland Hydro-Electric Board have been deferred due
contract, but cannot exceed (b). to lack of capital availability within the public sector
To this classification scheme can now be added a fourth borrowing requirement, but had in any case run into
category, recognisable as an important addition in enough environmental opposition to add caution to
modern times, namely: the consideration of estimates of viable potential. With
this in mind it would not be surprising if the total
(d) Environmentally acceptable potential—which is all viable hydro-electric potential of the UK turned out
Table 6.2 Total potential hydro-electric power in the United Kingdom
a
Power capacity estimated at 30% exceedance, which on most British rivers gives a 50% plant factor or thereabouts.
b
Includes Kielder scheme (under construction).
c
These values reflect the high utilisation factors of water supply schemes, which are typically 60%.

to be under 2 TWh/year, depending upon economic Based on a 5% discount rate these costs roughly
circumstances and given present regulatory procedures translate to a capital cost of 16 to 70 pence per annual
on development. kWh from a scheme, and are capable of producing
Throughout the world the 1986 WEC World Energy electricity at between 1·5 and 4·5 pence per unit
Survey estimates that annual hydro production totals (September 1985 price levels). A graph of viable
over 1·8 million GWh, from both large and small-scale potential at a given production cost for Scottish sites
schemes. From the same survey, total exploitable is shown in Fig. 6.2, and demonstrates that viable
capability exceeds 9·5 million GWh/year. Exploitable potential is a function of the economic scenario for
capabilities in excess of 100 000 GWh/year are the cost of capital and competing fuels.
available in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Hydro power is capital-intensive, and usually long
Indonesia, Mexico, Norway, Turkey and the USSR. lived, with civil works typically lasting 100 years or
more. With a zero fuel cost, and typically low
maintenance and operation costs, the primary economic
6.4 ECONOMIC APPRAISAL
problems arise due to high interest rates and the demand
for short payback periods. Generally speaking, unless
The economics of hydro power are absolutely the method of economic assessment used recognises
sitespecific, and depend critically upon the topography, the extremely long remunerative life of hydro works,
geology and hydrology of each individual site. These the economic case will not look favourable. It is
determine the size of the resource and the cost of paradoxical that investment in hydro schemes looks
development, which are themselves variable depending extremely favourable in retrospect (i.e. existing schemes
upon how the resource is developed—for example, are very profitable now) but extremely uncertain in
with or without storage, at high or low load factor. prospect, despite the greater maturity and experience
The costs of development do show some returns of the technology now available.
from increasing scale, but a very wide band due to site
characteristics, as can be seen in Fig. 6.1.
6.5 COMMERCIAL PROSPECTS
For a typical small-scale scheme these costs can range
from £700/kW installed to £2000/kW installed for
‘green field’ sites in Scotland10 and from £540 to £2700/ In the present economic climate the commercial
kW installed for low head or run-of-river schemes in prospects for hydro development in the UK are not
England and Wales (September 1985 price levels).1 particularly encouraging. The high cost of capital, the
Fig. 6.1. Hydro capital cost distribution. (Cost,×103 £;

capacity, MW.) Fig. 6.2. Cumulative economic capacity.

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been established. However, ebb generation produces 3.

Fig. 3.2. Operation over a spring-neap tide cycle.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

arrangements. A 7·6 m diameter, 20 MW Straflo by designers, manufacturers and contractors on other

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

Fig. 4.2. Device designs (from Report R26, Fig. 5.1).

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

4.8 APPROPRIATENESS FOR Size of the Resource

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

5.2 STATUS OF TECHNOLOGY

Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs) up to sizes of

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

5.7.1 UK 5.7.3 The Netherlands

The Watt Committee has not itself carried out a market

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

5.10 STRATEGIC CONSIDERATIONS

United Kingdom electricity generation is largely by

Fig. 5.11. Howden’s Californian wind farm.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

Table A5.1 Calculation of generation costs

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

Small Scale Hydro-electric Energy

6.1 INTRODUCTION as possible low-cost, low-technology paths to

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

Fig. 6.1. Hydro capital cost distribution. (Cost,×103 £;

© 2003 Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

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