FAULT CURRENT MITIGATION BY SFCL ON THREE PHASE MICRO

GRID SYSTEMS WITH NOVEL FAULT DETECTION SCHEME

A
DISSERTATION PART –II
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE
AWARD
OF
DEGREE OF MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
POWER SYSTEM

SUBMITTED TO

RAJIV GANDHI PRODYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA, BHOPAL (M.P.)

SUBMITTED BY
NEERAJ SINGH
ENROLMENT NO – 0192EE19MT15

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

PROF. DEVENDRA SHARMA

(Associate Professor)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

TECHNOCRATS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
& SCIENCE, BHOPAL
SESSION: 2021-2022

I
 TECHNOCRATS INSTITUTE OF TEACHNOLOGY &
SCIENCE BHOPAL MP

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the work embodies in this dissertation entitled “Fault Current

Mitigation by SFCL on Three Phase Micro Grid Systems With Novel Fault
Detection Scheme” being submitted by Neeraj Singh (Roll No. 0192EE19MT15) for partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of “Master of Technology in Power System”
discipline to “Rajiv Gandhi Praudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal (M.P.)” during the
academic year 2020-2021 is a record of bonafide piece of work, carried out by him under my
supervision and guidance in the “Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering”,
Technocrats Institute of Technology & Science, Bhopal (M.P.)

Guided By: Approved By:

Prof. Devendra Sharma Prof. Devendra Sharma
(Professor) (Professor & Head)
Department of EX Department of EX
TIT& Science Bhopal TIT& Science Bhopal

Forwarded By:

Dr. Shashi Jain

(Director)
TIT & Science Bhopal

II
 TECHNOCRAT INSTITUTE OF TEACHNOLOGY &
SCIENCE BHOPAL MP

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

The dissertation entitled “Fault Current Mitigation by SFCL on Three Phase Micro

Grid Systems with Novel Fault Detection Scheme” being Submitted By “Neeraj
Singh” (Roll No. 0192EE19MT15) Has been examined by us and is hereby approved for the
award of degree “Master of Technology in Power System”, for which it has been submitted. It
is understood that by this approval the undersigned do not necessarily endorse or approve any
statement made, opinion expressed or conclusion drawn therein, but approve the dissertation
only for the purpose for which it has been submitted.

(Internal Examiner) (External Examiner)

Date: Date:

III
 TECHNOCRAT INSTITUTE OF TEACHNOLOGY &
SCIENCE BHOPAL MP

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DECLARATION

I Neeraj Singh, a student of Master of Technology in Power System discipline, session: 2020-
2021, Technocrats Institute of Technology & Science-Bhopal (M.P.), hereby declare that the work
presented in this dissertation “Fault Current Mitigation by SFCL on Three Phase

Micro Grid Systems with Novel Fault Detection Scheme” is the outcome of my own
work, is bonafide and correct to the best of my knowledge and this work has been carried out
taking care of Engineering Ethics. The work presented does not infringe any patented work and
has not been submitted to any other university or anywhere else for the award of any degree or
any professional diploma.

Supervisor (Neeraj Singh)

0192EE19MT15

Director

IV
 प्रपत्र
( एम. टे क. छात्रों हे तु )

मै नीरज स हिं आत्मज श्री दयानिंद स हिं आयु 25 वर्ष निवासी प्रप्रयदर्षिी नगर उतैली
जजला- सतिा, मध्य प्रदे र् का होकर र्पथ पूवषक कहता हूूँ कक

• यह कक मै एम. टे क. के प्रवर्य पावर ससस्टम सत्र 2019 काउं ससलंग के माध्यम से

श्रेणी अन्य.प्रपछड़ा वगष से संथा मे प्रवेर् सलया था ।
• मै यह घोर्ड़ा करता हूूँ कक इस पाठ्य क्रम की थीससस का सम्पूणष सोध कायष मेरे द्वारा
स्वयं ककया गया है और मेरा स्वयं का है ।
• मै ददिांक 20/08/2019 से नियसमत छात्र के रूप मे स्िातकोत्तर पाठ्यक्रम मे अध्ययिरत था
।
• मै यह घोर्णा करता हूूँ कक इस पाठ्यक्रम कक अवधध मे ककसी भी अन्य निजी संस्थाि
/ औद्योधगक समूह /ककसी भी कायाषलय मे कायषरत िह ं था ।

छात्र के हस्ताक्षर

(गाइड एवम संचालक / प्राचार्य द्वारा सत्र्ापित ककर्ा जार्े )

मै सत्याप्रपत करता हूं कक छात्र का िाम िीरज स हिं अिुक्रमांक 0192EE19MT15 के

दवारा उपरोक्तािुसार भर गई जािकार प्रमाणणत एवम सह है ।

गाइड के हस्ताक्षर संचालक/प्राचार्य/िदनाम सील

सहहत

ददिांक

स्थाि – भोपाल संस्था का िाम –

ट . आई. ट . एस. भोपाल

संस्था कोड -0192

V
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of this project work could not have been possible without continued guidance
and efforts of several mentors. I take this opportunity to extend my gratitude towards all of them.
Firstly, I would like to express my gratitude and sincere thanks to my thesis supervisor Prof.
Devendra Sharma, Assistant Professor Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Technocrats Institute of Technology and Science Bhopal for rendering me constant support,
guidance and kind cooperation throughout my research work.

I would like to present sincere thanks to Prof. Devendra Sharma, Head of the

Department Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Technocrats Institute of Technology and

Science for his coordination and regularly motivating me for timely completion of the work.

I would like to extend gratitude towards Dr. Shashi Jain Director. Technocrats Institute of

Technology and Science. Bhopal and Prof. Devendra Sharma Technocrats Institute of

Technology and Science Bhopal for their kind cooperation and rendering me all possible
facilities.

I am also thankful to all other faculty members, supporting staff, colleagues, who helped me
directly or indirectly throughout my dissertation work.

I express thankfulness to my family and friends without whose moral support it wouldn’t have
been possible for me to complete this work.

Last but not the least I am thankful to the Almighty for helping me and giving me strength to
complete my work.

NEEARAJ SINGH

(0192EE19MT15)

VI
 ABSTRACT

Due to the advancement of the distribution system, superconducting fault current limiters are
increasingly being used in land-based power systems. To reduce this current, some
researchers are looking at upgrading expensive current limiting equipment, as well as several
fault current limiting tools have been introduced. The need for smart electrical systems with
minimal technical loss and environmental impact is driving interest in Distributed
Generations (DGs), which may provide a number of additional benefits such as reduced
transmission and distribution system resources, increased reliability, and improved power
quality, among others. In three-phase microgrid systems, this research provides a unique fault
detection technique. It's done by looking for damping oscillations in the transient voltage
magnitude that occur when a problem develops. The theoretical research and extensive
simulations show that the maximum magnitude of a transient signal recorded by a sensor as
well as the distance between the sensor and the fault location has an approximated linear
connection. Researchers developed an algorithm capable of finding the fault in single-phase
micro grids depending on the discovered relationship, micro grid structure, as well as sensor
position information. The test system has been upgraded to include an SFCL (Super
Conducting Fault Current Limiter) for reducing fault currents during transmission line faults.
The recommended fault location method has been built and validated using MATLAB
Simulink software, and also the results are illustrated on a micro grid with various fault
locations.

VII
 TABLE OF CONTENT

ABSTRACT 2
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 7-16
1.1. BACKGROUND 7
1.2. MICROGRID 7
1.3. THREE PHASE MICROGRID TOPOLOGY 9
1.4. DISTRIBUTED GENERATOR 11
1.4.1. Role and Integration of DGs in the Power Systems 12
1.5. Fault current limiters 12
1.5.1. Superconducting Fault Current Limiter 13
1.6. Overview of dissertation 15
1.7. Objectives of the Dissertation 15
1.8. Layout of the Dissertation 15
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 17-31
CHAPTER 3. THEORETICAL ANALYSIS 32-43
3.1. MICROGRID 32
3.1.1. Microgrid Loads 34
3.1.2. Stability, Control and Communication Strategies for Microgrid 34
3.1.3. Microgrid Control Strategy 35
3.2. FAULTS 38
3.2.1. Types of Faults 38
3.2.2. Effects of Faults 39
3.2.3. Causes of faults 39
3.2.4. Faults in DC Microgrid 40
3.3. Fault types 41
3.4. INTEGRATION OF A RESISTIVE SFCL IN AN ELECTRICAL 42
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
CHAPTER 4. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY 44-49
4.1. FCL 44
4.1.1. Applications of FCL at Microgrid 44
4.2. SFCL 45
4.2.1. Resistive Type SFCL 46
4.2.2. Inductive Type SFCL 47

VIII
 4.2.3. A Hybrid SFCL 47
4.2.4. Applications of SFCL in Power System 48
CHAPTER 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 50-56
5.1. Simulation Design 50
5.2. Result analysis 50
CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION 57-58
6.1. Conclusion 57
6.2. Future Scope 58
REFERENCES 59-62
PUBLICATION 63

IX
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: A typical Microgrid Layout 7

Figure 1.2: Micro-grid power system 8
Figure 1.3: Hybrid AC/DC Three Phase Microgrid for PV 9
Figure 1.5: T-B-J characteristics of superconductor material 13
Figure 3.1: Microgrid architecture 32
Figure 3.2: Centralized hierarchical control of microgrids 35
Figure 3.3: Forecasted microgrid application market in 2022 36
Figure 3.5: Single Line to Ground Fault 39
Figure 3.6: Line to Line Fault 40
Figure 3.7: Power system structure 40
Figure 3.11: Diagram of a typical electrical distribution system 42
Figure 4.1: Resistive type SFCL 45
Figure 4.2: Inductive type SFCL 46
Figure 4.3: Hybrid SFCL 47
Figure 4.4: Possible locations of SFCLs in a Power Network 47
Figure 5.1: Test system Simulink modelling with SFCL 49
Figure 5.2: Bus voltages during fault on first transmission line without SFCL 50
Figure 5.3: Bus currents during fault on first transmission line without SFCL 50
Figure 5.5: Bus voltages during fault on first transmission line with SFCL 51
Figure 5.6: Bus currents during fault on first transmission line with SFCL 52
Figure 5.7: Test system with fault connected at Bus 1 with SFCL 53
Figure 5.8: Fault current at Bus 1 without SFCL during fault condition 53
Figure 5.9: Voltages of all buses during fault at Bus 1 without SFCL 54
Figure 5.10: Fault current magnitude during fault at bus 1 with SFCL 54
Figure 5.11: Bus voltages during fault at bus 1 with SFCL 55

X
 ABBREVIATIONS

Switched-Mode Power Supply SMPS

Variable Source Controller VSC

Distributed Generations DG

Fault Current Limiters FCL

Super Conducting Fault Current Limiter SFCL

Photovoltaic PV

XI
 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1.BACKGROUND

According to the US Department of Energy, microgrids have gained popularity in recent

years due to their numerous benefits, including the capacity to use renewable energy sources,
provide flexible operations, and promote stability and resilience when utility systems are
disrupted.

Microgrids are classified as three-phase or single-phase systems based on the number of grid
phases. Many academics have explored three-phase microgrids and have deployed them in
utility power networks. Single-phase microgrids, on the other hand, are appropriate for power
systems with low voltage and low power, including a residential dwelling, a small
commercial lot, a ship, a space station, a smaller military facility, or an island situation. [1]

The goal of this research is to find a solution to the problem of fault location in three-phase
microgrids. Fault placement is a significant issue in each level of the power grid hierarchy,
from transmission to distribution to microgrid. As a result, experts have looked into a variety
of defect location methods.

Automatic fault location in microgrids is required in many situations where identifying the
fault location in a short period of time is needed for maintenance efficiency and cost
reduction, such as those on ships, space stations, military bases, islands, as well as mission-
critical scenarios, or when the lines are trapped underground or implanted in the structure,
making visual inspection impossible. [2]

1.2.MICROGRID

Microgrids can run on either AC (AC microgrid) or DC (DC microgrid) power systems. The
system is linked to the utility via power transformers with directly-connected AC loads in the
case of AC microgrids. Power electronic inverters are generally necessary for network
connectivity of DC loads in the AC microgrid. DC microgrids are becoming more popular
because they have various advantages, including the fact that they do not need
synchronisation with the AC utility and therefore are compatible with most DG source
coupling interfaces, resulting in lower conversion losses. [3]

1
Whereas microgrids provide a viable answer to the problem of DG integration, they also pose
operational issues to the system. Safety zones in the network (overhead wires and cables) as
well as apparatus categorization are used to categories protection systems in low voltage
distribution level networks (buses, transformers, generators, loads). Large fault currents with
radial (unidirectional) pattern power flow have generally been used to build distribution
networks. When DERs are used in standalone or microgrid situations, there is a risk of
degradation of this common property, especially in older traditional networks. [4]

Figure 1.1: A typical Microgrid Layout

Internal protection infrastructure must be capable of swift reactions to both grid linked and
microgrid problems, which is a fundamental operational restriction associated with
microgrids. In the event of a grid fault, the microgrid must not interfere with the utility
protection mechanism in order to provide dependable and efficient grid fault clearance. To
enable for continued regular operation in the event of a microgrid failure, the smallest piece
of the microgrid must be sectionalized. Figure shows an example of a microgrid arrangement.
[5]

Another concern with microgrids is the insufficient amount of fault current provided by DG
sources. If the microgrid retains full connection during a utility grid fault, the short circuit
contribution from the utility source may be reduced to the point where existing overcurrent
devices malfunction. In the microgrid islanded mode, on the other hand, the DG sources may
not generate enough short circuit current to enable overcurrent fault detection as well as

2
clearance procedures to function. This is especially common in inverter-based DGs, which
have current-limiting devices to avoid overload currents on specific components. [6]

The demand for the microgrid to be capable of topological change also highlights the
problem of overcurrent relay sensitivity and selectivity. Protective equipment in the
microgrid as well as network must be able to tell the difference between grid & internal
microgrid failures. [7]

1.3.THREE PHASE MICROGRID TOPOLOGY

As electric distribution technology advance, many trends are emerging that will alter the
requirements for energy delivery. These changes are now being driven by both the demand
side, which wants more energy availability and efficiency, as well as the supply side, which
needs to handle the integration of distributed generation as well as peak-shaving technology.
[8]

Figure 1.2: Micro-grid power system

The micro-storage grid's device is analogous to the revolving reserve of huge generators in a
traditional grid, which guarantees that energy generation and consumption are balanced,
particularly during rapid fluctuations in load or generation. From the customer's perspective,
micro-grids provide both thermal and electrical needs while also improving local reliability,
lowering emissions, improving power quality by supporting voltage and reducing voltage
3
dips, and potentially lowering energy supply prices. [9] Distributed energy sources have the
ability to lower the need for distribution and transmission systems from the utility's
perspective. Obviously, distributed generation near loads reduces flows in transmission and
distribution circuits, which has two key consequences: loss reduction and the capacity to
potentially replace network assets. Furthermore, having generation near to demand may
improve service quality as experienced by end users. Micro-grids can provide network
support during times of stress by alleviating congestion as well as assisting with fault
recovery. Micro-grid development can aid in the reducing emissions as well as the climate
change mitigation. This is due to the fact that currently available and developing technologies
for distributed generation units are based on renewable as well as micro sources with very
low emissions. [10]

This system is designed for home three-phase applications that require a low-cost, simple, as
well as compact topology that can operate independently. The voltage multiplier, which
raises the voltage and makes it acceptable for three-phase applications, is at the heart of the
proposed system. The grid-connected hybrid PV-diesel generator-battery system for
residential applications, which can operate in full or grid connected mode. This technique is
suitable for residential applications where a low-cost, simple, and small topology capable of
autonomous operation is appealing. [11] The multi-input electrical device connected two-way
dc-dc device that interconnects several power sources and hence the storage part is at the
heart of the centralized approach. In comparison to current grid-connected schemes, the
projected device features a less number of power conversion steps, lower part count, and
higher potency. [12]

Figure 1.3: Hybrid AC/DC Three Phase Microgrid for PV

4
Initially, a hybrid system with a photovoltaic array is designed. They generate a charge that is
stored in the battery. The converter is used to convert DC to AC power. A boost converter,
also known as a step-up converter, is a DC-to-DC power converter that increases voltage
while decreasing current from the input supply to the output load. It is a type of Switched-
Mode Power Supply (SMPS) that includes at least two semiconductors, such as a diode as
well as a transistor, as well as at least in one dimension, such as a capacitor, inductor, or both.
[13] Filters consisting of capacitors usually added to the output and input of such a converter
to eliminate voltage ripple. The inverter receives this filtered output. The Variable Source
Controller (VSC) model receives the inverter output. The VSC model is a worldwide three-
phase power converter made up of up to six power switches coupled in a series connection.
[14]

1.4.DISTRIBUTED GENERATOR

There is currently no universal consensus on the definition of DGs due to maturing

technology and increasing size of DGs, which are an important and current issue in the
electricity system. All of these are referred to as embedded or dispersed generations. The
current definition of DG is fairly broad, ranging from a single kW photovoltaic system to a
1000 MW offshore wind farm or more. The following are some of the most widely used DG
technologies: [15]

In ref., there is a full examination of the application, current developments, advantages, and
limitations of DG. The table below gives a quick rundown of the most popular DG
technologies and their usual module sizes. [16]

Renewable DGs might be considered technologies 10-18. If they run on bio-fuels, the other
technologies could be classified as renewable DG. The following three generating
technologies are commonly employed for distributed generation, just as they are for
centralized generation: synchronous generator, asynchronous generator, as well as power
electronic converter interface. According to a research conducted by the Electric Power

5
Research Institute (EPRI), DGs will account for 25% of newly installed generation by 2010,
and a similar study conducted by the Natural Gas Foundation predicts that DGs will account
for 30% of new generation by 2010. [17]

1.4.1. Role and Integration of DGs in the Power Systems

There are several varieties of Distributed Generations (DG), and the market is likely to
expand in the next years. The use of small generators dispersed across a power system to
produce the electric power required by customers is referred to as distributed generation
(DG). From the standpoint of environmental restrictions and location restrictions, and also
transient & voltage stability in the power system, such locally distributed generation
integrated into the power system has various advantages. [18]

A lot of research has been done in the literature to find the best location for DGs in the
distribution network. A challenge is the appropriate size of DGs for effective and dependable
delivery. The size of the DGs, on the other hand, is determined by a number of factors,
including the availability of input energy, space, as well as environmental and economic
issues. For distributed resources, IEEE has established linking standards. The document
provides an overview of control as well as grid synchronisation for distributed power
generation systems. [19]

Power systems are getting increasingly complicated in terms of structure, operation, control,
administration, and ownership. These DGs are needed to tackle a variety of current power
system issues and may be beneficial in the future for ancillary services, aggregating
technologies, and other purposes. [17]

1.5.Fault current limiters

Non-superconducting and superconducting FCLs are the most common types of FCLs used in
power systems. Superconducting FCLs have been used in a variety of applications in the
power network, including renewable energy generating, distribution generation, transmission,
and redistribution. Non-superconducting variants are also available. FCLs have been used to
improve dynamic performance by restricting fault current in numerous branches of the power
system, including generation, transmission, and distribution. [20] Figure shows a tree
diagram that depicts much usage of superconducting & non-superconducting FCLs in power
systems.

6
Both superconducting as well as non-superconducting FCL were being widely used in
transmission and distribution systems, as well as renewable energy systems, for a variety of
reasons, including improved stability, safety, fault current reduction, & fault ride through
capabilities. [21]

1.5.1. Superconducting Fault Current Limiter

The usage of Superconducting Fault Current Limiters (SFCL) to restrict fault current has
grown as power systems have been extended. The impedances between generation and loads
in electric power systems are extremely low. Large fault currents, i.e. 5-20 times nominal
during fault current, are a disadvantage of this low connecting impedance. SFCL serves two
crucial tasks in defects. [22] After the fault is removed, it restricts the fault current and
quickly restores the normal value. After the defect is fixed, the operational value returns to
normal. A SFCL is a device that reduces the impact of grid disruptions in transmission and
distribution systems. In a smart-grid, the SFCL would be one of the most significant devices
for grid protection. [23]

1.5.1.1. Basic Principle of SFCL

The SFCL used in this study is a resistive kind. The resistive SFCLs are nothing more than a
length of superconductor. When a defect occurs, the current density of a superconductor
exceeds the critical current density Jc. The T–B–J (Temperatures, Electromagnetic Field, as
well as Current Density) properties of a superconductor material are shown in Fig. The
superconductor material may be observed to operate in three states, designated 1, 2, and 3.
The zero resistance state is addressed by the innermost surface-1. [24] The normal
conducting state is the surface beyond surface-2, as well as the transition state is a specific
state between surface-1 and surface-2. It is noticed as the number of T, B, and J units
increases. When the current density surpasses the critical current density (Jc), the
superconductor rapidly transitions to a high resistance state, limiting the fault current to a
lower value. [25]

7
 Figure 1.4: T-B-J characteristics of superconductor material

1.5.1.2. Analysis of SFCL Current

“The temperature of the superconductor is calculated using (1), where, E(t, T) (within Qsc(t))
is calculated, in the flux-flow region (where E(t, T) ≥ E0 and T(t) < Tc). When T(t) ≥ Tc, it is
assumed that the superconductor quenches”. [26] Equation (1) can be written as,
𝑡
1
𝑇(𝑡) = 𝑇𝑎 + ∫[𝑄𝑠𝑐 (𝑡) − 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 (𝑡)]𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑠𝑐
0

𝑑𝑇 1
= [𝑄 (𝑇) − 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 (𝑡)]
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑠𝑐 𝑠𝑐

𝑑𝑇 1 𝑇(𝑡) − 𝑇𝑎
= [𝑖(𝑡)𝐸(𝑡, 𝑇)𝑙𝑠𝑐 − ]
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑠𝑐 𝜃𝑠𝑐

Therefore, E can be simplified as a function of temperature as,

𝑑𝑇
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫
1 𝑇(𝑡) − 𝑇𝑎
[𝑖(𝑡)𝐸(𝑡, 𝑇)𝑙 −
𝐶𝑠𝑐 𝑠𝑐 𝜃𝑠𝑐 ]

8
In the common case using liquid nitrogen as the cryogen, where can be simplified to (6) as
follows:

3
𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 [ ]
√20𝑠𝑐 𝑘 − 9
𝑡 = 𝐶𝑠𝑐 𝜃𝑠𝑐
√20𝑠𝑐 𝑘 − 9
1.6.Overview of dissertation

In three-phase microgrid systems, this work provides a unique fault detection system. It's
done by looking for damping oscillations in the transient voltage magnitude that occur when
a problem develops. The maximum magnitude of a transient signal recorded by a sensor, as
well as the distance between the sensor and also the fault detection, has an approximated
linear relationship, according to the exploratory investigation and extensive simulations.
Depending on the found relationship, micro grid architecture, but also sensor location
information, researchers created an algorithm capable of locating the defect in single-phase
micro grids. The test system has been upgraded to include an SFCL (Super Conducting Fault
Current Limiter) for reducing fault currents during transmission line faults. The
recommended fault location method has been built as well as validated using MATLAB
Simulink software, as well as the results are illustrated on a micro grid with various fault
locations.

1.7.Objectives of the Dissertation

The suggested fault location method has been built and evaluated using MATLAB Simulink
software, as well as the results are illustrated on a micro grid with various fault locations. The
following are the study's aims:

• Demonstrate a new fault detection method for three-phase microgrid systems.

• Create an algorithm capable of fault identification in three-phase microgrids.
• A SFCL (Super Conducting Fault Current Limiter) is a device that reduces fault
currents on a transmission line during a fault.

1.8.Layout of the Dissertation

The outline of this dissertation is as follows:

9
Chapter 1:

This chapter provides the introduction of Microgrid, three-phase microgrid, and Distributed
generator, and also superconducting fault current limiter followed by objective of the
dissertation.

Chapter 2:

This chapter presents the review of literature survey of dissertation in which IEEE works are
reviewed which provides the general idea of microgrids, fault detection and superconducting
fault current limiter technique and recent work in different location.

Chapter 3:

This chapter presents the detail discussion of Microgrid and faults in power system.

Chapter 4:

This chapter discusses the proposed methodology. It also includes step by step procedure of
proposed work.

Chapter 5:

This chapter provides the simulation of proposed work with results using MATLAB and
Simulink software. Simulation Software details are also discussed in this section.

10
 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
(Meenual et al., 2021) [1] Microgrids have been gaining traction and playing important roles
in a variety of sectors of society, ranging from academia to professional practitioners in the
energy supply industry. Thailand's 2015 energy development plan included a microgrid
strategy. Thailand has a large number of microgrids. Thailand's first smart microgrid is now
operational. Some microgrids have stopped working. Several microgrids are still providing
service to their clients. The other microgrid initiatives are still in the planning stages. The
purpose of this study is to look into Thailand's feasible microgrid technology. Data collection
(documents study, discussion, group meetings, and microgrid project involvement and
monitoring) as well as data analysis and conclusion are all part of the research methods used
in this study. The study's findings reveal that the intended microgrid technologies are
acceptable with 1) inputs of possible local renewable energy resources such as solar, wind,
bioenergy, and mini-hydro, and 2) modest gaps in human resource capacities to handle with
technology usage in Thailand. 1) Access to electricity, 2) income creation and distribution, 3)
environmental conservation, and 4) technology development are the main drivers of
Thailand's microgrid strategy.

(Shahab et al., 2021) [2] Electric vehicles (EVs) are becoming increasingly popular around
the world, not just as a means of achieving a low-carbon future but also as a means of
providing ancillary services to increase power grid stability. Low power factor is a prevalent
problem in existing alternating current (AC) grids, which causes a variety of power quality
issues and has gotten worse with the increased usage of distributed generation (DG). As a
result, this study presents an enhanced control approach for power factor correction of a
three-phase microgrid management constituted of a solar array, taking into account the
widespread use of EVs for auxiliary services and the low power factor issue in existing
electrical grids. This control technique tries to address power factor difficulties with EV
charging stations while also permitting full PV generating. A Multi Objective Optimization
(MOO) approach is used to suggest various operation modes to meet the needs of the
microgrid and EV consumers. A dynamic programming method is employed to charge the car
while modifying the microgrid power factor to meet these optimization needs. The suggested
control algorithm is tested in a variety of circumstances, and the results show that it performs

11
well for the microgrid even when the generator unit is overloaded and has a high peak power
surplus.

(Srivastava & Modi, 2020) [3] A ring-type DC microgrid is explored in this study, and its
characteristics such as current and voltages are provided. Faults in the system/grid, as well as
the strategies that must be addressed in current power systems incorporating DC Microgrid,
are investigated. This research examines and gives a thorough examination of DC microgrid
protection. In addition, the system's open-circuit fault is mitigated by using a ring
configuration circuit to safeguard the DC Microgrid circuit. A quick review has been
conducted in each section. Furthermore, the future scopes of DC Microgrid protection and the
use of various circuit breakers have been considered. The DC Microgrid with ring
configuration and its circuit breaker protection mechanisms are simulated using the
MATLAB/Simulink platform, and the results are examined. The output graph reveals that the
proposed strategy is successful in protecting the DC Microgrid. Different configuration
approaches can be employed even at high fault resistance values.

(Muyeen, 2020) [4] From the state-of-the-art of fault diagnosis, accurate fault classification
as well as detection for the microgrid (MG) has become a worry among researchers as it
raises the probability of increasing the transient response. And during distribution of
electricity from the generator end to user premises, the MG regularly experiences a number
of shunt faults, which reduces system reliability, affects the load, and therefore raises the cost
of fault line restoration. To conduct the fast recovery of the unhealthy phases, a noise-
immune and precise fault diagnostic model is necessary. The suggested model is made up of
numerous layers and a limited Boltzmann machine (RBM), which allows the model to rebuild
probability over its inputs. The individual RBM layer is trained using an unsupervised
learning method in which an artificial neural network (ANN) algorithm optimizes the model
to minimize the difference between both the true and predicted classes. Variations in the
input signal and sample frequency are used to test the effectiveness of the proposed model.
To assess the resilience of the researched model, a level of considered noise is applied to the
sample data. The results show that the suggested fault detection and classification model is
capable of performing precise MG fault diagnosis. The suggested kernel extreme learning
machine (KELM), multi KELM, as well as support vector machine (SVM) techniques are
compared to confirm the proposed model's robust better performance.

12
(Charles, 2020) [5] Microgrid technology allows the deployment of renewable energy sources
on the battlefield and at naval installations across the world, putting sustainable electricity at
the forefront of Department of Defense operations. Simulations are used to forecast the
voltage waveforms, spectra, total harmonic distortion, and current waveforms of microgrids,
which are then observed in the lab. The metrics for the power quality analysis are provided
by IEEE Standard 519 and the manufacturer's performance specifications. The COTS units
meet IEEE Standard 519 and are eligible for further research into microgrid extension,
management, as well as employment, according to comparisons of model performance to
experimental laboratory data.

(Karsh & Sharma, 2020) [6] Resulting in increased deployment of various types of power
generation and the grid, existing AC systems have caused considerable concerns. The
majority of the micro grids that used DGs and renewable energy sources ran in tandem with
the AC main grids. Because the bulk of power grids are currently ac, ac micro grids will
continue to be dominant, and entirely dc micro grids are unlikely to arise in power grids. As a
result, even though they are subordinate, dc micro grids are prone to being formed in ac
forms. As a result, recent research has focused on connecting ac micro grids with dc micro
grids and using the benefits of both micro grids. The aim is to use a bidirectional ac/dc
converter to connect the ac and dc micro grids and create a hybrid ac/dc micro grid in which
ac or dc type energy sources as well as loads can flexibly incorporate into the micro grids and
power can flow freely between them. As a result, a proper control strategy is required to
coordinate the operation of dc sources, ac sources, and the IC.

(Hussain et al., 2020) [7] To guarantee that AC microgrids (MGs) operate reliably and safely,
it is critical that they are protected. However, designing a reliable protective mechanism is
not an easy process, as numerous practical issues must be taken into account. This article
seeks to provide the state-of-the-art of recent research and developments in the subject of AC
MG protection, as well as problems and issues. For AC MG protection as well as
coordination, a detailed overview of existing fault detection, fault classification, including
fault location approaches is offered. Furthermore, the available approaches are categorized,
and their benefits and drawbacks are explored.

(Sarangi, 2020) [8] AC is a viable option with a 78.24 percent efficiency because to better
load control and a mature fault handling mechanism. DC microgrid, on the other hand, is a
reliable alternative in a low-power environment, with reduced power loss and a little higher

13
efficiency of 84.6 percent. A hybrid system with a potential efficiency of more than 90% can
be developed to fit all operational situations and load types. The hybrid system's ability to
achieve the stated efficiency is limited by power balance fluctuations, the absence of zero-
crossing currents, the selection of appropriate grounding, and coordination between different
rating devices. This study examines existing protection as well as grid-connected methods for
both modes of operation in great detail. Finally, the limitations, main roadblocks, and long-
term strategy for a reliable, effective, and secure hybrid grid system are identified.

(Philippe, n.d.) [9] Microgrid implementation and project issues differ depending on
requirements, economic and business drivers, but can be created utilising a common approach
on a larger scale. This paper discusses the major obstacles that arise during the deployment of
a microgrid project and provides practical advice on how to overcome them.

(Dolara & Ogliari, 2019) [10] The grounding systems used in low voltage radial distribution
grids are used in microgrids as well. Because of the many operational configurations, neutral
grounding becomes a challenging problem in islanded microgrids, as opposed to typical
distribution grids. To ensure access to the neutral point, all electrical equipment linked to the
microgrid must be modeled, and their models must be simple to incorporate into the overall
microgrid model. To address these criteria in synchronous machine modelling, the Voltage
behind Reactance model is established, and a comprehensive model of a benchmark islanded
microgrid is built. The line-to-ground fault transient is investigated under various neutral
grounding configurations.

(Bharath et al., 2019) [11] The DC Microgrid concept has grown in popularity in recent years
due to inherent benefits such as compatibility with renewable energy sources, ease of
integration with storage utilities via Power Electronic Converters (PECs), and distributed
loads. In-depth studies are being conducted in this arena, as the DC Grid concept can be
viewed as a master basis for the implementation of Smart Grid technologies. A number of
requirements, including as voltage regulation, islanding identification, and allowed transient
levels, must be met in accordance with widely accepted standards in order to do this. To
maintain things stable, fault-free, and interoperable, the system should have an appropriate
control scheme. To meet the limitations set out by internationally recognised standards, a
variety of control algorithms are used, including centralized, decentralized, and distributed
control. As part of this effort, a standardized review of various control strategies is discussed.

14
A comparison of various strategies is conducted in order to assist a designer in selecting the
most appropriate technique for microgrid control.

(J. Kumar & Agarwal, 2019) [12] Direct Current Microgrid (DCMG) has been a prominent
research field in recent years due to inherent advantages of DC systems over AC systems,
including as compatibility with renewable energy sources, storage devices, and current loads.
This document addresses all aspects of DCMG control, whether it is linked to DC bus
voltage, power, or energy. This document presents various MG structures along with a
comparative analysis. Various control strategies have been discussed, including basic control
schemes such as centralized, decentralized, and distributed control, as well as multilevel
control schemes such as hierarchal control. It has been shown how to manage power in grid-
connected, islanded, and transition modes. Different energy management solutions have been
suggested since energy management is critical in optimizing the size and rating of energy
storage systems as well as maximizing their utilization. The energy management of a battery
as well as super capacitor based HESS has also been explored in all configurations, and
finally, future research trends have been provided.

(Sumper, n.d.) [13] Renewable generation is connected to the electrical system in two ways:
centralised (large renewable power plants like wind or solar power plants connected at the
transmission system) and decentralised (small renewable power plants like wind or solar
power plants connected at the distribution system) (through the connection of dispersed
generation connected at the distribution system). Microgrids are being developed as a result
of the interconnection of renewable power at distribution levels with other generating sources
and energy storage technologies close to consumption sites: DER installations that have the
capability to operate grid connected and grid isolated. Microgrid operation, protection,
control, as well as planning are complicated by the unpredictability and variability of the
renewable energy sources that power them, as well as the necessity for collaboration with
other energy sources. The five papers selected for publication in this Special Issue offer
solutions to these problems.

(A. Kumar, 2019) [14] Mechanical advancements, declining costs, demonstrated

involvement, and growing recognition of their benefits are propelling microgrids to the
forefront of commercial markets as centres, banks, and pilot exhibition sites. They are used to
improve the dependability and strength of power structures, to deal with the growth of
conveyed clean vitality assets, such as wind and sunlight-based age, to reduce petroleum

15
derivative emissions, and to provide power in areas where there is no integrated electrical
framework. This study covers a wide range of topics, including current microgrid controllers,
specific applications, challenges, and future prospects.

(Soomro et al., 2019) [15] The important contributions for the single phase to ground faults
on distribution networks field during the last three decades, from traditional methods to
heuristic methods, are highlighted in this paper. The survey covers 76 publications that have
been published in the subject, and it determines and categorizes the number of extant
methods for each approach. Researchers in the same field can use this publication as a
guideline for their research because it provides graphs and tables detailing the frequency of
each single phase to ground faults approaches.

(Ayesha et al., 2019) [16] Under severe failure, the microgrid is seamlessly disconnected
from the main network, and under small fault, the microgrid achieves fault ride through
(FRT) operation. In this research, a fuzzy logic controller (FLC) is implemented in the SFCL
controller to solve the shortcomings of the PI controller. The proposed method is
implemented in a MATLAB/Simulink environment. The results suggest that a superior
control technique was achieved.

(Hassan et al., 2018) [17] Inverter-based microgrid applications, traditional protection

methods like as over-current or under-voltage solutions are unreliable. When failures occur in
a microgrid feeder, however, system changes occur, affecting the internal circuit structure
and changing the dynamic linkages of the system. To avoid using a communication system,
the method uses fewer measurements. However, with correct system design, notably with
adequately scaled system impedance, these incidents can be avoided. This research makes a
significant contribution by establishing a mathematical framework for examining and
minimizing blinding and annoyance tripping scenarios by specifying the limitations of the
proposed fault detection technique. This study looks at impedance-based constraints for
microgrid system feeders. The proposed technique's performance is proven on representative
microgrid architecture in the MATLAB/SIMULINK simulation environment, demonstrating
that it can detect faults for a wide variety of load and fault impedances.

(Akoro et al., 2018) [18] In today's world, three-phase inverters are commonly employed as
converters in a variety of areas, including renewable energy. Three-phase inverters have a
longer service life than single-phase inverters. This work is mostly devoted to a survey of the
literature on the various topologies of grid-connected three-phase inverters. The inverters'

16
numerous power components as well as the losses they produce have been explained. Basic
three-phase inverters such as voltage source inverter, current source inverter, as well as Z-
source inverter were chosen depending on a few assessment criteria. Furthermore, the merits
and disadvantages of various three-phase inverter architectures are discussed.

(Shahnia, 2018) [19] This research looks at a three-phase, low-voltage community network
with grid-connected and autonomous operating modes, which is made up of a band of private
apartments and some single-phase, converter-interfaced distributed energy resources (DERs)
with equivalent and randomly distributed DERs among the phases. The recommended
management procedures are conducted to analyze the microgrid system's robust operation. It
is quite likely that one phase of such a network will have a high generation capacity while
other phases will experience higher demand; this is a technologically tough problem for a
network running in autonomous mode. The single-phase DERs of such a system are proposed
to function under a droop-based voltage control mechanism in this study, while an acceptable
technique to enable the transmission of surplus energy from one phase to other phases is
suggested. Extensive digital simulations in PSCAD/EMTDC for numerous situations are used
to validate the recommendations, demonstrating the practicality of operating such a system
and the usefulness of the proposed methodologies.

(Hassan et al., 2018) [17] To avoid using a communication system, the method uses fewer
measurements. Without communication routes, protecting the microgrid could result in
blindness (circuit breakers not tripping for problems) or nuisance tripping (tripping
incorrectly). However, with correct system design, notably with adequately scaled system
impedance, these incidents can be avoided. The proposed technique's performance is proven
on representative microgrid architecture in the MATLAB/SIMULINK simulation platform,
demonstrating that it can detect faults for a wide variety of load as well as fault impedances.

(Piesciorovsky & Reno, 2018) [20] Faults in the electric power grid can arise as a result of
unexpected changes in load demand, as well as external factors such as weather, equipment
failure, cyber-attacks, and other disruptions. These incidents can disrupt regular grid
operations, and substantial and/or long-term failures can be extremely dangerous to grid
reliability, resilience, and safety. Due to differences in equipment, setup, behaviour, and other
factors, distinct failures in different systems must be addressed differently. The unusual
difficulty of microgrid protection is explored in this paper; fault detection and location has
been extensively examined for transmission and distribution systems, but there is a void in

17
the microgrid context. Microgrid systems with distributed energy resources (DERs) are
becoming more popular, and fault location algorithms tailored to microgrid characteristics
and behaviour are needed to secure them successfully. This paper will go through the
different types of microgrid faults and issues, as well as general fault location methodology,
literature-based remedies, and future directions and demands for achieving dependable and
effective microgrid protection.

(Hamidi & Advisor, 2017) [21] Modern electrical power systems necessitate unique
diagnostic procedures to improve system resiliency through the development of cutting-edge
algorithms. The availability of high-voltage optical transducers and high-time-resolution
measurements has paved the way for the development of new diagnostic approaches for very
fast transients in power systems. Simultaneously, more complicated configurations, such as
multi-terminal hybrid transmission systems, are limiting the use of classic diagnostic
procedures, particularly in fault location and health monitoring. For cross-bounded cables,
which are commonly used to connect offshore wind farms to the main grid, impedance-based
fault-location algorithms are inefficient. As a result, the first part of this dissertation
introduces a new travelling wave-based fault-location technique for hybrid multi-terminal
transmission systems.

(Mazhari, 2017) [22] Our electrical equipment are currently powered by AC mains under the
current electrical system. However, if renewable technologies become more common, DC
microgrids may become a more cost-effective and efficient option. Any microgrid must
perform in both grid connected as well as grid disconnected (islanded) mode without
affecting grid reliability, voltage, or frequency balance, accurate with the minimum standards
for all connected devices, to avoid any possible technical problems like power and energy
balance, power quality, or protection problems. One of these requirements is that the bus
voltage be adjusted within an appropriate range to avoid power fluctuations. This study
demonstrates how a DC microgrid with a single-phase bidirectional inverter can meet this
criteria by employing an innovative control mechanism that operates without the use of grid
information and without the use of a solar DC-DC converter. When load shedding is used to
regulate the DC bus voltage while delivering demand response, this system can intelligently
and efficiently function in islanding mode. This also allows controllable loads to ride out grid
disruptions, and this can be utilized as a retrofit solution for current topologies to improve
quality and effectiveness.

18
(B, 2017) [23] Recent advancements in renewable energy technologies, as well as changes in
electric utility infrastructures, have piqued power utilities' interest in generating electricity
using distributed generation resources. Despite their increasing adoption, there are still
significant obstacles in designing, controlling, and operating micro-grids both when
connected to the grid and when operating in islanded mode, and extensive research is
undertaken to address these concerns. The situation of a microgrid or a section of the power
grid that comprises of a load and a distributed generating system being isolated from the rest
of the utility system is referred to as islanding. A power control method is presented in this
work to control active and reactive power in grid-connected mode, as well as active power
and voltage in islanded mode operating. In grid connected mode and island mode operation, a
robust controller is introduced to meet the control purpose. The stability study of an ideal
controller for a DG system is also presented, with singular value based analysis. Utilizing
islanding identification, synchronisation algorithm, load shedding, current, as well as voltage
control methods, a seamless transition between grid connected as well as islanded mode has
been presented.

(Senapati et al., 2017) [24] The modeling of a Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC)
with a Grid-connected PV-FC (Photovoltaic Fuel Cell) System in grid linked mode is the
subject of this paper. Despite the presence of non-linear loads in the system, the proposed
methodology concentrates on extracting sinusoidal current from the supply system. The
Shunt Controller of UPQC provides harmonic power to prevent harmonic components from
being pulled at the supply, while the series component balances voltage-related issues such
unbalancing. The UPQC addresses load harmonic power as well as zero sequence power,
both of which cause power system imbalances, as well as compensating reactive power so
that the source voltage and compensated current are both in phase. The system's performance
has been observed to be invariable under variable solar irradiation conditions.

(Eslami et al., 2017) [25] In this paper, we offer a new approach for fault detection in
FREEDM microgrids that takes into account network topology uncertainty. The waveform
properties retrieved will be used to create appropriate indices for fault detection, location, and
characterization. The capacity of the suggested technique to operate in a dynamic microgrid
with shifting topology is its most notable characteristic. The suggested method's performance
is evaluated using a sample FREEDM microgrid with ring and radial features. It is
demonstrated that the suggested technique is capable of fault identification and diagnosis

19
while distinguishing between short-circuit faults as well as switching transients caused by
network topology fluctuations.

(Zhao, 2016) [26] DGs are small generator units that are positioned close to electricity
consumers and use modern energy conversion technologies, such as inverter-based grid
connections. Because they are locally substituting energy delivery via the distribution
network with local delivery, DGs have the advantage of lowering power losses in the
distribution system under typical load conditions. DGs, despite their beneficial effect,
contribute fault currents in the event of network faults, thereby compromising the network
protection system. In a radial distribution network, for example, inverse time overcurrent
relays are commonly employed to defend against faults. Because the addition of DG to an
existing distribution network will undoubtedly increase the level of fault current due to its
fault current contribution while also changing the direction of current flow, DG will
eventually disrupt the original overcurrent relay coordination. During breakdowns, another
challenge for power networks with DGs is to maintain voltage aspect power quality.

(Dhara et al., 2016) [27] Because the predicted voltage sag amplitude during faults may be
greatly decreased, short circuit current restriction in distribution system utilities might be an
operational method for improving power quality. Superconductors are used by SFCL to
instantly reduce unforeseen electrical surges that occur on utility distribution and power
transmission networks. By lowering the wear on circuit breakers as well as protecting other
expensive equipment, SFCL significantly reduces the financial strain on utilities. The created
SFCL model is used to determine an SFCL impedance level based on the fault current
limitation requirements of various smart grid system types. The purpose of this research is to
determine the best SFCL resistive value for improving a power system's transient stability.
All throughout short circuit fault, the equal-area criterion validated by power-angle curves is
continually used to establish the ideal resistive value of the SFCL linked in series in a
transmission line with a conductor. Simulink is used to create the primary model, while
MATLAB is used to generate the simulation results for the projected model.

(Kumari et al., 2016) [28] A power system fault is an abnormal condition involving the
electrical failure of power system equipment operating at one of the system's primary
voltages. This document provides an overview of power system problems as well as their
negative consequences. In addition, a brief classification of fault is provided. Finally, we'll go
through various fault-prevention approaches in a power system.

20
(Bayindir, 2015) [29] A fault simulation on a microgrid including a wind turbine, solar panel,
and fuel cell is presented in this study. The electricity generated by various sources is
aggregated on a single DC bus and converted to AC via a three-phase converter before being
sent to a three-phase AC load. The system guards against a variety of undesirable
circumstances. In the event of a fault, the microgrids failed part was quickly disconnected
from the grid utilising breakers situated on the output side of each energy source and
inverters.

(Chaudhary, 2015) [30] A current might quickly increase during a contingency as a result of
rising power demand and high penetration of distributed generation (DG). This fault current
has the potential to exceed the current protective device's ratings. By lowering the wear on
circuit breakers as well as safeguarding other expensive equipment, SFCLs eliminate or
considerably reduce the financial burden on utilities. When a new power plant is developed,
superconducting FCLs can be put at optimum places in the transmission network to lower
fault currents to within a tolerable range. One can take full advantage of the strengths of the
smart grid's communication network, as well as the diverse features of FCL devices in
different classifications, with these placements, to provide a more flexible and reliable
protection for the future power grid.

(Khuntia, 2015) [31] As the use of DG in the mainstream grows, numerous repercussions that
arise as a result of DG penetration must be recognized. DG penetration in existing
distribution is observed to change the fault current during a grid disruption, resulting in
system imbalance. The research effort is based on this, and so it concentrates on the
contribution of fault current from renewable energy sources in a microgrid, as well as how
resistive SFCL can help reduce fault levels. The testbed is modeled in MATLAB/Simulink,
and simulation results are shown to demonstrate the efficacy of resistive SFCL under various
fault circumstances.

(Prof.P.M.Khandare; Dr.S.A.Deokar, 2015) [32] As traditional energy sources become

increasingly scarce, microgrids are becoming increasingly important. In typical electrical
power generation and transmission, we must rely on frequency and power generation, but in a
microgrid, we must rely on whether conditions. Adapting these devices to changing
atmospheric conditions is difficult. Microgrid protection is one of the many studies being
conducted around the world. Micro grids can operate either connected to the grid or islanded
in the event of a grid outage. In this work, the effect of a high impedance fault is investigated

21
using MatLab-SimPower Simulink's Systems. Developers create a microgrid with a mix of
renewable DG and one dispatchable source, then simulate an HIF fault at one of the buses in
grid-connect and island modes, analysing fault currents and voltage levels to determine how
the distribution network's protection scheme should be changed to allow microgrid
functionality. Researchers demonstrate that typical protection mechanisms are insufficient
and recommend the usage of digital relays, which are not used in traditional systems.

(Jiajun Duan, 2015) [33] A new fault location method for single-phase microgrids is
presented in this research. A feature particular to the fault location, namely the maximum
oscillation magnitude of the transient voltage signal caused by the fault, is found in order to
pinpoint a fault. Researchers developed an algorithm capable of finding the fault in single-
phase microgrids based on the discovered relationship, microgrid topology, and sensor
position information. Simulations in the Electro-Magnetic Transients Program and MATLAB
were used to implement and validate the suggested fault location approach.

(Sun, Qiuye; Zhou, Jianguo; Guerrero, Josep M.; Zhang, 2015) [34] With the rapid growth of
single-phase distributed generation (DG) units as well as loads integrated into residential
microgrids, it is more important than ever to have independent power sharing per phase and
to make maximum use of the energy provided by DGs. This study presents a hybrid
microgrid design and power management method to overcome these concerns. The loads
between different phases can be appropriately supplied as well as the energy may be fully
utilized, as well as better load sharing, using the suggested PSU and its power management
approach. The validation of the proposed hybrid microgrid structure and control is
demonstrated using simulation data.

(Hossain et al., 2014a) [35] Due to the cumulative need for electricity and environmental
pollution concerns, researchers are interested in distributed generation's grid connection
potential as a new emerging technology for providing reliable and clean power supply. The
microgrid must properly handle voltage and frequency adjustment as operation modes are
altered in order to safeguard the grid as well as any loads linked to the system. The
management of generation and load, as well as the resynchronization process, must be made
easier. It also includes a thorough examination of energy storage devices, microgrid loads,
interfaced distributed energy resources (DER), power electronic interface modules, and
multi-microgrid interconnection. This study also includes details on stability, control, and
communication tactics. This page discusses the present microgrid control systems that are in

22
use across the world, as well as a comparison of various control approaches and their benefits
and drawbacks. Furthermore, it assists the researcher in visualizing a current condition
including a microgrid, as well as providing insight into future grid evolution.

(Sun et al., 2014) [36] With the rapid growth of single-phase distributed generation (DG)
units and loads integrated into residential microgrids, it is more important than ever to have
independent power sharing per phase and to make maximum use of the energy provided by
DGs. This study presents a hybrid microgrid design and power management method to
overcome these concerns. The primary goal of the PSU is to enable full utilisation of the
energy generated by DGs by enabling power exchange and coordinated regulation of load
power sharing among phases. The loads among different phases can be appropriately supplied
and the energy may be fully utilised, as well as better load sharing, using the suggested PSU
and its power management approach. To demonstrate the validity of the suggested hybrid
microgrid structure and control, simulation and experimental data are provided.

(Bunnoon, 2013) [37] This research provides a defect detection approach for a power system
that is state-of-the-art. From the last to the present, several articles present edit in each
implementation and method. In the future, the approach's advantage will be applied to new
detection methods. Many fascinating subjects are used to discover faults in the power system.
This study can be divided into two sorts of defect detection studies. This study of numerous
publications will be utilised to further research or develop a new approach for detecting faults
in the power system.

(Ahmad Makkieh, n.d.) [38] Using a multiple capacitive earthing approach, this research
proposes a new way for identifying faults along feeders in a DC microgrid. Capacitors in the
earthing scheme are charged by transient currents that are proportional to the fault distance
and resistance during fault situations. As a result, the distance to fault is determined by
evaluating the capacitive earthing scheme's response during the fault. Instantaneous current
and voltage data are used in the suggested method, which is then applied to an analytical
mathematical model of the failed feeder. The suggested method was found to accurately
identify the fault position along the faulted feeder, and a systematic study was conducted to
further examine its performance under various loading scenarios and extremely resistive
faults. Furthermore, the proposed method's performance and practical practicality were
experimentally evaluated by creating a low-voltage laboratory prototype and evaluating it
under a variety of test settings.

23
(Zhang et al., n.d.) [39] The goal is to reduce the annualized cost of community MG, which
includes DER investment, dispatchable fuel generator (DFG) operation costs, energy storage
system (ESS) degradation costs, energy purchasing and peak demand charges at PCC,
customer discomfort costs due to room temperature deviation, and load curtailment costs. The
heating, ventilating, as well as air-conditioning (HVAC) system in the suggested model is
considered as a demand side management (DSM) component, with dispatch commands
delivered by the central MG controller, due to the sluggish thermal dynamic characteristics of
buildings. Numerical results from a community MG with 20 residential buildings show the
efficacy of the proposed planning approach as well as the advantages of incorporating the
building thermal dynamic model.

(Redfern, 2007) [40] This work describes a new relay that exploits disturbances in three
phase voltages to reliably and quickly detect various sorts of faults in the micro-grid. The
technique generates a disturbance signal using the d-q reference frame, which is utilised to
detect the fault, determine its nature, and begin the isolation of the damaged region. To
demonstrate the operation of the relay and the accompanying scheme, the study includes both
an analysis of the protection and a network diagram. The simulation results for a range of
problems inside the micro-grid and network when working in parallel are presented,
demonstrating how it works.

(Min et al., n.d.) [41] DC Microgrid is an increased electric power distribution system that
focuses on the development of renewable energy resources such as photovoltaic cells, wind
turbines, fuel cells, and other similar technologies. To enhance the power system's reliability,
the DC grid is connected to the AC utility grid via an AC/DC rectifier, and multiple dispersed
generations are connected to the DC line via converters. The majority of power system
problems occur on overhead wires. When a defect occurs on a power system, it is critical to
check for it as soon as feasible, to detect it, to pinpoint its exact location, and to restore power
as rapidly as possible. The configurations of DC microgrid systems and distributed
generation control technologies are described in this study. Furthermore, faults on the source
side, the load side, and the DC transmission line are investigated.

(Laaksonen & Kauhaniemi, 2007) [42] The detection of fault types and locations in an
islanded low voltage (LV) distribution network based microgrid with converters using
various control approaches is investigated in this study. Converter control mechanisms also
have an impact on converter fault behaviour. This means that during failures, the converter

24
cannot feed a current greater than its nominal current, or it tries to keep active power
provided to the grid at the reference value, causing the converter's current to rise to a specific
limit. Changes in phase voltages and voltage RMS values at the connection points of DG
units could be used to defend an islanded microgrid with converters, according to
simulations. However, due to the various control mechanisms used by converters, fault site
assessment is not always straightforward. PSCAD simulation software is used for the
simulation investigations.

25
 CHAPTER 3. THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
3.1.MICROGRID

Researchers are studying microgrids extensively in order to build test beds and demonstration
sites; as a result, the classification of microgrids and pertinent essential technologies must be
addressed. We divide microgrids into three sorts in this paper: facility microgrids, distant
microgrids, and utility microgrids. Their varying levels of integration into the power utility
grid; their effect on major utility providers; their various duties and application areas; and
their pertinent essential technologies are all taken into account. Utility connection modes are
available on facility and utility microgrids, but not on distant microgrids. When compared to
facility and utility microgrids, remote microgrids are placed in highly distributed
consumption areas. Facility microgrids can continue to operate in an island mode, either
intentionally or unintentionally. Micro sources, loads, network conditions, and control
topologies will all change depending on the type of microgrid.[12]

A microgrid consists of various renewable distributed generators, non-renewable distributed

generators, energy storage devices, different kinds of microgrid loads, interfaced distributed
energy resources (DER), interlinked microgrids, stability and control systems, as well as
communication systems, as shown in the diagram.

26
 Figure 3.1: Microgrid architecture
A microgrid is a small or local control system that is independent of the mass supply system.
For example, a gaseous petrol ignition motor (which co-produces power and high temp water
or water vapour needed to cool the flammable gas turbine) or diesel, renewable power source,
or batteries might be employed to create a consolidated warmth and power framework. Server
farms, colleges, healing centres, factory lines, army locations, and entire networks could all
benefit from microgrid-based sub-stations (i.e. "Town Power"). It should be noted that
opinions differ on the overall generation limit that should be included in the Microgrids
capacity framework, as well as whether there should be a single regular objective of coupling
with the main organize or several purposes of coupling.[1] The Microgrid must be separated
from the major system by at least one disengaged focus for the island concept to work.
According to a report on Microgrids and Sandy's Super Storm, "a genuine small-scale
arrangement significantly more than reinforcement control framework, but additionally
because one of its essential capacities incorporates continuous on location controls to
coordinate the age and size limit of the Microgrid," a plant administrator observed.[11]

27
3.1.1. Microgrid Loads
A microgrid system contains a variety of loads, and each one is critical to its operation,
stability, and control. A static load or a motor/electronic load are two types of electrical loads.
The microgrid can power a variety of loads (such as residential or industrial) that are
considered sensitive or important and require high levels of reliability. This type of operation
necessitates numerous considerations, including giving precedence to key loads, improving
power quality delivered to specific loads, and improving reliability for pre-specified load
categories. Local generation also protects against unexpected disruptions with quick and
accurate protection measures.[9]

Under the following factors, load classification is critical for defining the projected operating
strategy in a microgrid arrangement:

• The load/source operation strategy needed to meet net active and reactive power
requirements in grid-tied mode, as well as voltage and frequency stabilisation in
island mode.
• Enhancing DER ratings by improving power quality,
• Reducing maximum load, and
• Maintaining optimal operation and control

3.1.2. Stability, Control and Communication Strategies for Microgrid

Because the energy and power ratings are significantly lower in microgrids than in big
electric grids, stability difficulties are more common, and the evaluation of stability issues for
AC microgrids maintains the same principles as in the main/macro grid. Active and reactive
power controls are required to adjust both frequency and voltage. Stability is managed by the
torque and speed control of the machine shaft when sources such as traditional generators
with an AC output are directly connected without power electronic connections. There seem
to be no reactive power exchanges in DC microgrid systems, implying that there are no
stability concerns. In a DC-based microgrid, system control appears to be geared solely at
frequency management.[43]

In microgrid systems, as well as connections to DG systems, power quality is a critical

concern. Issues with power quality caused by renewable energy sources, hydropower, and
diesel generators, which are the principal sources of power for DG systems. Microgrids

28
stability can be classed into one of two categories. Frequency stability, which includes tiny
signal and transient stability, is the first, while voltage stability is the second.

The use of storage devices as well as adaptive protection devices improves transient stability.
A micro grid’s stability is also ensured via voltage regulators, reactive power compensators,
load controllers, and current limiters. A micro grid’s control operation is required.

• To add or remove new micro-sources without modifying existing components in the

system,
• To select or optimise a microgrid's operation point autonomously as well as manually,
• To interact or isolate a microgrid from the main grid quickly and smoothly when
required,
• To control active and reactive power separately,
• To correct voltage sag and system sag,
• To meet the load dynamics involvement of a grid.

3.1.3. Microgrid Control Strategy

There are several control techniques, which are stated below that help to manage the
component level of a distribution system.[14]

• Control by a master and slave: the master sets the voltage and frequency, while the
slaves manage the current sources.
• Current and power flow control: this method employs control signals to regulate
current and power distribution.
• Droop control: because the converters operate as non-ideal voltage sources, this
strategy is better for combining with earlier methods.

3.1.3.1. Centralized Control System

A centralized control system obtains intelligence from a single central point, which may be a
switch, a server, or a controller, depending on the network type. A centrally controlled
network is simple to operate since it gives the operator more control over the entire system.
This feature enables the manager to build wide control techniques to satisfy power needs. The
centralized control system, on the other hand, necessitates a single control unit to process all
measured data. This one-of-a-kind controller point might produce a slew of communication
issues, as well as a slew of defects that could bring the entire system to a halt.[13]

29
 Figure 3.2: Centralized hierarchical control of microgrids
3.1.3.2. Decentralized control systems
In contrast to a "master" controller, the decentralised controller permits a system in which all
devices can operate themselves autonomously. For example, a decentralised controller might
demand operation or not from a distribution point, increasing the overall system's
communication speed. Completely decentralised systems, on the other hand, consolidate a
number of issues. Because all choices are made at the distribution level, the manager's ability
to regulate the microgrid may be compromised. Such a disadvantage necessitates the
construction of a well-organized control system, which has greater installation costs than
centralised controlled systems. As a result, choosing the sort of control system for a
microgrid becomes a cost trade-off. The greatest option, however, is the multi-agent-based
control system (MAS), which combines the finest features of both types of control systems.
MAS were introduced by several scholars in order to execute decentralised control, and
numerous ideas based on this notion have since been produced. This type of control is the
foundation of DER's autonomous structure, and local controllers (LC) can be simply
constructed in this manner. These controllers can communicate with one another to improve
the communication infrastructure in a large area where MAS also provides voltage
regulation.

30
3.1.3.3. Future of Grids
The power business is currently confronted with a number of issues, including rising energy
costs, power quality and stability, ageing infrastructure, widespread electrification, and
climate dynamics, to name a few. Low-voltage distribution generation, in which all sources
and loads are located, can solve these concerns. The application market for microgrids in
2022 is depicted in Figure, with campus-type microgrids accounting for the majority of
applications. The following is a calculation of microgrid growth:

Figure 3.3: Forecasted microgrid application market in 2022

• Since 2011, the global installed microgrid capacity has expanded considerably, with a
total installed capacity of over 15GW expected by 2022.
• In terms of market value for dealers, the market has a potential of over $5 billion and
is expected to reach over $27 billion by 2022.
• At the moment, campus/institutional microgrids are the most popular application, with
a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 18.83 percent predicted from 2012 to
2022.
• By 2022, military, defense-based, as well as commercial microgrids will all have
identical installed capacity.
• For the next 5-6 years, off-grid microgrids are predicted to expand at the fastest
CAGR, while the hybrid market is expected to develop at the fastest CAGR from
2012 to 2022.
• Why a fully constructed microgrid necessitates a longer payback period.

31
 3.2.FAULTS

Insulation failure, flashover, physical damage such as wires blowing together in the wind, or
an animal coming into touch with the wire are all examples of faults in power systems. A
fault frequently results in the passage of excessive current, anomalous voltages, and
overvoltage on nearby equipment, posing a risk to humans, animals, and other objects. Fault
analysis is usually required to determine the size of the circuit breaker fuse and its properties,
as well as the relay setting. Some fault limiting devices include fuses, circuit breakers, relays,
and lighting power protection devices.[28]

3.2.1. Types of Faults

Short circuit faults, which result from a rapid overvoltage state and are also known as shunt
faults, as well as open circuit faults, which result from the cessation of current flow and
therefore are known as series faults, are the two types of faults. When a system has one or
two damaged lines, a series fault is defined by a rise in voltage and frequency, as well as a
decrease in current, in the faulted phase. Short circuit faults are further divided into two
types: symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults.

• Symmetrical fault- A symmetrical fault occurs when there is a short circuit in all three
phases. It is the most serious flaw. In general, symmetrical faults are uncommon.
Approximately 5% of all faults involve all three phases. It has an equal impact on all
three phases.
• An asymmetrical flaw is one that is out of balance in nature. A short circuit of phase
with ground causes this issue. There are three types of single line to ground faults:
single line to ground fault, line to line fault, and double line to ground fault. Figure 1
depicts a line to ground fault, a line to line fault, and a double line to ground fault.
• The most common sort of fault is a line to ground fault, which is triggered by
lightning or a conductor making contact with a grounded structure. This leads to the
discovery of 70% of the whole fault. Wind, falling trees, and other factors contribute
to it. For LG fault to occur, Ib=0,Ic=0 & Va=0.
• Line to Line Fault: A line to line fault occurs when one phase meets another. It
usually occurs when there is a strong breeze. Line to line failures account for about
15% of all transmission faults. For this fault to occur the condition is
Ia=0,Ib+Ic=0,Vb=Vc.

32
 • Double line to ground fault- This sort of fault occurs when two phases come into
contact with the ground. It can happen as a result of falling trees, birds, and other
natural disasters. This sort of fault accounts for 10% of all transmission line faults.
The Boundary condition is Ia=0,Vb=Vc=0.

3.2.2. Effects of Faults

The impact of faults vary widely depending on the type of fault; for example, a short circuit is
the most serious fault because the current is around 10 times the instrumentation's nominal
current; the effect is as follows: [44]

• Electrical equipment like bus bars, generators, as well as transformers may be

damaged as a result of fault heating, and lines and cables may overheat.
• When a negative sequence current flows from an unsymmetrical fault, it heats up.
• The stability of the power system could be jeopardised, resulting in a complete
shutdown.
• A short circuit on an overhead transmission line can sometimes take the form of an
arc, which, if not quickly cleared, will burn and damage the conductor, causing a
protracted period of supply disruption.
• A defect might produce a considerable drop in voltage in a power system, causing
pressure coil relays to fail.
• In an interconnected industry, a defect is followed by a drop in voltage and frequency,
which may lead loads like motors that normally take power from the supply to begin
feeding or delivering power to the fault area. An induction motor as well as a
synchronous motor feed the fault during the failure.

3.2.3. Causes of faults

• Weather circumstances, such as lightning strikes, torrential rains, high winds, salt
build up on overhead wires and conductors, snow and ice accumulation on
transmission lines, and many more. As a result of the environmental conditions, the
power supply is disturbed, and electrical installations are destroyed.[29]
• Equipment failures: Short circuit faults in generator, engines, transformers, reactors,
as well as switching devices are generated by malfunction, ageing, and insulation
failure of cables and coils. As a consequence of these failures, a large amount of
current rushes through the devices or equipment, inflicting more damage.

33
 • Human errors, such as selecting the incorrect equipment or device rating, disregarding
metallic or electrical conducting areas after servicing or maintenance, switching the
circuit while it is being maintained, and so on, can all cause electrical difficulties.

3.2.4. Faults in DC Microgrid

The majority of defects on overhead power lines are asymmetrical problems, which can range
from a single line to a ground fault.

Single Line to Ground Fault

A single line to ground fault is depicted in the diagram. This is the most common type of
power system problem. The supply reliability and continuity of the microgrid system are
harmed as a result of this problem. When lightning strikes a microgrid's distribution line, one
of the conductors can break and fall to the ground, either positive or negative. As a result, the
line will ground fault. And the line will be out of commission until the problem is resolved. It
could also happen if anything falls on the line, allowing current to flow from the line to the
ground. Single line to ground faults is the most prevalent form of failure in industrial
distribution networks.[10]

Figure 3.4: Single Line to Ground Fault

Line to Line Fault
This is the system's most dangerous malfunction, even more so than the single line to ground
failure discussed before. In the system, this issue arises rarely. When objects fall over
positive and negative wires, shorting them, a double line failure happens in overhead

34
distribution lines. Insulation failure causes this problem in underground wires. A line-to-line
fault between the positive and negative lines is seen in the figure.[41]

Figure 3.5: Line to Line Fault

3.3.Fault types

There are many different kinds of defects that can be classified. Other electrical concerns are
less important than phase faults, which include phase to ground and phase to phase faults.
Nonetheless, they are considered in the functioning of the power system. Examples include
open circuit faults; inter turn faults, and various types of defects.[42]

Figure 3.6: Power system structure

The diagrams depict an example of a power transmission line problem. Transmission line
defects include single phase to ground faults, double phase to ground faults, double phase
faults, and three phase faults. It has a defect locator that may be used to locate the distance
relay as well as other auxiliary devices in the case.[45]

35
The problem with the power transformer is shown here. In the electricity system, there are
four basic types of transformer faults. These include arcing or high current breakdown, low
energy sparking or partial discharges, localised overheating or hotspots, as well as overall
overheating as a result of insufficient or prolonged overloading. Some of the processes used
to find transformer failures include the use of a Buchholz relay safety device, dissolved gas
analysis, and testing to detect oil contaminants and oil quality.[3]

This is where a machine's defect, such as a power generator, is displayed. In the case of a
power generator, there are several forms of major failures. Prime movers, excitement, and
stator or interconnecting cable insulation failure are examples of these failures. The problem
with the power generator can be turned off, but autonomous functioning requires an
undercurrent relay in conjunction with time-lag tripping and time-lag reinforcing relay. As a
result, fault detection and the selection of appropriate relays for subsequent fault isolation are
critical for power system protection. Fault location techniques are used to both protect and
locate faults in electrical power systems. The fault locator's features are based on a quick
technique for repairing and restoring power system functionality. Among other things, they
improve system availability and performance. Fault locator techniques and fault
categorization will be explored in the section of review articles. All of these examples of
power system mistakes are just a handful of the many that could occur in a system.[37]

3.4.INTEGRATION OF A RESISTIVE SFCL IN AN ELECTRICAL

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The majority of distribution systems are constructed in a radial form because to the ease of
operation and cost-effectiveness of overcurrent protection. Both advantages are due to the
fact that power in any branch of a radial system only goes in one direction. The most frequent
distribution voltage class in power networks is 10-15kV. The systems use continuous current
ratings of less than or equal to 600 amps and fault current values of less than 20kA. For
distribution SFCLs, heat regulation is less of a concern than for transmission systems. As a
result, the SFCL is ideally suited for use in distribution systems first.[17]
Interactions between the SFCL and the power system are predicted after the SFCL is linked
to the power grid. For evaluating the integration behaviour of the SFCL in power grids, a
unidirectional distribution system was established in the latest version of the electromagnetic
transient programme.

36
 Figure 3.7: Diagram of a typical electrical distribution system

A typical distribution system is depicted in the diagram above. On the secondary winding of
the substation system's step-down transformer, the source impedance, which includes the
transformer impedance as well as the upstream short-circuit impedance, may be seen. A
number of parallel feeders are connected to the point of common coupling (PCC), which is
the path from the source to the load. The bus is powered by a substation transformer from a
110kV network. Single-phase short circuits account for over 90% of distribution network
difficulties, therefore researchers look into a phase-to-ground fault.[1]

37
 CHAPTER 4. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
4.1.FCL

A fault current limiter (FCL) is a device that has low impedance in normal operation but flips
to a high impedance when the current exceeds a particular threshold limit caused by the
failure. Such a component can raise the system's short circuit power to a safe level in the case
of a breakdown without damaging the equipment. FCL is a critical component of future smart
grids due to the aforementioned rationale. Its presence in the electricity system provides a
number of benefits, including:

• Allows for abnormal conditions in systems connecting along these lines, allowing for
a flexible connection between generation units, distribution operators, and customers,
which is critical in today's electric power market.
• It is possible to connect distributed generation to the main grid (Also from sources
which are non-programmable such as non-conventional energy sources).
• Avoids harmonics, sags, interruptions, as well as flickers, resulting in higher voltage
quality; and
• In the case of network expansion, FCL removes the need to modify safety equipment.

4.1.1. Applications of FCL at Microgrid

When a transmission system and a microgrid are connected by a node, a fault current limiter
(FCL) can be created to prevent fault currents from flowing between them when a breakdown
occurs. The Existing Protection Relay Scheme (EPRS) determines the mesh design of a
transmission system, and it does not need to be changed on a regular basis. Increased fault
current produced by generating inside a microgrid could destabilise the EPRS. As a
consequence, the FCL equipment at this location can handle a lot of current. SSFCL (Si type
and SiC type) are suitable for attaching nodes to a microgrid. During a fault, the microgrid's
operation can be islanded when SSFCL operates as a super-fast operational circuit breaker
from the microgrid to the transmission network, totally turning off current flow. Additionally,
in the event of a microgrid failure, SSFCL can function in phase control mode to limit current
flow in the microgrid in the hopes that downstream protective devices will open
progressively, which is extremely crucial when power sources are turned off. [46]

38
 4.2.SFCL

Such limiters are a one-of-a-kind and essential tool for building advanced grid structures
because they enable for the optimum use of existing grid structures while also improving grid
stability and power quality. SFCL may be able to reduce the cost of transmission line as well
as plant expansion. This limiter presents an efficient way to overcome fault current limiting
characteristics of these superconductors based on their non-linear properties with magnetic
field, current, and temperature changes. A transition from superconducting to normal state
occurs when any of these three criteria increases. Grid-connected microgrids receive SFCL
protection without having to combine the short-circuit currents. As fault currents increase, the
microgrid's ability to fulfill escalating demands grows, requiring the replacement of a major
amount of current power system equipment, like relays, circuit breakers, as well as
transformers. The usage of a superconducting fault current limiter (SFCL) with numerous
design concepts is among the most improved characteristics for avoiding an increase in fault
current.[47]

If the magnetic field, current density, and temperature all seem to be below a certain
threshold, a superconductor can carry electric current with minimum resistance. The
superconductor will meet a dissipative condition if any of the quantities exceed the extreme
value of the superconductor. For usage in power applications, superconducting cables are
provided as tapes or composite conductors. The identified superconducting fault current
limiter has the following characteristics:[48]

Operation of the Superconducting Fault Current Limiter can be described by three stages:

• Under typical working conditions, like as at the SFCL, the superconductor behaves
current; the line has essentially no impedance.
• When a fault occurs, the superconductor unit becomes extremely resistant, causing
current to flow to the reactor. Increased impedance lowers the fault current.

39
 • After current transfers to the reactor, a fast-operating switch removes the
superconductor unit from the circuit.

Superconducting FCLs are progressing as a new class of equipment that can allow for novel
and unconventional power utility schemes, which is becoming increasingly important as the
deregulation environment takes hold and users seek more effective and cost-effective ways to
couple grids, delay costly upgrades, and improve the power quality. As more affordable HTS
materials become available, the process should speed up and become more dependable. The
nonlinear response of superconducting materials to magnetic fields, current, and temperature
determines the current limiting behaviour of SFCL. Increases in any of the three parameters
cause a transition between regular (resistive) conducting and superconducting modes. SFCLs
are divided into four groups:[49]

4.2.1. Resistive Type SFCL

As illustrated in the diagram below, the resistive type SFCLs are in line with the load and
source. The superconducting element RSC dissipates low energy as current runs through it
during normal operation. The resistance RSC rises quickly if the current climbs above the
critical current value. The inefficiencies dissipated heat the superconductor above the critical
temperature TC, and the superconductor RSC diverges from superconducting to resistive,
generating some resistance and minimising fault current, a procedure known as "quench of
superconductors." When the fault current is lowered, the element RSC resumes its
superconducting condition. During quench, an inductive shunt ZSH or parallel resistance is
necessary to adjust the limiting current and avoid overvoltage’s due to the restrictions of the
fast-current, inductive shunt ZSH or parallel resistance is required to prevent hot spots.
Inductive SFCLs are heavier and smaller than resistive SFCLs. They are sensitive to extreme
heat while in the quench state.[50]

Figure 4.1: Resistive type SFCL

40
4.2.2. Inductive Type SFCL
The inductive type SFCL operates on the transformer concept, acting as a superconducting
secondary winding of a transformer with the power system line acting as the primary
winding. If a fault develops, the superconductor resistance increases and is transmitted to the
primary side by K2 = (w1/w2)2. As a result, the power system's line impedance rises. The
SFCL has set a restriction on the fault current.[51]

Figure 4.2: Inductive type SFCL

4.2.3. A Hybrid SFCL

The theoretical performance of the equipment uses High Temperature Superconductor (HTS)
only for starting a quick switch operation. Hybrid SFCL was originally described as a line-
commutated type. When current is diverted into a reactor, the HTS becomes resistive when
current passes through the driving coil, as shown in the diagram, and the quick switch
activates when the coil current produces a field. All through the rest of the fault occurrence,
the reactor acts as a limiter. The approach quickly removes the rise in voltage from the HTS
during limiting action, allowing the line reactor to maintain the higher impedance for the
remainder of the limiting period. This concept is advantageous because it reduces the amount
of superconductor and the cryogenic volume, allowing the equipment to be more solid for
substation installation. The rapid acting switch is essentially a plunger with a switch on either
end that seeks to commutate line current during operation. To engage and operate the plunger
for limiting reactor, the driving coil applies force to the repulsion plate.[52]

41
 Figure 4.3: Hybrid SFCL

4.2.4. Applications of SFCL in Power System

It is impossible to totally avoid a problem in any section of a power network that includes
generation, transmission, and distribution. As a result, SFCL can be used in any area of the
network.

The diagram below depicts possible SFCL placements. To efficiently reduce the fault current
while ensuring system stability in the network, the position of SFCL varies greatly.

Figure 4.4: Possible locations of SFCLs in a Power Network

42
Transmission lines, power generation, renewable energy, distribution channels, and HVDC
systems have all used superconducting fault current limiters (SFCLs) to limit fault current,
secure interconnector to network, minimize voltage sage at distribution, as well as enhance
power system transient stability and reliability.

43
 CHAPTER 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1.Simulation Design

For power system simulations, EMTP, and for data analysis and processing, MATLAB is
used. A typical microgrid is used in the simulation of short circuit problems. In comparison to
those DGs, the external grid has lower source impedance. A grounded switch simulates a
short circuit, and the grounded impedance is modeled by series and parallel resistors,
inductors, and capacitors. Simulations and analysis of possible short circuit places in the
microgrid are carried out.

5.2.Result analysis

The below is the proposed system with three phase fault connected at Bus 4. All the results
are generated with and without SFCL.

Figure 5.1: Test system Simulink modelling with SFCL

The above is the test system for detection of fault location and for mitigation of fault currents
in the buses with the help of SFCL. The below are the bus voltages during fault without
SFCL.

44
 Figure 5.2: Bus voltages during fault on first transmission line without SFCL

The current magnitudes in each buses are recorded as below during the fault without SFCL.

Figure 5.3: Bus currents during fault on first transmission line without SFCL

45
The SFCL model created in Simulink/Sim-Power System is shown in the diagram below. The
following is how the SFCL model works. The SFCL model estimates the passing current's
RMS value before comparing it to the characteristic table. Finally, if the current level falls
below the triggering current level, the system waits for the recovery period to pass before
returning to normal. The SFCL model was verified using the power network model shown in
Fig. SFCL has been installed at a substation (Location 1), as well as various SFCL impedance
values vs. its fault current reduction operation have been plotted for a distribution grid fault
(Fault 1). This arrangement's maximum fault current (in the absence of an SFCL) is 140 A at
110V.

When SFCL is placed at bus 4 the impact on voltages of the buses can be seen below. The
drop in voltage is completely reduced.

Figure 5.4: Bus voltages during fault on first transmission line with SFCL

46
 Figure 5.5: Bus currents during fault on first transmission line with SFCL

The above is the current magnitudes of the buses during fault when SFCL is placed at bus 4.

The simulation is updated with change in fault location on the test system. The three phase
fault is connected at Bus 1.

47
 Figure 5.6: Test system with fault connected at Bus 1 with SFCL

Figure 5.7: Fault current at Bus 1 without SFCL during fault condition

48
Figure 5.8: Voltages of all buses during fault at Bus 1 without SFCL

Figure 5.9: Fault current magnitude during fault at bus 1 with SFCL

49
Figure 5.10: Bus voltages during fault at bus 1 with SFCL

50
 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION
6.1.Conclusion

In practise, the SFCL is likely to be employed initially in distribution systems. The SFCL's
function, on the other hand, is to limit the fault current to a predetermined value until the fault
can be eliminated by a normal circuit breaker. In series with a downstream circuit breaker, an
SFCL could provide a quick and dependable way of decreasing and halting growing short-
circuit currents. After the circuit breaker is opened to clear the fault, the presence of the
SFCL significantly reduces and improves transient recovery voltage and transient
overvoltage. The currents in the bus system are reduced by 70% with SFCL compared to the
test system without SFCL, as shown in the analysis of the test system. On the first
transmission line, a defect is introduced with a defined time and impedance. With SFCL, the
voltage drop is also reduced, and the supply to the loads is maintained without causing any
disruption to the DGs.

51
 6.2.Future Scope

Finally, this research shows that SFCLs are a likely answer to the multiple challenges
associated with large fault currents that the power grid faces. For additional fault current
reduction in the system during transmission line faults, the passive type SFCL can be
substituted by an active type SFCL. Multiple SFCLs can be installed at each bus to reduce
fault current.

52
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[3] A. Srivastava and S. Modi, “Fault Analysis and Protection of DC Microgrid,” vol. 8, no.
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ABSTRACT Due to the advancement of the distribution system, superconducting fault

current limiters are increasingly being used in land-based power systems. To reduce this
current, some researchers are looking at upgrading expensive current limiting
equipment, as well as several fault current limiting tools have been introduced. The need
for smart electrical systems with minimal technical loss and environmental impact is
driving interest in Distributed Generations (DGs), which may provide a number of
additional benefits such as reduced transmission and distribution system resources,
increased reliability, and improved power quality, among others. In three-phase
microgrid systems, this research provides a unique fault detection technique.

It's done by looking for damping oscillations in the transient voltage magnitude that
occur when a problem develops. The theoretical research and extensive simulations
show that the maximum magnitude of a transient signal recorded by a sensor as well as
the distance between the sensor and the fault location has an approximated linear
connection. Researchers developed an algorithm capable of finding the fault in
single-phase micro grids depending on the discovered relationship, micro grid structure,
as well as sensor position information.

The test system has been upgraded to include an SFCL (Super Conducting Fault Current
Limiter) for reducing fault currents during transmission line faults. The recommended
fault location method has been built and validated using MATLAB Simulink software,
and also the results are illustrated on a micro grid with various fault locations.
INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND According to the US Department of Energy, microgrids
have gained popularity in recent years due to their numerous benefits, including the
capacity to use renewable energy sources, provide flexible operations, and promote
stability and resilience when utility systems are disrupted. Microgrids are classified as
three-phase or single-phase systems based on the number of grid phases. Many
academics have explored three-phase microgrids and have deployed them in utility
power networks.
Single-phase microgrids, on the other hand, are appropriate for power systems with low
voltage and low power, including a residential dwelling, a small commercial lot, a ship, a
space station, a smaller military facility, or an island situation. The goal of this research is
to find a solution to the problem of fault location in three-phase microgrids. Fault
placement is a significant issue in each level of the power grid hierarchy, from
transmission to distribution to microgrid. As a result, experts have looked into a variety
of defect location methods.

Automatic fault location in microgrids is required in many situations where identifying

the fault location in a short period of time is needed for maintenance efficiency and cost
reduction, such as those on ships, space stations, military bases, islands, as well as
mission-critical scenarios, or when the lines are trapped underground or implanted in
the structure, making visual inspection impossible. MICROGRID Microgrids can run on
either AC (AC microgrid) or DC (DC microgrid) power systems. The system is linked to
the utility via power transformers with directly-connected AC loads in the case of AC
microgrids. Power electronic inverters are generally necessary for network connectivity
of DC loads in the AC microgrid.

DC microgrids are becoming more popular because they have various advantages,
including the fact that they do not need synchronisation with the AC utility and
therefore are compatible with most DG source coupling interfaces, resulting in lower
conversion losses. Whereas microgrids provide a viable answer to the problem of DG
integration, they also pose operational issues to the system. Safety zones in the network
(overhead wires and cables) as well as apparatus categorization are used to categories
protection systems in low voltage distribution level networks (buses, transformers,
generators, loads).

Large fault currents with radial (unidirectional) pattern power flow have generally been
used to build distribution networks. When DERs are used in standalone or microgrid
situations, there is a risk of degradation of this common property, especially in older
traditional networks. / Figure 1.1: A typical Microgrid Layout Internal protection
infrastructure must be capable of swift reactions to both grid linked and microgrid
problems, which is a fundamental operational restriction associated with microgrids.

In the event of a grid fault, the microgrid must not interfere with the utility protection
mechanism in order to provide dependable and efficient grid fault clearance. To enable
for continued regular operation in the event of a microgrid failure, the smallest piece of
the microgrid must be sectionalized. Figure shows an example of a microgrid
arrangement. Another concern with microgrids is the insufficient amount of fault current
provided by DG sources.

If the microgrid retains full connection during a utility grid fault, the short circuit
contribution from the utility source may be reduced to the point where existing
overcurrent devices malfunction. In the microgrid islanded mode, on the other hand, the
DG sources may not generate enough short circuit current to enable overcurrent fault
detection as well as clearance procedures to function. This is especially common in
inverter-based DGs, which have current-limiting devices to avoid overload currents on
specific components.

The demand for the microgrid to be capable of topological change also highlights the
problem of overcurrent relay sensitivity and selectivity. Protective equipment in the
microgrid as well as network must be able to tell the difference between grid & internal
microgrid failures. THREE PHASE MICROGRID TOPOLOGY As electric distribution
technology advance, many trends are emerging that will alter the requirements for
energy delivery.

These changes are now being driven by both the demand side, which wants more
energy availability and efficiency, as well as the supply side, which needs to handle the
integration of distributed generation as well as peak-shaving technology. / Figure 1.2:
Micro-grid power system The micro-storage grid's device is analogous to the revolving
reserve of huge generators in a traditional grid, which guarantees that energy
generation and consumption are balanced, particularly during rapid fluctuations in load
or generation.

From the customer's perspective, micro-grids provide both thermal and electrical needs
while also improving local reliability, lowering emissions, improving power quality by
supporting voltage and reducing voltage dips, and potentially lowering energy supply
prices. Distributed energy sources have the ability to lower the need for distribution and
transmission systems from the utility's perspective. Obviously, distributed generation
near loads reduces flows in transmission and distribution circuits, which has two key
consequences: loss reduction and the capacity to potentially replace network assets.
Furthermore, having generation near to demand may improve service quality as
experienced by end users. Micro-grids can provide network support during times of
stress by alleviating congestion as well as assisting with fault recovery. Micro-grid
development can aid in the reducing emissions as well as the climate change mitigation.
This is due to the fact that currently available and developing technologies for
distributed generation units are based on renewable as well as micro sources with very
low emissions.

This system is designed for home three-phase applications that require a low-cost,
simple, as well as compact topology that can operate independently. The voltage
multiplier, which raises the voltage and makes it acceptable for three-phase
applications, is at the heart of the proposed system. The grid-connected hybrid
PV-diesel generator-battery system for residential applications, which can operate in full
or grid connected mode.

This technique is suitable for residential applications where a low-cost, simple, and small
topology capable of autonomous operation is appealing. The multi-input electrical
device connected two-way dc-dc device that interconnects several power sources and
hence the storage part is at the heart of the centralized approach. In comparison to
current grid-connected schemes, the projected device features a less number of power
conversion steps, lower part count, and higher potency. / Figure 1.3: Hybrid AC/DC
Three Phase Microgrid for PV Initially, a hybrid system with a photovoltaic array is
designed. They generate a charge that is stored in the battery. The converter is used to
convert DC to AC power.

A boost converter, also known as a step-up converter, is a DC-to-DC power converter

that increases voltage while decreasing current from the input supply to the output
load. It is a type of Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS) that includes at least two
semiconductors, such as a diode as well as a transistor, as well as at least in one
dimension, such as a capacitor, inductor, or both. Filters consisting of capacitors usually
added to the output and input of such a converter to eliminate voltage ripple. The
inverter receives this filtered output. The Variable Source Controller (VSC) model
receives the inverter output.

The VSC model is a worldwide three-phase power converter made up of up to six power
switches coupled in a series connection. DISTRIBUTED GENERATOR There is currently no
universal consensus on the definition of DGs due to maturing technology and increasing
size of DGs, which are an important and current issue in the electricity system. All of
these are referred to as embedded or dispersed generations. The current definition of
DG is fairly broad, ranging from a single kW photovoltaic system to a 1000 MW offshore
compared to confirm the proposed model's robust better performance. (Charles, 2020)
Microgrid technology allows the deployment of renewable energy sources on the
battlefield and at naval installations across the world, putting sustainable electricity at
the forefront of Department of Defense operations.

Simulations are used to forecast the voltage waveforms, spectra, total harmonic
distortion, and current waveforms of microgrids, which are then observed in the lab. The
metrics for the power quality analysis are provided by IEEE Standard 519 and the
manufacturer's performance specifications. The COTS units meet IEEE Standard 519 and
are eligible for further research into microgrid extension, management, as well as
employment, according to comparisons of model performance to experimental
laboratory data.

(Karsh & Sharma, 2020) Resulting in increased deployment of various types of power
generation and the grid, existing AC systems have caused considerable concerns. The
majority of the micro grids that used DGs and renewable energy sources ran in tandem
with the AC main grids. Because the bulk of power grids are currently ac, ac micro grids
will continue to be dominant, and entirely dc micro grids are unlikely to arise in power
grids.
among the phases. The recommended management procedures are conducted to
analyze the microgrid system's robust operation.

It is quite likely that one phase of such a network will have a high generation capacity
while other phases will experience higher demand; this is a technologically tough
problem for a network running in autonomous mode. The single-phase DERs of such a
system are proposed to function under a droop-based voltage control mechanism in
this study, while an acceptable technique to enable the transmission of surplus energy
from one phase to other phases is suggested. Extensive digital simulations in
PSCAD/EMTDC for numerous situations are used to validate the recommendations,
demonstrating the practicality of operating such a system and the usefulness of the
proposed methodologies. (Hassan et al.,

2018) To avoid using a communication system, the method uses fewer measurements.
Without communication routes, protecting the microgrid could result in blindness
(circuit breakers not tripping for problems) or nuisance tripping (tripping incorrectly).
However, with correct system design, notably with adequately scaled system impedance,
these incidents can be avoided. The proposed technique's performance is proven on
representative microgrid architecture in the MATLAB/SIMULINK simulation platform,
demonstrating that it can detect faults for a wide variety of load as well as fault
impedances.

(Piesciorovsky & Reno, 2018) Faults in the electric power grid can arise as a result of
unexpected changes in load demand, as well as external factors such as weather,
equipment failure, cyber-attacks, and other disruptions. These incidents can disrupt
regular grid operations, and substantial and/or long-term failures can be extremely
dangerous to grid reliability, resilience, and safety. Due to differences in equipment,
setup, behaviour, and other factors, distinct failures in different systems must be
addressed differently.

The unusual difficulty of microgrid protection is explored in this paper; fault detection
and location has been extensively examined for transmission and distribution systems,
but there is a void in the microgrid context. Microgrid systems with distributed energy
resources (DERs) are becoming more popular, and fault location algorithms tailored to
microgrid characteristics and behaviour are needed to secure them successfully. This
paper will go through the different types of microgrid faults and issues, as well as
general fault location methodology, literature-based remedies, and future directions and
demands for achieving dependable and effective microgrid protection.

(Hamidi & Advisor, 2017) Modern electrical power systems necessitate unique
diagnostic procedures to improve system resiliency through the development of
cutting-edge algorithms. The availability of high-voltage optical transducers and
high-time-resolution measurements has paved the way for the development of new
diagnostic approaches for very fast transients in power systems. Simultaneously, more
complicated configurations, such as multi-terminal hybrid transmission systems, are
limiting the use of classic diagnostic procedures, particularly in fault location and health
monitoring.

demand response, this system can intelligently and efficiently function in islanding
mode. This also allows controllable loads to ride out grid disruptions, and this can be
utilized as a retrofit solution for current topologies to improve quality and effectiveness.
(B, 2017) Recent advancements in renewable energy technologies, as well as changes in
electric utility infrastructures, have piqued power utilities' interest in generating
electricity usingdistributed generation resources.

Despite their increasing adoption, there are still significant obstacles in designing,
controlling, and operating micro-grids both when connected to the grid and when
operating in islanded mode, and extensive research is undertaken to address these
concerns. The situation of a microgrid or a section of the power grid that comprises of a
load and a distributed generating system being isolated from the rest of the utility
system is referred to as islanding. A power control method is presented in this work to
control active and reactive power in grid-connected mode, as well as active power and
voltage in islanded mode operating.

In grid connected mode and island mode operation, a robust controller is introduced to
meet the control purpose. The stability study of an ideal controller for a DG system is
also presented, with singular value based analysis. Utilizing islanding identification,
synchronisation algorithm, load shedding, current, as well as voltage control methods, a
seamless transition between grid connected as well as islanded mode has been
presented. (Senapati et al., 2017) The modeling of a Unified Power Quality Conditioner
(UPQC) with a Grid-connected PV-FC (Photovoltaic Fuel Cell) System in grid linked mode
is the subject of this paper.

Despite the presence of non-linear loads in the system, the proposed methodology
concentrates on extracting sinusoidal current from the supply system. The Shunt
Controller of UPQC provides harmonic power to prevent harmonic components from
being pulled at the supply, while the series component balances voltage-related issues
such unbalancing. The UPQC addresses load harmonic power as well as zero sequence
power, both of which cause power system imbalances, as well as compensating reactive
power so that the source voltage and compensated current are both in phase.

The system's performance has been observed to be invariable under variable solar
irradiation conditions. (Eslami et al., 2017) In this paper, we offer a new approach for
fault detection in FREEDM microgrids that takes into account network topology
uncertainty. The waveform properties retrieved will be used to create appropriate
indices for fault detection, location, and characterization. The capacity of the suggested
technique to operate in a dynamic microgrid with shifting topology is its most notable
characteristic. The suggested method's performance is evaluated using a sample
FREEDM microgrid with ring and radial features.

It is demonstrated that the suggested technique is capable of fault identification and

diagnosis while distinguishing between short-circuit faults as well as switching transients
caused by network topology fluctuations. (Zhao, 2016) DGs are small generator units
that are positioned close to electricity consumers and use modern energy conversion
technologies, such as inverter-based grid connections. Because they are locally
substituting energy delivery via the distribution network with local delivery, DGs have
the advantage of lowering power losses in the distribution system under typical load
conditions.

DGs, despite their beneficial effect, contribute fault currents in the event of network
faults, thereby compromising the network protection system. In a radial distribution
network, for example, inverse time overcurrent relays are commonly employed to
defend against faults. Because the addition of DG to an existing distribution network will
undoubtedly increase the level of fault current due to its fault current contribution while
also changing the direction of current flow, DG will eventually disrupt the original
overcurrent relay coordination. During breakdowns, another challenge for power
networks with DGs is to maintain voltage aspect power quality. (Dhara et al.,

2016) Because the predicted voltage sag amplitude during faults may be greatly
decreased, short circuit current restriction in distribution system utilities might be an
operational method for improving power quality. Superconductors are used by SFCL to
instantly reduce unforeseen electrical surges that occur on utility distribution and power
transmission networks. By lowering the wear on circuit breakers as well as protecting
other expensive equipment, SFCL significantly reduces the financial strain on utilities.

The created SFCL model is used to determine an SFCL impedance level based on the
fault current limitation requirements of various smart grid system types. The purpose of
this research is to determine the best SFCL resistive value for improving a power
system's transient stability. All throughout short circuit fault, the equal-area criterion
validated by power-angle curves is continually used to establish the ideal resistive value
of the SFCL linked in series in a transmission line with a conductor.

Simulink is used to create the primary model, while MATLAB is used to generate the
simulation results for the projected model. (Kumari et al., 2016) A power system fault is
an abnormal condition involving the electrical failure of power system equipment
operating at one of the system's primary voltages. This document provides an overview
of power system problems as well as their negative consequences. In addition, a brief
classification of fault is provided. Finally, we'll go through various fault-prevention
approaches in a power system.

(Bayindir, 2015) A fault simulation on a microgrid including a wind turbine, solar panel,
and fuel cell is presented in this study. The electricity generated by various sources is
aggregated on a single DC bus and converted to AC via a three-phase converter before
being sent to a three-phase AC load. The system guards against a variety of undesirable
circumstances. In the event of a fault, the microgrids failed part was quickly
disconnected from the grid utilising breakers situated on the output side of each energy
source and inverters.

(Chaudhary, 2015) A current might quickly increase during a contingency as a result of

rising power demand and high penetration of distributed generation (DG). This fault
current has the potential to exceed the current protective device's ratings. By lowering
the wear on circuit breakers as well as safeguarding other expensive equipment, SFCLs
eliminate or considerably reduce the financial burden on utilities. When a new power
plant is developed, superconducting FCLs can be put at optimum places in the
transmission network to lower fault currents to within a tolerable range.

One can take full advantage of the strengths of the smart grid's communication
network, as well as the diverse features of FCL devices in different classifications, with
these placements, to provide a more flexible and reliable protection for the future power
grid. (Khuntia, 2015) As the use of DG in the mainstream grows, numerous repercussions
that arise as a result of DG penetration must be recognized. DG penetration in existing
distribution is observed to change the fault current during a grid disruption, resulting in
system imbalance.

The research effort is based on this, and so it concentrates on the contribution of fault
current from renewable energy sources in a microgrid, as well as how resistive SFCL can
help reduce fault levels. The testbed is modeled in MATLAB/Simulink, and simulation
results are shown to demonstrate the efficacy of resistive SFCL under various fault
circumstances. (Prof.P.M.Khandare; Dr.S.A.Deokar, 2
Utility connection modes are available on facility and utility microgrids, but not on
distant microgrids. When compared to facility and utility microgrids, remote microgrids
are placed in highly distributed consumption areas. Facility microgrids can continue to
operate in an island mode, either intentionally or unintentionally. Micro sources, loads,
network conditions, and control topologies will all change depending on the type of
microgrid. A microgrid consists of various renewable distributed generators,
non-renewable distributed generators, energy storage devices, different kinds of
microgrid loads, interfaced distributed energy resources (DER), interlinked microgrids,
stability and control systems, as well as communication systems, as shown in the
diagram. / Figure 3.1: Microgrid architecture A microgrid is a small or local control
system that is independent of the mass supply system.

For example, a gaseous petrol ignition motor (which co-produces power and high temp
water or water vapour needed to cool the flammable gas turbine) or diesel, renewable
power source, or batteries might be employed to create a consolidated warmth and
power framework. Server farms, colleges, healing centres, factory lines, army locations,
and entire networks could all benefit from microgrid-based sub-stations (i.e. "Town
Power"). It should be noted that opinions differ on the overall generation limit that
should be included in the Microgrids capacity framework, as well as whether there
should be a single regular objective of coupling with the main organize or several
purposes of coupling. The Microgrid must be separated from the major system by at
least one disengaged focus for the island concept to work.

According to a report on Microgrids and Sandy's Super Storm, "a genuine small-scale
arrangement significantly more than reinforcement control framework, but additionally
because one of its essential capacities incorporates continuous on location controls to
coordinate the age and size limit of the Microgrid," a plant administrator observed.
Microgrid Loads A microgrid system contains a variety of loads, and each one is critical
to its operation, stability, and control. A static load or a motor/electronic load are two
types of electrical loads. The microgrid can power a variety of loads (such as residential
or industrial) that are considered sensitive or important and require high levels of
reliability.

This type of operation necessitates numerous considerations, including giving

precedence to key loads, improving power quality delivered to specific loads, and
improving reliability for pre-specified load categories. Local generation also protects
against unexpected disruptions with quick and accurate protection measures. Under the
following factors, load classification is critical for defining the projected operating
strategy in a microgrid arrangement: The load/source operation strategy needed to
meet net active and reactive power requirements in grid-tied mode, as well as voltage
and frequency stabilisation in island mode.

Enhancing DER ratings by improving power quality, Reducing maximum load, and
Maintaining optimal operation and control Stability, Control and Communication
Strategies for Microgrid Because the energy and power ratings are significantly lower in
microgrids than in big electric grids, stability difficulties are more common, and the
evaluation of stability issues for AC microgrids maintains the same principles as in the
main/macro grid. Active and reactive power controls are required to adjust both
frequency and voltage.

Stability is managed by the torque and speed control of the machine shaft when sources
such as traditional generators with an AC output are directly connected without power
electronic connections. There seem to be no reactive power exchanges in DC microgrid
systems, implying that there are no stability concerns. In a DC-based microgrid, system
control appears to be geared solely at frequency management. In microgrid systems, as
well as connections to DG systems, power quality is a critical concern. Issues with
powerquality caused by renewable energy sources, hydropower, and diesel generators,
which are the principal sources of power for DG systems.

Microgrids stability can be classed into one of two categories. Frequency stability, which
includes tiny signal and transient stability, is the first, while voltage stability is the
second. The use of storage devices as well as adaptive protection devices improves
transient stability. A micro grid’s stability is also ensured via voltage regulators, reactive
power compensators, load controllers, and current limiters. A micro grid’s control
operation is required.

To add or remove new micro-sources without modifying existing components in the

system, To select or optimise a microgrid's operation point autonomously as well as
manually, To interact or isolate a microgrid from the main grid quickly and smoothly
when required, To control active and reactive power separately, To correct voltage sag
and system sag, To meet the load dynamics involvement of a grid. Microgrid Control
Strategy There are several control techniques, which are stated below that help to
manage the component level of a distribution system.

Control by a master and slave: the master sets the voltage and frequency, while the
slaves manage the current sources. Current and power flow control: this method
employs control signals to regulate current and power distribution. Droop control:
because the converters operate as non-ideal voltage sources, this strategy is better for
combining with earlier methods. Centralized Control System A centralized control
system obtains intelligence from a single central point, which may be a switch, a server,
or a controller, depending on the network type.

A centrally controlled network is simple to operate since it gives the operator more
control over the entire system. This feature enables the manager to build wide control
techniques to satisfy power needs. The centralized control system, on the other hand,
necessitates a single control unit to process all measured data. This one-of-a-kind
controller point might produce a slew of communication issues, as well as a slew of
defects that could bring the entire system to a halt. / Figure 3.2: Centralized hierarchical
control of microgrids Decentralized control systems In contrast to a "master" controller,
the decentralised controller permits a system in which all devices can operate
themselves autonomously.

For example, a decentralised controller might demand operation or not from a

distribution point, increasing the overall system's communication speed. Completely
decentralised systems, on the other hand, consolidate a number of issues. Because all
choices are made at the distribution level, the manager's ability to regulate the
microgrid may be compromised. Such a disadvantage necessitates the construction of a
well-organized control system, which has greater installation costs than centralised
controlled systems. As a result, choosing the sort of control system for a microgrid
becomes a cost trade-off.

The greatest option, however, is the multi-agent-based control system (MAS), which
combines the finest features of both types of control systems. MAS were introduced by
several scholars in order to execute decentralised control, and numerous ideas based on
this notion have since been produced. This type of control is the foundation of DER's
autonomous structure, and local controllers (LC) can be simply constructed in this
manner.

These controllers can communicate with one another to improve the communication
infrastructure in a large area where MAS also provides voltage regulation. Table 3.1:
Study on centralized and decentralized control techniques / Future of Grids The power
business is currently confronted with a number of issues, including rising energy costs,
power quality and stability, ageing infrastructure, widespread electrification, and climate
dynamics, to name a few. Low-voltage distribution generation, in which all sources and
loads are located, can solve these concerns.

The application market for microgrids in 2022 is depicted in Figure, with campus-type
microgrids accounting for the majority of applications. The following is a calculation of
microgrid growth: / Figure 3.3: Forecasted microgrid application market in 2022 Since
2011, the global installed microgrid capacity has expanded considerably, with a total
installed capacity of over 15GW expected by 2022. In terms of market value for dealers,
the market has a potential of over $5 billion and is expected to reach over $27 billion by
2022.

At the moment, campus/institutional microgrids are the most popular application, with a
compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 18.83 percent predicted from 2012 to 2022. By
2022, military, defense-based, as well as commercial microgrids will all have identical
installed capacity. For the next 5-6 years, off-grid microgrids are predicted to expand at
the fastest CAGR, while the hybrid market is expected to develop at the fastest CAGR
from 2012 to 2022. Why a fully constructed microgrid necessitates a longer payback
period.

FAULTS Insulation failure, flashover, physical damage such as wires blowing together in
the wind, or an animal coming into touch with the wire are all examples of faults in
power systems. A fault frequently results in the passage of excessive current, anomalous
voltages, and overvoltage on nearby equipment, posing a risk to humans, animals, and
other objects. Fault analysis is usually required to determine the size of the circuit
breaker fuse and its properties, as well as the relay setting. Some fault limiting devices
include fuses, circuit breakers, relays, and lighting power protection devices.

Types of Faults Short circuit faults, which result from a rapid overvoltage state and are
also known as shunt faults, as well as open circuit faults, which result from the cessation
of current flow and therefore are known as series faults, are the two types of faults.
When a system has one or two damaged lines, a series fault is defined by a rise in
voltage and frequency, as well as a decrease in current, in the faulted phase. Short circuit
faults are further divided into two types: symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults.
Symmetrical fault- A symmetrical fault occurs when there is a short circuit in all three
phases. It is the most serious flaw.

In general, symmetrical faults are uncommon. Approximately 5% of all faults involve all
three phases. It has an equal impact on all three phases. An asymmetrical flaw is one
that is out of balance in nature. A short circuit of phase with ground causes this issue.
There are three types of single line to ground faults: single line to ground fault, line to
line fault, and double line to ground fault. Figure 1 depicts a line to ground fault, a line
to line fault, and a double line to ground fault. The most common sort of fault is a line
to ground fault, which is triggered by lightning or a conductor making contact with a
grounded structure.

This leads to the discovery of 70% of the whole fault. Wind, falling trees, and other
factors contribute to it. For LG fault to occur, Ib=0,Ic=0 & Va=0. Line to Line Fault: A line
to line fault occurs when one phase meets another. It usually occurs when there is a
strong breeze. Line to line failures account for about 15% of all transmission faults. For
this fault to occur the condition is Ia=0,Ib+Ic=0,Vb=Vc. Double line to ground fault- This
sort of fault occurs when two phases come into contact with the ground. It can happen
as a result of falling trees, birds, and other natural disasters. This sort of fault accounts
for 10% of all transmission line faults.

The Boundary condition is Ia=0,Vb=Vc=0. / Figure 3.4: Types of faults Effects of Faults
The impact of faults vary widely depending on the type of fault; for example, a short
circuit is the most serious fault because the current is around 10 times the
instrumentation's nominal current; the effect is as follows: Electrical equipment like bus
bars, generators, as well as transformers may be damaged as a result of fault heating,
and lines and cables may overheat. When a negative sequence current flows from an
unsymmetrical fault, it heats up.

The stability of the power system could be jeopardised, resulting in a complete

shutdown. A short circuit on an overhead transmission line can sometimes take the form
of an arc, which, if not quickly cleared, will burn and damage the conductor, causing a
protracted period of supply disruption. A defect might produce a considerable drop in
voltage in a power system, causing pressure coil relays to fail.

In an interconnected industry, a defect is followed by a drop in voltage and frequency,

which may lead loads like motors that normally take power from the supply to begin
feeding or delivering power to the fault area. An induction motor as well as a
synchronous motor feed the fault during the failure. Causes of faults Weather
circumstances, such as lightning strikes, torrential rains, high winds, salt build up on
overhead wires and conductors, snow and ice accumulation on transmission lines, and
many more.

As a result of the environmental conditions, the power supply is disturbed, and electrical
installations are destroyed. Equipment failures: Short circuit faults in generator, engines,
transformers, reactors, as well as switching devices are generated by malfunction,
ageing, and insulation failure of cables and coils. As a consequence of these failures, a
large amount of current rushes through the devices or equipment, inflicting more
damage.

Human errors, such as selecting the incorrect equipment or device rating, disregarding
metallic or electrical conducting areas after servicing or maintenance, switching the
circuit while it is being maintained, and so on, can all cause electrical difficulties. Faults
in DC Microgrid The majority of defects on overhead power lines are asymmetrical
problems, which can range from a single line to a ground fault. Single Line to Ground
Fault A single line to ground fault is depicted in the diagram. This is the most common
type of power system problem. The supply reliability and continuity of the microgrid
system are harmed as a result of this problem.

When lightning strikes a microgrid's distribution line, one of the conductors can break
and fall to the ground, either positive or negative. As a result, the line will ground fault.
And the line will be out of commission until the problem is resolved. It could also
happen if anything falls on the line, allowing current to flow from the line to the ground.
Single line to ground faults is the most prevalent form of failure in industrial distribution
networks. / Figure 3.5: Single Line to Ground Fault Line to Line Fault This is the system's
most dangerous malfunction, even more so than the single line to ground failure
discussed before. In the system, this issue arises rarely.

When objects fall over positive and negative wires, shorting them, a double line failure
happens in overhead distribution lines. Insulation failure causes this problem in
underground wires. A line-to-line fault between the positive and negative lines is seen in
the figure. / Figure 3.6: Line to Line Fault Fault types There are many different kinds of
defects that can be classified. Other electrical concerns are less important than phase
faults, which include phase to ground and phase to phase faults. Nonetheless, they are
considered in the functioning of the power system.

Examples include open circuit faults; inter turn faults, and various types of defects. /
Figure 3.7: Power system structure / Figure 3.8: Fault occurs in transmission line The
diagrams depict an example of a power transmission line problem. Transmission line
defects include single phase to ground faults, double phase to ground faults, double
phase faults, and three phase faults. It has a defect locator that may be used to locate
the distance relay as well as other auxiliary devices in the case. / Figure 3.9: Fault occurs
in transformer The problem with the power transformer is shown here.

In the electricity system, there are four basic types of transformer faults. These include
arcing or high current breakdown, low energy sparking or partial discharges, localised
overheating or hotspots, as well as overall overheating as a result of insufficient or
prolonged overloading. Some of the processes used to find transformer failures include
the use of a Buchholz relay safety device, dissolved gas analysis, and testing to detect oil
contaminants and oil quality. / Figure 3.10: Fault occurs in machine or generator This is
where a machine's defect, such as a power generator, is displayed. In the case of a
power generator, there are several forms of major failures.
Prime movers, excitement, and stator or interconnecting cable insulation failure are
examples of these failures. The problem with the power generator can be turned off, but
autonomous functioning requires an undercurrent relay in conjunction with time-lag
tripping and time-lag reinforcing relay. As a result, fault detection and the selection of
appropriate relays for subsequent fault isolation are critical for power system protection.
Fault location techniques are used to both protect and locate faults in electrical power
systems.

The fault locator's features are based on a quick technique for repairing and restoring
power system functionality. Among other things, they improve system availability and
performance. Fault locator techniques and fault categorization will be explored in the
section of review articles. All of these examples of power system mistakes are just a
handful of the many that could occur in a system. INTEGRATION OF A RESISTIVE SFCL
IN AN ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM The majority of distribution systems are
constructed in a radial form because to the ease of operation and cost-effectiveness of
overcurrent protection.

Both advantages are due to the fact that power in any branch of a radial system only
goes in one direction. The most frequent distribution voltage class in power networks is
10-15kV. The systems use continuous current ratings of less than or equal to 600 amps
and fault current values of less than 20kA. For distribution SFCLs, heat regulation is less
of a concern than for transmission systems. As a result, the SFCL is ideally suited for use
in distribution systems first. Interactions between the SFCL and the power system are
predicted after the SFCL is linked to the power grid.

For evaluating the integration behaviour of the SFCL in power grids, a unidirectional
distribution system was established in the latest version of the electromagnetic transient
programme. / Figure 3.11: Diagram of a typical electrical distribution system A typical
distribution system is depicted in the diagram above. On the secondary winding of the
substation system's step-down transformer, the source impedance, which includes the
transformer impedance as well as the upstream short-circuit impedance, may be seen.

A number of parallel feeders are connected to the point of common coupling (PCC),
which is the path from the source to the load. The bus is powered by a substation
transformer from a 110kV network. Single-phase short circuits account for over 90% of
distribution network difficulties, therefore researchers look into a phase-to-ground fault.
 PROPOSED METHODOLOGY FCL A fault current limiter (FCL) is a device that has low
impedance in normal operation but flips to a high impedance when the current exceeds
a particular threshold limit caused by the failure.

Such a component can raise the system's short circuit power to a safe level in the case
of a breakdown without damaging the equipment. FCL is a critical component of future
smart grids due to the aforementioned rationale. Its presence in the electricity system
provides a number of benefits, including: Allows for abnormal conditions in systems
connecting along these lines, allowing for a flexible connection between generation
units, distribution operators, and customers, which is critical in today's electric power
market. It is possible to connect distributed generation to the main grid (Also from
sources which are non-programmable such as non-conventional energy sources).

Avoids harmonics, sags, interruptions, as well as flickers, resulting in higher voltage

quality; and In the case of network expansion, FCL removes the need to modify safety
equipment. Applications of FCL at Microgrid When a transmission system and a
microgrid are connected by a node, a fault current limiter (FCL) can be created to
prevent fault currents from flowing between them when a breakdown occurs. The
Existing Protection Relay Scheme (EPRS) determines the mesh design of a transmission
system, and it does not need to be changed on a regular basis. Increased fault current
produced by generating inside a microgrid could destabilise the EPRS.

As a consequence, the FCL equipment at this location can handle a lot of current. SSFCL
(Si type and SiC type) are suitable for attaching nodes to a microgrid. During a fault, the
microgrid's operation can be islanded when SSFCL operates as a super-fast operational
circuit breaker from the microgrid to the transmission network, totally turning off
current flow. Additionally, in the event of a microgrid failure, SSFCL can function in
phase control mode to limit current flow in the microgrid in the hopes that downstream
protective devices will open progressively, which is extremely crucial when power
sources are turned off. SFCL Such limiters are a one-of-a-kind and essential tool for
building advanced grid structures because they enable for the optimum use of existing
grid structures while also improving grid stability and power quality.

SFCL may be able to reduce the cost of transmission line as well as plant expansion. This
limiter presents an efficient way to overcome fault current limiting characteristics of
these superconductors based on their non-linear properties with magnetic field, current,
and temperature changes. A transition from superconducting to normal state occurs
when any of these three criteria increases. Grid-connected microgrids receive SFCL
protection without having to combine the short-circuit currents.
As fault currents increase, the microgrid's ability to fulfill escalating demands grows,
requiring the replacement of a major amount of current power system equipment, like
relays, circuit breakers, as well as transformers. The usage of a superconducting fault
current limiter (SFCL) with numerous design concepts is among the most improved
characteristics for avoiding an increase in fault current. If the magnetic field, current
density, and temperature all seem to be below a certain threshold, a superconductor can
carry electric current with minimum resistance.

The superconductor will meet a dissipative condition if any of the quantities exceed the
extreme value of the superconductor. For usage in power applications, superconducting
cables are provided as tapes or composite conductors. The identified superconducting
fault current limiter has the following characteristics: / Operation of the
Superconducting Fault Current Limiter can be described by three stages: Under typical
working conditions, like as at the SFCL, the superconductor behaves current; the line has
essentially no impedance. When a fault occurs, the superconductor unit becomes
extremely resistant, causing current to flow to the reactor. Increased impedance lowers
the fault current.

After current transfers to the reactor, a fast-operating switch removes the

superconductor unit from the circuit. Superconducting FCLs are progressing as a new
class of equipment that can allow for novel and unconventional power utility schemes,
which is becoming increasingly important as the deregulation environment takes hold
and users seek more effective and cost-effective ways to couple grids, delay costly
upgrades, and improve the power quality. As more affordable HTS materials become
available, the process should speed up and become more dependable.

The nonlinear response of superconducting materials to magnetic fields, current, and

temperature determines the current limiting behaviour of SFCL. Increases in any of the
three parameters cause a transition between regular (resistive) conducting and
superconducting modes. SFCLs are divided into four groups: Resistive Type SFCL As
illustrated in the diagram below, the resistive type SFCLs are in line with the load and
source.

The superconducting element RSC dissipates low energy as current runs through it
during normal operation. The resistance RSC rises quickly if the current climbs above the
critical current value. The inefficiencies dissipated heat the superconductor above the
critical temperature TC, and the superconductor RSC diverges from superconducting to
resistive, generating some resistance and minimising fault current, a procedure known
as "quench of superconductors." When the fault current is lowered, the element RSC
resumes its superconducting condition.
During quench, an inductive shunt ZSH or parallel resistance is necessary to adjust the
limiting current and avoid overvoltage’s due to the restrictions of the fast-current,
inductive shunt ZSH or parallel resistance is required to prevent hot spots. Inductive
SFCLs are heavier and smaller than resistive SFCLs. They are sensitive to extreme heat
while in the quench state. / Figure 4.1: Resistive type SFCL Inductive Type SFCL The
inductive type SFCL operates on the transformer concept, acting as a superconducting
secondary winding of a transformer with the power system line acting as the primary
winding.

If a fault develops, the superconductor resistance increases and is transmitted to the

primary side by K2 = (w1/w2)2. As a result, the power system's line impedance rises. The
SFCL has set a restriction on the fault current. / Figure 4.2: Inductive type SFCL A Hybrid
SFCL The theoretical performance of the equipment uses High Temperature
Superconductor (HTS) only for starting a quick switch operation. Hybrid SFCL was
originally described as a line-commutated type. When current is diverted into a reactor,
the HTS becomes resistive when current passes through the driving coil, as shown in the
diagram, and the quick switch activates when the coil current produces a field.

All through the rest of the fault occurrence, the reactor acts as a limiter. The approach
quickly removes the rise in voltage from the HTS during limiting action, allowing the line
reactor to maintain the higher impedance for the remainder of the limiting period. This
concept is advantageous because it reduces the amount of superconductor and the
cryogenic volume, allowing the equipment to be more solid for substation installation.

The rapid acting switch is essentially a plunger with a switch on either end that seeks to
commutate line current during operation. To engage and operate the plunger for
limiting reactor, the driving coil applies force to the repulsion plate. / Figure 4.3: Hybrid
SFCL Applications of SFCL in Power System It is impossible to totally avoid a problem in
any section of a power network that includes generation, transmission, and distribution.
As a result, SFCL can be used in any area of the network. The diagram below depicts
possible SFCL placements. To efficiently reduce the fault current while ensuring system
stability in the network, the position of SFCL varies greatly. / Figure 4.4: Possible
locations of SFCLs in a Power Network Transmission lines, power generation, renewable
energy, distribution channels, and HVDC systems have all used superconducting fault
current limiters (SFCLs) to limit fault current, secure interconnector to network, minimize
voltage sage at distribution, as well as enhance power system transient stability and
reliability.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Simulation Design For power system simulations, EMTP,
and for data analysis and processing, MATLAB is used.

A typical microgrid is used in the simulation of short circuit problems. In comparison to

those DGs, the external grid has lower source impedance. A grounded switch simulates
a short circuit, and the grounded impedance is modeled by series and parallel resistors,
inductors, and capacitors. Simulations and analysis of possible short circuit places in the
microgrid are carried out. Result analysis The below is the proposed system with three
phase fault connected at Bus 4. All the results are generated with and without SFCL. /
Figure 5.1: Test system Simulink modelling with SFCL The above is the test system for
detection of fault location and for mitigation of fault currents in the buses with the help
of SFCL. The below are the bus voltages during fault without SFCL. / Figure 5.2: Bus
voltages during fault on first transmission line without SFCL The current magnitudes in
each buses are recorded as below during the fault without SFCL. / Figure 5.3: Bus
currents during fault on first transmission line without SFCL The SFCL model created in
Simulink/Sim-Power System is shown in the diagram below. The following is how the
SFCL model works.

The SFCL model estimates the passing current's RMS value before comparing it to the
characteristic table. Finally, if the current level falls below the triggering current level, the
system waits for the recovery period to pass before returning to normal. The SFCL
model was verified using the power network model shown in Fig. SFCL has been
installed at a substation (Location 1), as well as various SFCL impedance values vs. its
fault current reduction operation have been plotted for a distribution grid fault (Fault 1).
This arrangement's maximum fault current (in the absence of an SFCL) is 140 A at 110V.
/ Figure 5.4: SFCL Simulink modelling When SFCL is placed at bus 4 the impact on
voltages of the buses can be seen below. The drop in voltage is completely reduced. /
Figure 5.5: Bus voltages during fault on first transmission line with SFCL
/ Figure 5.6: Bus currents during fault on first transmission line with SFCL The above is
the current magnitudes of the buses during fault when SFCL is placed at bus 4. The
simulation is updated with change in fault location on the test system.

The three phase fault is connected at Bus 1. / Figure 5.7: Test system with fault
connected at Bus 1 with SFCL / Figure 5.8: Fault current at Bus 1 without SFCL during
fault condition / Figure 5.9: Voltages of all buses during fault at Bus 1 without SFCL /
Figure 5.10: Fault current magnitude during fault at bus 1 with SFCL / Figure 5.11: Bus
voltages during fault at bus 1 with SFCL

The SFCL's function, on the other hand, is to limit the fault current to a predetermined
value until the fault can be eliminated by a normal circuit breaker. In series with a
downstream circuit breaker, an SFCL could provide a quick and dependable way of
decreasing and halting growing short-circuit currents. After the circuit breaker is opened
to clear the fault, the presence of the SFCL significantly reduces and improves transient
recovery voltage and transient overvoltage.

The currents in the bus system are reduced by 70% with SFCL compared to the test
system without SFCL, as shown in the analysis of the test system. On the first
transmission line, a defect is introduced with a defined time and impedance. With SFCL,
the voltage drop is also reduced, and the supply to the loads is maintained without
causing any disruption to the DGs.
 Future Scope Finally, this research shows that SFCLs are a likely answer to the multiple
challenges associated with large fault currents that the power grid faces.

For additional fault current reduction in the system during transmission line faults, the
passive type SFCL can be substituted by an active type SFCL. Multiple SFCLs can be
installed at each bus to reduce fault current.

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