Article

Rural Household Livelihood and Tree Plantation

Dependence in the Central Mountainous Region of
Hainan Island, China: Implications for
Poverty Alleviation
Ruida Li 1,2 , Hua Zheng 1,2, *, Cuiping Zhang 3 , Bonnie Keeler 4 , Leah H. Samberg 5,6 , Cong Li 7 ,
Stephen Polasky 8 , Yongming Ni 9 and Zhiyun Ouyang 1,2
1 State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences,
Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100085, China; [email protected] (R.L.); [email protected] (Z.O.)
2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
3 Environmental Science Institute of Hainan, Haikou 571126, China; [email protected]
4 Humphrey School of Public Affairs, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; [email protected]
5 Institute on the Environment, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN 55108, USA; [email protected]
6 Rainforest Alliance, New York, NY 10279, USA
7 School of Economics and Finance, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710061, China; [email protected]
8 Department of Applied Economics, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN 55108, USA; [email protected]
9 Beijing Museum of Natural History, Beijing 100050, China; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]




Received: 5 January 2020; Accepted: 19 February 2020; Published: 24 February 2020


Abstract: Plantations support local economies and rural livelihoods in many mountainous regions,
where poverty and a fragile environment are often interlinked. Managing plantations sustainably and
alleviating poverty is a major challenge. This study reports on the findings of a household livelihood
survey in the central mountainous region of Hainan Island, a global biodiversity hotspot. The survey
aimed to identify rural household livelihoods, strategies to lift rural households out of poverty and
potential environmental consequences of different livelihood strategies. Households were divided
into five groups based on their main source of income: plantations, crops, livestock, local off-farm
income and remittances. Plantations were the main source of income for 74% of households and
provided 46% of the total income. Plantation land area, planting diverse tree species and intercropping
were significantly associated with higher income. Reallocating land by family size could increase
the proportion of households above the poverty line in the plantation group from 51.3% to 85.3%,
while making only 3.3% of households worse off. Lower income households tended to apply more
chemicals to plantations, which suggests that they create more strain on the environment. Improving
household income through dynamically allocating plantation land and diversifying planted species
could therefore be beneficial both socially and environmentally. Our results emphasize the importance
of dynamic plantation land allocation and diverse plantation planting in poverty alleviation and
environmental sustainability.

Keywords: sustainable household livelihood; poverty alleviation; plantation management; ecosystem

services; Hainan Island

1. Introduction
An estimated 13% of the world’s people live in mountain areas [1]. The scarcity of available arable
land, general absence of local roads to urban areas, low public investment in health and education,
scarce basic infrastructure and low levels of employment contribute to a low standard of living and

Forests 2020, 11, 248; doi:10.3390/f11020248 www.mdpi.com/journal/forests

Forests 2020, 11, 248 2 of 16

reduced wellbeing [2,3]. Mountainous areas also often contain a large number of long-term poverty
traps [2,3]. Increasingly strict conservation policies have led to fewer opportunities to encroach on
natural forest and bring it into agricultural production, which means that the potential to reduce
poverty by expanding agricultural land is limited. It is important to understand how to optimize
constrained agricultural resources, especially in forest estates, and also improve human well-being to
alleviate poverty globally [4–6].
In theory, effective plantation management may increase peasants’ incomes and contribute to
poverty alleviation. Widespread tree plantations (such as Eucalyptus spp., tropical Acacia spp. and oil
palm) increase household income from wood and biofuel production [7,8]. Unlike monocultures with a
single objective, polyculture has the potential to fulfill a variety of objectives [7], such as increased income,
reduced vulnerability to volatile global markets for forestry products [9], better regulating services and
nature conservation [10]. Polycultures could be designed to accomplish diverse and context-specific
goals. Intercropping with vegetables or legumes, forest farming for mushrooms, medicinal herbs,
floral greenery and livestock are all being integrated into plantation systems [11]. The shortage of
land can hamper long-term income generation for local rural households in tropical forest areas [3],
but appropriate forestry land reallocation and full use of current land resources might be helpful to
alleviate poverty [12]. Tree plantations can contribute to economic growth and rural livelihoods [13,14].
However, plantation monocultures often generate environmental problems, including air and water
pollution, soil erosion, waterway siltation, flooding and biodiversity loss [14].
There are many examples of forest-based resources being used to achieve multiple Sustainable
Development Goals [15], including alleviating poverty, reducing inequalities and supporting decent
work and economic growth [16,17]. Most previous studies have been qualitative and based on residents’
recognition of effects [18]. Various studies have also investigated the interactions between natural/public
managed forest, or mixed-planted forests and rural livelihoods [19–22]. A recent study investigated
the role of planted forests, mainly industrial plantations, in supporting rural households [6]. However,
there is still little quantitative evidence to support the role that could be played by tree plantations
owned by local smallholders in mountainous areas to alleviate poverty with little environmental
effect [14,17,18].
China has the largest afforested area in the world [23]. Through the Bonn Challenge, plantation
forests are being expanded by involving local smallholders in many other countries [24–26]. This
approach leads to intimate relationships between forest assets and poverty. In many other countries,
extreme poverty and biodiversity hot spots are also similarly geographically collocated and concentrated
in rural areas where livelihoods depend disproportionately on natural capital in forests [27,28]. As a
global biodiversity hotspot, the central mountainous region of Hainan Island has increasingly large
areas given over to tree plantations and an extremely poor population [10]. To identify the interactions
between plantation forests and rural livelihoods, we took the central region of Hainan Island as a case
study area and conducted a household survey to determine: (i) the common livelihood strategies in
tropical mountainous areas and the role of plantations for rural households; (ii) the potential paths to
leverage the limited land resource to alleviate poverty in mountainous areas and (iii) the potential
environmental outcomes for each livelihood strategy.

2. Conceptual Framework
In line with previous studies [29], we used a livelihood approach as an organizing framework to
better understand the relationships between rural household livelihood and tree plantation dependence
in mountainous areas (Figure 1). Chambers and Conway [30] proposed a popular definition of
livelihoods as “the capability, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities
required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from
stresses and choices, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, while not undermining the natural
resource base”. Subsequent studies identified five main categories of capital (natural, physical, human,
financial and social), which are useful in understanding rural livelihoods [29].
Forests 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 24

Forests (such11,as248
goals 2020, 3 of 16
income and environment) [31–33] and also affect livelihood in other ways (such as land
allocation/inheritance, payment for ecosystem services (PES)) and other constraints (such as
household size and labor, geographical location or infrastructure access) [18,34,35]. Different
The framework in Figure 1 highlights the role of tree plantations, an important form of natural
livelihood strategies will result in positive or negative livelihood outcomes.
capital [31], interacting with other forms to shape household livelihoods. The land area, tree diversity
Figure 1 also highlights the vulnerability of rural households in mountainous regions with tree
and management (such as management intensity) of tree plantations will directly affect livelihood
plantations. Land ownership of tree plantations, market fluctuations in plantation products, labor
goals (such as income and environment) [31–33] and also affect livelihood in other ways (such as land
dependency and off-farm jobs will directly influence the amounts of different kinds of livelihood
allocation/inheritance, payment for ecosystem services (PES)) and other constraints (such as household
assets and also affect livelihood strategies and outcomes [18,36].
size and labor, geographical location or infrastructure access) [18,34,35]. Different livelihood strategies
In mountainous regions, tree plantations play a key role in supporting rural household
will result in positive or negative livelihood outcomes.
livelihood. However, their management significantly influences livelihood (such as income and
Figure 1 also highlights the vulnerability of rural households in mountainous regions with tree
environmental externalities). The framework (Figure 1) helps us to understand (i) common livelihood
plantations.
strategies, (ii)Land
the ownership of tree plantations,
role of plantations market fluctuations
for rural households, in plantation
(iii) potential products,
institutions labor
to alleviate
dependency and off-farm jobs will directly influence the amounts of different kinds of livelihood
poverty by leveraging the limited land resource and (iv) the potential environmental outcomes for assets
and
eachalso affect livelihood
livelihood strategy instrategies and outcomesareas.
tropical mountainous [18,36].

Vulnerability Livelihood assets Transforming Livelihood

context structures & processes outcomes
• Shocks H • Household size and • More income
• Trends labor • Reduced
• Seasonality S N Tree plantations • Geographical vulnerability
Influence location or Livelihood • More
Specific to this paper • Land size & access infrastructure strategies sustainable use
• Land ownership P F access of natural
• Tree diversity • Land allocation resource base
• Market fluctuation Livelihood goals • Management /inheritance • Increased
• Labor dependency Income and • Payment for well-being
environment ecosystem services • Negative
• Off-farm jobs
• Gender roles externalities

Figure 1.
Figure 1. AA livelihood
livelihood framework
framework withwith tree plantations. Source:
tree plantations. Source:adapted
adaptedfrom
fromDepartment
Departmentofof
International Development (DFID) [37]. Note: H = Human Capital; N = Natural Capital;FF= =Financial
International Development (DFID) [37]. Note: H = Human Capital; N = Natural Capital; Financial
Capital; P
Capital; P= = Physical
Physical Capital;
Capital;SS==Social
SocialCapital.
Capital.

3. Materials and Methods

In mountainous regions, tree plantations play a key role in supporting rural household livelihood.
However, their management significantly influences livelihood (such as income and environmental
3.1. Study AreaThe framework (Figure 1) helps us to understand (i) common livelihood strategies, (ii)
externalities).
the role
Theofstudy
plantations
area is for
therural households,
central (iii) potential
region of Hainan Islandinstitutions to alleviate
(18°10′–20°10′ poverty by E),
N, 108°37′–110°03′ leveraging
which
the limited land resource
is predominantly and (iv)(Figure
mountainous the potential
2). Theenvironmental outcomes
area covers 9200 km2 andforaccounts
each livelihood strategy
for 27.1% of thein
tropical
land area mountainous areas. including 41 towns. It is in the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot [38,39]
of Hainan Island,
and plays a critical role in safeguarding ecological security [40,41], especially in biodiversity
3. Materials and
conservation, Methods
water provision and soil conservation. To date, nine nature reserves have been
established in the region. In total, 90% of the low-income people on Hainan live in in the central
3.1. Study Area
mountainous region [42].
The study area is the central region of Hainan Island (18◦ 100 –20◦ 100 N, 108◦ 370 –110◦ 030 E), which
is predominantly mountainous (Figure 2). The area covers 9200 km2 and accounts for 27.1% of the land
area of Hainan Island, including 41 towns. It is in the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot [38,39] and
plays a critical role in safeguarding ecological security [40,41], especially in biodiversity conservation,
water provision and soil conservation. To date, nine nature reserves have been established in the region.
In total, 90% of the low-income people on Hainan live in in the central mountainous region [42].
As in several other tropical areas in China, plantation cultivation is one of the main livelihood
activities for local households [17]. In the central mountainous region of Hainan Island, plantations
are mainly monocultural tree plantations [10]. The most common trees cultivated are rubber
(Hevea braziliensis) and betel nut palm (Areca cathecuI) [42]. There is also some intercropping of
rubber plantations with economic crops (such as Chinese medicine Alpinia oxyphylla) [10]. The rapid
urbanization and development of ecotourism mean that local off-farm and non-farm activities provide
emerging opportunities for rural communities [43]. Subsistence agriculture is predominant in the
region and only a small proportion of agricultural products and livestock are traded on the market.
Forests 2020, 11, 248 4 of 16
Forests 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 24

Figure 2. 2.The
Figure Thecentral
centralmountainous regionofofHainan
mountainous region Hainan Island.
Island.

The As
study area has
in several suffered
other from
tropical dramatic
areas destruction
in China, plantationofcultivation
natural forests
is oneover themain
of the last decade
livelihood[44,45].
activities
However, for local poverty
long-term households [17].main
is the In thesocioeconomic
central mountainous region
issue in of Hainan
the area, mainlyIsland, plantations
because of limited
landare mainly monocultural
resources tree plantations
[46]. Environmental issues and[10].poverty
The most common are
reduction treestherefore
cultivated are rubber
major concerns(Hevea
for the
braziliensis) and betel nut palm (Areca cathecuI) [42]. There is also some intercropping
government, and alternative strategies are urgently sought to reconcile the conflicts. To coordinate of rubber
plantations with economic crops (such as Chinese medicine Alpinia oxyphylla) [10]. The rapid
the relationship between ecological conservation and economic development, some payments for
urbanization and development of ecotourism mean that local off-farm and non-farm activities
ecosystem services programs have been provided in the study region, to align individual economic
provide emerging opportunities for rural communities [43]. Subsistence agriculture is predominant
incentives with protection and restoration of natural capital [47]. These include the Sloping Land
in the region and only a small proportion of agricultural products and livestock are traded on the
Conversion
market. Program. Under this program, the central government provides payments to local farmers
to convertThesloping
study farmland to forest,
area has suffered to restore
from dramaticimportant
destructionregulating
of naturalservices (such
forests over theaslast
soildecade
retention)
and [44,45].
improve rural household income [47]. However, its long-term effects on household
However, long-term poverty is the main socioeconomic issue in the area, mainly because of livelihood
remain controversial
limited because
land resources of the limited issues
[46]. Environmental compensation
and povertyavailable
reduction[47].
are therefore major concerns
for the government, and alternative strategies are urgently sought to reconcile the conflicts. To
3.2. Data Collection
coordinate the relationship between ecological conservation and economic development, some
payments for ecosystem services programs have been provided in the study region, to align
3.2.1.individual
Sample Selection
economic incentives with protection and restoration of natural capital [47]. These include
the Sloping Land
Households wereConversion
sampled inProgram. Under
the central this program,
mountainous theofcentral
region Hainan government provides
Island in 2014. Several
payments to local farmers to convert sloping farmland to forest, to restore important regulating
hierarchical administrative divisions were involved, including counties, townships and villages. Each
services (such as soil retention) and improve rural household income [47]. However, its long-term
administrative level was considered to have the homogenous characteristic, and we used multistage
effects on household livelihood remain controversial because of the limited compensation available
sampling
[47]. to minimize the unobserved factors within each level and maintain the homogeneity between
levels [48–50]. In the first stage, we chose the seven counties fully or partly located in the central
mountainous region. In the second stage, we used the census list of townships within each county,
3.2. Data Collection
combined with the number of townships in each county within the central mountainous region. We
3.2.1. Sample
randomly chose atSelection
least two townships that were fully or partly in the mountainous region. In the third
stage, weHouseholds
used the same
werelogic to randomly
sampled choose
in the central at least two
mountainous villages
region within
of Hainan eachinchosen
Island township.
2014. Several
hierarchical
Finally, we usedadministrative divisions were
the lists of households frominvolved, including and
local authorities counties, townships
randomly choseand villages.sample
a survey Each of
moreadministrative level was considered
than 20% of households to have [51,52],
in each village the homogenous
giving a characteristic,
total of 1094 and we used multistage
households.
sampling to minimize the unobserved factors within each level and maintain the homogeneity
3.2.2.between
Household
levelsSurvey
[48–50]. In the first stage, we chose the seven counties fully or partly located in the
central mountainous region. In the second stage, we used the census list of townships within each
We carried out in-depth interviews with household members from June to August 2014, using
county, combined with the number of townships in each county within the central mountainous
semi-structured questionnaires.
region. We randomly Thetwo
chose at least head of the household
townships (the
that were fully or householder) or a family
partly in the mountainous member
region.
over In
18the
years
third stage, we used the same logic to randomly choose at least two villages within each chosenfrom
old was asked to complete a questionnaire. The questionnaire mainly used content
Li et al. [49], and focused on household-level quantitative data, including (i) demographic characteristics
(such as family size, gender, age, education level and occupation) and basic living condition (such as
type of housing and access to transport); (ii) forms of capital available to the household and (iii) main
Forests 2020, 11, 248 5 of 16

income-generating activities (such as agricultural and forestry production, rural–urban cyclic migration
and local off-farm enterprise) and corresponding net income. For all income variables, the reference
period in the questionnaire was one year (that is, the past 12 months); (iv) main expenses on agriculture
(such as seeds, chemical fertilizer and pesticides) and energy consumption.
Before the field survey, we organized training for the investigators from Hainan University, so
that they could fully understand the purpose and content of the household livelihood survey. We also
discussed questions that might arise during the survey period. Four subgroups, each with six to eight
investigators, each conducted field interviews along different routes. We used Mandarin during the
interview. In rare cases, where older householders could not speak fluent Mandarin, other villagers
acted as interpreters. During the fieldwork, 1094 questionnaires were collected. After excluding any
with missing or extreme values, we had 877 completed and valid questionnaires for analysis.

3.3. Data Analysis

Quantitative data from the interview results were processed and analyzed using Stata 13. The
livelihood strategies were classified by income shares, then the household-owned capitals of different
livelihood strategies were compared. The main factors influencing net income derived from plantation
cultivation were identified using multiple regression analysis. An estimated model was used to test the
effect of land reallocation on poverty alleviation, based on family size. Poverty has multiple dimensions
(such as income, housing, health condition, provision of public goods and education) [53,54], but this
study only focused on income poverty, which is closely related to plantations and other dimensions of
poverty. Finally, the livelihood outcomes of different livelihood strategies were compared.

3.3.1. Income Composition

Household incomes were stated as annual net income derived from the gross income minus all
input costs including labor and other materials [55]. The main income sources were:

1. Plantation income: earnings from forestry land and intercropping within plantations, such as
Alpinia oxyphylla.
2. Crop income: both subsistence and commercial crops cultivated in cropland. Rice, corn, potato,
bean and peanut were the main subsistence crops and the main commercial crops were wax
gourd, long bean, cowpea, luffa and watermelon [56].
3. Livestock income: earnings from sale of small ruminants, such as pigs, cows and poultry.
4. Local off-farm income: earnings from local self-employment or short-term employment. This did
not include income from the household’s own agriculture or forestry production and processing.
5. Remittances: earnings transferred to the original home by household members with a permanent
or temporary job out of the town.
6. Subsidy: financial support from government, such as agricultural subsidies or poverty subsidies.
7. Payment for ecosystem services (PES): ecological compensation to households involved in
protection and restoration of natural capital.

The poverty line in our study was set using the national standard of 2800 CNY (about 457 US$)
per person per year in 2014 [57], to fit the year of our survey.

3.3.2. Classification of Livelihood Strategies

We used principal component analysis to classify livelihood strategies by household income
shares [58,59]. Income shares from seven main income sources were used for factor analysis. Factors
with an eigenvalue greater than 1 were retained, giving five factors that explained 63% of the variance.
Second, we put the factors from the principal component analysis into a hierarchical cluster analysis
(k-means cluster). We used the Calinski–Harabasz criterion and the Duda–Hart index to determine the
most appropriate number of livelihood clusters [52]. We used one-way ANOVA, the Kruskal–Wallis
test and chi-squared test to examine the significance of income differences among clusters.
Forests 2020, 11, 248 6 of 16

3.3.3. Relationships between Plantation Income and Forms of Capital

Tree plantations were the main form of natural capital for local rural households, so we tried to
identify the strategies that might raise plantation returns. We used linear ordinary least squares (OLS)
regression to identify the main factors that could influence plantation income. The independent variables
for the regression model were based on the five capitals and geographic location in the Sustainable
Livelihood Framework [47,55]. Natural capital was represented by the area of plantation land and
cropland and we included dummy variables for whether the household diversified its plantation species
and adopted intercropping within the plantation. We considered that land size and management options
might be suggestive of productivity and wealth in rural areas [52,58,60]. Ecological policies could affect
household behavior, and this was represented by ecological compensation funds [59]. Human capital
was represented by household size, average age and average education level of those available to work
within the household [61]. Geographical location was also critical in shaping household income profile
because it represents the opportunities for economic trade and environmental status [58]. We used the
distance to the road and town and altitude, to represent location.
The definition of each indicator is listed in the Table A1, and the regression equation was:

yi = β0 + β1 ·x1i + β2 ·x2i + β3 ·x3i + β4 ·x4i + β5 ·x5i + β6 ·x6i + β7 ·x7i + β8 ·x8i + β9 ·x9i + β10 ·x10i + β11 ·x11i + εi , (1)

where, yi is the log of (plantation income + 1) of household i, β shows vectors of parameters to be

estimated, x1i is plantation area of household i, x2i is a diversified plantation system dummy (1 if the
household uses a diversified plantation system), x3i is an intercrop system dummy (1 if the household
uses an intercrop plantation system), x4i is cropland area of household i, x5i is PES funds of household
i, x6i is family size of household i, x7i is average age and x8i average education level of the household
labor in household i, x9i is distance to road for household i, x10i is distance to town from the village in
which household i is located and x11i is the altitude of the village in which household i is located.
The variance inflation factor (VIF) test was used to detect potential multicollinearity between
variables. If VIF exceeded 4, we considered that further investigations were needed.

3.3.4. Relationships between Household Plantation Area and Poverty

We found that there was considerable variation in plantation area per household, because of the
implementation of the Forestry Production Responsibility System in 1981 [62]. This allocated forest
areas to households by family size [63] and then kept forestry land tenure stable for 30–70 years [64],
even though the population per household has dramatically changed since 1981. To identify the
relationships between plantation area and household income, households that derived the majority of
their income from plantations (the Plantation group) were selected for further investigation. Income
quintiles were determined within each town by ranking households by total income and then dividing
them into five groups from the lowest income (Quintile 1) to the highest (Quintile 5). One-way ANOVA
was used to examine the significance of family size, plantation area per household, plantation area per
capita, plantation income per capita and total income per capita among the clusters.
To further examine the potential effects of plantation land allocation on household income or
poverty alleviation, we created a transition matrix to show the changes in the percentage of households
living above or below the poverty line. To do so, we summed the plantation area and family size for all
households (N = 552) in the Plantation group. We then obtained the average land area per capita by
dividing the total plantation area by the total number of people in households in this group. Finally,
we estimated the new plantation income of each household by multiplying the average land area by
the average net return of the unit area of the plantations. This enabled us to identify the potential
impact of the land allocation system on household income and poverty alleviation.

3.3.5. Main Livelihood Outcomes of Different Livelihood Strategies

We used income level and potential environmental impact as livelihood outcomes, because these
are extremely important in the study area [10]. For income level, we used total income per capita for
Forests 2020, 11, 248 7 of 16

each household. Potential environmental impact was assessed using two measures, land investment
(that is, cost of fertilizer and pesticide use on plantations) and energy consumption, including firewood,
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and electricity. We used one-way ANOVA and the Kruskal–Wallis test
to examine the significance of differences between clusters.

4. Results

4.1. Classification of Rural Household Livelihood Strategies

In the central mountainous region of Hainan Island, 55% of the study respondents lived below the
poverty line (about 457 US$ per person per year). Plantation cultivation was the main income source
for rural households, accounting for 46% of total income, followed by crops (15%) and livestock (14%).
Household livelihood strategies were therefore further classified into four groups: (i) Plantation, (ii)
Livestock/plantation, (iii) PES/outmigration and (iv) Local off-farm (Table 1).

Table 1. Classification of rural household livelihood strategies.

Plantation Livestock/Plantation PES/Outmigration Local Off-Farm

Total
Variables (Cluster1) (Cluster2) (Cluster3) (Cluster4)
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Income share
Plantation income (%) 652,3,4 25 361,3,4 26 21,2 7 51.2 13 46 35
Crop income (%) 213,4 25 113,4 16 41,2 9 41,2 10 15 23
Livestock income (%) 42 7 451,3,4 23 42 6 22 6 9 17
Local off-farm income (%) 24 7 24 8 64 13 611,2,3 39 14 30
Remittance (%) 03 3 33 9 351,2,4 38 23 6 3 13
Subsidy (%) 14 5 24 8 24 7 241,2,3 38 6 20
Payment for ecosystem services (%) 63 9 13 3 491,2,4 45 33 9 7 17
Income level
Total income (Yuan) 15549b 17731 18657ab 26473 6911c 10696 50498a 257866 22372 117019
Below poverty line (%) 493,4 50 573 50 841,2.4 37 651,3 48 55 50
Household number (%) 63 11 6 20 100
Note: Superscript letters show that the cluster is significantly different from other clusters at the 5% level using
one-way ANOVA. The superscript numbers show the difference between two clusters at the 5% level using the
Kruskal–Wallis test.

Overall, 65% of total income for plantation households (63% of all households) came from
plantation cultivation. These households had approximately an average income compared to all
households. The Livestock/plantation group (11% of all households) had a slightly higher total income
than the Plantation group, but their income came from more sources, including livestock, plantation and
crops. Households in the PES/outmigration group (6% of all households) mainly lived on remittances
from out-migrants and payment from ecological programs. These households had the lowest total
income and the highest ratio of households below the poverty line. The fourth household group, the
Local off-farm group, largely depended on local off-farm activities. These households had the highest
income on average but significantly lower diversity in income sources and the second highest ratio of
households below the poverty line, indicating that the high return of off-farm activities only benefits a
very small proportion of the group (Table 1).

4.2. Descriptive Statistics of Livelihood Capital by Rural Household Livelihood Strategies

Households in the Plantation group owned the largest area of plantation and had the smallest
family size. They also had more financial capital from saving and PES funds and lived further away from
towns and at higher altitudes. Households in the Livestock/plantation group showed many similarities
with the Plantation group in terms of land area and location, but they had the lowest income from
ecological funds and the most diverse income sources and plantation systems. The PES/outmigration
group had the smallest area of land and household labor, weak social bonds and poorer access to
roads. However, they had the highest PES. Households in the Local off-farm group had the smallest
plantation area, but they had larger families and more social capital. Unlike the plantation-related
Forests 2020, 11, 248 8 of 16

groups, households with better accessibility to towns had the lowest diversity of income sources and
plantation systems because they tended to specialize their income-generating activities (Table 2).

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of household capital by different livelihood strategies.

Plantation Livestock/Plantation PES/Outmigration Local Off-Farm
Total
Variables (Cluster1) (Cluster2) (Cluster3) (Cluster4)
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Natural Capital
Plantation area (mu) 23a 20 23a 20 11b 11 7b 13 19 20
Cropland area (mu) 4 7 5 9 3 7 3 6 4 7
Human Capital
Household size (capita) 4.2b 1.3 4.2ab 1.2 4.5ab 1.7 4.5a 1.5 4.3 1.3
Household labor at home (capita) 3.1a 1.2 2.9ab 1.2 2.4b 1.4 2.9ab 1.4 3.0 1.3
Average age of household labor (Year) 36 7 35 6 38 9 37 6 36 7
Average education level of household labor (Year) 8.6 2.5 8.2 2.2 8.0 2.3 8.4 2.9 8.5 2.5
Physical Capital
House value (104 Yuan) 10 11 11 13 8 6 14 20 11 14
Quantity of Appliance 1.5bc 0.8 1.9a 1.0 1.3c 0.7 1.7ab 1.1 1.6 0.9
Quantity of Transport tools 1.5 0.8 1.5 0.9 1.6 0.8 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.0
Social Capital
Phone call costs (Yuan/year) 136a 119 127ab 115 80b 82 132a 132 131 120
Social relation (0/1) 0.22 0.4 0.31 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.4
Expense of cash gifts (Yuan/year) 1618b 2525 944b 1594 1492b 3270 2829a 5674 1776 3409
Financial Capital
Saving (0/1) 0.74 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.51 0.5 0.6 0.5
Loan (Yuan) 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3
PES funds (Yuan/year) 936a 1511 137b 536 826a 1040 131b 332 679 1299
Geographical location
Distance to road (m) 125a 36 180a 30 184a 27 60b 20 124 38
Distance to town (km) 7.5a 5.7 5.4b 4.2 3.9b 3.1 4.1b 3.9 6.4 5.3
Altitude (m) 235b 96 289a 132 212b 96 161c 120 225 112
Diversity index
Income diversity index 0.6b 0.4 0.8a 0.3 0.4c 0.4 0.4c 0.4 0.6 0.4
Diversified plantation system (0/1) 0.52,3,4 0.5 0.71,3,4 0.5 0.31,2 0.4 0.21,2 0.4 0.4 0.5

Note: Superscript letters show the cluster is significantly different from other clusters at the 5% level by one-way
ANOVA or Kruskal–Wallis test. Superscript numbers show the differences between two clusters at the 5% level,
using chi-squared tests. 1 mu = 1/15 hectare.

4.3. Relationships between Plantation Income and Forms of Capital

Plantation land area and plantation management options (that is, a range of different trees and
intercropping) were significantly related to higher plantation income for all the study households. Land
area had no significant relationship with plantation income for the livestock/plantation group and the
local off-farm group, but growing a range of tree species was significantly associated with plantation
income, indicating the potential to obtain higher income by adding more value to plots (Table 3).

Table 3. Regression relationships between plantation income and forms of capital for different livelihood strategies.
Log of Plantation Income per Household
Variables Plantation Livestock/Plantation PES/Outmigration Local Off-Farm Total Sample
Coef. p>t Coef. p>t Coef. p>t Coef. p>t Coef. p>t
Natural capital
Plantation area (mu) 0.0306 0.000 0.0039 0.859 0.0813 0.042 −0.0027 0.897 0.0473 0.000
Diversified plantation system (0/1) 0.6899 0.000 4.5180 0.000 −0.5494 0.567 3.0124 0.000 1.8377 0.000
Intercropped with commercial crops (0/1) 0.5715 0.230 −0.2819 0.865 7.3648 0.003 2.1871 0.002
Cropland area (mu) −0.0131 0.309 0.0655 0.080 −0.0836 0.110 0.0142 0.695 −0.0023 0.889
Ecological policies
PES funds (Yuan/year) 0.0004 0.000 −0.0010 0.043 −0.0002 0.527 0.0008 0.262 0.0007 0.000
Human capital
Household size (capita) −0.0773 0.236 0.3417 0.148 −0.1244 0.535 0.3534 0.021 −0.0430 0.592
Average age of household labor (Year) −0.0068 0.551 −0.0252 0.588 −0.0124 0.750 0.0401 0.277 −0.0129 0.404
Average education level of household labor (Year) 0.0475 0.178 0.1036 0.487 0.1284 0.371 0.0690 0.457 0.1472 0.001
Geographical location
Distance to road (m) 0.1343 0.052 −0.0675 0.788 0.0770 0.790 −0.0388 0.866 0.1449 0.114
Distance to town (km) 0.0752 0.000 0.2565 0.002 −0.0141 0.906 −0.0227 0.697 0.1793 0.000
Altitude (m) 0.0053 0.000 0.0036 0.261 0.0003 0.922 0.0058 0.014 0.0081 0.000
Constant 4.9233 0.000 −0.5453 0.859 −0.0561 0.982 −3.7026 0.097 0.1540 0.878
N 552 99 51 175 877
F-value 24.59*** 11.28*** 2.34** 6.11*** 59.24***
Adj R2 0.32 0.54 0.23 0.23

Note: variance inflation factor (VIF) = 1.30. ***, clusters that are significantly different at the 1% level from one-way
ANOVA, **, clusters that are significantly different at the 5% level from one-way ANOVA.
Forests 2020, 11, 248 9 of 16

The PES program had significantly positive effects on plantation income for the whole sample and
the Plantation group. Family size was positively related to plantation income for the Local off-farm
group. The average age and education level of labor had no significant impact on the plantation income
in any group. However, in the total sample, average education level of household labor was significantly
related to plantation income. Geographic location also showed a positive relationship with plantation
income (Table 3).

4.4. Impacts of Plantation Land Reallocation on Poverty Alleviation

There were no significant differences in family size across different income groups. However,
the best-off quintile owned significantly more land than the poorest quintile (Table 4). The original
land distribution was allocated to households in an egalitarian way based on household numbers [55],
but changes in family size over time have led to the current unequal land distribution per person.
There was no significant correlation between household plantation area and family size in this study
(Pearson’s correlation coefficient = −0.0415, p > 0.05).

Table 4. Land and income characteristics by household income classes within the Plantation group.

Quintile1 Quintile2 Quintile3 Quintile4 Quintile5 Total

Variables
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Household size (capita) 4.0 1.0 4.3 1.5 4.2 1.4 4.2 1.1 4.2 1.3 4.2 1.3
Plantation area per household (mu) 14.2c 10.2 17.3c 13.0 21.5bc 17.3 27.7ab 24.2 33.4a 26.3 22.8 20.3
Plantation area per capita (mu/capita) 4.4c 3.9 4.8bc 4.3 6.4bc 9.2 6.8ab 6.3 8.6a 8.0 6.2 6.8
Plantation income per capita (Yuan/capita) 981c 1223 1544bc 1476 2303b 2231 3099a 3046 6097a 8142 2750 4318
Total income per capita (Yuan/capita) 1600a 1725 2530b 2040 3551b 3106 4871ab 3952 9068a 11537 4247 6083
Note: Superscript letters show clusters that are significantly different at the 5% level from one-way ANOVA.

To examine whether plantation land reallocation based on current family size could reduce overall
poverty, we estimated changes in plantation income after land reallocation based on current family
size for households in the Plantation group. We found that if the plantation land was reallocated based
on current family size, the proportion of households below the poverty line decreased from 48.7% to
14.7%. Only 3.3% of households would be worse off. The proportion of households above the poverty
line would increase from 51.3% to 85.3% (Table 5).

Table 5. Poverty changes resulting from reallocation of plantation land to reflect family size within the
Plantation group.

After Land Reallocation

Below Poverty Line (%) Above Poverty Line (%) Total (%)
Below poverty line (%) 11.4 37.3 48.7
Before land
Above poverty line (%) 3.3 48.0 51.3
reallocation
Total (%) 14.7 85.3 100

4.5. Main Livelihood Consequences by Livelihood Strategies

The Livestock/plantation group and the Local off-farm group generated the highest income per
capita on average and the PES/outmigration group had the lowest income per capita.
Plantation-based groups had higher costs of fertilizer use. However, the Livestock/plantation
group spent less on pesticides than the Plantation and PES/outmigration groups. The PES/outmigration
group owned less plantation land than the Plantation group, but spent a similar amount on chemicals.
Local off-farm households consumed significantly higher amounts of modern energy and the
plantation-related groups used significantly more wood for fuel. The Plantation group had the highest
return and highest investment in plantation cultivation. The Livestock/plantation group showed
limited investment in chemical inputs but had a higher economic return. The Local off-farm group had
low levels of input but medium return and the PES/outmigration group invested most, but gained
little (Table 6).
Forests 2020, 11, 248 10 of 16

Table 6. Main livelihood outcomes of different livelihood strategies.

Plantation Livestock/Plantation PES/Outmigration Local Off-Farm Total
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Economic income
Total income per capita (Yuan/year) 4104b 4800 5045ab 10730 1705c 2790 13911a 72509 6027 32986
Chemical inputs
Expense of fertilizer per household (Yuan/year) 764a 617 706a 422 891a 1015 594b 699 743 648
Expense of pesticide per household (Yuan/year) 485a 358 278b 188 573a 448 284b 223 450 349
Energy consumption
Firewood consumption per household (kg/year) 4015a 6757 3830a 3664 3410b 4208 2754c 7839 3695 6603
LPG consumption per household (Yuan/year) 387b 654 383b 593 209c 401 676a 1192 436 790
Electricity consumption per household (Yuan/year) 709b 655 846ab 514 832ab 1144 932a 828 776 720

Note: Superscript letters show clusters that are significantly different at the 5% level using one-way ANOVA or
Kruskal–Wallis test.

5. Discussion

5.1. Rural Household Livelihoods and Plantations

We found that plantation income was critical for rural livelihoods in the Hainan mountainous
area. Plantations contributed more than 46% of total income and substantially supported the largest
plantation-based groups (that is, the Plantation and Livestock/plantation groups; Table 1). They
also positively interacted with other income-generating activities to generate a livelihood from
more diverse combinations (such as Livestock/plantation and PES/outmigration). For example, the
Livestock/plantation group had a similar level of assets to the Plantation group, but generated marginally
higher total income and had a more evenly distributed income profile. The wide opportunities from
plantation cultivation coupled with other livelihood activities could be a compelling reason to develop
a multi-objective livelihood portfolio [65,66]. This is in line with the goal of sustainable livelihood [29].
The two plantation-related groups were associated with an average level of income per capita but
the lowest ratio below the poverty line, showing promising potential for poverty alleviation and
reduction of income inequality. This result is consistent with the findings of Abtew, Pretzsch, Secco and
Mohamod [16] who showed that gum and resin income was pro-poor and contributed to narrowing
the income disparities in rural communities, especially in areas where plantation markets were not
well developed and the profit from plantation production was much lower. The PES/outmigration
group was the worst-off. However, enhancing social bonds, for example, by providing more social
support and external connections with employment opportunities, could help them out of poverty.
Increased income from plantation could also create more opportunities to access institutions, services,
community cohesion, social connections and exchange of knowledge and improve the overall social
capital. However, possible shocks (such as tree diseases and insect pests from plantation expansion,
climate variability and market price of agricultural products; Figure 1) may accelerate poverty in
the study area, especially with natural forest destruction. Poverty alleviation will require careful
consideration of coping with the risks from these shocks.
In areas with limited land resources or with a close relationship between people and land,
maximizing the economic return per unit area is essential to increase income. In Hainan, we identified two
compelling alternatives (that is, more diverse plantation species and intercropping) to increase plantation
land value without expanding current land area (Table 3). Planting areca or other tropical fruit trees, like
mango or litchi, provided a significantly better economic return than rubber monocultures. A similar
finding was reported in Indonesia, where mixed plantations including sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria)
were found to be more profitable and to provide more routine income to communities than pure
sengon [67]. Another attractive approach is planting shading species within a plantation to develop
an intercropping system. This creates a diverse and lush understory [68] and has been called “alley
cropping” [69]. We found a significant positive relationship between intercropping and plantation
income (Table 3). There is a growing interest in comparing the performance of mixed and monocultures,
both economically and operationally [7,70]. Our results provide empirical evidence that agroforestry
might be a promising opportunity to increase income in mountainous areas.
Forests 2020, 11, 248 11 of 16

5.2. Plantation Land Allocation Policy and Rural Household Livelihood

Cropland is the dominant form of natural capital for those living in rural areas [71]. We found that
plantation land area was significantly related to livelihood strategy and plantation income. The land
management costs (that is, fertilizer, labor and machine rental) may be higher for smaller or scattered
areas of land than for large tracts of land [72]. This means farmers can become trapped in poverty.
A longitudinal analysis of land-holding among forest peasant households in an Amazonian village
described a new mechanism of “land-size” poverty traps [3]. The study found that the initial condition
of land-holding induced low agricultural productivity, which limited future prospects for peasant
farmers [3]. These findings show that having small areas of land is an impediment to the alleviation of
poverty for rural households. Even worse, allied with a shortage of labor and accessibility to towns,
households in the PES/outmigration group invested more in chemical inputs (that is, fertilizer and
pesticides) to maintain plantation production. This finding is consistent with a recent report in China
that a 1% increase in farm size was associated with a 0.3% and 0.5% decrease in fertilizer and pesticide
use per hectare (p < 0.001) [72]. Insufficient land can therefore trap poor households into a vicious cycle
with meager net return and many off-site consequences. However, there may be effects of endogeneity
between plantation area and income, for example, high income households might invest more, or
rent more forestry land, to enlarge production [73]. More research is therefore needed in the future to
clarify causality in this relationship.
Household plantation area was not significantly related to family size (Pearson’s correlation
coefficient = −0.0415, p > 0.05), indicating that the land allocation did not match the household size
in the study sample. The highest income quintile owned significantly more land per capita than the
poorest quintile (p < 0.05), which was also found by Hogarth, Belcher, Campbell and Stacey [55] in some
rural villages in southern China. We did not have panel data to determine the causality of unequal
land allocation, but one possible reason is forestry policy. Land was allocated to households under the
Forestry Production Responsibility System in 1981 [62], but there have been no further reallocations
of land to account for household demographic changes and maintain stable per capita landholdings.
The policy aimed to guarantee land ownership, so that farmers had more incentive to invest in land
improvements and secure loans [63]. However, it may have aggravated poverty for those living in
remote mountain areas with a growing population but confined land resources. We estimated that if
the plantation land was reallocated by family size for the Plantation group, 206 households would
rise above the poverty line, at the expense of 18 households falling into poverty (Table 5). Our simple
estimation shows the potential improvements in overall welfare that could result from equalizing land
endowment per capita among households, especially for those who are still strongly dependent on
land. Our estimation was simple and had a number of limitations, but still contributes to the literature
on land consolidation as a way to alleviate poverty [12]. Land allocation/tenure is complex and very
different in different places and contexts (such as collective or private ownership). Our results are
probably more applicable in the context of collective ownership of land. For example, plantation land
reallocation could be implemented at the production team or village scales in China, which are the
usual adjustment units for land resources. Another way to consolidate land would cooperate with
schemes to encourage diverse forms of land consolidation or intensification, which may increase land
use efficiency and environmental protection [74].

5.3. Livelihood Outcomes of Plantation-Based Households

Plantation-based households are characterized by low income levels and potentially higher
negative environmental outcomes, because of their high investment in chemical inputs, especially for
the PES/outmigration group (Table 6). This finding is consistent with a survey study in North China,
which found that households participating in an ecological conservation program had significant higher
expenditure on agricultural fertilizers [50]. These results, however, differed from another study, which
found that middle-income classes were responsible for negative environmental impacts [58]. In contrast,
our study showed that the worst-off group (that is, ‘PES/outmigration’), which had inadequate access to
Forests 2020, 11, 248 12 of 16

land, labor, social connections and roads, tended to apply more chemicals to offset the shortage of land
resource, labor and social capital. Lu and Xie [75] also found that household labor had a significant
negative relationship with excessive nitrogen. The worst-off group is therefore likely to pose a higher
risk to environmental quality (Tables 2 and 6). Faße and Grote [51] found that the poorest households
generated higher incomes if they extracted firewood unsustainably. Poverty alleviation initiatives
targeted at the poorest households with livelihood strategies limited by inferior assets and dependency
on transfer income might therefore have a positive effect on environmental protection. Increasing
natural capital (such as plantations) through plantation land allocation or providing more regulating
services for the external stakeholders may increase household income and decrease the application
of chemicals.
One further implication of our study was that plantation-based households were less likely to use
modern fuels or energy and instead used more firewood, often from surrounding natural woodland.
Wood is the most important energy source for rural households in China [76]. Encroachment on forests
for firewood is not as obvious as clear-cutting for timber, but it has a range of negative consequences
including the loss of biodiversity and deterioration of the ecosystem [77]. The introduction of modern
energy sources for households with a high dependence on plantations might therefore be an alternative
strategy to improve conservation effectiveness. The measures used to represent environmental impact
in this study are simple and do not reflect the complexity of the true impact of human behavior on the
environment. The actual negative effects could include non-point source pollution from agricultural
production and animal rearing, over-exploitation of natural resources, soil degradation and erosion,
biodiversity loss because of hunting and human disturbances and micro-climate [18,31,78,79]. Long-term
studies, off-site surveys and experimental study designs may all be useful in exploring this issue further.

6. Conclusions
Plantations strongly supported rural household livelihoods in the central mountainous region of
Hainan Island, where a strict conservation policy has been initiated. However, poverty alleviation
is still a great challenge in the area. Potential ways to increase income, alleviate poverty and reduce
environmental pollution include land allocation policies, making land allocation more equitable,
diversifying the range of tree species in plantations and intercropping. Our results therefore provide
practical approaches to alleviate poverty and improve rural household livelihoods in other tropical
mountainous regions.

Author Contributions: H.Z., C.Z. and C.L. planned and designed the survey. R.L. and H.Z. developed the
original concept for the paper. R.L. analyzed the data and wrote the drafts of the manuscripts, and H.Z. edited all
subsequent drafts of the manuscripts. B.K. and L.H.S. helped shape the frame of the drafts and edit the original
draft. S.P. and Y.N., Z.O. reviewed and edited the drafts. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41925005; 41871217)
and the National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2016YFC0503401).
Acknowledgments: Great thanks to the teachers and students at the University of Hainan to help interviews. We
acknowledge the financial supports from China Scholarship Council and constructive comments from the Natural
Capital Project team and others at the Institute on the Environment and the Department of Applied Economics of
the University of Minnesota.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Forests 2020, 11, 248 13 of 16

Appendix A

Table A1. The definition of explanatory variables.

Variables Definition
Natural Capital
Plantation area (mu) Size of household’s own land for planted trees, including rubber, areca, and other fruit trees
Cropland area (mu) Size of household’s own land for agricultural crops
Diversified plantation system (0/1) If the household plant more than one species of trees = 1; otherwise = 0
Intercropped with commercial crops (0/1) If the household plant commercial crops under plantation trees = 1; otherwise = 0
Human Capital
Household size Number of members in household
Household labor at home Number of members with age between 15 and 65 in household and working at home
Average age of household labor Average age of members with age between 15 and 65 in household
Average education level of household labor Average years of education for each member with age between 15 and 65 in household
Physical Capital
House value (104 Yuan) Market value of house estimated by the household head
Quantity of appliance Number of household appliance owned by a household, including television, refrigerator,
and wash machine
Quantity of transport tools Number of transport tools owned by a household, including motor, electric bicycle,
tri-motor, tractor and car
Social Capital
Phone call costs (Yuan/year) Telephone bills per year in each household
Social relation (0/1) At least one of the family members is a cadre = 1; otherwise = 0
Expense on cash gifts (Yuan/year) Total cash gift per year in household
Financial Capital
Saving (0/1) If the household has saving = 1; otherwise = 0
Loan (Yuan) Amount of borrowing money from friends and relatives or bank
PES funds (Yuan/year) PES funds from ecological program, including Sloping Land Conservation Program,
Ecological Public Welfare Forest, etc.
Geographical location
Distance to road (m) Distance from each household to nearest road
Distance to town (km) Distance from each village to its capital town
Altitude (m) Altitude of village based on DEM map
Others
N
P
Income diversity index Income diversity index = − Pi logPi
i=1
Pi = proportion of total income contributed by income source i
N = number of income sources
Plantation area per household (mu) Plantation area owned by each household
Plantation area per capita (mu/capita) Plantation area divided by number of household’s members
Plantation income per capita (Yuan/capita) Plantation income divided by number of household’s members
Total income per capita (Yuan/capita) Total income divided by number of household’s members
Expense of fertilizer per household (Yuan/year) Annual expense of fertilizer in household
Expense of pesticide per household (Yuan/year) Annual expense of pesticide in household
Firewood consumption per household (kg/year) Annual firewood consumption in household
LPG consumption per household (Yuan/year) Annual expense of liquid petroleum gas (LPG) in household
Electricity consumption per household (Yuan/year) Annual expense of electricity in household

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