Issue Brief

March 29, 2024

EU-Thailand FTA Negotiations: IUU Fishing and

Human Rights Remain Obstacles
Mark S. Cogan

Photo credit: Prehistorik / Shutterstock

Thailand’s fishing industry, which at its height saw as many as 200,000 migrant workers from
neighboring Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia caught in a brutal system of abuse, withered global criticism
until eventually, the European Union (EU) issued a “yellow card” to Thailand aiming to crack down
on both systemic abuse and illegally caught fish ending up in European supermarkets. With a semi-
democratic government replacing the military-backed establishment that ruled Thailand for nearly
a decade, negotiations for a mutually desired free trade agreement (FTA) have resumed. However,
as the new Srettha Thavisin government seeks fast economic remedies to a flagging economy, reforms
to its fishing industry may come undone, compromising FTA talks and putting the Kingdom again
under international scrutiny. This issue brief discusses the interrelated issues of illegal, unreported, and
unregulated (IUU) fishing and the human rights of the migrant workers in Thailand’s expansive fishing
and seafood industries in the context of the EU-Thai FTA negotiations.

Introduction leadership, albeit a semi-democratic one, Srettha has

When Thailand’s Pheu Thai Party (PTP) nominated pushed Thailand toward a firm trade reset. In pursuit
real estate mogul Srettha Thavisin as its prime of dialogue with the European Union (EU), the
ministerial candidate, the centerpiece of his foreign third largest investor in Thailand, successful talks are
policy would be the aggressive resumption of bilateral critical to opening new markets for the Kingdom as
and multilateral trade, specifically picking up where it seeks opportunities for emerging Thai industries.
his predecessor, Gen. Prayut Chan-o-cha, failed as The opportunity to resume talks were made possible
a result of the May 22, 2014 military coup.1 The by rather limited democratization in 2019 and the
putsch halted economic partnerships with western upending of Prayut’s near decade of rule after the
European countries, and for a number of years, put May 2023 elections.2
Thailand solidly in league with China. However,
as Thailand now enters a new period of civilian The Thai Prime Minister enjoyed no honeymoon

1 1
period, as he took power only after the Move of factors that give credence to the argument of a
Forward Party (MFP) performed much better than moribund economy, such as Thailand’s historically
Pheu Thai originally anticipated and won the most high levels of household debt, which stands at
Parliamentary seats in the May 2023 elections. PTP roughly 90 percent of GDP5 and high levels of
formed an initial coalition with MFP as the lead, income inequality,6 which the World Bank ranked
but his coalition partner, MFP’s Pita Limjaroenrat as 13th among 65 countries in East Asia and the
was prevented from assuming the role of Prime Pacific.7
Minister after a junta-appointed Senate blocked his
nomination. With Thailand’s 2023 GDP growth Thailand’s trade policy reset with the EU is just a part
slowing to just 1.9 percent on weak exports,3 Srettha’s of Srettha’s sales pitch, as the Kingdom has signed
government argued recently that its economy is in an FTA with Sri Lanka,8 planned agreements with
“crisis4”, in part as a local defense of its populist Arab states through the Gulf Cooperation Council,9
500 billion baht digital wallet scheme ($14.2 billion sought to make Thailand a hub for the production of
USD) that would see stimulus delivered directly into electric vehicles,10 and restart a centuries-old idea of
the hands of Thais over the age of 16. While critics a “land bridge”,11 bypassing the Strait of Malacca and
have blasted the scheme as unnecessary and could potentially shortening the shipping time from the
plunge Thailand deep into debt, there are a number Indian and Pacific Oceans by as much as four days
but at a cost of up to $28 billion. The underlying
motivation behind these proposals is the catalyzation
of foreign investment in Thailand, which fell during
Thailand’s trade policy reset the Prayut era and the COVID-19 pandemic,12
but was concentrated in mainly the United States,
with the EU is just a part Japan, China, and Singapore.13 The health of
of Srettha’s sales pitch, as Thailand’s economy remains a concern for investors
and the development sector, as the World Bank
the Kingdom has signed Thailand Economic Monitor in December noted
an FTA with Sri Lanka, that economic recovery fell well below expectations
with exports and manufacturing falling 3.1 percent
planned agreements with and 4 percent, respectively, in the third quarter of
Arab states through the Gulf 2023 year over year. Plus, tourism arrivals were just
75 percent of pre-pandemic levels as of September
Cooperation Council, sought 2023.
to make Thailand a hub for the
Reopening Negotiations with EU
production of electric vehicles, Shuttered due to the political consequences of
and restart a centuries- the May 2014 military coup d’état that overthrew
the democratically elected government of Prime
old idea of a “land bridge”, Minister Yingluck Shinawatra, the resumption of
bypassing the Strait of Malacca partially free and fair elections in Thailand, both in
2019 and in 2023, have opened the doors for a return
and potentially shortening to the negotiating table for a Free Trade Agreement
the shipping time from the (FTA) with the EU. Both parties agreed to resume
talks for what the EU terms a “sustainable” and
Indian and Pacific Oceans “balanced free trade agreement”,14 while noting that
by as much as four days. a key part of its economic fortunes rest in the Indo-

2 2
Pacific region. For the EU, this is a growing reality For the EU in particular, there are fundamentally
as ASEAN countries comprise the bloc’s third largest different issues at play as negotiations begin. While
trading partner behind China and the United States, there are issues of mutual benefit such as increased
and in turn ASEAN states have invested more than access to new markets and the introduction of
€172 billion in Europe as of 2020.15 Even without a culinary products that are national staples, there
comprehensive FTA, bilateral trade between Thailand are many serious obstacles to an agreement on an
and the EU as of 2020 was €29 billion, making the FTA—particularly in the space of the anticipated
EU Thailand’s fourth largest trading partner behind two years—such as intellectual property, fisheries,
China, Japan, and the United States, accounting for human rights, labor standards, and issues of
7.5 percent of total trade.16 According to the EU sustainability. The latter is critical for the EU, as its
Strategy for Cooperation in the Indo-Pacific, the EU Trade and Sustainable Development (TSD) approach
attaches great importance to the value of the diverse comes with stringent standards for compliance and
economies in the region, which produce more than enforcement, including the possibility of trade
60 percent of global GDP, and which together cover sanctions for serious violations of the Paris Climate
more than 70 percent of global trade in goods and Agreement and International Labour Organization
services and 60 percent of FDI flows.17 Thailand’s long (ILO) principles.21 Adding greater emphasis on
history of authoritarianism and military rule have trade negotiation challenges for Thailand in hopes
been a part of the EU’s source of concern about the of expanding its trade-oriented foreign policy under
erosion of democratic principles and human rights, the Srettha government, this issue brief discusses
but despite a host of issues that have complicated two of the most pressing topics of negotiation in the
relationships, such as unfair trade practices, tensions creation of a mutually beneficial agreement: IUU
in supply chains, and the COVID-19 pandemic, the fishing and the interrelated topic of human rights.
EU remains committed to “reinforce cooperation”
with countries like Thailand to “promote the rules- Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated
based international order and access to open markets
Fishing (IUU) and Seafood Products
and ensure a stable trading environment.”18
Concerned about the glut of illegal, unreported,
and unregulated (IUU) fishing and raising questions
It was this sense of urgency, after completing bilateral
about production and origin of the 1.8 million tons
trade agreements with Singapore more than a decade
of seafood exported from Thailand since 2005, the
ago and more recently with Vietnam in 202019
EU had warned consecutive Thai governments about
that the EU has attempted to diversify economic
the possibility of an import ban if it did not take
engagement in the Indo-Pacific, with Thailand its
corrective measures.22 Thailand’s fishing industry
most attractive target. In a March 2023 statement,
issues were the product of major industrialization in
the European Commission aimed to conclude
the 1970s, where it became largely export driven,23
an “ambitious, modern, and balanced free trade
but continued expansion was labor intensive and
agreement” within two years, although this may be
led to erosion of labor standards and practices,
too eager a timeframe.20 When the first round of
where currently it is mainly migrant workers who
trade negotiations began in Brussels in September
often work illegally and in dangerous conditions
2023, the emphasis was not on any particular aspect
on Thai fishing vessels.24 The main reason for the
or area of concern, but the clarification of positions,
adoption of those standards was a major reduction
with sides being led by Christophe Kiener, the
in local fish stocks, which required more time at sea,
Directorate General for Trade of the European
thereby increasing costs.25 Over the past decade or
Commission (EC) and Auramon Supthaweethum,
more, Thailand’s fishing industry became a pariah
Director-General of the Trade Negotiations
in international circles, with the human rights
Department, Thai Ministry of Commerce.
community condemning what had been deemed

3 3
as conditions that were akin to modern-day or
slavery-like practices, terms coined by the ILO.26 As While Thailand was still in the
was documented at the height of Thailand’s fishing process of reforms, the yellow
industry related human traumas, as many as 200,000
migrant workers from neighboring Cambodia, card was lifted in January 2019,
Myanmar, and Laos would be ensnared into desperate although to heavy criticism
working conditions, while IUU stocks of so-called
“trash fish” would end up being sold in supermarkets from industry and human rights
around the globe.27 International pressure led to groups, who complained that
the EU issuing a yellow card warning28 to Thailand
about its IUU practices and later, began a bilateral the enforcement and protection
dialogue aimed at resolving the crisis. Thailand, mechanisms employed by
over the next four years, began a process to combat
IUU through the Command Center on Combating the Thai fishing industry and
Illegal Fishing (CCCIF) under the umbrella of the
Department of Fisheries, through a revision of its legal
government were weak and
framework, review of penalties, labor monitoring, both high levels of IUU as
and international cooperation with the EU. Some
of the more comprehensive reforms included new
well as labor abuse and debt
electronic systems fitted to licensed vessels, improved bondage were still present
monitoring and inspection of crew and cargo, and a
more controlled limit on catch allowance to prevent
within the Thai fishing industry.
overfishing.29 While Thailand was still in the process
of reforms, the yellow card was lifted in January a majority of the EU supply of fish comes from
2019,30 although to heavy criticism from industry imports and the combined impact of decreased
and human rights groups, who complained that the at-home consumption and inflation saw a volume
enforcement and protection mechanisms employed drop of 17 percent in the largest fish-consuming
by the Thai fishing industry and government were countries in the EU during the same period.34 Thus,
weak and both high levels of IUU as well as labor greater emphasis has been made by advocacy and
abuse and debt bondage were still present within the industry groups calling for increased protection of
Thai fishing industry.31 the EU’s now fragile fish and seafood market, and
EU Parliamentarians are raising questions regarding
Thus, fisheries will be a major issue of contention the handling of such “sensitive products35” in trade
in EU-Thailand trade discussions because of the negotiations as the Srettha government mulls
vulnerability of both industries, as well as lingering potential revisions to its Fisheries Act that was
human rights and labor concerns. According to instrumental in overcoming the previously issued
the 2023 EU Fish Market Report produced by the EU yellow card warning. More specifically, the
European Commission, the production of fishery Brussels-based Market Advisory Council (MAC), an
and aquaculture products, which include both EU organization established in 2016 through the EU’s
and non-EU countries in Europe is the third largest Common Fisheries Policy to advise on fisheries and
in the world, with production in 2021 totaling 17.2 aquaculture products, warned in a late January 2024
million tons.32 However, vulnerabilities are also note of potential rollbacks of the progress made
numerous, evidenced by recent food price inflation between the EU and Thailand since the yellow card
resulting from the ongoing war in Ukraine, which announcement, including the removal of restrictions
impacted fish prices by 10 percent from 2021 to on at-sea transhipment of seafood catch and crew
2022.33 Worse, according to the same EU report,

4 4
transfers, revisions of child labor standards on Human Rights and Migrant Labor
fishing vessels, weakening of punitive measures to Thailand’s poor human rights record predates its EU
prevent IUU fishing, and eliminate the requirement yellow card, and is related to abuses of migrant workers
that vessel operators must record coordinates in living and working in reprehensible conditions on
approved logbooks.36 While the Thai government Thai fishing vessels. Issues related to migrant labor
has noted the importance of its 130.3 billion baht and broader conditions that spill over into other
fisheries sector as critical to its economic growth, sectors of its economy are equally concerning.
a government committee overseen by the Ministry Part of what fuels human rights abuses are labor
of Agriculture and Cooperatives ensures that any intensive sectors of the economy and these sectors
potential amendments to the Fisheries Act will were disproportionately negatively impacted by the
remain compliant with its obligations to Brussels by COVID-19 pandemic. Key industries such as food
including the Food and Agriculture Organization of and rubber production are heavily reliant on migrant
the United Nations (FAO) in its proceedings.37 workers for as much as half of their workforce, and
exports were 45 percent of Thailand’s GDP during
Critical to FTA negotiations are these contested 2020.40 In the context of IUU fishing and seafood
regulations, which various EU advocacy groups products, a significant barrier to representation exists
claim are essential to creating a level playing field. under Thailand’s Labor Relations Act (1975), which
For example, Europêche, the representative body under Section 100, for example, excludes Labor
for fishermen in the EU, representing as many as Committee representation to Thai nationals only41
vessels, has advocated for a number of safeguards, and the broader act prevents the establishment of
including equal compliance requirements for non- labor unions by migrant workers alone, preventing
EU products, equal standards for all vessels catching the establishment of proper dialogue and negotiation
seafood in the same areas, as well as different with employers and management, or a formal
market rules that would prevents discriminatory collective bargaining agreement that Thai nationals
treatment that would unfavor EU fishermen, and would otherwise be privileged to.
control regulations at all stages of the supply chain.38
EU fishing bodies are not the only organizations The U.S. Department of State’s Trafficking In
concerned about IUU activity. Persons Report for 2014 paid close attention to
the deterioration in labor conditions in Thailand,
In October 2023, 90 civil society organizations from placing Thailand on the Tier 3 list, the lowest
the Indo-Pacific region, including the Environmental ranking possible and reserved for a select group of
Justice Foundation (EJF), Human Rights Watch states that were not conforming to the most minimal
(HRW), and Thailand-based Fortify Rights, sent a international standards and not making sufficient
joint letter to the Thai Prime Minister, with specific progress in that direction. The TIP Report for 2014
concerns about the degree of overfishing in the noted that “Burmese, Cambodian, and Thai men are
Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand, as well as subjected to forced labor on Thai fishing boats that
the sustainability of fishing practices if the current travel throughout Southeast Asia and beyond; some
upward trend of overfishing could “impede further men remain at sea for up to several years, are paid very
recovery and potentially lead to even renewed little” and that a 2013 report reveals that 17 percent
collapses of fish populations, hinder Thailand’s of surveyed fishermen had “experienced forced labor
ability to adapt to climate change impacts, and conditions, often due to threats of financial penalty
adversely affect Thailand’s international standing in including not being fully remunerated for work
the seafood market”, leading to additional concerns already performed.42”
over migrant labor and erosion of human rights,
which could derail a potential EU-Thailand FTA.39 The International Organisation for Migration
(IOM) estimated that as of 2019, Thailand was home

5 5
to 3.9 million migrant workers from neighboring
Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia, and Vietnam, and that As of October 2022,
migrant workers comprised more than 10 percent Thailand’s fishing and
of the total national workforce.43 Regardless of the
massive return of migrants due to COVID-19, the seafood industry employed
demand for cheap labor is expected to continue more than 160,000 registered
due to an ongoing demographic crisis.44 Concerns
persist over a retraction of labor standards in workers from Cambodia
Thailand’s Fisheries Law after an initial eight pieces and Myanmar alone, and
of legislation in Parliament passed the first reading
in a unanimous 416-0 vote that could potentially any rollback in existing
end a stern crackdown in IUU fishing.45 For the regulatory frameworks put
EU, retraction in enforcement would send FTA
negotiations back significantly, as the previous into place under the watch of
military-backed government created a number of
labor inspection mechanisms, such as a collaboration
EU-authorized monitors will
between the Ministry of Labor, the Royal Thai Navy, complicate the conclusion of
and the Department of Fisheries in 22 coastal Thai
provinces.46 The labor inspectors themselves were
FTA negotiations within the
trained by a joint EU and IOM project. desired two-year period.
As of October 2022, in the post-pandemic recovery
period, Thailand’s fishing and seafood industry cargo on sea vessels, allowing workers and employers
employed more than 160,000 registered workers to agree on different terms regarding some sections of
from Cambodia and Myanmar alone,47 and any the Labour Protection Act, thus creating significant
rollback in existing regulatory frameworks put into confusion according to the IOM Report’s findings.50
place under the watch of EU-authorized monitors
will complicate the conclusion of FTA negotiations Conclusion
within the desired two-year period. According to the With regard to the resolution of FTA negotiations,
IOM, some areas still require attention, such as the particularly the contentious issues of IUU fishing
rights of migrant workers to access their entitlements and related concerns over the rights of hundreds of
under the law as a result of the complicated and thousands of migrant workers employed in these
fragmented workplace and supply chain, where industries, the EU will scrutinize any developments
migrant labor exists in both formal factories and that compromise actions that it deems originally
informal settings, such as on docks, piers, and in warranted the yellow card nearly a decade ago.
garages.48 The 2023 IOM Report, In the Shadow Further, the development of a regulatory framework
of the Ships, notes that not only supply chains are for the construction of FTAs as supported widely
complicating matters, but also the interpretation of throughout continental Europe, particularly the EU
Thai labor laws, where on paper, migrant workers Trade and Sustainable Development (TSD) chapter
are protected under the Homeworker Protection requirements for future agreements, which not only
Act, the Labour Relations Act of 1991, the Social provide a roadmap to sustainable practices that
Security Act of 1990, and a number of other prevent overfishing and environmental damages,
legislative acts.49 However, the Labor Protection Act but require cooperation with international bodies
can be manipulated by Ministerial Regulation No. to prevent widespread abuses of human rights.51
11 from 1998, which established protections for While MFP leader Pita has warned Thailand’s
workers involved in the loading and unloading of Parliament that changes to the Fisheries Act must

6 6
also consider its obligations under international Author –
law,52 and perhaps in consideration of its years-
Mark S. Cogan is Associate Professor of Peace and Conflict
long corrective mechanisms supervised by the EU,
Studies, Kansai Gaidai University, Hirakata, Osaka, Japan.
changes are being pushed by Agriculture Minister
Thammanat Prompao, a controversial figure in
© The Institute for Security and Development Policy, 2024.
Thai politics, who had served as Deputy Minister of This Issue Brief can be freely reproduced provided that ISDP is
Agriculture despite a 1994 conviction in Australia informed.
for heroin smuggling. Thammanat has previously
suggested looking into changes after complaints to
the new Srettha government by Thai fishermen and
associated industry leaders.53 While other issues, ABOUT ISDP
such as tariff rates, intellectual property rights, digital The Institute for Security and Development Policy is a
trade, rules of origin, as well as transparency will also Stockholm-based independent and non-profit research and
occupy significant aspects of the FTA’s negotiation, policy institute. The Institute is dedicated to expanding
understanding of international affairs, particularly the
the twin questions of IUU fishing and the EU’s interrelationship between the issue areas of conflict, security and
related human rights concerns regarding the Thai development. The Institute’s primary areas of geographic focus
fishing industry’s treatment of migrant workers will are Asia and Europe’s neighborhood.
not only be a major focus, but will draw significant
www.isdp.eu
international attention and scrutiny.

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Endnotes
1 “Thailand Military Seizes Power in Coup,” BBC News, May 22, 2014, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-27517591.
2 Charlie Campbell, “Voters Rebuked Thailand’s Military Rule. What Comes Next?” TIME, May 15, 2023. https://time.
com/6279758/thailand-elections-move-forward-party-pheu-thai/.
3 Apornrath Phoonphongphiphat, “Thailand’s 2023 GDP Growth Slows to 1.9% on Weak Exports,” Nikkei Asia, February 19,
2024, https://asia.nikkei.com/Economy/Thailand-s-2023-GDP-growth-slows-to-1.9-on-weak-exports.
4 Orathai Sriring and Chayut Setboonsarng, “Thai PM Asserts Economy Is in ‘Crisis’, Pledges More Stimulus”, Reuters, January
24, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/thai-pm-economy-is-crisis-2024-01-24/.
5 Toyoaki Fujiwara, “Thailand’s Household Debt Swells amid Policy Stagnation Concerns,” Nikkei Asia. July 9, 2023, https://
asia.nikkei.com/Economy/Thailand-s-household-debt-swells-amid-policy-stagnation-concerns.
6 “Bridging the Gap: Inequality and Jobs in Thailand.” 2023. Bangkok: World Bank Group. https://www.worldbank.org/en/
country/thailand/publication/bridging-the-gap-inequality-and-jobs-in-thailand.
7 Ibid.
8 “Thailand, Sri Lanka sign free trade agreement,” Nikkei Asia, February 2, 2024, https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-
relations/Thailand-Sri-Lanka-sign-free-trade-agreement.
9 “Srettha proposes FTA with Arab bloc in talks with Saudi leader,” The Nation Thailand, October 20, 2023, https://www.
nationthailand.com/thailand/general/40032094.
10 Panu Wongcha-Um and Panarat Thepgumpanat, “Thailand’s new PM seeks free-trade agreement expansion to lure major
foreign investors,” Reuters, September 29, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/thailands-new-pm-says-
committed-attracting-major-foreign-investors-2023-09-29/.
11 Mark S. Cogan, “A Bad Idea Revisited: Thailand Pitches Prayut’s ‘Land Bridge’ to Beijing,” The Diplomat, October 25, 2023,
https://thediplomat.com/2023/10/a-bad-idea-revisited-thailand-pitches-
prayuts-land-bridge-to-beijing/.
12 https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.KLT.DINV.WD.GD.ZS?locations=TH.
13 Mark S. Cogan, “The Past Holds Clues to Thailand’s Foreign Policy under Pheu Thai,” Institute for Security and Development
Policy. August 1, 2023, https://www.isdp.eu/the-past-holds-clues-to-thailands-Foreign-policy-under
-pheu-thai/.
14 “EU-Thailand Agreement,” European Commission, n.d., https://policy.trade.ec.europa.eu/eu-trade-relationships-country-and-
region/countries-and-regions/thailand/eu-thailand-agreement_en (accessed February 4, 2024).
15 “EU Trade Relations with Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN),” European Commission, https://policy.trade.
ec.europa.eu/eu-trade-relationships-country-and-region/countries
-and-regions/association-south-east-asian-nations-asean_en (accessed February 4, 2024).
16 “EU-Thailand Agreement,” n. 14.
17 “The EU Strategy for Cooperation in the Indo-Pacific,” European Commission, 2021, https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/joint-
communication-indo-pacific_en.
18 “EU Strategy,” n. 17, 2.
19 “Vietnam-EU Trade: EVFTA Comes Into Effect August 1,” Vietnam Briefing News, August 3, 2020, https://www.vietnam-
briefing.com/news/vietnam-eu-trade-evfta-comes-into-effect.html/.
20 Sebastian Strangio, “Thailand, EU Agree to Restart Free Trade Pact Negotiations,” The Diplomat, March 16, 2023, https://
thediplomat.com/2023/03/thailand-eu-agree-to-restart-free-trade-pact-negotiations/.
21 “Commission Unveils New TSD Approach to Trade Agreements,” European Commission, June 22, 2022, https://ec.europa.
eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_22_3921.
22 Yukako Ono, “EU warns Thailand on illegal fishing,” Nikkei Asia, April 30, 2015, https://asia.nikkei.com/Economy/EU-
warns-Thailand-on-illegal-fishing.
23 P. Vandergeest, and M. Marschke, “Modern Slavery and Freedom: Exploring Contradictions through Labour Scandals in the
Thai Fisheries,” Antipode 52, no. 1 (2020): 291-315, https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12575
24 Hidden Chains, Human Rights Watch, January 23, 2018, https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/01/23/hidden-chains/rights-
abuses-and-forced-labor-thailands-fishing-industry.

8 8
25 L. C. L. Teh, R. Caddell, E. H. Allison, E. M. Finkbeiner, J. N. Kittinger, K. Nakamura, and Y. Ota, “The role of human
rights in implementing socially responsible seafood,” PLOS ONE 14, no. 1 (2019): https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.
pone.0210241.
26 “Report III(1B): Giving globalization a human face (General Survey on the fundamental Conventions),” ILO, https://www.ilo.
org/ilc/ILCSessions/previous-sessions/101stSession/reports/reports-submitted
/WCMS_174846/lang--en/index.htm.
27 Steve Dow, “‘Such Brutality’: Tricked into Slavery in the Thai Fishing Industry,” The Guardian, September 21, 2019, https://
www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/21/such-brutality-tricked-into-slavery-in-the-thai-fishing-industry.
28 Arthur Neslen, “EU Threatens Thailand with Trade Ban over Illegal Fishing,” The Guardian, April 21, 2015, https://www.
theguardian.com/environment/2015/apr/21/eu-threatens-thailand-with-trade-ban-over-illegal-fishing.
29 “Thailand’s Progress on Combating IUU Fishing and Labour Issues towards Fisheries Sustainability,” Department of Fisheries,
February 10, 2022, https://www4.fisheries.go.th/dof_en/view_news/426.
30 “Commission lifts “yellow card” from Thailand for its actions against illegal fishing,” European Commission, January 8, 2019,
https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_19_61.
31 Kate Hodal, “EU under fire after lifting threat to ban Thai seafood imports over illegal fishing,” The Guardian, January 10,
2019, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jan/10/eu-under-fire-after-lifting-threat-
to-ban-thai-seafood-imports-over-illegal-fishing.
32 “The EU Fish Market 2023 Edition,” European Market Observatory for Fisheries and Aquaculture Products, 2023, https://
eumofa.eu/documents/20124/35668/EFM2023_EN.pdf.
33 Ibid.
34 Ibid.
35 F. J. M. Mon, “Parliamentary question | Proposal for a reform of fisheries legislation in Thailand and state of play of EU-
Thailand free trade agreement negotiations | P-003736/2023,” European Parliament, 2023, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/
doceo/document/P-9-2023-003736_EN.html.
36 “Advice: Negotiation of EU – Thailand Free Trade Agreement,” Market Advisory Council, January 31, 2024, https://marketac.
eu/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/MAC-Advice-Negotiations-of-EU-Thailand-FTA-31.01.2024.pdf.
37 Apinya Wipatayotin, “Ministry to amend tough fisheries law,” Bangkok Post, September 25, 2023, https://www.bangkokpost.
com/thailand/general/2652375/ministry-to-amend-tough-fisheries-law.
38 Daniel Voces de Onaíndi, “Traceability: Ensuring Fishing Imports into the EU Market Meet EU Standards,” Europêche,
March 7, 2019, https://www.iuuwatch.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Presentation-Europe%CC%82che
-Traceability-ensuring-fishing-imports-into-the-EU-market-meet-EU-standards.pdf.
39 “Joint Civil Society Statement Concerning Thailand’s Fishing Sector at a Critical Crossroads,” Environmental Justice
Foundation, October 15, 2023, https://ejfoundation.org/resources/downloads/CSO-Joint-Statement_Critical-Crossroads_
EN-1.pdf.
40 Orathai Sriring, and Satawasin Staporncharnchai, “Migrant Worker Shortage Threatens Key Thai Exports, Economic
Recovery” Reuters, July 30, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL4N2OV0R3/.
41 Labour Relations Act. B.E. 2518 (1975).
42 “Trafficking in Persons Report: June 2014,” U.S. Department of State, 2014, 372-373, https://2009-2017.state.gov/
documents/organization/226849.pdf.
43 “Labour Mobility and Social Inclusion,” n. d., International Organization for Migration (IOM), https://thailand.iom.int/
labour-mobility-and-social-inclusion (accessed February 26, 2024)
44 Lisa Martin, “Old and Poor: Thailand Sleepwalking toward an Aging Crisis,” The Japan Times, October 17, 2023, https://
www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2023/10/17/asia-pacific/social-issues/old-poor-thailand-aging-crisis/.
45 “Parliament Approves Looser Fisheries Rules in First Reading,” Khaosod English, February 24, 2024, https://www.
khaosodenglish.com/politics/2024/02/24/parliament-approves-looser-fisheries-rules-in-first-reading/.
46 “Better Labour Inspection Cuts Abuses in the Thai Fishing Sector,” International Organization for Migration (IOM). October
21, 2019, http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/mission-and-objectives/features/WCMS_724780/lang--en/index.htm.
47 “สถิติจำ�นวนแรงง�นต่�งด้�ว ที่ได้รับอนุญ�ตทำ�ง�นคงเหลือ ทั่วร�ชอ�ณ�จักร ประจำ�เดือน ตุล�คม
2565,” Department of Employment, Ministry of Labour, http://:www.doe.go.th/prd/assets/upload/file/
alien_t/9412bdc28b9d24aa32d9f2bd07c85619.pdf.

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48 “In the Shadow of the Ships: Migrant Workers in the Lower Tiers of the Seafood Processing Sector in Thailand,” International
Organization for Migration (IOM), 2023, https://thailand.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl1371/files/documents/2023-07/in-the-
shadow-of-the-ships.pdf.
49 “In the Shadow of the Ships,” n. 48, 12.
50 Ibid.
51 “Commission Unveils New TSD Approach to Trade Agreements,” European Commission, June 22, 2022, https://ec.europa.
eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_22_3921.
52 “Parliament Approves Looser Fisheries Rules in First Reading,” n. 45.
53 Apinya Wipatayotin, n. 37.

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