ETHICS BENEFIT AND HARM – “the two essential

ingredients in sentiment of justice are the desire to

 History credits Theodore Roosevelt with punish a person who has done harm, and the
saying “to educate a man in mind, but not in knowledge of belief that there is some definite
moral is to create a menace to society”. individual or individuals to whom harm has been
 Public servants must not only do technical done” (MILL 1869)
things correctly and professional things in a
professional manner, but they also must do UNIVERSAL RULES OF CONDUCT – “ethics
ethically correct things. encompasses fixed, universal rules of right conduct
that are contingent on neither time nor culture nor
ETHICS – means the study of moral standards and
circumstance” (FOSTER 2003)
how they affect conduct.
ETHICS – subjective and personal since an individual CHARACTER ETHICS – is entwined within ones
can decide what is important to him or her character, traits, qualities, and established reputation
that define who one is and that one stands for in the
ETHICS – describes what ought to be eyes of others (FOSTER 2003)
ETHOS –refers to the “moral character of an
PROVIDING AN EXAMPLE – ethics is founded
individual” Emphasize the perfection of the individual
upon “an established pattern of conduct worthy of
and the community in which he or she is defined.
emulation” (FOSTER 2003)
ETHOS – included an emphasis on an individual’s
character as well as including the citizen as a MORALS, VALUES, AND ETHICS
component of a greater community.
MORALITY – describes what is. Originates from the
2 MOST COMMON JUXTAPOSITION Latin word
1; has reached adulthood, understanding of values and
MORALIS – which means “traditional customs of
ethics is fixed.
proper behavior”
2; others believe that lifelong, education can influence
and modify behavior and thus ethics should be taught. MORALS – refers to a set of rules defining what is
considered to be right or wrong. These rules are
VIRTUE ETHICS – moral therapy that is concerned defined by although not typically written down or
with the moral character or goodness of an individual “defined” by writing and accepted by a group or
carrying on the action. society. The group society can include peers,
educators, religion, media, and the family unit. Group
; Focus on the person carrying on the action right act if
or society breaks one rules, then are typically
good act carried out by victim person.
considered to have been “bad” or “immoral”.
REVISITING THE BASICS
VALUES – provide direction in the determination of
VIRTUE – qualities that are considered to be good or right versus wrong or good versus bad.
desirable on a person.
VALUES - what an individual believes to have worth
; Ethics can best be meaningfully discussed and
and importance or to by valuable. Morals are values
applied only when it is fully understood. The
that an individual attributes to a system of beliefs that
philosophical and moral basics associated with that
assist the individual in defining right from wrong or
which encompasses that study of ethics.
good from bad.
RIGHT AND WRONG – EX: “We do not, call
anything wrong, unless we mean to imply that a person
ought to be punished in some way or other for doing it;
if not by law, by the opinion of his fellow creatures; if
not by opinion by the reproaches of his own
conscience” (MILL 1861)
VIRTUE AND VICE – “vice the opposite of virtue, ETHICS VERSUS MORALS
show us more clearly what is virtue. Justice becomes
more obvious when we have injustice to compare it to” MORALS
(QUINTILIAN 2006)
  Derived from Latin word Moralis, meaning NATURAL RIGHTS THEORY: foundation is that
“traditional customs” human being have absolute, natural rights.
 Typically associated with personal behavior
 Customs or manners practical in any given CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE: foundation is that
community or culture morality is rooted in the capacity of individuals to be
 May be different from culture to culture rational, and it also asserts that there are certain
inviolable moral laws within society.
 May change as acceptable social behavior as
the culture/s change.
CONSEQUENTIALISM: these theories argue that
the morality associated with an action is related to the
ETHICS
outcome or result of the action. They differ by the
 Derived from the Greek word ethos meaning value associated with the action or decision.
“moral character”
UTILITARIANISM: best action/decision is one that
 Typically refers to professional practices and
results in the most happiness for the greatest number of
behavior
individuals.
 Conveys sense of stability/permanence
 An absolute standard of behavior EGOISM: best action/decision is one that maximizes
 Standard is universal and immutable (not good for oneself.
subject to change)
HEDONISM: best action/decision is one that will
ETHICAL SUBSDIVISION maximize pleasure.

APPLIED ETHICS – ethics involves attempting to INTELLECTUALISM: best action/decision is one

address question as to how a moral outcome can be that best promotes knowledge.
achieved.
CONSEQUENTIALIST LIBERTARIANISM:
NORMATIVE ETHICS - is concerned with liberty should be maximized.
investigating the questions that arises when one asks. It
seeks to examine the standards for the rightness or WELFARISM: best action/decision is one that best
wrongness of one’s action. increases economic well-being.

Sociologically speaking NORMATIVE is derived SITUATIONS ETHICS: best action/decision is one

from the term NORM are concerned with those that results in the most love.
attributes of a culture that compose the largely
unspoken, yet almost universally shared expectations DESCRIPTIVE ETHICS – referred to as
as to what constitutes appropriate or inappropriate comparative ethics, descriptive ethics involves the
behavior. study of an individual’s belief relating to morality. The
goal of descriptive ethics is to attempt to define
NORM – defining the boundaries of what is individual beliefs relating to values and what actions
considered conformity and what is considered are deemed right and wrong.
deviance within a society.
This area is largely empirical as to research and, thus,
VIRTUE ETHICS – theoretical approach to ethics typically involves the areas of biology, anthropology,
was first advocated by ARISTOTLE. Its focus was on sociology, and psychology, but also may carry to the
the inherent character of an individual rather than on area of philosophy at times.
specific actions performed by them.
METHA ETHICS – refer to the fundamental nature
DEONTOLOGY – those subscribing to deontological of ethics.
theories argue that ethical decisions should be made
through the consideration of one’s duties and METHA ETHICS – refers to how individuals
obligation along with other individual’s rights. determine for themselves what societal norms…

CONTRACTARIANISM: foundation surrounds the THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG ETHICS,

concept that moral acts are those that all individuals MORALITY, AND LAW
would agree with if they were to be unbiased.
 IMPULSE is nothing more than a unreflective
spontanelty, a mind on autopilot.

HABIT on the other hand is programmed repetition.

“The object of critical thinking is to achieve a measure

of objectivity to counteract or diminish the subjective
bias that experience and socialization bestow on us all”

This is imperative because “When we are dealing with

M. MORAL – matters of ethical concern, the well-being of someone
this decision or or something beyond ourselves is always at stake”
choice would be
based on Ethical decision making and implementing requires an
individual or groupthink, typically influenced by peers, individual to have both critical thinking and
religion, family, friends, society, and other communication skills.
environmental factors. A “moral right” choice, made
based upon unwritten laws or views. ACCOUNTABILITY refers to public service
professionals being liable or answerable to someone. It
E. ETHICAL – a decisions or choice that is viewed as is a measure of their demonstration in fulfilling their
“right” and that is not impacted by environmental promises. It is an external set.
factors. It is universal truth or right choice.
INTERGRITY is the adherence to moral and ethical
L. LEGAL – decisions or choice that conforms to the principles and integration of moral virtues into one’s
written law of the land or society. This is typically a decisions and actions. It is an internal set.
foundational requirement for all decisions made within
public service. RESPONSIBILITY the act of being reliable or
dependable, or the burden of accountability for having
EM. ETHICAL AND MORAL – this is combination done something.
may appease the individual or individuals but may not
likely be able to be implemented due to not having a CAUSAL AND MORAL RESPONSIBILITY
legal function.
MORAL RESPONSIBILITY refers to whether an
EL. ETHICAL AND LEGAL – this is where the vast individual bears the weight of an action and whether
majority of public service actions and decisions should they should be punished or rewarded accordingly.
land, resulting in decisions and actions that are “right’’
and ‘‘legal”. CAUSAL RESPONSIBILITY refers to the idea that
an individual is responsible for the outcome of their
ML. MORAL AND LEGAL – an action or decision actions in a casual sense.
that lands here is typically made for a religious or
social reason, versus a strictly “right” versus “wrong” 4 BASIC CONDITIONS THAT MUST BE
reason. PRESENT IN ORDER TO DECIDE MORAL
RESPONSIBILITY
EML. ETHICAL, MORAL, AND LEGAL – actions
and decisions that fall into this are able to satisfy the 1; the individual must be aware of the facts pertaining
requirements of “right” and “legal” while also being to the situation or decision.
acceptable to the individual or group making them.
2; the individual must be cognizant of the difference
WHAT ETHICS INVOLVES? between right and wrong.

“there is more to ethics that simply knowing what is it 3; the individual must have had intent to have done
about” (FOSTER 2003) what he/she did.

ETHICS is the way values are practiced. CRITICAL 4; the individual must have been able to do otherwise
THINKING, the conscious use of reason, stands than what he/she did.
clearly apart from other ways grasping truth or
confronting choice; IMPULSE, HABIT etc. 4 BASIC VIRTUES ASSOCIATED WITH ETHICS
  Courage study for psychologists, evolutionary biologist and
 Justice ethologists.
 Temperance
 Prudence ETHICAL PERPECTIVE – an international
collaboration among ethicists and specialist from
ARISTOTLE believed that virtue was “the ability diverse science. According to the site, it primarily
habitually to do the good” intends to be an international forum for the promotion
of dialog between fundamental and applied ethics.
“MORALITY IS MATTER OF CHARACTER”
In ancient times, a “forum” was a marketplace,
typically in the center of town, where people would
mass to exchange goods, services, and also knowledge.
ETHICAL PERSPECTIVE
UTILITARIANISM is the perspective that actions
4 ETHICAL PERSPECTIVE that produce the greatest good for the greatest number
of persons are “good actions”. It also is known as the
 ALTRUISM “consequentalist” or “teleogical ethical theory”.
 UTILI-TARIANISM
 CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE The basic principle is that human being judge morality
 ETHICAL CULTURE of actions in terms of the consequences or results of
those actions.

MORAL ACTS ELECIT GOOD

CONSEQUENCES – those that create happiness and
are justifiable.

IMMORAL ACTS ELICIT GOODS

CONSEQUENCES – those that induce pain suffering
and are justifiable.

This perspective is one of the easiest to subscribe to

and has the most intuitive appeal for most people.

2 CONDITIONS IN UTILITARIANISM

Not all share the same interests of preferences, there First, the individual must possess a maximum degree
can be a temptation to judge others choice as of personal freedom.
“unethical” or “wrong”.
Secondly, he or she must be capable of realizing well-
ALTRUISM possessing unselfish concern for the being within the basic conditions of his/her own
welfare of others. This ethical perspective is existence, however well-being is defined.
traditionally held virtue in may cultures and us a core
component of most traditional religious beliefs, such as 2 MAJOR CONCERN WITH THE
CHRISTIANITY, ISLAM, JUDAISM, HINDUISM, UTILITARTIAN PERSPECTIVE
BUDDHISM. “love their neighbor”
1; if one is to implement the utilitarian perspective,
ALTRUISM is quite different than possessing loyalty they must possess extensive knowledge of data and
or having a sense of duty toward something or facts, and sometimes this information is simply not
someone. The perspective of altruism is focused on a available. This is especially present in instances of
motivation to help others or a want to good without cost/benefit and risk/benefit analysis.
reward, while duty or loyalty is focused primarily on a
moral obligation toward a specific organization. 2; the second concern with utilitarianism is that
utilizing this ethical perspective may lead to injustice
THE CONCEPT OF ALTRUISM has a lengthy for individuals, while attempting to make a decision
history within philosophical and technical teaching. that is “best” for the masses. The character CAPTAIN
The term was first used by AUGUSTE COMTE MILLER is seen discussing the application of
(1789-1857), a French sociologist and philosopher of utilitarian perspective as relates to military missions.
science. Since then, it has become a major topic of
The history of utilitarian is traced by some as far back interpretation and an attempt at more effectively
as epicurus, the Greek philosopher. Jeremy Bentham explaining Bentham’s earlier theories. Although
who surmised that entitled UTILITARIANISM, his concept of it was
“nature has placed mankind under the governance of quite different from Bentham’s. Mill’s perspective has
two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure” been known as “the greatest happiness for the greatest
(BENTHAM 1789) number of people, but the key was that such a decision
must be made within reason. Bentham treated all forms
4 SANCTIONS of happiness as being equal, whereas Mill believed that
intellectual and moral pleasures were superior to more
(1) Physical sanctions, or the natural sensation of physical forms of pleasure.
happiness and pain;
(2) Political sanctions, the legal acts that can Mill distinguished between and established the
counteract immoral acts; importance of each of these through a witty statement
(3) Moral sanctions, approval or disapproval from made within his work utilitarianism, “it is better to be a
those around a person; human being distinguished than a pig satisfied; better
(4) Religious sanctions, the blessing or to be Socrates dissatisfies than a fool satisfies. And if
condemnation by a supreme being, consistent the fool, or the pig, are of a different opinion, it is
with one’s faith because they only know their own side of the
question”
THE PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY
CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
(1) Recognition of the role of pain and pleasure as
fundamental influences on human life, IMMANUEL KANT was an 18th century German
especially as concerns decision making. Philosopher who belied that individual have certain
(2) Approves or disapproves of an action or obligations regardless of the consequences they evoke.
decision based on the basis of the amount of KANT summed up his feelings by stating, “it is
pain or pleasure brought by the action or impossible to conceive anything at all in the world, or
decision (otherwise known as “consequences”) even out of it, which can be taken as good without
(3) Equates good with pleasure and evil with pain, qualification, except good will” (KANT 1964)
as to consequentialism
(4) Pleasure and pain are capable of qualification Kant philosophy is sometimes referred to as “THE
and, thus, are measurable. GOLDEN RULE” perspective. It may be defined as
the standard of rationally from which all moral
Belief in hedonism was the basis for Bentham’s work, requirements are derived.
as it was the most famous version of the utilitarian
theory where the fundamental good is happiness. “DO UNTO OTHERS AS YOU WOULD HAVE
Whichever action produces the greatest amount of THEM TO UNTO”
happiness for the most people is considered the most
moral act. CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE – was the central
philosophical concept developed by Immanuel Kant,
Although this seems straightforward, many problems introduced in Groundwork for the Metaphysics of
make the concept of happiness hard to employ; Morals in 1785. This theory may sound religious
“theological” but as an ethical perspective within the
First, the greatest happiness is achieved at the expense deontological field of ethics, it attempts to identify a
of the fewest people. It is not always possible to concept of “right”, which is more universal than
predict consequences for everyone involved. religion.

Finally, happiness could appear to condone come Kant refers are maxims; 2 TYPES OF MAXIMS
actions with which most people would not agree, such
as person gaining happiness through child HYPOTHETICAL MAXIMS – are conditional
pornography, creating potential conflicts with instructions that stress what ought to be done.
individual human rights.
CATEGORICAL MAXIMS – are conditional orders
Although the concept is typically credited as being to state principles that need to be done.
articulated first by Bentham, it is John Stuart Mill who,
as a proponent of utilitarianism, wrote “In the study of ethics, categorical maxims provide a
UTILITARIANISM in 1861, which was an foundation for the ethical decision making”
“Kant developed the categorical imperative, which is a A fundamental key to the foundation of ethical culture
fundamental principle that allows people to act was the observation that oftentimes disputes regarding
consistently from the situation” religious or philosophical doctrines were distracting
individuals from following through on living ethically
The categorical imperative is divided into two and doing good.
formulations;
THE ORIGINAL AIMS OF ETHICAL CULTURE;
The first formulation is UNIVERSALIZABILITY,
which states that a justifiable action is when person  To teach the supremacy of the moral ends
faces the same circumstances and acts in the same above all human ends and interests.
way.  To each that the moral law has an immediate
authority not contingent on the truths of
The idea of UNIVERSALIBILITY also may be religious beliefs or of philosophical theories.
described as a person treating everyone the same way  To advance the science and art of right living.
as he or she would want to be treated.
ETHICAL ISSUES AND ETHICAL DILEMMA
3 PREMISES THAT MAKE UP CATEGORICAL
IMPERATIVE PRIVACY – prevent sharing information (e.g account,
pin code)
(1) First premises is that an individual acts
ethically if their conduct would, without PRIVACY – refers to individual’s right to prevent the
condition, be the right conduct for any disclosure of certain information to another individual
individual in a similar circumstance. or entity (Allen 1997). Also discussed about the
(2) The second premises is that an individual’s negative right of informational privacy or the right
conduct is right if others are treated as ends in “not to know” certain information especially the
themselves rather than as means to an end. sensitive one’s and those that are beyond the limits set
(3) The final premises is than an individual acts by an individual or institution.
ethically when he acts as if his conduct was
establishing a universal law governing others CONFIDENTIALITY – refers to a situation in which
on how act in similar circumstance. information collected or disclosed within a confidential
relationship is not redisclosed without the permission
ETHICAL CULTURE of the individual (Rothstein 1997).

MODERN ETHICAL CULTURE In the health industry, it manifests in the form of other
member of the workforce gaining access to sensitive
There are a number of focal points that remain data through unauthorized disclosure. (i.e gossip,
important; accidental disclosure to relatives or others)

 HUMAN WORTH AND UNIQUENESS; each Non health care setting, job seekers somewhat waive
individual is believed to have inherent worth their privacy and confidentiality in the disclosure of
that is not dependent on the value of what it is their personal and medical records as condition for
that they do. employment or insurance.
 ELECITING THE BEST; “always acts so as to
elicit the best in others, and thereby yourself” CITIZEN, EQUAL VALUE, AND
is as close as ethical culture comes to having a OPPOTUNITIES IN SOCIETY
golden rule.
 INTERRELATEDNESS; in his information of Citizenship or one’s membership status in a political
the concept, Adler used the term THE community implies both rights and obligations. As a
ETHICAL MANIFOLD to refer to how he citizen, a person has liberty from some forms of
believed “the universe to be composed of pressure and freedom to purse certain goals.
unique and indispensable moral agents.
Natural born/naturalization acquiring citizenship in a
ETHICAL CULTURE – movement was started in country/dual citizenship
1876 by Felix Adler. Ethical culture has its foundation
on the premise that living with honoring ethical SOCIAL CITIZENSHIP – involves justice,
principles is at the heart of what it takes to live recognition of social positions, and upholding of
fulfilling and meaningful life. personhood, rights to have full degree of responsibility
for shaping events at a personal and societal level RIGHT OF FREE CONSENT; ability to be treated
(BARTLETT and O’CONNOR 2010) only as if knowingly and freely consent to be treated.

GRAFT AND CORRUPTION - According to Cruz RIGHT TO PRIVACY; control over information
(1995) is an amoral offence against public property about private life.
(crime against) and to the funds for public use. Money
for the welfare of the people are taken thereby RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE; may
violating the principle of justice and common good. refrain from carrying out any order that violates own
Cabilo (2002) even reiterated that there are graft and moral or religious upbringing.
corrupt practices which unfortunately have become
ingrained of the culture. RIGHT TO DUE PROCESS; right to an impartial
hearing and justice system
UNETHICAL LEADERSHIP – according to an
article published by MIVHIGAN STATE RIGHT TO LIFE AND SAFETY; right to live
UNIVERSITY in 2019, abuse of leadership authority without endangerment violation of health and safety.
is an unfortunate reality in the workplace and may
come in the form of embezzlement of funds by (4) FAIRNESS/JUSTICE APPROACH – this
manipulating numbers in a report, spending funds on approach holds that moral decisions must be
inappropriate activities, accepting inappropriate gifts based on standards of equity, fairness, and
from suppliers, or asking to skip a standard procedure impartiality.
“just once”
3 TYPES OF JUSTICE APPLY TO DIFF. ST.
POLICY DILEMMAS – policy makers are
DISTRIBUTE JUSTICE – requires that different
sometimes confronted by conflicting responsibilities to
treatment of people not based on arbitrary
the society and the administrator. The official’s
characteristics with individuals performing the same
obligation to respect the political process may conflict
job should be treated in a similar manner and given
with his/her view on how the object of policy making
commensurate compensation.
are treated.
PROCEDURAL JUSTICE – requires fair
administration of law believing that laws should be
ETHICAL DECISION MAKING – anyone faced clearly stated and consistently and impartially
with tough ethical choices may benefit from applying enforced.
the normative approach to decision-making which are
COMPENSATORY JUSTICE – requires that
based on norms and values.
individuals should be compensated for the cost of their
NORMATIVE APPROACH injuries by the party responsible and that they should
not be held responsible for matters over which they
1) UTILITARIAN APPROACH – this have no control.
approach holds that moral behavior
produces the greatest good for the greatest (5) THE VIRTUE APPROACH – very ancient
number. approach to ethics which argues that ethical
2) INDIVIDUALISM APPROACH – this actions must be consistent with certain ideal
approach contends that acts are moral virtues as they provide full development of our
when they promote the individual’s long- humanity.
term interests. Individual self-direction is
FACTORS AFFECTING ETHICAL CHOICES
paramount and therefore, external forces
that restrict self-direction goodness. Ethical or unethical practices usually reflect the values,
3) MORAL-RIGHTS APPROACH – this attitudes, beliefs, and behavior patterns, of the
approach asserts that human beings have organization culture and personal issues stemming
fundamental rights and liberties that from one’s personality and behavioral traits.
cannot be taken away by an individual’s
decision. Personal traits are developed over time and may be
influenced as they go through the following levels;
MORAL RIGHTS THAT COULD BE CONSIDERED
DURING DECISION MAKING
PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL – individuals are of right and wrong and thus impact the ethical
concerned with external rewards and punishments, and decision-making process.
in obeying authority to avoid personal consequences.
More difficult when the choices are closer to shades of
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL – people learn to gray as to right and wrong or between competing right
conform to the expectations of good behavior as (virtues).
defined by colleagues, family, friends, and society in
which meeting social and interpersonal obligations QUANDARY referred to as an ETHICAL
becoming more important. DILEMMA – is a situation in which one is faced with
choosing between competing virtues that are
PRINCIPLED LEVEL – referred to as “high moral considered equally important, but which cannot be
development level” individuals are guided by an simultaneously honored.
internal set of values and standards
COMMONLY 4 “RIGHT VERSUS RIGHT”
DILEMMAS THAT MUST BE CHOSEN

1) Truth versus loyalty

2) Individual versus community
3) Short term versus long term
4) Justice versus mercy

3 VERY DIFFERENT APPROACHES

1 Rules or principles-based approach – when

considering an ethical dilemma from a principle-based
(or rule-based) point of view, one should ask
TRANSFORMATIVE/SERVANT LEADERSHIP –
in this level, supervisors learn to focus on the needs of What rules exist (or should exist)?
followers, empowers and gives them opportunities for
constructive participation in governance of the What are my moral obligations?
organization.
2 Utilitarian or consequences-based approach –
THE SOCIAL AND ETHICAL CONSEQUENCES when considering an ethical dilemma from a
OF THEIR BEHAVIOR consequences-based (or utilitarianism) point of view,
one should ask
a) Is the problem/dilemma really what It appears
to be? Which decision results in the greatest good for the
b) Is the action legal or in accordance with greatest number?
established standards?
c) How will you feel about yourself if you Who wins and loses?
execute your plans?
d) Who will benefit from its or will be harmed by 3 Virtues-based approach – when considering an
it and to what extent? ethical dilemma from a virtues-based (or golden rule)
e) Will it be better to sought the opinion of others point of view, one should ask
who are knowledgeable on the subject?
What would my family think?
ETHICAL DECISION MAKING
What if it ended up on the news?
An ethical man knows he should not steal, whereas a
moral man would not steal. THE ETHICS TRIANGLE

There are additional factors that may serve as an

impetus for ethical decision making. Factors include,
but are not limited to FAMILY, FRIENDS,
PROFESSIONS, RELIGION, COMMUNITY,
CULTURE, AND LAW. These factors combined with
one’s personal bias, that impact an individual’s concept
 Ethical decision making and ethical judgement is
ultimately a result of choices that should be freely
One perspective is from the view that desirable virtues made.
such as justice and benevolence define ethical
outcomes VIRTUES. EXISTENTIALISM is relatively recent concept that
has an emphasis on an individual’s freedom to make
A second perspective derives from a set of agreed- decisions free of influence from others. (free will)
upon values or rules, such as a code of ethics or one
constitutional rights PRINCIPLE. DETERMINISM is a term that applies to the premise
that all occurrences, thoughts, and actions are beyond
Lastly, the third perspective considers the the control of an individual. Often cast doubt on the
consequences of the decision on whatever produces the validity or usefulness of individual choice, and may
greatest good for the greatest number reveal itself in a personal expression or attitude,
CONSEQUENCES.
SCIENTIFIC DETERMINISM deals with an
APPLYING THE ETHICAL TRIANGLE TO individual’s actions, character, and decisions as results
DECISION MAKING associated with genetics or one’s surrounding.

A guideline for such decision making could most An individual's genetic makeup specific genes and
logically 6 STEPS; chromosomes affect one's psychological makeup
which directly impacts one decision making.
1 define the ethical dilemma (in terms of “right vs.
wrong”?). An individual is a product of his environment more
specifically climate and geography play apart and may
a) Truth versus loyalty directly influence personality and disposition which
b) Individual versus community will impact decision making.
c) Short term versus long term
d) Justice versus mercy The society in which an individual lives in the culture
present within the society provide the individual with
2 consider courses of action. traditions values and foundational information that
influence one's action.
3 test the courses of action against the “ethics triangle”
(testing) An individual's education and experience provide for a
personal knowledge base from which the decision
a) Principles-based ethics process can be made.
b) Consequences-based ethics
c) Virtues-based ethics INTENTIONALISM - is a term given to the premise
that individuals have free will and does are
4 revisit courses of action and see if an alternative accountable for their actions and the result of their
course of action has been revealed (reassess). decision.
5 choose a course of action (make a decision). LOGIC OF ETHICS
6 implement the course of action (implementation). Logic is a basic tool in the study of ethics and as such
it is important to mention some techniques relating to
ACCORDING TO KIDDER (JOHANNESEN,
logical valuation with regard to ethical decision
VALDE, AND WHEDBEE 2008), 4 LEVELS
making.
MORAL THIKING THAT OCCUR ARE THE
FOLLOWING. ARGUMENT – statement or group of statement that
include at least one premise of conclusion.
(1) Ideal decision making, or what is absolutely
right or wrong. What is the conclusion? Sentence that an argument
(2) Practical decision making, or following claims to prove this is something referred to as a
common rules, such as; “do not tell lies”
(3) Reflective decision making, or the exceptions What are the premises? In a sentence that an argument
to given rules offers or evidence or evidence of the conclusion.
(4) Political decision making, or making decisions
for the good of larger community GOOD VERSUS BAD ARGUMENTS
An argument is made up of any of a number of Facts by themselves only tell us what is they do not tell
sentences that claim to prove one another. us what ought to be in addition to getting the fox
resolving an ethical issue can requires an appeal to
An argument is “good argument” if the premises are values philosophers have developed.
through the premises are relevant to the conclusion 5 APPROACHES VALUES TO DEALS WITH
MORAL ISSUES.
And an argument is bad when a premise is false a THE UTILITARIAN APPROACH –
premise is irrelevant to the conclusion or a premise Utilitarianism was conceived in the 19th century by
simply restates the conclusion. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill to help legislator
determine which laws were morally best put Bentham
DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT and meal suggested that ethical actions are those that
provide the greatest balance of good over evil.
Those arguments that claim certainty are referred to as
To unless an issue using utilitarian approach First,
being deductive these arguments claims that because
identify the various courses of action available to us,
the stated premises are true then the conclusion is Second, we ask who will be affected by each action
“certainly” true. and what benefits are harm will be derived from each
entered. And third, we close the action that will
Where us arguments claiming probability are referred produce the greatest benefits and the least harm.
to as being inductive these arguments claim that The ethical action is the one that provides the greatest
because the stated premises are true then the good for the greatest.
conclusion is “probably” true.
THE RIGHTS APPROACH
“Important to understand the distinction between The second important approach to ethics has its roots
deductive and inductive arguments” when one is faced in the philosophy of the 18th century thinker Immanuel
Kant and other like him who focus on the individual
with evaluating more decision making as each of these
right to choose for herself or himself.
has a different kind of evaluation that is attached to
them. According to this philosopher’s what makes human
being different from mere things is that people have
“Deductive arguments” have conclusion that are either dignity based on their ability to choose freely what
certain or uncertain therefore when the given premises they want.
do not prove a conclusion certain even if highly And they have a fundamental moral right to have these
probable the arguments fail. choices respected people are not objects to
Whereas “inductive arguments” are often more manipulated it is a violation of human dignity to use
difficult to evaluate because concept of probability people in ways they do not freely choose.
vary between individuals what one individual consider Can be thought of us different aspects of the basic right
probable another individual may consider improbable. to be treated as we choose.
TRUTH VERSUS VALIDITY THE RIGHT TO THE TRUTH we have a right to be
A good argument is considered to be “valid” or more told the truth and to be informed about matters that
specifically an argument is “valid” if the premises are significantly affect our choices.
true and does the conclusion must certainly be true in a THE RIGHT OF PRIVACY we have the right to do
deductive argument or as probable as the argument believe and say whatever we choose in our personal
claims in inductive argument. lives so long as we do not violate the rights of others.
A bad argument on the other hand is considered to be THE RIGHT NOT TO BE INJURED we have the
“invalid” or more specifically even if the premises right not to be harm or injured unless we freely and
were true that would not demonstrate the truth or knowingly do something to deserve punishment or we
probability of the conclusion. freely and knowingly choose to risk such injuries.
Individual sentence on the other hand do not make up THE RIGHT TO WHAT IS we have a right to what
an enter argument but instead or connected with stating has been promised by those with whom we have freely
either a premise or a conclusion. entered into a contract or agreement
SOUND AND UNSOUNDS ARGUMENTS Does the action respect the moral rights of everyone
“Sounds or unsounds” a “sounds argument” is one actions or wrong to the extent that they violate the
where all stated promises are true and “Unsounds rights of individuals the more serious the violation the
argument” is one that contains at least one premise that more wrongful the action.
is false. THE FAIRNESS OR JUSTICE APPROACH
To ethics has its roots in the teachings of the ancient
THINKING ETHICALLY Greek philosopher Aristotle who said that equals
should be treated equally and an equal an equally.
Favoritism gives benefit to some people without a
justifiable reason for swingling them out
discrimination imposes burdens on people who are no
different from those on whom burdens are not
imposed.
THE COMMON GOOD APPROACH
Assumes a society comprising individuals whose own
good is inextricably linked to the good of the
community.
COMMON GOOD as certain general conditions that
are equally to everyone's advantage
The social policies social systems institutions and
environments on which we dependent are beneficial to
all.
THE VIRTUE APPROACH
Assumes that there are certain ideals towards which we
should strive which provide for the full development of
our humanity.
Purchase or attitudes or character traits that enable us
to be end and act in ways that develop our highest
potential honesty encourage compassion generosity
fidelity integrity fairness self-control and prudence or
all examples of virtues.
Virtues are like habits that is one acquired they
become characteristic of a person a person who's
developed virtues will be naturally disposed to act in
waste consistent with moral principles the virtues
person is the ethical person.