Chapter 1

The Problem

Introduction

Since their discovery, antibiotics have made enormous progress through their

continuous development. It is now used in various products, from treating and preventing

bacterial infections to cleaning agents like soaps, disinfectants, and surface sprays. It is

now a critical component in developing disease cures and medicines and has become

crucial in the medicinal community. However, bacteria are becoming increasingly

resistant to antibiotics due to the continuous overuse and misuse, putting people in grave

danger. As a result, it is critical to continue researching and discovering new potential

sources of antibiotics in order to avoid the dilemma mentioned above.

Emerging drug-resistant superbugs and the lack of new antibiotics for treating

human and animal diseases have heightened global concerns. Because antibiotics kill

sensitive bacteria, more challenging bacteria resist treatment to grow and multiply. The

more antibiotics are used, the more resistant bacteria become. The misuse of antibiotics

worsens this, and today, nearly all varieties of bacteria have become more assertive and

less susceptible to antibiotic therapy ("How Antibiotic Resistance Happens," n.d.).

Antibiotics are becoming increasingly ineffective as drug resistance spreads

worldwide, making infections and death more challenging to treat. New antibacterial is

desperately needed to treat carbapenem-resistant gram-negative bacterial infections on

the WHO priority pathogen list. However, unless people change the way antibiotics are

used now, these new antibiotics will follow in the footsteps of the current antibiotics and

become ineffective.
 Furthermore, antibiotics are no longer as effective as they once were. Certain

bacteria, known as "superbugs," have evolved and learned to resist the effects of drugs

designed to kill them over time. This process has been hastened by our collective overuse

of antibiotics in humans, animals, and plants. Drug-resistant infections are now a

significant public health concern. Hundreds of thousands of people die every year due to

infections that are no longer treatable with current medications. Antibiotics that can kill

drug-resistant bacteria must be discovered if modern medicine is saved (Jinks, 2020).

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and

parasites evolve and lose their ability to respond to antibiotics, making infections more

difficult to treat and increasing the risk of disease transmission, severe illness, and death.

Antibiotics and other antimicrobial medicines become ineffective due to drug resistance,

and infections become more difficult to treat, if not impossible (WHO, 2021).

A type of infection that is caused by these superbugs is foodborne

infection. Foodborne infection is an inflammatory condition that affects the stomach and

intestines. You can become infected when you eat or drink something contaminated by a

bacteria, virus, or parasite. Diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, abdominal

cramps, and sometimes fever are common symptoms of inflammation. Because of poor

hygiene, many foodborne diseases arise in people's homes. It is as simple as making

meals without washing your hands after using the restroom. Cross-contamination is

possible if raw meat and lettuce are diced on the same cutting board. Using the same

knife to cut both could result in foodborne pathogen exposure.

Considering the quantitative characteristics of plant constituents, analytical

procedures for their isolation, characterization, and phytochemical testing for elucidating

2
ethnopharmacological effects have been devised to treat various diseases. PDSs like

polyphenols, alkaloids, and tannins have much potential for fighting bacterial infections,

such as being used as antimicrobials or antibiotic resistance modifiers. Thus, this study

aims to use plants' phytochemicals as an antibacterial against foodborne pathogens to

identify if the plant effectively fights bacteria.

Thus, this research aims to identify whether the Anonang (Cordia dichotoma) leaf

extract has antibacterial properties. After all, the plant is already being used to treat flu,

colds, wounds, boils, and other diseases ("Philippine Medicinal Plants," n.d.) that the

researchers saw as the possibility of a new source of antibiotics. In such a case, this paper

could be beneficial to the medicinal world, as discovering a new antibiotic at this point is

groundbreaking. If not, this paper would still be beneficial since any newfound

information still contributes to the scientific community.

The Anonang leaves extract will be tested against Salmonella, E. coli, and K.

pneumonia, bacteria that cause foodborne illnesses. The test results will be the basis for

determining whether the Anonang plant might be a new source of antibiotics.

Statement of the Problem

This study is conducted to identify the antibacterial activity of Anonang (Cordia

dichotoma) against foodborne pathogens and ascertain whether the plant could be a

source of antibiotics.

This study aims to answer the question:

What is the level of effectiveness of the antibacterial activity of the Anonang

(Cordia dichotoma) leaves extracts against the following foodborne pathogens:

3
 a. Escherichia Coli;

b. Salmonella and;

c. Klebsiella pneumoniae?

Hypothesis

The Anonang (Cordia dichotoma) leaves extract exhibits antibacterial activity

against Escherichia Coli, Salmonella, and Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Scope and Delimitations

This study aims to determine the effectiveness of Anonang plant leaves against

common foodborne pathogens to identify whether the plant could be used in antibacterial

medicine. The experimentation process involved collecting plant materials, ethanolic

extraction, antibacterial testing, and data gathering. The Anonang plant leaves were

collected at Purok-3 Brgy. Malaguit, Paracale, Camarines Norte and extracted at Purok 3,

Brgy. 8, 1948 Suzara St., Daet, Camarines Norte. Afterward, the leaves were sent to the

laboratories of the Philippine National Collection of Microorganisms (PNCM), National

Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (BIOTECH), and University of the

Philippines Los Banos, Laguna (UPLB) through LBC delivery, and the results were

thereafter sent via email and were analyzed by the researchers.

4
Significance of the Study

The results of this research could be highly significant and beneficial to the

following:

Medical Field. This study serves as a medium of information that might open new

possibilities and discoveries in developing highly beneficial antibiotics for the medicinal

community.

Economy. Potential sources of antibiotics contribute to the economy by helping

prevent and slow down bacteria resistance.

Citizens. This study is significant in contributing to the protection of citizens

against bacteria, illnesses, infectious diseases, and disease transmission.

Community. This study contributes to the community by presenting information

regarding antibacterial pharmaceuticals and medicines to fight illnesses.

The Researchers, Themselves. This study helps the researchers learn and

experience the research process that could be useful later in their lives.

Future Researchers. This study serves as a guide for future researchers regarding

studies concerning the Anonang plant.

Definitions of Terms

To make the study more specific and understandable, the researchers utilized the

following terminology, which was theoretically and operationally defined, to emphasize

and explain the meanings of particular terms used in the research.

Anonang. Anonang is found in many places in the Philippines and treats flu,

colds, wounds, boils, and other diseases.

5
 Antibiotics. A substance can inhibit or kill microorganisms. That is used to treat

or prevent infections by killing or inhibiting the growth of bacteria in or on the body; that

is administered orally, topically, or by injection, and that is isolated from cultures of

certain microorganisms (such as fungi) or is of semi-synthetic or synthetic origin.

Boraginaceae. Boraginaceae, borage, or forget-me-not family of flowering

plants. The taxonomy of this family has been contentious. Boraginaceae was placed in

Euasterids I (lamiids) clade without an order by Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III.

Foodborne Infection. Consumption of infected foods or beverages results in

foodborne disease. Foodborne illnesses can be caused by various disease-causing

microorganisms or pathogens, resulting in a wide range of symptoms. Infections caused

by bacteria, viruses, and parasites cause most foodborne illnesses.

Pathogens. A pathogen is usually defined as a microorganism that causes or can

cause disease. We have defined a pathogen as a microbe that can cause damage to a host.

6
 NOTES

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). How antibiotic resistance happens.
https://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/about/how-resistance-happens.html

Jinks, T. (2020). Why is it so hard to develop new antibiotics? Wellcome. Retrieved from
https://wellcome.org/news/why-is-it-so-hard-develop-new-antibiotics

Philippine Medicinal Plants. (n.d.). Anonas, Annona reticulata Linn. CUSTARD

APPLE.:Philippine Medicinal Herbs / Herbal Therapies / Philippine Alternative

Medicine. http://www.stuartxchange.org/Anonas.html

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Antibiotic. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved

February 19, 2022, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/antibiotic

Encyclopædia Britannica. (n.d.). Boraginaceae.

https://www.britannica.com/plant/Boraginaceae

RIVM. (2018). Foodborne infections. https://www.rivm.nl/en/food-safety/foodborne-

diseases/foodborneinfections#:~:text=A%20foodborne%20infection%20is%20an,
abdominal%20cramps%20and%20sometimes%20fever.

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Pathogen. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved

February 19, 2022, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pathogen

WHO. (n.d.). Antibiotic resistance. World Health Organization. Retrieved May 1, 2022,
from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antibiotic-resistance