The Paragraph

Paragraphing
• “If you have a clear sense of how your text
should break down into paragraphs and if you
understand how to write paragraphs through
which the argument of the text flows clearly
and unobtrusively, then the individual
sentences should cause you few problems.”
- John Seely
Oxford Guide to Effective Writing and Speaking
 What is a paragraph?
• A paragraph is a collection of related
sentences dealing with a single topic.
• Paragraphs contribute to providing the shape
of messages since they are logical units of
thought.
 The Shape of a Paragraph
• The typical paragraph has three sections:
– An introduction: a sentence at the beginning or
close to the beginning that introduces the subject
matter of the paragraph.
– The body of the paragraph: a development of the
subject matter that leads in an orderly and
convincing way from the introduction to the
conclusion of the paragraph.
– The conclusion: a sentence at or near the end
which rounds off the paragraph.
 What is a paragraph?
• To be as effective as possible, a paragraph
should contain each of the following:
– Unity
– Coherence
– A Topic Sentence
– Adequate Development
 The paragraph
Unity:
• The entire paragraph should concern itself
with a single focus.
• If it begins with a one focus or major point of
discussion, it should not end with another or
wander within different ideas
• Give unity to the paragraph by making each
sentence contribute to the central thought.
 The paragraph: Unity
• The central thought is usually expressed in a
topic sentence.
• The topic sentence is often the first or second
sentence in the paragraph, but it may come
anywhere within the paragraph. Sometimes it
is not expressed at all but merely implied.
• A good topic sentence serves to orient the
reader and should be concise and emphatic.
 The paragraph: Unity
• The body of the paragraph contains the
supporting details that explain and expand the
central idea contained in the topic sentence.
• The body responds to questions such as:
– Who said it?
– What proof do you have to offer in support of
your claim?
– Can you provide examples?
 The paragraph: Unity
• The concluding statement in the paragraph
indicates to the reader that the discussion of
the central idea is coming to a close.
• The final statement often ties the paragraph
together by summarising, interpreting or
judging the facts.
• The final statement could also serve as a
transition and prepare the reader for the
following paragraph.
 The paragraph: Unity
• Acid rain indirectly threatens human health.
Besides containing several toxic metals, it
percolates through the soil, leaching out
naturally present metals. Pollutants such as
mercury invade surface water, accumulating in
fish tissues. Any organism eating the fish – or
drinking the water – in turn, faces the risk of
heavy metal poisoning. Moreover, acidified
water can release heavy concentrations of
lead, copper, and aluminum from metal
plumbing, making ordinary tap water
hazardous
 The paragraph: Coherence
• Coherence is the trait that makes the
paragraph easily understandable to a reader.
• Give coherence to the paragraph by so inter-
linking the sentences that the thought may
flow smoothly from one sentence to the
next.
 The paragraph: Coherence
• To be coherent, the paragraph must satisfy
two criteria:
– Relevance: every idea must contribute to the
topic.
– Effective order: ideas should be arranged in a
way that clarifies their logic or importance
 The paragraph
Coherence:
• Coherence can be achieved in paragraphs by
creating logical bridges and verbal bridges
– Arrange the sentences in a clear order.
– Make use of pronouns to refer to the preceding
sentence.
– Repeat words or ideas.
– Make use of transitional expressions.
– Make use of parallel structures.
 The paragraph: Coherence
• Logical bridges:
– The same idea of a topic is carried over from
sentence to sentence.
– Successive sentences can be constructed in
parallel form.
 The paragraph: Coherence
• Verbal bridges:
– Key words can be repeated in several sentences.
– Synonymous words can be repeated in several
sentences.
– Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous
sentences.
– Transition words can be used to link ideas from
different sentences
 The paragraph: Coherence
• David, the shepherd lad who lived in the hills
of Judea, was the sweetest singer in all Israel.
It was he who charmed the sad-faced Saul
with his songs. It was he, too, who vanquished
the mighty Philistine with his slingshot. Later
he incurred the anger of Saul and was driven
from court. But upon Saul's death David came
back and ruled Israel for forty years.
 The paragraph
Adequate development:
• The topic (which is introduced by the topic
sentence) should be discussed fully and
adequately.
• Note: this varies from paragraph to paragraph,
depending on the author's purpose, but
beware of paragraphs that only have two or
three sentences – it might be a sign of poor
development.
 The paragraph
Adequate development:
• The length of a paragraph is generally
determined by factors such as subject,
purpose, audience, editorial fashion and
individual preference.
Some methods to achieve a well-
developed paragraph
• Use examples and illustrations
• Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details,
and others)
• Examine testimony (what other people say
such as quotes and paraphrases)
• Use an anecdote or story
• Define terms in the paragraph
 Some methods to achieve a well-
developed paragraph (2)

• Compare and contrast

• Evaluate causes and reasons
• Examine effects and consequences
• Analyze the topic
• Describe the topic
• Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)
 The paragraph
The Basic Rule:
• Keep One Idea to One Paragraph
– If you begin to move into a new idea, it
belongs in a new paragraph.
– You can have one idea and several bits of
supporting evidence within a single paragraph.
– You can also have several points in a single
paragraph as long as they relate to the overall
topic of the paragraph.
 Developing a Pattern
• Paragraphs form a pattern which helps the
writer develop his/her argument.
– The introductory paragraph introduces the subject
matter and indicates how it will be handled.
– The lead sentences of the subsequent paragraphs
tell the reader what the paragraphs will contain.
– Each paragraph is linked to the other paragraphs
of the essay.
EFFECTIVE INTRODUCTIONS, CONCLUSIONS
AND SUPPORTING PARAGRAPHS
 Developing a Pattern
• Paragraphs form a pattern which helps the
writer develop his/her argument.
– The introductory paragraph introduces the subject
matter and indicates how it will be handled.
– The lead sentences of the subsequent paragraphs
tell the reader what the paragraphs will contain.
– Each paragraph is linked to the other paragraphs
of the essay.
 The Structure of a Paragraph
• One mark of a well written essay or any other
piece of written work is its good organisation and
good structure.
• A written text has three key sections:
– an Introduction
– a Body
– a Conclusion.
• Each section has a different purpose, and each
uses different writing strategies to achieve that
purpose.
INTRODUCTIONS
 The Introduction
• The purpose of the Introduction is :
– to tell the reader what the piece of written work is
going to be about
 The Introduction
• The writer achieves the purpose of the
Introduction by:
– providing a brief overview by way of background
to the topic
– stating the purpose of the essay
– outlining the main point, or the proposition or
thesis (claim or argument)
– identifying the principal stages of the essay
– stating the scope of the essay (or its limits)
 The Introduction
• There are seven ways to write an introduction:
– The funnel
– The anecdote
– The survey
– The quotation
– The question
– Setting the scene
– Definition
 Seven Ways to Write an Introduction

Funnel
– a wide, general, opening statement which
gradually becomes more narrow, just like a
funnel, which has a wide opening that narrows
to a small spout
– The opening statement is general, then
supporting statements make less general points
and lead to the specific topic that is stated in the
thesis statement.
 Seven Ways to Write an Introduction

Anecdote
– a short story about something that happened,
which illustrates the point one wants to make in
the essay
Seven Ways to Write an Introduction
Survey
¨ the writer gives readers an overview of the

information contained in the essay.

¨ A survey arouses the reader’s interest by giving the
reader a chance to agree or disagree with an
opinion stated by the writer
Seven Ways to Write an Introduction
Quotation
• This style is used when someone has clearly
and succinctly stated an opinion you agree
with and that will give the reader a clear idea
of your point.
• It needs to be relevant to the topic and
familiar to the reader.
• It can be used independently or combined
with other types of introductions.
Seven Ways to Write an Introduction
Question
• Asking a question at the beginning of an
essay is a useful tool for drawing the reader
in.
• The writer can ask a question in the
introduction and then wrap the essay around
the answer.
• It is best to use Information questions rather
than yes/no questions.
Seven Ways to Write an Introduction

Question
• “What is a historian? The historian is he who
tells a true story in writing. Consider the
members of that definition.”
– Hilaire Belloc
Seven Ways to Write an Introduction

Setting the Scene

• Creating a mental picture for the reader
helps introduce essays.
• Using words that describe how things smell,
look, feel, sound and taste raises the
reader’s curiosity and draws the reader to
read more
Seven Ways to Write an Introduction

Setting the Scene

• On the outskirts of a little town upon a rise
of land that swept back from the railway,
there was a tidy little cottage of white
boards, trimmed vividly with green blinds.
To one side of the house there was a garden
neatly patterned with plots of growing
vegetables, and an arbor for the grapes
which ripened late in August.
Seven Ways to Write an Introduction

Definition
• When a difficult or unknown term is going to
be used throughout the essay, defining that
term can serve as an introduction to the
essay.
THE BODY
 The Body
• The purpose of the Body of the text is:
– to tell the reader what the piece of written work is
about .
 The Body
• The writer achieves the purpose of the Body:
– by providing a logical structure that makes the
essay easier to understand
– by identifying the main points that are to be made
– by providing a succinct or concise statement of
the first main point
– by elaborating on the main point by providing a
couple of examples to illustrate or highlight the
first main point.
 The Body 2
• The writer achieves the purpose of the Body:
– by summarising what has been said about the first
main point
– by taking the second and any subsequent main
points that are to be made, and repeating the
steps identified above for the first main point.
 Order of Supporting Paragraphs

• The order of the supporting paragraphs

depends chiefly on the points one wishes to
emphasise in the essay.
 Order of Supporting Paragraphs

• There are different ways to order paragraphs

in the body of an essay:
– Chronological or time order
– Order of importance
– Level of familiarity
– Space order
– Numerical order
 Order of Supporting Paragraphs

Chronological or Time Order

• When points are presented in the order in which
they happen, they are in chronological order.
• This type of ordering is used when the topic can be
divided into steps or stages.
• It is commonly used in narrative and process essays.
 Order of Supporting Paragraphs

Order of Importance
• Writers can also organize the paragraphs according
to the level of importance they feel each point
warrants.
• A writer may want to order the paragraphs so the
most convincing or important point is last. On the
other hand, the writer may want to place the
convincing or important paragraph first.
 Order of Supporting Paragraphs

Level of Familiarity
• Ordering points according to how familiar
they are is another way for the writer to
organize the paragraphs, similar to putting
points in order of importance.
• Points are ordered from most to least
familiar or vice versa.
 Order of Supporting Paragraphs

Space Order
• In this format, the supporting paragraphs are
arranged to describe where things are located in
relation to the position of other objects.
• The paragraphs are ordered according to their
location or position.
• This format is best used in a descriptive essay.
 Order of Supporting Paragraphs

Numerical Order
• If the points in the essay focus on size,
volume or weight, then the paragraphs can
be ordered accordingly, for example: first,
second, third; largest to smallest.
• This is not often used, but it can be
effective in a classification essay.
CONCLUSIONS
 The Conclusion
• The purpose of the conclusion is:
– to tell the reader what the piece of written work
has been about
 The Conclusion
• The writer achieves the purpose of the
conclusion:
– by stating clearly and concisely what has been said
in relation to each of the main points outlined in
the body of the essay
– by outlining the stages of development in the
body of the text
– by reiterating the main thesis or argument
 The Conclusion 2
• The writer achieves the purpose of the
conclusion:
– by providing a concluding statement or position
that draws together the ideas presented within
the body of the essay
– by highlighting the particular focus of the thesis in
the essay
 Six Ways to Conclude an Essay

Call for Action

• This type of conclusion asks the reader to do
something.
• Asking the reader to take an action engages
him or her with the topic and leaves a strong
impression.
 Six Ways to Conclude an Essay

Question
• Asking readers a question about the topic
also engages them and leaves them with
more to think about.
• You can conclude an essay with one
significant question, or you can ask a few
questions
 Six Ways to Conclude an Essay

Final Decisive Point

• A final decisive point is a strong statement of
opinion or fact.
• The purpose is to leave the readers with a
lasting impression so that they remember
the essay and the points made
 Six Ways to Conclude an Essay

Overview of Key Points

• An overview of key points summarizes the
main points made in the essay.
• This reminds readers of what was discussed
and clearly ends the discussion
 Six Ways to Conclude an Essay

Quotation
• Using a quotation that is well known, or that
is from a well-known person, helps a writer
make a point in a powerful way.
• Quotations give a literary and authoritative
tone to an essay
 Six Ways to Conclude an Essay

Statistic
• Using a statistic in a conclusion leaves
readers with an impressive fact that
reinforces the points made in the essay
 Write a one paragraph essay
• Sentence 1 – (topic sentence) – make one claim about
the thesis
• Sentence 2 – explain why the topic sentence is true, or
develop it further
• Sentence 3 – give an example of the claim made in the
topic sentence
• Sentence 4 – give another example of the claim to better
support it
• Sentence 5 – support the claim with even more specific
information
• Sentence 6 – write a sentence that wraps up the
paragraph