LEK Guide Master Book Final

Including Local Ecological
Knowledge (LEK) in
Mangrove Conservation
& Restoration
A Best-Practice Guide for
Practitioners and Researchers
www.mangrovealliance.org
Local ecological LEK in mangrove LEK in mangrove
“How to” tools Appendices
knowledge research management
Authors Organizations for Marine Conservation Awareness and Research

(OMCAR), Pattimburak Village, Penn State
Kerry Grimm*, Mark Spalding**, Marice Leal***, Kate Kincaid, Lalao Aigrette, Peace Amoah-Quiminee, Laercio Amani Jipange, Asociación de Preservación de
University, Rare, Red Cross Vietnam, Seacology
Amoras, Didier Amouine, Francis Areki, Wilfrido Arends, José María Argueta, Camilo A. Arrieta-Giron, Apri Susanto Manglares de Bahía Hondita – Asomanglares, AMBAS
Foundation, Sido Makmur Community Group,
Astra, Gilbert Nyabochwa Atuga, Marito Barillo, Sara Bonilla Anariba, Manoel Botelho, Annadel S. Cabanban, (Associacion de Mujeres de Barra de Santiago),
Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Tavua
Eder Caceros, Dalila Caicedo, Alejandra Calzada, Steven Canty, Sandra Cardenas, Guillermo Ricardo Carrera Asociación Mangle, ASSUREMACATA, ASSUREMAS,
District, The Nature Conservancy, TUARISBA, University
Patiño, Julian Castro-Gomez, Filimoni Caucau, Aina Celestin, Valter Chagas, José Chulim, Juan Carlos Cuadro, ASSUREMAV, AUREMAC, AUREMAP, AUREMAR,
of Cambridge, Vida Manglar, Wetland Ranger, Wetlands
Farid Dahdouh-Guebas, Zacarias Monteiro da Silva, Adriana Daza, Abu Dawud, Giovanni Díaz, María Claudia AUREMAT, AUREMC-MG, AUREMLUC, Barokah
International, Wetlands International Indonesia, WWF
Diazgranados, Amaury Dubano, Claudia Durán, Rafael Espinosa, Karla Evangelista, João Ferreira, Mondane community group of Timbulsloko Village, Blue
Mexico, WWF Pacific Office.
Fouqueray, Andrés Emiliano Fraiz-Toma, Jose Roberto Garcia Moraes, João Carlos Gomes da Silva, Wilmer Ventures Conservation, Bonje Community Forest
Gomez, Manuel González, Murugesan Govindarajan, Dahlan Iha, Pilar Jacobo, Jorge Elías Jaén, Giamalidiny Association in Mwache, Centro de Estudios Marinos,
Jaofary, Nicomedes Jiménez, Said Chirunga Juma, Kuswantoro, Susan Lusiana, Yoger Yair Madarriaga, Rajendran Ceriops Organization, City of Tacloban, Environment Audience
Magalingam, Abdu Mahamudu, Unaisi Malani, Nelia Malate, Manuel Marrufo, Phil Martin, Bruna Maria Lima and Natural Resources Office (ENRO), Conservation
This guide is designed as a starting point to help
Martins, Harris Mendoza, Laura Michie, Yenyfer Mona, Antonio Moreira, Hannah Morrissette, Matthias Mueller, International, Conservation International (CI) Liberia,
researchers and practitioners working in mangrove
Lionel Dishon Murage, Manasa Naikasowalu, Sumantha Narayana, Nelly Ndule, Mwinga Ngozi, Daniel Oeiras, CORPOGUAJIRA, Corporación Autónoma regional del
conservation and restoration who want to engage
Mike Olendo, Paula Ortega, Daiver Pinto, Hanggar Prasetio, Alfredo Quarto, Luis Roberto Quintanilla Guerra, Valle del Sinú (CVS), Fundación vigias ambientales
with and include LEK in their projects. This applies
Hanjara Rabemanantsoa, Cicelin Rakotomahazo, Alfred Ralifo, Jaona Ravelonjatovo, Zulma Ricord de Mendoza, Jose Ladeus” DRMI Musichi, GFA Consulting Group
to, but is not limited to, members of the Global
Apolosa Robaigau, Oseia Rocha, Adanies Epieyu Rosado, Mat Sairi, Sefrianto Saleda, K. Sathya, Paula Sierra, Omar / CDM Smith, GIZ, Hô-üt association, Human
Mangrove Alliance, their collaborators, and the
Sierra Rozo, Yenis Simanca, Levis Sirikwa, Somo Somo, William Sutherland, Jose Roberto Tavares da Silva, Leo Environment Connections, Indian Ocean Water Body
broader conservation community.
Thom, Vatemo Tinalevu, Paulo Cesar Jesus Torres, Virginie Tsilibaris, Nguyen Van Hien, Truong Van Lai, Dang Van BMU Network, International Union for Conservation
Tao, Balaji Vedharajan, Carlos Villamil Echeverri, Dominic Wodehouse, Thomas Worthington, Sabawu Yennego, of Nature (IUCN), IUCN French National Committee,
Woro Yuniati, Martin Zimmer. JALA S.A., Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research DOI: https://doi.org/10.5479/10088/118227
Institute, Konservasi Indonesia, Lamu County BMU
Network, Latian Internasyonal Pilipinas Inc. (Wetlands
Cover Image
International Philippines), Leibniz-Centre for Tropical
Marine Research (ZMT), Mangrove Action Project, A fisherman practicing his trade, perfected through
Marine and Coastal Research Institute (INVEMAR), generations of knowledge, in the waters of a mangrove
Matondoni Beach Management Unit (BMU), Ministerio forest in Myanmar. © Teo Chin Leong / TNC Photo
de Ambiente (Panamá) - Chiriquí Regional, Ministerio Contest 2023
de Ambiente (Panamá) - DICOMAR (Coasts and Seas
Division), Ministerio de Ambiente (Panamá) - West
Designed by
Panamá Regional, MOCAJUIM, Nailaga District
Representative, Omacha Foundation, Organization Yoke: www.yokedesign.studio
Experts like Darwin Sosa, a local nature tour guide pictured here, have vital insight
into local mangrove forests in the form of LEK. © Jason Houston - WWF-US
*
Kerry Grimm, Human-Environment Connections - [email protected]
**
Mark Spalding, The Nature Conservancy – [email protected]
***
Marice Leal, The Nature Conservancy – [email protected]
1 2
Table of contents
1. Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 5 7. Fiji – Living with Change – Resilient mangroves, fisheries and people of Fiji ..............................................93
1.1 Mangroves.................................................................................................................................7 8. Honduras – Restoring the mangroves of Estero Prieto, Omoa .....................................................................97
1.2 Local ecological knowledge (LEK) ..........................................................................................9 9. India – Reviving mangroves: Sustaining traditional knowledge and using eco-friendly
Palmyra nursery bags ..............................................................................................................................................99
1.3 Why this guide? ......................................................................................................................12
10. Indonesia – Building with Nature (BwN) Indonesia – Securing eroding delta coastlines .....................103
1.4 Layout ......................................................................................................................................14
11. Indonesia – Kerakera: restoring traditional management practices to safeguard mangroves ...........107
12. Kenya – Protection of the 450 ha mangrove forest that surrounds the village of Matondoni .............111
2. Local ecological knowledge (LEK) .............................................................................................15
13. Kenya – Mwache mangrove forest regeneration: An integrated approach to restore
2.1 Why is LEK important?...........................................................................................................17 mangrove habitat with local community ......................................................................................................115
2.2 International recognition of LEK .........................................................................................20 14. Kenya – Greening the blue initiative .............................................................................................................119
2.3 Ethical awareness, understanding and responsibility......................................................23 15. Liberia – Improving sustainable use of mangroves through protection, planning,
and livelihood reation.......................................................................................................................................123
3. Local ecological knowledge in mangrove research.................................................... 25 16. Madagascar – Community-led mangrove conservation and restoration in the
Baie des Assassins ............................................................................................................................................127
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................27
17. Mexico – Raíces para las comunidades y el clima: Network of mangrove honey producers
3.2 Approach .................................................................................................................................28
in the Yucatán ....................................................................................................................................................131
3.3 Findings....................................................................................................................................29 18. New Caledonia – Educational trail in the mangrove forest of the Koé tribe ...........................................135
3.3.1 Mangrove LEK ..................................................................................................................................................30 19. Panama – Restoring the wetland of Laguna de las Lajas ...........................................................................139
3.3.2 Community involvement in LEK research ....................................................................................................43 20. Philippines –Rehabilitating an abandoned fishpond in Nula-tula, Tacloban City ..................................143
3.3.3 Data collection methods.................................................................................................................................48 21. Vietnam – Mangrove reforestation for disaster risk reduction and climate change mitigation .........147
3.3.4 Increasing connections between LEK and AEK ...........................................................................................56 4.4 Engaging with and sharing LEK .........................................................................................151
3.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................57
5. “How to” tools ..........................................................................................................................................153
4. Local ecological knowledge in mangrove management ..................................... 59
5.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................155
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................61
5.2 Guidance for including LEK in mangrove research and management ........................156
4.2 Methods and summary of case studies ..............................................................................63 5.2.1 Additional guidance for researchers in combining LEK with AEK ..........................................................161
4.3 Case studies.............................................................................................................................67 5.2.2 Additional guidance for engaging with LEK and local communities ethically and inclusively..........161
1. Brazil – Green July: Building community pride for mangroves ......................................................................71
2. Colombia – Searching for solutions for carbon-sequestration in coastal ecosystems (sea4soCiety) ......73 6. Appendices.................................................................................................................................................. 163
3. Colombia – Multi-scale mangrove governance for the traditional and Indigenous communities in Appendix 1: References for the 90 studies reviewed ............................................................165
the department La Guajira ......................................................................................................................................77 Appendix 2: Types of LEK in mangrove research ...................................................................175
4. Colombia: Vida Manglar, blue carbon program in the Morrosquillo Gulf....................................................81
Appendix 3: Methodology for mangrove local ecological knowledge systematic review .179
5. El Salvador – Restoration and monitoring of four mangrove species in El Zaite, Barra de Santiago ......85
Appendix 4: Mangrove LEK case studies guidelines and template ....................................179
6. El Salvador – Harnessing local knowledge for mangrove restoration in the Bay of Jiquilisco ..................89
3 4
Introduction
1. Introduction 1.1 Mangroves
1.2 Local ecological knowledge (LEK)

7
1.3 Why this guide? 12
1.4 Layout 14
Local communities know the geography of their

mangroves better than anyone else. © IUCN - MFF
5 6
Introduction
1.1
Mangroves
Mangroves are trees and
shrubs that grow in People have lived
saline and brackish tidal with mangroves for
waters across tropical millennia, making use
of their many goods
and subtropical regions and benefits, and often
of the world.1 holding a key place for
them in local cultures Local knowledge, combined with local engagement – a group of women in India (see Case Study 9) have been using
traditional methods to build biodegradable containers for mangrove saplings. © OMCAR
and traditions.
Mangroves support rich biodiversity spanning both
marine and terrestrial environments. Their roots
anchor to the sediment, providing shelter for an There has been a surge of interest in the role of from the 1700s to the 1900s, mangrove destruction
array of marine fauna including fish, invertebrates, mangroves in relation to climate change. Mangroves 4
was widely used to control mosquito populations.5
and mammals. Their canopy provides habitat, food, are among the most effective ecosystems for both Mangroves have continued to decline in more recent
and shelter for many terrestrial organisms, including live adjacent to, or even within, mangroves. carbon storage and sequestration. This, along with times as they are cleared for development, tourism,
mammals such as tigers and monkeys, birds, reptiles, Mangroves form a natural buffer reducing storm their role in protecting coastal communities from urban expansion, and aquaculture.6
and insects. Mangroves often show close ecological damage and erosion. Their wood is harvested for climate change impacts (e.g., sea level rise, increased
linkages to adjacent ecosystems, including coral timber and fuel. They support fisheries by storm intensity), ensures that they can play a key role Recent years have seen dramatic changes in the
reefs, seagrass beds, salt marshes, and mudflats, providing breeding and nursery grounds for many in mitigation and adaptation strategies to ongoing perception of mangroves, as their value has been
supporting a vast network of communities and fish and invertebrates. climate change, putting them at the heart of identified, calculated, and supported. The increase
ecological interactions. 2
potential nature-based solutions. in awareness extends well beyond the conservation
Through these services, mangroves provide food community and has led to a host of international
Mangroves also provide many benefits directly to security, jobs, building materials, and critical protection Despite these benefits, mangroves have been at risk efforts striving towards halting the loss of, restoring,
people, and humans have utilized and benefitted
3
from extreme events. Many mangrove areas also since early colonial times. Some historical European and protecting mangrove ecosystems - for biodiversity,
from these ecosystems for millennia, especially the provide cultural value as places of recreation, tourism, and other “outside” observers associated mangroves people, and sustainability.
numerous local and traditional communities who solace, or traditional or religious importance. with negative services, or disservices. In Florida,
4 Friess, D. A., Yando, E. S., Abuchahla, G. M. O., Adams, J. B., Cannicci, S., Canty, S. W. J., . . . Wee, A. K. S. (2020). Mangroves give cause for
1 Spalding, M. D., M. Kainuma, and L. Collins. 2010. World Atlas of Mangroves. Earthscan, London conservation optimism, for now. Current Biology, 30(4), R153-R154.
2 Van Lavieren, H., M. Spalding, D. Alongi, M. Kainuma, M. Clüsener-Godt, and Z. Adeel. 2012. Securing the Future of Mangroves. A Policy Brief. 5 Rey, J. R., Walton, W. E., Wolfe, R. J., Connelly, C. R., O’Connell, S. M., Berg, J., ... & Laderman, A. D. (2012). North American wetlands and
UNU-INWEH, UNESCO MAB with ISME, ITTO, FAO, UNEP WCMC and TNC, Hamilton, Canada. mosquito control. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 9(12), 4537-4605.
3 Ellison, A. M., Felson, A. J., & Friess, D. A. (2020). Mangrove Rehabilitation and Restoration as Experimental Adaptive Management. 6 Spalding, M. D., & Leal, M. (Eds.). (2021). The State of the World’s Mangroves 2021: Global Mangrove Alliance.
Frontiers in Marine Science, 7.
7 8
Introduction
1.2 Table 1: Definition of diverse knowledge types.
Local ecological
Local Ecological Knowledge Traditional Ecological Knowledge
“The knowledge, practices, and beliefs gained “A cumulative body of knowledge, practice,
knowledge (LEK)
through extensive personal observation of, and and belief, evolving by adaptive processes and
interaction with local ecosystems, and shared handed down through generations by cultural
among local resource users”. 7
transmission, about the relationship of living
beings (including humans) with one another
and with their environment”.9
With growing interest in conserving

and restoring mangroves, it is Only local people Indigenous Knowledge
can provide the

important to understand the local context crucial
Also referred to as Indigenous
Ecological Knowledge
local context where this work for a holistic view
“Knowledge and know-how accumulated across
occurs, as ecological, social, and of the mangrove
ecosystem.
generations, which guide [Indigenous] human
economic settings are unique. societies in their innumerable interactions with

their surrounding environment”.10
Local-scale data may be hard to find and include. knowledge (IK) when the local people are Indigenous
However, local ecological knowledge (LEK) can play a (Table 1). Here, we consider both TEK and IK to be Academic Ecological Knowledge (AEK)
critical role, providing greater understanding of the types of LEK. Holders of LEK typically live locally, but
Also referred to as Conventional Scientific
local ecological and social context. can also include people who have spent extended
Knowledge, Scientific Ecological Knowledge,
time within an area.
or Western Scientific Knowledge
In this guide, LEK is defined as “the knowledge,
practices, and beliefs gained through extensive LEK is often contrasted with academic ecological “Driven by theoretical models and hypothesis
personal observation of, and interaction with, knowledge (AEK), which has been described as testing and generated using the scientific method”.11
local ecosystems, and shared among local information developed through research-based
“Generated through a strict and universally
resource users”. 7
enquiry, typically using forms of data collection and
accepted set of rules informed by academic
hypothesis testing learned in academic settings.8 In Local villager Jeffrey Laia in Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea.
The knowledge compounded over generations and held by disciplines (e.g., ecology, biology, or forestry)
Over longer periods, such knowledge can accrue and reality, distinctions between types of knowledge may
local people is an invaluable asset. © Mark Godfrey and by the scientific method”.12
develop between generations, and may be referred to not be absolute, and the differences that do exist can
as traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) or Indigenous be highly complementary.
9 Berkes, F., Colding, J., and Folke, C. (2000). Rediscovery of traditional ecological knowledge as adaptive management. Ecol. Appl. 10, 1251–1262.
10 Thaman, R. R. (2013, September). The contribution of indigenous and local knowledge systems to IPBES: building synergies with science.
7 Charnley, S. (2008). Traditional and local ecological knowledge about forest biodiversity in the Pacific Northwest. Report of the international expert workshop on the contribution of indigenous and local knowledge systems to the Platform. UNESCO.
US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.
11 Charnley, S. (2008). Traditional and local ecological knowledge about forest biodiversity in the Pacific Northwest.
8 Within the literature, AEK is also sometimes referred to as Scientific Ecological Knowledge, Western Ecological Knowledge, or Western US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station
Scientific Knowledge. We avoid these other terms as LEK can also be scientific, while much AEK is derived from regions and expertise that is
12 Cebrián-Piqueras, M. A., Filyushkina, A., Johnson, D. N., Lo, V. B., López-Rodríguez, M. D., March, H., ... & Plieninger, T. (2020). Scientific and local
not from the so-called “Western world.”
ecological knowledge, shaping perceptions towards protected areas and related ecosystem services. Landscape Ecology, 35(11), 2549-2567.
9 10
Introduction
The inclusion of Indigenous and local communities

should be a guiding principle of ecosystem
1.3
Why this guide?

management, with LEK helping to inform planning,
implementation, and monitoring associated with LEK extends over
restoration and conservation projects.13 space and time, and
encompasses ecology,
To do so, researchers and practitioners can look to hydrology, climate,
knowledge co-production, which can inform multiple sociology and more
steps throughout the process, from consultation to Effective conservation By including LEK in the work of researchers and
practitioners, we stand a far greater chance of slowing
dissemination of findings.14 Knowledge coproduction
is the co-creation of knowledge by different groups,
and restoration of the loss and degradation of mangroves, and of
such as scientists, managers, communities, or policy- mangroves requires a ensuring stable and long-term outcomes.
makers. Sharing knowledge and learning from

others creates more holistic understanding, and specific mangrove species, which might be required for
shift in conventional This guide explores the need and opportunity
counters conventional one-way knowledge transfer by reforestation efforts. Without being aware of such thinking to recognize for engaging with LEK and approaching it as
complementary to other existing ecological,
researchers or project leaders. information, scientists or managers may default
to low resolution or inaccurate modelling studies,
and engage with the economic, and social science data. It explores the
By treating LEK as an equal knowledge system from or use global or regional estimates to quantify diverse sources of diversity of LEK about mangroves with the aim of
expanding awareness and supporting both researchers
which researchers and practitioners can learn, they will
open themselves to an expanse of knowledge that they
potential local values. LEK can also provide deep
understanding of the community’s relationship to
knowledge held by and practitioners in knowing what they might ask local
might be missing. However, this requires an openness mangroves, historical uses, and current needs. By local communities. community members, how to do so, and how such
knowledge could help in shaping conservation and
to the diversity of LEK that exists. Many focus engaging with this information, local concerns and
restoration projects.
their attention on LEK relating to ecosystem services interests can be better addressed, while community-
(i.e., uses, benefits) or threats, neglecting wide areas centered approaches have also been shown to be more
Through discussion of research and case studies of
of other knowledge. effective for restoration and conservation.
conservation and restoration projects, this guide shows
examples from which people can be inspired, while also
LEK can help fill knowledge gaps, for example, in The push to include LEK within conservation and
providing insights on how to improve efforts in ethically
data-poor areas that have no historical baseline restoration has been echoed in multiple policy
and genuinely engaging with LEK.
of quantitative science data such as conditions, conventions. However, this is an area that many
biodiversity, or ecosystem uses. LEK can share details researchers and practitioners can find challenging.
Accounting for local communities, including
about species that live in mangroves, and spatial Understanding LEK can require novel approaches and
subsistence needs, traditions and perceptions has
information about the location of the mangroves and methods and its use comes with ethical responsibilities.
a critical role in designing sucessful restoration and
conservation.15 Although people might struggle
to know where to start or how LEK can inform and
In La Guajira, Colombia (Case study 3) mangrove management
improve their conservation and restoration projects,
and access agreements have been developed by Indigenous and
Afro-descendant communities, building on traditions, ancestral the case studies demonstrate there are a multitude
knowledge and spiritual practices. © Maria Camila Parra of ways to do so.
13 Reyes-García, V., Fernández-Llamazares, Á., McElwee, P., Molnár, Z., Öllerer, K., Wilson, S. J., & Brondizio, E. S. (2019). The contributions of
Indigenous Peoples and local communities to ecological restoration. Restoration Ecology, 27(1), 3-8.
14 Grimm, K.E., Thode, A. E., Satink Wolfson, B., & Brown, L.E. 2022. Scientist engagement with boundary organizations and knowledge
coproduction: A case study of the Southwest Fire Science Consortium. Fire 5 (43). 15 Bosire, J. O., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Walton, M., Crona, B. I., Lewis III, R. R., Field, C., . . . Koedam, N. (2008). Functionality of restored
mangroves: A review. Aquatic Botany, 89, 251-259.
11 12
Introduction
1.4
Layout
The guide has four main sections, examining LEK
more broadly and then focusing on mangroves.
It begins with a brief background to LEK and highlights the relevance

and importance of including LEK in mangrove research and management.
Also discussed are increasing policy commitments to LEK in the context
of mangrove conservation, and ethical considerations important for any
Local
work involving human participants, including holders of LEK. ecological
Passing on local knowledge, cultural practices and traditional regulations has been central to mangrove knowledge
conservation in West Papua, Indonesia (Case study 11). © Orlin Ozora Yowei/Konservasi Indonesia
The next section (Local Ecological Knowledge) contains a synthesis of
past research that studied or engaged with mangrove LEK. These studies
were identified through a systematic review of peer-reviewed literature. LEK in
mangrove
Aims Mangrove LEK is categorized and described along with a synthesis of research
research methods and approaches towards community engagement.
This guide is intended to encourage wider inclusion of LEK in mangrove research and projects worldwide.
This synthesis provides a greater understanding of the diversity of
Specifically, this guide aims to:
mangrove LEK; methods for conducting such research; and ways to LEK in
include community members and their LEK into the research project. mangrove
management
1 Raise awareness of the variety and 4 Highlight the importance of equitable Although focused on research studies, this section aims to provide
scope of LEK in mangrove ecosystems. collaboration, in terms of knowledge greater understanding of the existing knowledge and approaches that
coproduction, engagement of local have been used to not only help other researchers, but also help
2 Highlight the value that LEK can people, and working across disciplines. practitioners gain greater insight into mangrove LEK. “How to“ tools
bring to mangrove conservation
and restoration. 5 Provide recommendations and This is followed by a series of case studies detailing practical
guidance for practitioners and mangrove conservation and restoration projects that engage with and
3 Encourage increased engagement researchers on whom to engage and are informed by LEK. Examples from around the world demonstrate
Appendices
of LEK in conservation and how to include LEK in research or the diversity of ways that multiple types of LEK are already informing
restoration projects. projects in ethical and inclusive ways. projects, and ways that communities and their LEK can be included in
various stages of a project.
Figure 1: The main report sections.
These icons and headings can
Finally, the guide provides a set of “how to” practical tools to help guide
be found on the top left of each
researchers and practitioners looking to include LEK, but unsure of the double page spread, and can be
best approaches. used to navigate to those sections.
13 14
Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK)
2. Local ecological 2.1 Why is LEK important in management and research? 17
knowledge (LEK)
2.2 International recognition of LEK 20
2.3 Ethical awareness, understanding and responsibility 23
Members of the Pate Women’s Association in Lamu, Kenya, know

the best time and conditions for collecting propagules. © Sarah Waiswa
15 16
2.1 Despite the importance of considering LEK in research

and management, practical guidance on how to do
Examining the different knowledge systems involved
in management, as well as places where they
Why is LEK important

so is often lacking. There are also concerns that the overlap, can help in conducting holistic research and
breadth and complexity of LEK can make engaging with generating sustainable and equitable management
it in a meaningful way more challenging. 16
approaches (Figure 2).
in management
and research?
Local Ecological Holistic understanding of Academic Ecological
LEK can be a critical

Knowledge a social-ecological ecosystem Knowledge
Approaches to research or management that do
Historical, natural and Ecosystem service valuation High precision mechanistic
not consider the full and complex array and history (economic and social)
information source for

mechanistic understanding information. Often spatially and
of processes in any ecosystem are vulnerable to (natural history), cultural values, temporally restricted. Predictive
traditional practices and uses. modelling. Consistent metrics,
natural resource significant inaccuracies. Bringing in local information

can inform broader understanding in research or
Spatially and temporally
expansive Sustainable and
repeatable, international
equitable management
management, even, influence management decisions and implementation. Information driven decision-making
and holistic problem resolution.
or perhaps especially, LEK can provide a solid basis and even a check on
assumptions and hypotheses. It can also offer insights
Planning and implementation
supporting mangrove
at times when such beyond the limits of conventional scientific analyses. Social and
cultural influence
management, including
long-term conservation Numerical targets,
progress tracking,
and restoration
resources are threatened Part of this holistic approach includes the role LEK
on management
and prioritization
technical products
with change. can play in providing a historical perspective. LEK

can provide unique information on past conditions,
including impacts of storms, patterns of seasonality, Decision-making systems
flooding, human exploitation of resources, and past Developing governance,
implementing conservation
species and ecosystem functions. LEK can also decisions, restoration, spatial
help to fill gaps in primary data collection, for planning, economic and
social development
example, building species lists, resource mapping, or
documenting human uses. This can save time, reduce
costs, and avoid critical oversights.
LEK is so widely present that many people utilize

Figure 2: Shared information among LEK, AEK, and decision-making systems.
LEK at some level without being aware of it. At the
Adapted from Albuquerque et al. 2021.16
same time, it is important that such information is
properly acknowledged if it is being used beyond the
Fishing village in Berau Delta, Indonesia. Local knowledge
local “owners” of such knowledge.
comes from a proximity and familiarity with a place, and often
includes a deep understanding of history, ecology and human 16 Albuquerque, U. P., Ludwig, D., Feitosa, I. S., de Moura, J. M. B., Gonçalves, P. H. S., da Silva, R. H., ... & Ferreira Junior, W. S. 2021. Integrating
traditional ecological knowledge into academic research at local and global scales. Regional Environmental Change, 21(2), 1-11.
interactions. © Mark Spalding
17 18
2.2
International
recognition of LEK
The important links between nature and
people have been a key feature of the
international policy agenda for many decades.
Even so, there has been increasing awareness of

such co-dependence, and particularly on the close
connection between local and Indigenous people
and their environment. Local knowledge can be seen
as a key part of achieving the UN’s 17 Sustainable
Development Goals.17 There is thus growing
recognition of the importance of LEK and the
inclusion of such knowledge into practical action,
which is called for in a number of key international
policy tools (Table 2). Under the UN Decade on
Ecosystem Restoration, for example, “Integrating
Indigenous knowledge & traditional practices into
ecosystem restoration initiatives” is seen as one of
the ways to overcome barriers and achieve the
vision of preventing, halting, and reversing
environmental degradation.18
Local villager Ko Myo Naing places crab traps in the mangroves near his
village, Wae Ma Gite. Wae Ma Gite and three other villages in the Tha Kyet
Taw area in Myanmar depend on the mangroves. © Minzayar Oo - WWF-US
17 Kumar, A., Kumar, S., Komal, Ramchiary, N., & Singh, P. (2021). Role of traditional ethnobotanical knowledge and indigenous
communities in achieving Sustainable Development Goals. Sustainability, 13(6), 3062.
Ignacia de la Rosa, a leader of the San Antero community in the Cispatá region of Colombia, ensuring Indigenous voices are meaningfully
18 The United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. Strategy. United Nations.
represented and heard during decision-making sessions at the recent United Nations Climate Change Conference in Dubai, United Arab Emirates https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/31813/ERDStrat.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
in December 2023. © COP28 Presidency
19 20
Table 2: Examples of global policy instruments and frameworks, their purpose,

and the key components related to local ecological knowledge.
Policy Purpose Key components relevant to Reference Policy Purpose Key components relevant to Reference
Instruments Local Ecological Knowledge Instruments Local Ecological Knowledge
& Frameworks & Frameworks
UN Convention “…the conservation “…respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, Text of UNEP “an ambitious plan Target 21: “Ensure that the best available data, CBD/
on Biological of biological diversity, innovations and practices of indigenous and local Convention – to implement broad- information and knowledge, are accessible… to COP/15/L.25
Diversity the sustainable use of communities embodying traditional lifestyles Article 8 In-Situ Convention based action to bring guide effective and equitable governance, integrated
its components and relevant for the conservation and sustainable use Conservation on Biological about a transformation and participatory management of biodiversity, and
the fair and equitable of biological diversity and promote their wider Diversity. in our societies’ to strengthen communication, awareness-raising,
sharing of the benefits application with the approval and involvement of relationship with education, monitoring, research and knowledge
Kunming-Montreal
arising out of the the holders of such knowledge, innovations and biodiversity by 2030… management and, also in this context, traditional
Global Biodiversity
utilization of genetic practices and encourage the equitable sharing of and ensure that, by knowledge, innovations, practices and technologies
Framework
resources…” the benefits arising from the utilization of such 2050, the shared vision of indigenous peoples and local communities should
knowledge innovations and practices.” of living in harmony only be accessed with their free, prior and informed
(Article 1) with nature is fulfilled.” consent…”.
(Article 8j) Target 22: “Ensure the full, equitable, inclusive,
effective and gender-responsive representation
and participation in decision-making, and access
United Nations “To prevent, halt Technical capacity pathway: “Integrating indigenous The United
to justice and information related to biodiversity
and reverse the knowledge and traditional practices into ecosystem Nations Decade
by indigenous peoples and local communities,
degradation of restoration initiatives.” on Ecosystem
respecting their cultures and their rights over lands,
ecosystems” Restoration
The United “Using appropriate institutional mechanisms, to territories, resources, and traditional knowledge,
Strategy
Nations Decade increase the upscaling of ecosystem restoration as well as by women and girls, children and youth,
on Ecosystem globally by strengthening the role of science, and persons with disabilities and ensure the
Restoration indigenous knowledge and traditional practices and full protection of environmental human rights
(2021-2030) applying best technical knowledge and practice”. Strategy defenders.”
document
“Importantly, comprehensive assessments of local
and indigenous knowledge, as well as traditional Ramsar Convention “Conservation and wise “The traditional knowledge, innovations and Goal 3, Wisely
practices, are likely to be critical starting points for on Wetlands use of all wetlands”. practices of indigenous peoples and local using all
many restoration initiatives”. communities relevant for the wise use of wetlands. Target
wetlands and their customary use of wetland 10.
resources are documented, respected, subject
to national legislation and relevant international
obligations, and fully integrated and reflected in the
The 4th strategic
implementation of the Convention, with a full and
plan
effective participation of indigenous peoples and
local communities at all relevant levels”.
21 22
2.3
Ethical awareness,
understanding,
and responsibility
Conservation and restoration activities always
involve people, and therefore, ethics must be
considered at all stages.
LEK can be a core component through all project When conducting any project that includes local Working with local people requires collaboration and equitable approaches, generating outputs where all
stages and inform a variety of activities in which the participants, there are ethical and legal obligations participants feel engaged and can benefit, as exemplified in Case Study 16. © Cicelin Rakotomahazo
community is engaged including consultation, data that must be understood and followed. Successful,
collection, and education and outreach. responsible engagement with local people requires
that planners, researchers, and practitioners follow for carbon storage, global biodiversity conservation, require permits for working with local or Indigenous
clear ethical standards, even though these can be and many other benefits, but they are also intertwined people. Similarly, funders and participating
challenging and time-consuming. 19
with important cultural heritage and traditional uses. organizations often have specific ethical policies that
must be considered as part of project planning. On the
Such standards and obligations can take on further Working within local and Indigenous peoples’ ground, this requires all those hoping to study or work
meaning when working with Indigenous peoples, given lands requires building collaborative and equitable on natural resources at local scales to engage more
a history of unethical behavior toward them and their approaches. While many past conservation actions directly, building up a knowledge base to be able to
lands. In September 2007, the UN Declaration on the excluded and removed Indigenous or local people understand the background of the local community,
Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) called for the from their land, their rights and needs are now
21
local requirements, and expectations before beginning
recognition of the rights of Indigenous peoples to their widely recognized and highlighted in international any project. See Section 5 for more about ethical
Villagers on their way to a restoration site. Through participatory
mapping, community members designated areas to be restored.
lands. Such areas include a significant proportion of law and agreements. In some cases, such ethical
22
concerns; resources; and ways to approach research,
Read more in Case Study 16. © Cicelin Rakotomahazo natural areas around the planet. They are important
20
approaches are enshrined in law and many countries conservation, and restoration projects ethically.
19 Brittain, S., Ibbett, H., de Lange, E., Dorward, L., Hoyte, S., Marino, A., ... & Lewis, J. (2020). Ethical considerations when conservation research
involves people. Conservation Biology, 34(4), 925-933. 21 Colchester, M. 2004. Conservation policy and Indigenous peoples. Environmental Science & Policy 7:145-153.
20 Garnett, S.T., Burgess, N.D., Fa, J.E. et al. A spatial overview of the global importance of Indigenous lands for conservation. 22 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.
Nature Sustainability 1, 369–374 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-018-0100-6 www.un.org/development/desa/Indigenouspeoples/wp-content/uploads/sites/19/2018/11/UNDRIP_E_web.pdf accessed 1st July 2022
23 24
Local Ecological Knowledge in Mangrove Research
3. Local ecological 3.1 Introduction 27
knowledge in
3.2 Approach 28
3.3 Findings 29
mangrove research
3.3.1 Mangrove LEK 30
3.3.2 Community involvement in LEK research 43
3.3.3 Data collection methods 48
3.3.4 Increasing connections between LEK and AEK 56
3.4 Summary 57
On route to visit mangroves on Lembongan Island, Indonesia.

Approximately 30 miles from Bali. Mangrove forests are “fish factories”
that support fishing jobs and food security. © Kevin Arnold
25 26
3.1 3.2
Introduction Approach
A growing body of literature shows that The review process involved four main steps:
there is considerable interest in learning
from the people who live in, rely on, and Step 1:
hold extensive knowledge about mangroves. A systematic review, undertaken in July 2021, used keywords to identify 1158 peer-reviewed
conservation or restoration papers that were mangrove-focused, and studied or engaged with LEK.
Step 2:
This full list was reviewed at the title and abstract level to filter out less relevant studies, leading
to a shortlist of 520 studies.
Step 3:
The shortlist of 520 studies were then read as full texts using pre-determined accept/reject criteria
to identify 90 studies with sufficient information for data extraction.
Step 4:
A database was developed describing standardized details for each of the 90 studies
including location, purpose, methodology, types of LEK, inclusion and engagement approaches,
Local people in Indonesia providing information on crab fisheries. © Orlina Yowei and study results.
For the identification of types of LEK, a classification was developed during the data extraction.
However, to our knowledge, no reviews have knowledge, the approaches to including local
At the highest level, knowledge types were broadly grouped into three main themes:
examined research that has studied or engaged people and their knowledge, and adherence to
ecosystem, biodiversity, and human-mangrove interactions (Figure 5, Appendix 2).
with LEK of mangrove ecosystems. Therefore, we ethical guidelines.
Within these themes, LEK was classified into nine categories (e.g. ecosystem
undertook a systematic review specifically targeting
change, endangered species, ecosystem services) and further
LEK in mangrove research. This includes research The review provides a greater understanding as
categorized into 40 types of LEK.
learning about the LEK of communities as well as the to how researchers have engaged with LEK and
inclusion of LEK in data collection or project planning. what local knowledge has been studied, which can
From the findings of this review, we have categorized provide guidance towards best practices, encourage
the LEK discussed (e.g., causes of degradation, further engagement with LEK by other researchers,
mangrove identification, ecosystem services), as and illuminate existing knowledge gaps and areas
well as identified methods used to gather such for improvement.
27 28
3.3 3.3.1 Mangrove LEK

Understanding the diversity of mangrove LEK other faunal species in mangroves. Most common
Findings
that exists can help both researchers and those was research examining LEK on human-mangrove
involved with on-the-ground projects increase interactions, which included ecosystem impacts,
efforts to engage more with this knowledge. ecosystem services, and applied management. To
increase understanding of the diverse LEK that exist
Although the LEK described across the studies is highly about mangroves, we provide practical examples that
The 90 studies reviewed here contain a diverse varied in scope and context (Figure 5, Appendix 2), clear
trends existed that allowed us to create a classification.
illustrate each mangrove LEK type.
array of research topics and approaches. Most of the studies (77%) discussed multiple types of For those seeking additional information about
LEK across the three main themes. Ecosystem-level LEK these examples or other studies that examine specific
Most are recent and point to an accelerating interest in included information on ecosystem state, ecosystem types of LEK, please see the reference list (Appendix 1)
LEK in the research community (Figure 3). Geographically, change, or ecosystem function. Biodiversity LEK topics or table illustrating the type or LEK present in each
they are also widespread, representing research from all Number of publications included mangrove species, endangered species, and paper (Appendix 2).
five mangrove continents (Figure 4). 12
10
8
The following sections describe and categorize the LEK-
6
related research from these 90 studies, considering first
4
the types of LEK examined, and then approaches used
2
in LEK research and engaging with communities. While 0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
much of the research describes an academic approach to
assessing or using such knowledge, the value of LEK for
Figure 3: The identified studies covered 1985
conservation and management is nonetheless a common through 2021, with the number of papers
area of focus in many of these studies. increasing notably since 2010.
Figure 4: A total
of 30 countries
from all five
continents are
represented in
the 90 studies.
0 5
Studies in
1 6
Asia (n=43)
2 8
predominate,
3 11
followed by Mangroves expanding into grassland in Pemba Island, Tanzania. Although initially invisible on satellite
4
Africa (n=22). images, such changes are quickly noted by local people. © Mark Spalding
29 30
Ecosystem:
55 57
Ecosystem Biodiversity
Local communities will often know more about the Many studies explored LEK about ecosystem change,
34 33 extent and location of the mangrove ecosystem especially spatial and temporal change. These often
Ecosystem State or Condition Species and Biodiversity
than outsiders, and that knowledge is widely cited overlapped, as locals shared how the size (spatial) of
4 11 25 12 20 10 in many studies. the mangrove ecosystem had changed over the
Location Extent State Changes Presence/Absence Identification
years (temporal).
3 3 20 6 Residents from three coastal sites in Busuanga,
Recovery Range Abundance Size
Philippines participated in a mapping activity where Fishers interviewed by Kovacs (2000) were able to
they identified the location of 353.67 ha of mangroves describe in detail the changes in mangrove extent and
37 26 in the study area, which contributed to increasing the differential responses by species, while also reporting
Ecosystem Change Mangrove Species
accuracy of existing maps (Francisco et al. 2019). abiotic changes such as increased salinity.
23 24 4 8 4 3
Spatial Temporal Seasonal Presence/Absence Growth Height
Local fishers reported perceived increases in
4 9 18 Local knowledge about the ecosystem state, or the mangrove cover in parts of the Godovari Delta.
Climate Condition Identification current condition of the ecosystem, including its Although this observation ran counter to remotely
physical, chemical, and biological characteristics, are sensed observations, it highlights the differences
30 11 reported in many of these studies. in scale and location, with fishers noting increases
Ecosystem Function Endangered Species into the channels, and probably focused near their
5 20 8 11 4 4 Fishers from three villages near Pak Phanang Bay villages, while remote-sensing imagery was noting
Productivity Connectivity Community Dynamics Presence/Absence Identification Population Size
rated the state of the mangroves from degraded losses away from channel margins (Dahdouh-Guebas
14 4 to healthy, which allowed for differences between et al. 2006).
Nursery Areas Distribution
villages to be identified (Jumnongsong et al. 2015).
Interviewees informed Griffin et al. (2013) about the

destruction of mangrove forests in Aceh, Indonesia
83
Human-Mangrove Interactions after the 2004 tsunami and how this led to fewer fish
and invertebrates collected.
60 75 57
Ecosystem Impacts Ecosystem Services Applied/Management
Most discussions of ecosystem recovery focused on
60 59 68 35 9 28
Threats Impacts Provisioning Regulating Community Conservation/ restoration efforts and were classified under human-
Participation Restoration
Strategies mangrove interactions; however, a few papers explored
16 35 28 people’s knowledge about the recovery of the
Drivers of Loss Cultural Supporting 25
Conflicts 33
Tenure or ecosystem due to natural factors.
Laws/Rules
7
Traditional/
Artisanal Fishing, 29 Local people in Bobaneigo Bay, Indonesia reported to
Food Preparation, Conservation
or Crafts Attitudes Amin (2019) that there was significant improvement
in mangrove forests over the past 15 years, which
A flamingo in Mexico foraging in a mangrove
they attributed to decreased firewood collection and forest decimated by a hurricane. © Miguel Diaz
Figure 5: Mangrove LEK themes, categories, and types found in the 90 reviewed papers. the reappearance of crocodiles. / TNC Photo Contest 2023
Numbers correspond to the number of studies that included LEK about that topic.
31 32
Less common were studies that included local In Cameroon, local knowledge informed researchers
Biodiversity:
knowledge about seasonal or climatic changes in that seasonal flood risk was greatest July-October.
the ecosystem. Seasonal changes included changes Over half the respondents believed this risk was Local knowledge about the species within their for banda (table-like construction to smoke fish)
in tides or flowering patterns, whereas climatic increasing due to heavier rainfalls (Munji et al., 2014). mangrove area represents another highly valuable type construction, and fishing traps. Meanwhile, the leaves
changes were often those associated with events of information source, often informed from extensive of Nypa fruticans were used as thatching material for
Marschke et al. (2014) recounted climatic changes
related to climate change, such as increased storm presence within the mangroves and by knowledge over house walls and roofs.
locals had observed in the weather and tides, and
and flooding frequency. considerable time periods.
the impacts these had on fishers and mangrove
ecosystems in Cambodia. In other instances, LEK holders provided information
Participants shared their knowledge about
on the state, such as degradation or declines
mangrove species. Often, this involved identifying
in specific mangrove species, or the presence/
Fewer studies reported LEK about ecosystem function. specific mangrove species or understanding the
absence of mangrove species. This differs from the
Most often these studies involved information about level of knowledge locals had about the different
state or location of mangrove ecosystems, as these
connectivity or nurseries. species. LEK included different uses for specific
respondents focused on specific mangrove species.
mangrove species, thereby indicating awareness of
Zapelini et al. (2017) used fishers’ observations to species’ unique properties.
Local plantation owners shared with Hassan et al.
understand the distribution and movements of
(2018) their sources of propagules that they collected
goliath groupers between mangroves and offshore Dahdouh-Gueba et al. (2006) found that 83% of
from local tree sources, indicating the presence of
ecosystems in Brazil, while Berkström et al. (2019) respondents had good or very good knowledge about
those species in the area.
undertook similar studies to study fish migrations in the 13 mangroves species in the area.
Zanzibar, Tanzania. Locals in three Indonesian villages identified their
Nfotabang et al. (2009) surveyed loggers and villagers
preferred uses for each mangrove species (e.g.,
about different mangroves species and their uses, as
Rhizophora mucronata for construction, craft, and
A small number of studies included information about well as preferred commercial species. For example,
fuel). They then shared which uses of certain species
community dynamics, or changes in the community Avicennia germinans had numerous uses including
had declined indicating a decrease in the availability
structure and composition over time, often following fuelwood for cooking and smoking fish, timber poles
of these species (Furukawa et al. 2015).
environmental disturbances.
Respondents on Nijhum Dwip Island, Bangaldesh,

said that after a 1991 cyclone, they observed many
large uprooted trees and wild animals killed. They
also reported recent conflicts with deer, especially on
The importance of particular areas within the mangroves farms, which they attributed to population increases
as nursery grounds is often well known to local fishing
due to lack of predators, reduction in natural food
communities. © Mark Spalding
sources, and increasing siltation leading to decreased
water availability (Iftekar & Takama, 2008).
Roots of Rhizophora and Pelliciera mangroves in a Colombian forest – local community members
often know a great deal about the distribution of different species. © Mark Spalding
33 34
A few studies included LEK about mangrove growth, In addition to mangrove species, community members Other researchers turned to local knowledge to assist Local people in Sri Lanka had observed decreased
which could include either discussions of regrowth held much LEK about faunal species that lived in or with gathering information about species presence/ fish in mangrove water channels (Satyanarayana
after planting efforts or general growth patterns of a relied on mangrove ecosystems. Species discussed absence or abundance – the total number of et al. 2013).
species. Along with growth, some studies discussed often included types of crabs, fish, shellfish (e.g., individuals present in the ecosystem. Abundance was
Fishermen in the India’s Godavari mangroves reported
respondents’ knowledge about the height of Carney 2017, Treviño & Murillo-Sandoval 2021). often described as general trends rather than specific
declines in fish catch (Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2006).
mangrove species, which often was in relation to numbers, such as a lot of oysters encountered in a
harvesting practices. Many researchers have engaged with LEK holders in certain location. Crab fishers shared how Lethargic Crab Disease was
fauna species identification, and to a lesser extent decimating Ucides cordatus crabs and impacting the
Older residents shared with Walters (2005) that some species range, or the distribution of species across an Concheras in Ecuador’s Esmeraldas province carried Brazilian crab harvesting community in Bahia State
mangrove trees once stood 30 m tall, which is twice as area. Identification sometimes occurred by showing GPS trackers, recording the routes they traveled and (Firmo et al. 2011).
high as the tallest remaining trees. respondents pictures of species, but in other cases, locations they visited to collect cockles. Interviews
respondents initiated the identification by pointing out also revealed that cockles were present in mangroves,
Community members from Vietnam’s Vam Ray coastal When LEK holders were asked about endangered
the species. but men were more likely to access these locations
area shared daily observations of natural growth species, it was often about the presence/absence
because they did not have the same safety concerns
and regeneration of mangrove species in the project of such species. The most commonly discussed
In Bali, Indonesia, different resource user groups (Treviño & Murillo-Sandoval 2021).
(Nguyen et al. 2017). endangered species included sawfish (Hossain et al.
identified the distributions of various fish species,
2015, Leeney & Downing 2016) or manatee (e.g., De
which informed Seary et al.’s (2021) map of species
Information on the size of individuals usually related Thoisy et al. 2003, Choi et al. 2009, Mayaka et al. 2013).
ranges in the Perancak Estuary.
to species collected or caught in a fishery. Size was
often asked to understand resource users’ perceptions Researchers asked local people to share information
as to whether the size of individuals of that species had about identification, population size, or distribution
changed over time. of these endangered species. Relying on local
knowledge and observations is crucial especially for
Fishers in three villages around Colombia’s Ciénaga endangered species, as their smaller numbers can pose
Grande de Santa Marta had different perceptions challenges for a researcher trying to make accurate
of the size of the fish they caught. The majority counts during a short field season.
of respondents in two villages viewed the size of
individuals caught in 2015 similar to those caught in Given that participants often use local names for
2010, but over half of respondents surveyed in a third sawfish, Hossain et al. (2015) showed an image when
village reported smaller individuals (Carrasquilla- asking people in Bangladesh if they had encountered
Henao et al. 2019). a sawfish to ensure they were speaking about the
same fish; if they had, participants were asked about
their most recent encounter (e.g., time and location of
Species change focused on changes that local
encounter, estimated length and weight of species).
participants had observed concerning species that
live in or rely on mangrove ecosystems. Often, Responses from resource users about manatee
species change was discussed in relation to size, viewings in various locations and trends in
abundance, or presence of species, usually as declines population numbers helped Mayaka et al.
Proboscis monkeys are an endangered species, only found observed in fisheries species such as fish, mollusks, (2013) gain a better understanding of the
in the mangrove forests of Borneo. Coastal communities
and crustaceans. species’ distribution in Cameroon.
are well-placed to know about their distribution, status,
and about changes in populations through time. A local community member in northern Pemba Island,
© Donny Sophandi / TNC Photo Contest 2021 Tanzania describing local mollusk species. © Mark Spalding
35 36
Human-mangrove interactions:
LEK holders were often asked to share their knowledge Respondents in Kerala reported using mangroves for
about ecosystem services. As with much research on fuel wood, building materials for house construction,
ecosystem services, participants were usually asked and poles for spreading nets or anchoring canoes
about uses of or benefits received from the mangrove (Hema & Devi 2014).
ecosystem. The types of ecosystem services shared
Avtar et al. (2021) found that mangrove mud crabs
by local respondents could be categorized as
were the most common catch sold in both the Ba
provisioning, regulating, cultural, or supporting
and Rewa Deltas in Fiji; other common fauna
ecosystem services.
included fish, mud lobster, and shrimp, although
these were of differing importance to communities
Provisioning ecosystem services were the focus
in the two deltas.
of most ecosystem services studies. These refer to Fishing (St Kitts and Nevis), honey production (St Lucia), and boat-building (Kalimantan, Indonesia)
benefits that can be extracted from nature, in other Along Kenya’s coast, various parts of mangrove trees are among the many benefits from mangrove forests. © Mark Spalding
words, products that are provided to people. Given the provided medicines for different ailments, such as
numerous products from mangroves and the broader Rhizophora mucronata roots, which were said to
ecosystem, we focus on major trends rather than create address constipation, infertility, and menstruation The Sundarbans are a center of belief and rituals for Ecosystem impacts were also discussed in many
an exhaustive list of all uses and benefits shared by discomfort. Respondents also shared that stems of local Hindu communities, with festivals and temples papers. Most LEK focused on threats, or processes
local respondents. The bulk of the studies focused on this species were used as a dye or tanning compound, occurring there (Islam et al. 2018). and events that can cause negative impacts to an
LEK about subsistence or commercial benefits, such as which helps preserve canoes and boats (Dahdoud- ecosystem or people living there. People shared several
Recreational and ecotourism opportunities shared by
fisheries, forest food products (e.g., honey), fuelwood, Guebas et al. 2000) threats to mangroves or species living in mangroves,
local resource users included mangrove walks, wildlife
and timber (typically as poles for construction). but commonly mentioned were mangrove cutting,
watching, or boat cruises in Bangladesh’s Sundarbans
Mangroves also provided resources for medicines, pollution, overfishing, and climate change.
Regulating services refer to the role that mangroves (Chakraborty et al. 2020).
dyes, and crafts.
play in the maintenance of the ecosystem. Respondents
Community members from villages near India’s More than half the villagers interviewed around
most often shared their knowledge about coastal
Bhitarkanika Conservation Area also indicated Cameroon’s Wouri Estuary and the Douala-Edea
defense, such as erosion control, flood prevention,
that mangroves hold aesthetic values for them Reserve said that there was a negative change
and storm protection.
(Badola et al 2012). in mangroves, which they attributed to selective
harvesting and uncontrolled deforestation
Nyangoko et al. (2020) found that after provisioning
(Nfotabong-Atheull et al. 2009).
services, the communities in Tanzania’s Rufiji Delta Supporting services are those that are necessary
most often selected regulating services as a benefit for the production of other ecosystem services. Most Local resource users in Cameroon’s Lower Sanaga
of mangroves, which included sediment trapping, respondents focused on the role that mangroves Basin stated that manatee populations were
climate regulation, and coastal protection. played in supporting biodiversity as a wildlife and threatened by pollution, excessive killings, and
nursery habitat. habitat loss (Mayaka et al. 2013).
Cultural services include non-material benefits from In the Sundarbans, the communities believed that
Fishers in three villages around Ciénaga Grande de
the ecosystem. These papers most often described climate variability, climate change, and extreme
Santa Marta in Colombia said that mangroves were
cultural services related to traditional or religious climatic events have had extensive impacts on the
critical habitats for fishery resources because they
Ecotourism is a cultural ecosystem service being developed values, as well as the role mangroves played in resources and their livelihoods (Singh et al. 2019).
in many communities and typically highly dependent on served as nurseries, as well important locations for
recreation and tourism.
local knowledge and guides. © Pete Bunting food and reproduction (Carrasquilla-Henao et al. 2019).
37 38
The impacts on mangroves from the rapid

urbanization in the Persian Gulf have been
considerable, and while “local” communities are large, A flood-prevention embankment affected the hydrology of these mangroves and
only a few will recall details of the former mangrove led to die-off. Researchers are using a combination of LEK and AEK to develop Rapid increases in coastal erosion in this village in Berau, Indonesia were linked to overgrazing
areas and their ecology. © Mark Spalding restoration plans. © Dominic Wodehouse, MAP of mangroves in coastal areas by free-ranging cattle. © Mark Spalding
Often the impacts, or effects on organisms and Although drivers of loss can at times overlap with included replanting mangroves, building fences for Researchers also asked locals about their conservation
the ecosystem, due to these human or biophysical threats, they often can capture indirect causes that erosion, or awareness campaigns. In many cases, locals attitudes. This included attitudes about the ecosystem
threats were a reduction of size or degradation of the are less tangible and more removed from the locale. were involved or initiated in these strategies. However, in general, such as needs to protect or conserve
mangrove ecosystem; fewer species, such as fish, in In terms of mangroves, drivers were often related other studies sought to understand peoples’ awareness mangroves and associated biodiversity, as well as their
the ecosystem; or other physical changes, such as to global demand for mangroves and other species, of ongoing or past conservation and restoration work views of conservation actions that have or should be
erosion and sedimentation. especially fish and shrimp; climate change; and in the area. taken in their area.
international tourism and development interests.
In southeastern Mexico, residents explained that In Ecuador’s Association Isla Costa Rica, community Badola et al. (2012) reported that 84% of the
deforestation, burning, channeling of rivers, and In addition to climate impacts, local people in members recounted their efforts to plant mangroves people surveyed in East India felt responsible for
pollution has led to mangrove degradation the Sundarbans identified demand for mangrove because of the role mangrove forests play in conservation and 93% were in favor of an integrated
(Reyes-Arroyo et al. 2021) products on the global markets, major infrastructure supporting commercial and subsistence fisheries conservation and development program.
development, and governance failure as some of the (Beitl et al. 2019).
Fishermen in Mexico’s Teacapan-Agua Brava Lagoon
drivers leading to degradation of mangroves and
reported that opening a canal increased salinity that Ocampo-Thomason (2014) described a grassroot
related ecosystem services (Islam et al. 2018).
in turn decreased abundance of certain fauna, such movement that established a reserve with a strict
as fish and sea turtles (Kovacs 2000). permitting system in Ecuador’s Ecological Mangrove
LEK about applied conservation and management Reserve Cayapas-Mataje (REMACAM).
Decreases in fish, fruit, birds, and water quality were
was included in the papers in a variety of ways.
seen by residents in the Solomon Islands, which they
Commonly shared was knowledge about conservation
attributed to declines in mangroves (Warren-Rhodes
and restoration strategies, which were diverse, and
et al. 2011).
39 40
Community members also shared their knowledge Several studies also reported local respondents’ Local plantation owners on the Solomon Islands action led to stewardship rights for artisanal fishers
about community participation in past activities, knowledge about land tenure or laws, either explained the traditional mangrove tenure and rules and other ancestral user groups in support of
such as tree planting efforts or sustainable traditional or modern. For the former, respondents that existed for requesting permission for access or mangrove conservation (Beitl et al. 2019).
management approaches, as well as successes and shared information about who traditionally owned land use of mangroves (Warren-Rhodes et al. 2011).
challenges they encountered in engagement. or resources and customary laws guiding use.
Older fishermen who used Fosu Lagoon in Ghana Although several studies discuss artisanal fishers,
LEK also included reference to modern day ownership
shared taboos that guided their fishing decisions, only some described traditional/artisanal fishing,
In talking with community members, Nguyen et al. and boundaries, such as national parks or marine
such as avoiding night fishing so as not to disturb the preservation, or craft practices they learned from
(2016) learned that although a previous project in reserves, and laws that governed these resources, such
god Nana Fosu who occupies the lagoon (Darkwa & local respondents.
the Vam Ray coast had been successful and the local as mangrove cutting permits or fishing regulations.
Smardon 2010).
community had been involved in project planning
From locals in the La-ngu District in Thailand,
and implementation, the implementation and Iftekhar & Takama (2008) found that slightly more
Kaewploy et al. (2018) learned indigenous serrated
results were poorly documented by agencies largely than half the respondents knew that the nearby forest Conflicts varied greatly, and included but were
mud crab fattening practices, such as pond
because there was little local involvement during the in Bangladesh was a national park and had heard not limited to issues around land tenure, outsider
preparation, rituals, feeding management, and
reporting process. about the Forest Act. pressure on mangrove harvesting or fishing (e.g.,
harvesting approaches, all of which had been passed
Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2006, Ocampo-Thomason 2014,
down within families.
Damastuti & De Groot 2017), corruption, and policies
that disregarded traditional uses. Women in The Gambia and Senegal paid close
attention to the lunar cycles so that they could
In the Sundarbans, respondents reported paying synchronize journeys to oyster and crab sites with the
excessive fees to corrupt forest officials to gain access ebb and flood tides (Carney et al. 2017).
to the mangrove forest to collect resources (Islam et
Traditional building approaches have also been used
al. 2019).
in mangrove restoration work; traditional Melaleuca
Artisanal fishers in Ecuador shared conflicts they fences used in the Vam Ray coastal area were the
encountered with shrimp farmers due to ineffective foundation for upgraded designs constructed to
policies around resources and territory. Collective address erosion (Nguyen 2019).
Understanding ownership and land tenure may be critical for mangrove protection or restoration, especially
in Southeast Asia, where aquaculture, like the shrimp ponds pictured here, may go back generations. Local Traditional uses of mangroves such as the use of mangrove poles for home-building here
communities may be the sole holders of such knowledge. © Mark Spalding in Mtangawanda, Kenya, can only be learned in a local context. © Sarah Waiswa
41 42
Frequency of engagement
Extended engagement with the community Research needs to

can be important both in generating useful be sensitive to local
outcomes and for building trust. culture and researchers
should allow time for
“Parachute science”, where international researchers full engagement with
arrive, sometimes suddenly and without advanced the community.
communication, to gather knowledge from community
members and then leave without any meaningful
engagement, recognition of local contributions, or
sharing of findings or products with local researchers
and stakeholders, has been widely criticized.23 workshops (Deb 2015). Several studies involved multi-
step participatory approaches, such as Brown et
It is notable that, other than some pre-collection al.’s (2018) work with traditional knowledge holders
preparation, only about a quarter of the studies in Australia. Rakotomahazo et al. (2019) described
Engagement with local communities and the benefits derived from sharing their knowledge can have important
ethical dimensions which must be considered prior to engagement. © Leo Thom, MAP specifically indicated meeting with local communities validation meetings with participants who had
on two or more occasions. For the remainder, most participated in earlier parts of the process, which is
only met once with any particular stakeholder or discussed in greater detail below.
group from the community (e.g., fishers).
3.3.2 Community involvement Consideration of ethics
in LEK research
Clearly, the research projects and goals are themselves
Before engaging in any research involving
An ethical approach to engaging with LEK involves highly varied. Some were based on single site visits,
people, but especially important when working
equitable and inclusive community engagement such a gathering data based on one-time survey
with Indigenous or marginalized communities
and knowledge co-production. Here we discuss the encounters, preventing the possibility of multiple
who have a long history of poor treatment, it is
diverse approaches used by authors in our review for engagements. Also, in some cases, the paper was part
necessary to consider how these groups and
engagement with LEK holders. of a larger study that engaged the community more.
their LEK will be ethically treated and included.
For example, Treviño & Murillo-Sandoval (2021) resided
in the community with a local family during multiple
Consideration of ethics might be a formal process,
field stays while learning about the community and
such as the granting of ethical clearance required
its use of mangrove resources in Ecuador’s Muisne
by an institution or country, or it might consist of
River Estuary.
discussion and planning ethical approaches prior to
Regular, sustained engagement by researchers with local
including local people in the study. We found only 13% people can yield richer and more detailed information than
Studies that included several meetings sometimes
of papers explained how they considered ethics in one-off, short-term visits (photo: Mangrove Action Project
involved multiple data collection approaches with the trainers and members of local associations in El Salvador in
their research (Figure 6). Only four studies indicated
same individuals, such as interviews, observations, and 2023, monitoring a restoration project started in 2011. © MAP
they had conducted a formal ethical clearance, with
three of these having in-country authors. However,
it is only recently that many journals require proof of
ethics approval, and so it is possible that not all studies 23 Stefanoudis, P. V., Licuanan, W. Y., Morrison, T. H., Talma, S., Veitayaki, J., & Woodall, L. C. (2021). Turning the tide of parachute science.
Current Biology, 31(4), R184-R185.
reported such processes even if they did employ them.
43 44
Engagement in knowledge below. Despite its importance, no studies mentioned

co-production activities consulting with local communities to determine
what might be researched based on the community
Researchers looking to engage in two-way
Many studies hove knowledge, needs, or concerns. This step can be
focused on describing knowledge sharing with local communities can
challenging, however, because funders require clear
or learning from look to knowledge co-production approaches
LEK, but relatively research questions before awarding funding; it might
for guidance.
few have actually be more feasible when the researcher is already
included LEK as
familiar with the community.
a contribution or Knowledge co-production can occur at multiple
source of knowledge
points in the process, including consultation, project
integral to their Project design and planning, implementation,
work. (photo: TNC design/planning, implementation, monitoring/
and data analysis were often present in interactive
researchers in Papua data collection, data analysis, and dissemination of
New Guinea). © activities like knowledge-sharing workshops or
findings and educational materials. In our review, 11
Annette Ruzicka participatory mapping, where local people are invited
papers included communities in some of these steps.
to share their knowledge through mapping. In
Although we realize that knowledge co-production may
Madagascar, the work of local people was ubiquitous
not be feasible for all research projects, we provide
across a project to develop a mangrove payments
Including LEK in research (2014) interviewed fishermen to better understand some examples below to inspire researchers and
for ecosystem services initiative and members from
the presence of sawfish in the Gambia River; between practitioners interested in exploring such approaches
The inclusion of LEK in research can take various 10 coastal communities were involved in several
historical and present-day interviews with fishermen, in their own work.
forms. We categorized these into three classes: knowledge co-production activities. They helped with
the authors could demonstrate that the Gambia River
studied LEK, learned-from LEK, and included LEK. project design and planning during participatory
had been a key habitat for freshwater sawfish and The most common way projects included knowledge
mapping and concept modelling workshops that
therefore it should be considered in future conservation co-production was through data collection, such
Studied LEK involved research where the focus developed a spatial and social-ecological understanding
actions. Another common way that researchers learned as species identification or inventorying (Gardner
was learning about people’s LEK, such as perceived for both researchers and the communities
from community members was how LEK could inform et al. 2017), which is discussed in greater detail
benefits or causes of degradation. This comprised the (Rakotomahazo et al. 2019).
conservation or restoration actions. For example, Deb
majority of the studies (n= 62). Studying knowledge is
(2015) learned how the community had incorporated
an important first step to including LEK in meaningful
LEK into fishing rules and noted that policy makers
ways, and several researchers mentioned in their
would benefit from including this knowledge into
conclusions that understanding this knowledge could
policies and management plans.
inform policy or conservation actions (e.g., Than et al.
2022, Carrasquilla-Henao et al. 2018, Carney 2017).
Even fewer studies (n=8) included LEK in their research.
However, we encourage researchers to consider
In these cases, locals played a significant role in the
more inclusive ways of engaging with LEK.
research process. They include those where LEK holders
assisted with ecological data collection by contributing
A more inclusive approach involved learning from LEK.
their LEK to the data set, such as bird inventories (e.g.,
Only ten studies fell into the learned from LEK class.
Gardner et al 2017, Salter & MacKenzie 1985) or cases
This category involved research that relied on LEK to
in which their LEK was integral in informing project
inform the research question. Examples included
outcomes, such as planning and resource zonation
working with locals to identify species in field surveys
(e.g., Brown et al. 2018, Mateos-Molina et al. 2020).
or information in the interviews that helped inform
Many of these examples illustrate the complementary Knowledge co-production is the co-creation of knowledge, for example by scientists and community members. Here, researchers
their research. For example, Leeney and Downing
nature of LEK and AEK. and community groups share their restoration experiences during a learning exchange in Ecuador. © Laura Michie, MAP
45 46
They also engaged in project implementation by Ethics of validating results

Ethics review done
proposing management approaches that formed
the basis of the final zoning and management An important part of knowledge co-production
plan. Community involvement in data analysis and ethically engaging with LEK is to validate Ethics considered/
discussed in study
often included analysis of mapping exercises. findings with the participants to ensure that
Further examples included studies from Indonesia results are accurately interpreted.
(Damastuti & de Groot 2019) and the United Arab
LEK is acknowledged
Emirates (Mateos-Molina et al. 2020), where involving In our review, seven studies mentioned that they
participants in analysis not only enhanced the benefits validated findings with the community. As an example
to the research, but also served the local community, of such validation, Damastuti and de Groot (2019) had In-country author(s)
in author list
building social learning and social capital. all participants and other stakeholders evaluate the
maps resulting from the participatory mapping. As they
The example in Madagascar provides a powerful stated, situations in which villagers map their villages 1st Author is
example of how LEK can not only be a central and then have the results taken away by outsiders, in-country author
component of research, but can also provide “not only exploit local communities, but also leave the
opportunities for LEK holders to lead the sharing communities in a powerless situation” and therefore 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%
of co-produced knowledge with their communities. the authors “realized the ethical necessity to ensure
Management committees made of up community that the output resulting from the mapping process can Figure 6: The percentage of mangrove LEK papers that acknowledge LEK holders, consider ethics, indicate an
members would lead dissemination of findings and be understood by all stakeholders and that the result ethics review, or include in country authors.
conduct activities that highlighted the importance of is given back to the participants.” A less satisfactory
mangroves within the communities. Straddling the approach reported in some studies is to interview
boundary between research and management, this additional key individuals to validate the responses
3.3.3 Data collection methods a researcher understand the local context, such as
same work is described in the next chapter from a shared by other participants in surveys or interviews.
community structure and norms, which can strengthen
practical management perspective (Case Study 16). Although this can help verify the work and gain insight Given the diversity of studies, we identified a wide
the research questions and methods. This can help
into community views, it does not ensure that the variety of data collection approaches used by
ascertain cultural appropriateness of particular
researchers accurately reported the study participants’ researchers. Understanding these methods can
elements of the research and inform participants of the
views, or allow those participants to know how their assist not only other researchers with exploring
work in an open and transparent manner.
information is being recorded and used. ways to learn from community members, but
can also prove useful for planners, managers,
In the Sine-Saloum Delta, Conchedda et al. (2011)
and practitioners who could use these methods
Acknowledgment of LEK holders pre-tested the questionnaire with native speakers
to research and learn about LEK that can inform
and found that it was culturally inappropriate to ask
Finally, as researchers work on widely sharing their conservation and restoration projects.
participants about their gender.
findings, it is important to recognize the contributions
of local people who have provided information, time, Pre-collection preparation
and energy towards a project. Within this review, 55%
of studies acknowledged local people (Figure 5) by Taking time to build trust prior to working
highlighting that the data had come from local people with LEK holders is imperative.
and/or recognizing their contribution. This information
was most often located in the acknowledgements A total of 43% of studies included information on
Community members organize community gatherings to raise
awareness on the restoration activities in Baie de Assassins, section at the end of each study. A further step is preparatory work within the community/study area
Madagascar. © Cicelin Rakotomahazo to include as co-authors any LEK holders who before data collection. Preparatory work can help
significantly contributed to the study.
47 48
It may be necessary to work with local guides or Other methods include interactions with different Studies can also benefit from planning that includes
translators to help with the research, including the members of the community through community preliminary data collection to better understand the
preparatory work. Local guides/translators were meetings, informal discussions with the local issues and ecosystem. Some of these might involve
mentioned in 15% of the studies. The help they community, and when necessary, asking for interacting directly with community members through
Connections made with
provided included assistance with introductions to permission from local leaders. preliminary interviews or pilot testing.
communities prior to
key individuals, data collection, or receiving required
the start of research can
permissions. In some cases, these individuals might be Firmo et al. (2011) convened a community meeting Kovacs (2000) conducted preliminary interviews
help optimize outcomes
identified during early visits to the site. with Brazilian crab harvesters in the Mucuri to develop the final interview guide.
estuary to inform them about the project and ask
and encourage greater
There are several methods that researchers used for for participation.
Hugé et al. (2016) modified the Q methodology community support.
set used in the data collection after piloting it with
pre-collection preparation. Some of these methods
In Kerala, India, Hema and Devi (2014) had two local researchers to ensure the questions were
are more time-consuming and immersive, such as
informal discussions with residents, officials from understandable in English and Malay.
conducting exploratory trips to the area and living
local self-governments, and elderly people, which
within the community.
helped identify a stakeholder group who depended
Other planning might involve activities that do
on the mangrove ecosystem.
Carney’s (2017) two monthly visits to Senegal/The not require being on-site, but involve a variety of To gain important background information about the
Gambia allowed them to establish contacts and study Before starting surveys in Grand-Popo, Benin, information gathering from secondary sources, such study villages in Fiji’s Ba and Rewa deltas, Avtar et al.
the location of villages and mangrove restoration Gnansounou et al. (2021) sought permission to as generating base maps (Francisco et al. 2014) and (2021) reviewed census data and technical reports
areas prior to the study start. conduct the research from local and traditional reviewing local data and reports. about the villages.
authorities in each village.
Mangrove restoration researchers and trainers meet with local restoration groups and head into
the field with several local guides in Bengkalis Island, Indonesia. © Dominic Wodehouse, MAP Restoration practitioners review a map of a potential project site in Guayaquil, Ecuador. © Laura Michie / MAP
49 50
Participant selection and sampling Stratified sampling can ensure representation Data collection Rumahorbo et al. (2020) used structured interviews
particularly in relatively small samples – here a to derive quantified values for multiple ecosystem
Another key step before actual data collection is Across the 90 studies, a range of data collection
population is divided into specific groups and services in the Papua Province of Indonesia.
determining the sample population. The overall study methods were employed, with many studies
samples are randomly taken from each group.
aims and objectives determine the target participants combining multiple approaches.
(e.g., fishers or other resource users, women, Semi-structured interviews are typically built around
Rönnbäck et al. (2005) aimed to have at least 10 Interviews, of which there are three main types, are
young people, residents of mangrove areas). It may a series of pre-set but usually open-ended questions.
males and females in both villages who regularly often a primary or sole source of information.
be important to select people who have lived for Unscripted follow-up questions allow space for
used mangroves.
an extended period in the area or to consider expansion and digression.
Structured interviews ask set questions, usually
differences within local populations such as
close-ended, to all participants with no deviation from
neighboring villages. This may involve understanding Snowball sampling involves asking individuals if they Utilizing semi-structured interviews allowed
the interview guide. This approach can be particularly
local politics and customs. The number of participants can identify people to participate in the study, and can Berkström et al. (2019) to learn more about habitat
useful for generating quantitative information from
and the time required will typically be determined by be particularly helpful in finding people or information use, connectivity of selected species, fish migrations,
multiple participants to allow comparisons, such
the research question, but access may further that is rare in a population. and how residents gained their knowledge about
as household survey data, and is especially useful
constrain such decisions. these topics.
when written surveys cannot be deployed for various
Zapelini et al. (2017) asked local fishers to
reasons, such as literacy.
Once the target participants are determined, an identify people especially knowledgeable about
appropriate sampling protocol can reduce the risk the goliath grouper.
of bias in the selection of individual participants.
Random sampling can help to avoid bias (e.g. Than et
These methods are not exhaustive, as there are other
al. 2022), while purposive sampling can be appropriate
sampling approaches, nor are they mutually exclusive.
to select groups or individuals for a specific reason.
For example, purposive sampling can be used for the
initial sample, which can then be expanded through
Duangjai et al. (2004) selected key informants
snowball sampling.
(village seniors, headmen, and fishermen) from
villages in Thailand.
Hernandez-Cornejo et al. (2005) purposely selected

long-term fishers, but then randomly selected
participants from within this group.
Research approaches may focus on only a specific area of

knowledge, such as fisheries, but having a clear sampling
protocol for selecting individual participants can be critical
to avoid bias and to ensure representation. (Photo: fishers in
Grenada). © Tim Calver Interviews with LEK holders can forge connections and facilitate a 2-way knowledge exchange. © Dominic Wodehouse, MAP
51 52
Unstructured interviews do not employ a set of also involve some open-ended questions. Surveys As one method of data collection, Hossain et al (2015)
interview questions and are characterized by minimum are often shorter than interviews, although this can The sharing of visited dry fish markets and villages in hopes of
control over the participant’s responses. They can be depend on the type of survey and interview. knowledge can be discovering sawfish to help inform their national-level
beneficial in exploratory work, especially for more facilitated by interviews rapid assessment of sawfish.
experienced interviewers, or when or when the Longepee et al. (2021) used surveys, informed and surveys, but also by
Hernández-Félix et al. (2017) conducted participant
researcher is more interested in encouraging people by previous interviews, to quantitatively gather engagement of groups in
observation when accompanying octopus fishers
to express themselves in their own terms and at their information about people’s knowledge of the discussions or practical at sea.
preferred pace. mangrove ecosystem, ecosystem services, and activities such as
mangrove health. mapping.
Hernández-Félix et al. (2017) first conducted open There are also ways that knowledge can be gained
(i.e. unstructured) interviews that allowed for through interactive, participatory methods of
Drawbacks of written surveys for mangrove LEK
identification of emerging themes about mangrove data collection.
research may include lower literacy rates in rural
ecosystem services.
villages, and the logistics of having to carry a large Focus groups involve several participants sharing
Participatory mapping involves participants
amount of paper and keeping it secure in a wet tropical information through group discussion around a few
sharing knowledge by adding to or producing
Surveys are similar to structured interviews but can climate. Online surveys do not address literacy rates specific questions, with the researcher acting more
maps and documenting important features, such
be administered orally or in a written form, whether and can face challenges associated with internet as a facilitator.
as fishing locations, ecosystem changes, and
on paper or online. Surveys include the same set of connectivity. Some online survey programs allow for
important sites. Sometimes this method might
questions, which are usually close-ended, but might offline data collection that is then uploaded when the Nyangoko et al. (2021) used focus groups, during
involve historical mapping, where participants
researcher gains connectivity. which facilitators interacted with communities to
reveal past uses, species, and features, which can
encourage exploration and brainstorming around
be especially helpful in restoration efforts.
ecosystem topics and issues. They learned diverse
views by holding separate focus groups with local
In the United Arab Emirates, Mateos-Molina et al.
resource beneficiaries (e.g., mangrove cutters,
(2020) included participatory mapping, interviews,
fishers) and representatives from local management
working groups, ground-truthing, and satellite
institutions in Tanzania’s Rufiji Delta.
imagery and data to produce a coastal habitat
map with high accuracy for conservation and
Many studies included observations of local management in an area that was data deficient.
participants or events and documenting information
Brown et al. (2018) conducted participatory
(e.g., locations, timings, activities). These may include
mapping of Australia’s Maroochy River, identifying
observations made by uninvolved researchers, or
how the mangrove had changed over time, drivers
can be developed through direct participation by
of these changes, and how changes in mangrove
the researcher in activities with the participants, also
extent affected ecosystem services; this allowed an
known as participant observation. Such observations
understanding of changes dating back to European
can be particularly effective if the researcher can spend
colonization (~1860), far beyond what remote sensing
prolonged periods with the community.
methods are capable of showing.
Ocampo-Thomason (2006) lived in her study area

in Ecuador for 11 months and highlighted the
importance of participant observation alongside
One-on-one interviews are an excellent way to learn with LEK holders, and these can vary in level of formality. © Mark Godfrey / TNC surveys and interviews.
53 54
3.3.4 Increasing connections Across these studies are a small number that describe
between LEK and AEK methods to compare and assess accuracy of LEK
versus AEK. In some cases, information from the two
In combining widely used academic approaches
approaches is aligned (Cormier-Salem et al. 2017). In
in the natural sciences with LEK, it is important to
other cases, there is weaker agreement. For example,
avoid an assumption that LEK should be, or even
in Hernandez-Cornejo et al. (2005) local perceptions
can be, fully integrated or subsumed into AEK.
differed from satellite observations or in Francisco
et al. (2019) locals had better awareness of small
These knowledge types are distinct, although they
patches of mangrove than remotely sensed imagery.
may be similar, and are complementary.24 Many
LEK represents the lived experience and perceptions
studies identified in this strategic review involve some
of local residents, while AEK may represent the highly
combination of local and academic knowledge sources.
focused observations and measurements of outsiders.
In most cases, studies focused on the generation
In almost all cases, it is likely that both will contain
of complementary data, illustrating how the two
knowledge that the other cannot see.
knowledge systems can strengthen the study. This was
sometimes through active participation methods, some
of which were described in the previous section (e.g.,
walking transects, participatory mapping), while others
involved working with existing data sources.
Combining data sources provided a more holistic and

historic view of the landscape and mangrove cover
changes. For example, Beitl et al. (2019) identified
spatiotemporal patterns of mangrove cover change in
Participatory mapping involves knowledge sharing through the medium of maps where local people can share knowledge of key locations Isla Costa Rica, Ecuador from 1985-2014 by combining
or activities. (Photo of village leader Venantius Barrier in Madang Province, Papua New Guinea). © Annette Ruzicka remote sensing with ethnographic research (e.g.,
interviews, focus groups, observation), thereby
providing a better understanding of how mangrove
A walking transect, as its name implies, involves To gather a full bird diversity inventory and cover had changed and the drivers of these changes.
walking a transect, often while conducting interviews understand mangrove utilization by birds, Gardner et
and collecting data in the mangroves. This can allow al. (2017) carried out walking interviews with 1-4 local Combining LEK and AEK can also be used to
participants to share applied information, such as participants during survey transects in Ambanja and understand habitats and assist in planning efforts.
planting techniques or areas of degradation, or be Ambaro Bays in northwest Madagascar. These locals For example, to help inform the potential design of
a method for in-situ gaining knowledge about the shared the names of birds seen and/or heard, which a manatee wildlife refuge in Brazil, Choi et al. (2009) While technology can be a considerable help in
contemporary surveys, local knowledge may be the only
ecosystem or species. added an additional 18 species to the researchers’ combined field surveys and mapping with fisher
means to understand historical change and drivers of
total and provided a complementary dataset more surveys about manatee presence/absence, spatial current conditions (photo in Haiti with boat owner Jackson
complete than a rapid inventory alone. range, habitat use, and potential feeding areas. Pierre and his son Baldwen). © Tim Calver
24 Albuquerque, U. P., Ludwig, D., Feitosa, I. S., de Moura, J. M. B., Gonçalves, P. H. S., da Silva, R. H., ... & Ferreira Junior, W. S. (2021).
Integrating traditional ecological knowledge into academic research at local and global scales. Regional Environmental Change, 21(2), 1-11.
55 56
3.4
Summary
LEK represents a critical resource for the research
community, and particularly for those working in
conservation and restoration centered research.
Local and Indigenous communities are This review highlights a great variety of LEK that has
uniquely placed to know “their” mangroves enhanced research and our wider understanding of
in a more detailed and holistic manner than mangroves. LEK has helped inform basic geospatial
external visiting researchers, even those and ecological information – where mangrove forests
Local knowledge covers many different areas, from endangered species (here a Bengal tiger in the Sundarbans © Sandipan Ghosh,
researchers who may be from relatively and specific species are located, seasonal patterns, TNC Photo Contest 2023), local ecological processes (a woman in Kenya collecting mangrove propagules © Sarah Waiswa), to
nearby cities or research establishments. and hydrodynamics. It has provided a historic context, understanding impacts on mangroves (here the aftereffects of a hurricane in Jamaica. © Tim Calver)
identifying the patterns of change and past impacts
from storms or human activities. It has been critical in
helping to understand the social and economic context For example, focus groups and workshops can be it is probable that many researchers are failing to
of mangroves – how they are used for benefits such as valuable methods for learning LEK that can inform a consider the potential of LEK as an expansive data
fisheries or timber; their importance in local culture or project. Sampling techniques discussed in this section source that could greatly enhance their understanding
traditions; or past restoration or conservation actions, can help projects ensure a variety of stakeholder of mangroves as social-ecological systems.
including local involvement or the benefits derived groups and demographics are invited to share
from management interventions. their knowledge.
Many studies in our review have focused more on It is also of great importance to ensure that the
understanding the types of knowledge held by local gathering and sharing of such information is LEK can provide
communities, and while they do not directly engage undertaken with sensitivity that it is equitable and
depth and context to
with such knowledge in the context of conservation, properly acknowledged and, where applicable,
our understanding of
they are important in further highlighting the scope supported or funded.
mangrove ecosystems
and potential for inclusion of LEK into more
and represents a powerful
practical research. Looking beyond these examples, there is considerable
resource for all mangrove
potential for greater inclusion of LEK. We located only
In addition, as seen in the next section, several data 90 studies that had sufficient detail to inform our
research.
The sharing of knowledge between local people and

collection methods used by researchers can also be review and classification. It is likely that many others
others requires collaborative and equitable approaches used by planners, managers, or practitioners to assist are studying or engaging with LEK, but may not be
in which all partners are heard, recognized and with conservation or restoration projects. clearly highlighting it in their findings. Equally, however,
respected. © Frisnar Paysal / TNC
57 58
Local Ecological Knowledge in Mangrove Management
4. Local ecological
4.1 Introduction 61
4.2 Methods and summary of case studies 63
knowledge
4.3 Case studies 67
1. Brazil – Green July: Building community pride for mangroves .............................................................................71
2. Colombia – Searching for solutions for carbon-sequestration in coastal ecosystems (sea4soCiety) ............73
in mangrove 3. Colombia – Multi-scale mangrove governance for the traditional and Indigenous communities
in the department La Guajira.......................................................................................................................................77
management
4. Colombia: Vida Manglar, blue carbon program in the Morrosquillo Gulf............................................................81
5. El Salvador – Restoration and monitoring of four mangrove species in El Zaite, Barra de Santiago .............85
6. El Salvador – Harnessing local knowledge for, mangrove restoration in the Bay of Jiquilisco .......................89
7. Fiji – Living with Change – Resilient mangroves, fisheries and people of Fiji.....................................................93
8. Honduras – Restoring the mangroves of Estero Prieto, Omoa .............................................................................97
9. India – Reviving mangroves: Sustaining traditional knowledge and using eco-friendly

Palmyra nursery bags ...................................................................................................................................................99
10. Indonesia – Building with Nature (BwN) Indonesia – Securing eroding delta coastlines...............................103
11. Indonesia – Kerakera: restoring traditional management practices to safeguard mangroves....................107
12. Kenya – Protection of the 450 ha mangrove forest that surrounds the village of Matondoni ......................111
13. Kenya – Mwache mangrove forest regeneration: An integrated approach to restore mangrove
habitat with local community.....................................................................................................................................115
14. Kenya – Greening the blue initiative..........................................................................................................................119
15. Liberia – Improving sustainable use of mangroves through protection, planning, and
livelihood creation........................................................................................................................................................123
16. Madagascar – Community-led mangrove conservation and restoration in the Baie des Assassins............127
17. Mexico – Raíces para las comunidades y el clima: Network of mangrove honey producers in
the Yucatán....................................................................................................................................................................131
18. New Caledonia – Educational trail in the mangrove forest of the Koé tribe.....................................................135
19. Panama – Restoring the wetland of Laguna de las Lajas.....................................................................................139
20. Philippines – Rehabilitating an abandoned fishpond in Nula-tula, Tacloban City............................................143
21. Vietnam – Mangrove reforestation for disaster risk reduction and climate change mitigation...................147
Traditional honey collectors of the Sundarbans

© Tanmoy Badhuri - WWF International
59 60
4.1
Introduction
Mangroves are in need of protection and restoration,
and LEK can – and in many cases, already does
– play a pivotal role in these efforts.
Mangroves have faced large changes and wholescale projects, it can be assumed that people living near the
losses over the last century, which have largely been mangroves hold local knowledge of those mangroves,
driven by national or even international policy and ranging from a simple awareness of location and extent Conservation and LEK come together as fisher groups sign Sustainable Use and Custody Agreements as part of Ecuador’s Socio Manglar
commercial demands, be that through urbanization, to profound cultural/traditional linkages or detailed (Mangrove Partner) program, where local residents are granted access to mangrove forests in exchange for agreeing to
protect and maintain them. © Fabián Viteri
development of tourism infrastructure, industrial understanding of ecological processes. Much of this
timber or charcoal production, or conversion to knowledge is practical – mangroves as fishing grounds
aquaculture ponds or oil palm plantations. or sources of timber or fuelwood, mangroves as places
LEK can be a potent and vital source of knowledge At the same time, however, numerous on-the-ground
of spiritual connection, or simply mangroves
for mangrove management, but in many areas, practical projects are already engaging with LEK and
Despite these external pressures, mangrove as boundaries or spaces to be navigated. Such
connections between local people and mangroves developing projects informed by this knowledge. These
conservation and restoration tend to occur on a local knowledge, in many cultures, has gone hand-in-hand
have been lost or undermined by changes in policy, examples may not be widely shared, so we sought out
level, and even when larger scale-projects occur, many with traditional management, where ownership,
patterns of settlement, or shifting livelihoods. New cases that illustrate how LEK can play a significant role
conduct work in individual villages with community utilization, even clearance and loss, has been
coastal populations from other areas may have little in mangrove restoration and conservation.
members. Although it might not be included in determined by local decisions.
or no awareness of mangroves. Ownership of
mangroves has been formalized, and rarely awarded These examples can inform and inspire others to
to the long-time users of the mangroves. In this engage with LEK. In so doing, they can strengthen
setting, management decisions, including sustainable mangrove conservation and restoration, while at
use, conservation, and restoration, are now often the same time supporting local communities who
being enacted or encouraged by non-local agents, interact with mangroves.
such as governments and NGOs.
An Indigenous
fisher in Bocas Bringing LEK into mangrove management is
del Toro, Panama.
important, and in many cases, this may mean
Local knowledge
is often driven by bringing LEK back into management. The study of
practical need, but LEK, described in the previous section illuminates the
can also be deeply
diversity of LEK that is held around the world. Yet, only
embedded in local
culture. (C) Mark a few such studies have directly considered how LEK
Spalding can inform mangrove restoration and conservation.
61 62
4.2 Despite the geographic range and project focus, some broad classes of LEK emerged across the cases. Each
class has a corresponding label, which is used to denote its presence in a case study. A complete table of all
Methods and summary

projects and the classes of LEK they included is found in Figure 7.
of case studies
BIODIVE RS ITY HABITAT CONNE C TIVI T Y
Several projects included local knowledge about Several projects also turned to LEK to provide
biodiversity, including mangroves or other species a greater understanding of the connectivity of
in the area. For example, near Matadoni Village the ecosystem, such as its connection to other
in Kenya, a prawn fisher recommended which ecosystems, like rivers or the ocean, or how
To collect case studies, we cast a wide net. mangroves would be best suited for a restoration abiotic and biotic factors within the habitat were
project based on his knowledge of prawn presence connected and impacted each other. For example,
and their preferred mangrove species (Case Study community members in Honduras noticed poor
We created clear guidelines (Appendix 4) for selection: We emailed Global Mangrove Alliance (GMA) members
12). Other case studies relied on local knowledge water quality and fish deaths in the estuary and
LEK had to inform part of the project; projects needed and other key contacts asking if they were involved with
to inform them of the locations of mangroves. were able to connect it to the presence of an
to have continued involvement of the community; or knew of relevant projects. Mangrove Action Project
This information helped in both siting the location invasive plant spreading throughout the nearby
and, to ensure best practices, case studies had to (MAP) also shared the request on their ‘Community-
of restoration projects in appropriate areas river (Case Study 8).
include local knowledge contributors as a co-authors Based Ecological Mangrove Restoration’ Group listserv.
(i.e., where mangroves had existed) such as in
(local authors are indicated by an * We also solicited examples at the 6th International
Panama (Case Study 19), or including wild stocks
next to their names in the case studies). Mangrove Macrobenthos and Management conference
of mangrove propagules for nurseries, direct
(MMM6) held in Colombia in July 2023. This included THRE ATS & IMPAC TS
planting, and/or supplementing plantings from
contacting authors of presentations and posters that
nurseries, like wildlings used for planting in
seemed relevant, providing information and a sign-up Also common in several projects was the inclusion
a Philippine restoration project (Case Study 20).
sheet at the GMA table, and making an announcement of LEK about causes of mangrove degradation,
at the GMA member gathering. In total, we received 21 such as mangrove cutting, oil spills, and dams.
case studies from around the world that we were able Understanding the causes of degradation can
to include in this guide. PHYS IC AL PROC E S S E S support successful management interventions.
In Kenya’s Tudor Creek, learning from community
Projects focused on restoration, including hydrologic Several projects asked locals to share knowledge members that degradation resulted from
changes and replanting efforts, and/or conservation, about physical processes, especially those logging, rather than biochemical or hydrological
which include environmental education, management relating to hydrology. This was especially degradation, indicated that a particular project site
approaches, and alternative livelihood opportunities. important in projects working to restore previous may be suitable for replanting (Case Study 14).
Projects in Honduras, New Caledonia, and El Salvador hydrological systems through digging canals. In
were initiated by local community members or groups, Colombia’s Morrosquillo Gulf, intergenerational
but even those started by another group illustrate how knowledge and daily existence in mangrove
local members both contributed valuable information systems allowed community members to identify
that informed the project and were involved at various areas experiencing salinization due to insufficient
points of the project. water flow. This information proved vital to
mapping the appropriate locations of the
Local villager fishing in the rich mangrove waters of St Kitts
channels (Case Study 4).
and Nevis. © Mark Spalding
63 64
R ESTO R AT IO N A P P R OAC H E S TRA DI TI O NA L SKI L L S
In projects that included planting, several turned Some projects discussed traditional skills, crafts,
to locals for their knowledge on how they have or fishing techniques. For example, a traditional
planted or maintained mangroves and what weaving approach from palm leaves in India has
has or has not worked in previous projects. been used to replace plastic bags in nurseries
In some of these, the case studies explained and provide an alternative livelihood to women in
how local knowledge and technical knowledge the region (Case Study 9). Beekeepers in Mexico
complemented each other for a more effective practice traditional beekeeping that relies on inter-
project. In Bahia Jiquilisco, El Salvador, locals generational knowledge about climate, phenology,
were provided technical training on digging and ecology (Case Study 17).
channels, and the community then determined
the best place to dig the channels based on
their knowledge of where water had previously
L EK I N O U TREACH
flowed (Case Study 6).
Finally, some projects explained how communities

are involved in sharing their LEK in education
C U LT UR A L P R AC TI C E S and awareness campaigns or activities. In New
Caledonia, the Koé tribe shared traditional
Studies also turned to locals to share information knowledge about mangrove names and uses, In many cultures, mangroves have a spiritual or religious value which can play a critical role in mangrove conservation and
management. Here in Benin, communities sanctified their mangroves through the deity, Zangbéto. © PAPBio/ UICN-PACO
about traditional tenure and local rules, which mangrove fishing techniques, and the history of
could inform locations of project sites, with the mangroves on an interpretative trail (Case
whom to talk about permissions, and traditional Study 18). Brazil’s Green July campaign involved
Even though overarching trends exist, each case study Enjoy reading about these cases, but take inspiration
management systems (e.g., closed seasons, the creation of a community written “Maretório
is unique and provides a greater understanding of too! Mangrove conservation will advance more rapidly
taboos) that could be employed. In Indonesia, the Manifesto” that highlighted traditional Brazilian
how projects can engage with LEK and improve project and more effectively if managers and funders25
traditional authority of “adat” and Kerakera, or local wisdom. Elders teach younger generations how
outcomes. A key takeaway is that LEK can support recognize LEK and if local communities are engaged
agreed upon wisdom, was reintroduced to protect to observe seasonal patterns of mangroves and
mangrove conservation and restoration in myriad ways. as equal partners and even leaders.
and manage mangroves (Case Study 11). Projects fisheries (Case Study 1).
A common failure of natural resources management
also included LEK about rituals, which were then
can be ignoring or paying minimal attention to local
included in their conservation efforts. In Colombia’s
people and the knowledge they hold. What these
La Guajira department, this involved engaging in
case studies show is that local knowledge has the
“Yanama”, or community work; drinking chirrinichi,
potential to enhance projects and improve success,
a typical Wayuu liquor; and performing “la Yonna,”
including the longevity and sustainability of
a traditional Wayuu dance (Case Study 3). Cultural
management interventions.
calendars, such as in Fiji, also played an important
role in determining timing of restoration or
conservation activities (Case Study 7).
25 Grimm, K. E., Archibald, J. L., Axelsson, E. P., & Grady, K. C. (2023). Follow the money: Understanding the Latin America and Caribbean
mangrove restoration funding landscape to assist organizations and funders in improved social‐ecological outcomes. Conservation Science
and Practice, 5(5), e12815.
65 66
4.3
Case studies
The 21 case studies that follow describe how, all around the globe, very different kinds of LEK
are informing and strengthening mangrove conservation and management (Figure 7), and
how local communities are being engaged in such efforts (Figure 8).
18 New Caledonia
16 Madagascar
20 Phillippines
5 El Salvador
6 El Salvador
10 Indonesia
11 Indonesia
8 Honduras
3 Colombia
4 Colombia
2 Colombia
Case study
21 Vietnam
19 Panama
17 Mexico
15 Liberia
14 Kenya
12 Kenya
13 Kenya
1 Brazil
9 India
7 Fiji
Total
Biodiversity -
Mangrove species
12
A Carimbó traditional culture concert celebrates mangroves during Green July in the Brazilian state of Pará as part of a campaign
Biodiversity - to promote mangrove protection. © Bianca Araújo
Other species
10
Biodiversity -
Location of mangrove/seed source 11
Physical processes 6
Habitat connectivity 8
Threats and Impacts 10
Restoration Approaches -
Hydrological 4
Restoration Approaches -
Planting/maintenance practices 8
Cultural Practices -
Traditional tenure/rules
5
Cultural Practices -
4
Rituals
Traditional Skills 4
LEK in outreach 4
A member of the Berkah Alam community group from Surodadi Village in Community members work together to construct a
Figure 7: Table showing the different classes of LEK that are included in each of the case studies, with many relying Indonesia, conducting monitoring of mangrove growth and water quality. permeable sediment trapping structure in Timbulsloko
on several types of LEK. © Wetlands International Village, Indonesia. © Kuswantoro
67 68
8 21
Honduras Vietnam
Estero Prieto Eight coastal
15 provinces from
Quảng Ninh to
17 Liberia Hà TĩnhHóa 20
2 Grand Cape Mount
Mexico County, Margibi and Philippines
Colombia Nula-tula
Yucatan
Barú
Grand Bassa County 9
Peninsula,
12
3 India
Bolívar Kenya Adirampattinam
Colombia Matadoni
Bahia Hondita village 11
6 and Musichi
protected area Indonesia
El Salvador Fakfak, West Papua
Bay of Jiquilisco
1
14
Brazil 18
Green July Kenya 10
5 4 Coastline Mwakirunge New Caledonia
Indonesia Touho
El Salvador Colombia Coastal area
El Zaite, Barra Protected area of Demak
de Santiago in Morrosquillo
Gulf
19
Panama 13 16
Las Lajas Lagoon 7
Kenya Madagascar
Mwache Fiji
Baie des Assassins
community Nacula, Nailaga
and Tavua
Figure 8: Map with locations of the projects represented in the subsequent

case studies. Click on the project to jump straight to a case study.
69 70
CASE STUDY 1 | BRAZIL
Green July: Building community Project goals and objectives Local Knowledge
pride for Mangroves

Due to socio-economic and political challenges, the All messaging and actions provided by the Green
coastal territories of Pará State have been neglected in July campaign build upon native Afro-Amazonian
the past. Green July is a grassroots campaign supported knowledge and encourage pride in coastal
by Rare where local people celebrate the importance of communities’ ancestral connection to the mangroves.
Contributing authors
the vast mangrove ecosystems along Brazil’s Amazon Indigenous wisdom and intergenerational lessons are
Bruna Maria Lima Martins, Rare Consultant; Paulo Cesar Jesus Torres, President of ASSUREMAS*; Zacarias Monteiro da Silva,
ASSUREMAV*; Jose Roberto Garcia Moraes, President, AUREMAG*; Manoel Botelho, President, AUREMAC*; Laercio Amoras,
Coast. It awakens and strengthens the role of local incorporated into conservation games and community
President, AUREMAR*; Daniel Oeiras, President, AUREMLUC*; Antonio Moreira, President, AUREMC-MG*; João Ferreira, community members as guardians of the mangroves. events. Each year, participating communities
President, MOCAJUIM*; Oseia Rocha, President, ASSUREMACATA*; Valter Chagas, President, AUREMAT*; João Carlos Gomes collectively write a “Maretório Manifesto” that
da Silva, President, AUREMAT*; Jose Roberto Tavares da Silva, President, AUREMAP* highlights traditional Brazilian wisdom on topics
Methods/approaches used
like rainfall cycles, human-wildlife relationships,
During Green July, local leaders and communities and the impact of human activities on mangroves.
T H R EAT S & IM PAC T S L EK IN O U T R EAC H
across the Pará region host cultural activities like Elders teach younger generations how to observe
parades, fisher games, live concerts, and radio the seasonal patterns of mangroves and fisheries
R ES TO R AT IO N A P P R OAC H ES
broadcasts to build excitement for mangrove and combat anthropogenic disturbances like
protection and promote sustainable behaviors that coastal development, pollution, wood harvesting,
benefit nature and coastal communities. Young and overfishing. As part of the manifesto, community
children learn the ecological value of mangroves, leaders pledge their commitment to mangrove
while fishers learn new strategies for sustainably maintenance, reinforcing their community’s pride as
managing shared natural resources. Each lesson guardians of the mangroves.
contributes to a “wave” of awareness, creating a larger
social transformation. World Mangrove Day on July 26
Outcomes
provides a narrative arc, driving momentum for the
Location activities of Green July. Green July may be the world’s largest community-led
Amazon Coastal Zone of Pará movement to protect mangroves, bringing visibility to

State, Brazil. Brazilian communities from local to international levels,
Groups involved and roles
helping to showcase how mangroves offer nature-
Project Size Green July is a grassroots initiative growing in attention based solutions for healthy fisheries, community well-
1,677 km² of mangrove coverage and momentum. With support from Rare, currently being, and climate resilience. Since 2021, the campaign
along 3,905 km² of protected areas. over 30 local institutions and hundreds of community has reached 200 communities and 3,000 members.
members across Pará State join in the campaign. Local Twelve local associations representing 18,000 families
Mangrove species
Indigenous and community leaders organize weekly along the Amazon coast that use the mangrove
White mangrove (Laguncularia campaign activities, uniting their respective community resources have joined in partnership to sustainably
racemosa), red mangrove
members. Youth, women, and community members manage the coastal ecosystems along with Green
(Rhizophora mangle), black
of all ages mobilize friends and families to participate. July’s efforts. In the words of local Pará State leader
mangrove (Avicennia germinans).
Local NGOs and state agencies provide technical Laercio Amoras, “Green July is becoming a tradition in
Project Duration support for fishers and increase campaign visibility our territory.” This sentiment reflects the awakening
2021 - ongoing Green July 2022 São João through social marketing. of a culture where individuals take pride and collective
da Ponta. © Enrico Marone action to protect their shared resources and build a
brighter future for people and nature.
71 72
CASE STUDY 2 | COLOMBIA
Searching for solutions for Project goals and objectives • Corporación Autónoma Regional Del Canal del
Dique (CARDIQUE): Jurisdiction over mangroves
carbon-sequestration in coastal
sea4soCiety aims to enhance carbon sequestration
on the Eastern side of the peninsula, distributes
in coastal ecosystems using innovative, ecologically
permits for cutting and building.
ecosystems (sea4soCiety)
feasible, environmentally sound, and ethical
approaches. It supports innovations that fit with • Wilmer Gomez: Environmental leader of the
societal requirements, which may provide benefits Communitarian Council of the village of Barú.
beyond carbon, and have economic viability. On a Founder of the mangrove nursery and a youth
local scale, sea4soCiety is looking at the ecological environmental group.
Martin Zimmer – project coordinator. Mondane Fouqueray – doctoral candidate. Camilo A. Arrieta-Giron – knowledge
exchange officer. Juan Carlos Cuadro* – Communitarian Council. Wilmer Gomez* – Communitarian Council.
and societal feasibility of mangrove expansion on the
• Juan Carlos Cuadro: Part of the Communitarian
peninsula of Barú, Colombia, with a deep engagement
Council. Founder of Tuarisba, a local ecotourism
with a diverse group of local stakeholders.
and mangrove nursery cooperative in the village of
B IO D IV ER S I T Y P H YS IC A L P R O C ES S ES Ararca, that works with a women’s collective.
Methods/approaches used
T H R EAT S & IM PAC T S R ES TO R AT IO N A P P R OAC H ES
To assess societal desirability and feasibility , the Local knowledge
project conducted individual interviews with the
The peninsula of Barú is under special jurisdiction
COLOMBIA communities in 2022, followed by focus group
due to the presence of Afro-Colombian communities,
interviews with mangrove nursery managers,
governed by their Communitarian Council. This grants
ecotourism operators, and fishermen from the three
them legal protection and governance authority over
villages, in 2023. Subsequently, a workshop involving
their land.
community members, governmental organizations,
Location and the academic sector was organized to understand Considerable local knowledge on mangroves and the
Villages Ararca (10°15’49.4”N stakeholder needs, interests, and challenges related to area was gathered through interviews, workshops,
75°33’21.8”W), Santa Ana mangrove (re-)establishment and recognize their roles and group discussions. This included mangrove
(10°14’17.0”N 75°33’07.5”W) and and knowledge in resource management. The methods species, locations, and management; historical and
Barú (10°08’24.5”N 75°41’14.1”W), for (re-)establishing mangroves will be based on the current uses for different species; threats affecting
Barú Peninsula, Bolívar. outcomes of the discussions with the communities. mangrove ecosystems; replanting efforts; climate
change perceptions; mangrove health status; views
Project Size
on mangrove expansion; and community needs. For
The project is still in a development Groups involved and roles
example, the communities have knowledge of
phase and the final size is yet to
• Academic partners including leaders from sedimentation and salinity changes over time,
be determined.
Universidad Nacional de Colombia (Bogotá), which informs areas experiencing fast accumulation
Mangrove species Universidad del Sinú (Cartagena), and Pontificia of sediment that might need frequent dredging or
Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia Universidad Javeriana (Bogotá). areas suffering from high salinity. The community
germinans, Laguncularia racemose, uses specific channel-building techniques to reduce
• Parque Nacional Natural Islas Corales del
Pelliciera benthamii, Conocarpus erectus the salinity. This knowledge comes from a variety of
Rosario y san Bernardo (PNN): Jurisdiction over
sources: empirical practice; ancestral and neighbor
Project Duration Mangrove (Rhizophora) expansion carried mangroves within park limits on the Western side
out by a fishers association from Santa community practices; and through trainings conducted
Phase 1: 2021-2024 and tip of the peninsula.
Ana, Colombia. © Mondane Fouqueray by environmental institutions.
Phase 2: 2024-2027
73 74
These communities participate in ecosystem recovery, Outcomes

driven by the private and governmental sectors,
The engagements with the local community since
through nursery maintenance, species selection, and
2021 have built trust and increased the visibility of
locating planting sites. Their holistic understanding
mangroves and their importance for climate change
of the area is essential in identifying parallel
mitigation and adaptation. A positive impact of the
activities crucial to long-term success of mangrove
project thus far is the successful gathering of a wide
expansion (dredging, solid waste management, and
variety of actors (government, community, academia)
environmental education). The future phases will
in the same discussion space. This has allowed for
need a comprehensive knowledge of the area and an
networking and improved communication between
understanding of the needs of the communities and
actors who seldomly interact.
the ecosystem.
To learn more about this case study visit:
The project will rely on local knowledge to
inform where to plant, where to create channels https://www.leibniz-zmt.de/en/research/research-
for freshwater input, and how to address the projects/sea4society.html
existing pressures on mangrove forests.
https://sea4society.cdrmare.de/en/
Group presentation during the multi-stakeholder workshop held in Barú, Colombia. © Mondane Fouqueray
Some community members shared information The community works on the recovery of their
about mangrove planting, such as different planting ‘Ancestral Memory,’ where the understanding
techniques, substrate types (where to find them, between the environment and culture, and the
which ones are more suitable for mangroves, how to union of these two spheres, would be the way to
combine different substrates to use in nurseries), life generate ecosystem equilibrium. The community
cycle and optimal planting time, and the necessary practices knowledge-sharing among elderly members
acclimatization steps between nursery and planting. (called “sabedores” or knowledge-holders) and children
through, for instance, the mangrove nurseries.
Information about social and economic problems arise
as well from the different stakeholders, for whom land
tenure, food security, and lack of interinstitutional
cooperation are the main factors to highlight.
Focus group discussion in the village of Ararca, with members of the “consejo communitario” or community council. © Mondane Fouqueray
75 76
Multi-scale mangrove governance for the Project Goals and Objectives In contrast to the Western approach of signing a
physical document, the fulfillment of these voluntary
traditional and Indigenous communities The arid Caribbean peninsula of La Guajira in northern
Colombia is inhabited by numerous ethnic communities
agreements has a binding nature for the Wayúu
communities; in the Wayúu cosmovision, observance
in the department La Guajira, Colombia such as Afro-descendent; Wayúu; and Indigenous
groups of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, including
of oral agreements reflects a fundamental socio-
cultural principle. To develop these agreements, a
some populations of Kogui-Malayo-Arhuaco resguardo.
translator facilitated a multi-stage negotiation
Contributing authors They all have close symbolic and material ties to coastal
process that included workshops, field work, and
Adriana Daza – Specialized Professional, CORPOGUAJIRA, development and supervision of the project. Omar Sierra Rozo – marine ecosystems such as mangroves. However, the
national advisor for the MABE project, GFA Consulting Group, support in supervision of the project. Daiver Pinto – regional
discussion circles.
ecosystem and adjacent communities are vulnerable to
coordinator MABE projects in la Guajira, coordination of the projects. Matthias Mueller – international advisor for the MAbE
impacts such as hurricanes, hyper salinization, floods The interrelationship between traditional life
project, GFA Consulting Group/ CDM Smith, support in the development and supervision of the project. Adanies Epieyu
Rosado* – legal representative “Fundación vigias ambientales Jose Ladeus” DRMI Musichi (Wayuu representative). during the rainy season, and coastal erosion. Firewood patterns, ancestral knowledge, spiritual practices,
Wilfrido Arends* – legal representative “Asociación de Preservación de Manglares de Bahía Hondita – Asomanglares” harvesting is also a major threat in this region where and the mangrove ecosystem provided the project
(Wayuu representative). Julian Castro-Gomez – Technical Advisor, GIZ. Carlos Villamil Echeverri, Technical Advisor, GIZ. there are few alternative fuel sources. with the opportunity to develop environmental
education strategies. These strategies, created by
The regional environmental agency, CORPOGUAJIRA,
CORPOGUAJIRA based on local knowledge, mainstream
B IO D IV ER S IT Y P H YS IC A L P R O C ES S ES is responsible for monitoring and managing the
Location the environmental education approach for the whole
mangroves within its jurisdiction. CORPOGUAJIRA
The Department of La Guajira, Colombia, department (La Guajira), addressing all stakeholders
T H R EAT S & IM PAC T S R ES TO R AT IO N A P P R OAC HES has developed voluntary management agreements
including 30 Wayuu indigenous and involved in interactions with mangroves. Another
with communities that regulate mangrove access
Afro-descendent communities. Three important approach of this work was including
projects are described here: Bahia C U LT U R A L P R AC T IC ES H A B ITAT CO NNEC T IV IT Y and use. These agreements are based on a
traditional rituals and cultural practices depending
Hondita (12°24’25”N -71°41’34”W) at previous participatory zoning concept in which
on the importance of the activity. These included
most northern part of the province (Alta Indigenous communities participated. This work
the offering of a goat; meal preparation; drinking
Guajira), the regional protected area is part of the Ecosystem based Adaptation to
Musichi (11°44’52”N - 72°33’14”W) in chirrinchi, a typical Wayuu liquor; playing musical
Prevent Coastal Erosion in a Changing Climate
the center (media Guajira), and all other instruments; or performing “la Yonna,” a typical
project, executed by Ministry of Environment and
mangrove areas in the province spread Wayuu dance.
Sustainable Development of Colombia, financed by
along the coastline.
the International Climate Initiative (IKI) through the Specific restoration activities were implemented
COLOMBIA
Project Size Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW). Complementary in two areas of the project:
Musichi – Regional protected area – to the agreements, the project included the installation
Bahia Hondita: Multiple activities included
42.34 hectares of eco-efficient stoves to reduce pressure on mangrove
rehabilitation of the water flow by the digging of
Bahia Hondita – 363.07 hectares use and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as well
channels in three sectors of the bay using traditional
as fencing and hydrological rehabilitation of a
Mangrove areas for voluntary agreements practices (Yanama); the implementation of nurseries
along the coastline – 587.66 hectares mangrove wetland.
and seed sowing; the introduction of an alternative
economic opportunity in ecotourism “The Mangroves
Mangrove species
Methods and approaches Route”; the registration of the initiative as one of the
Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans,
Blue Carbon initiatives in Colombia; and the installation
and Laguncularia racemosa Central to this project was the co-development of
of eco-efficient cooking stoves. “Yanama” refers
voluntary agreements with Indigenous and Afro-
Project Duration to “community work” within the Wayuu culture;
descendant communities aimed to improve mangrove
2021 - 2023 Signing mangrove management agreements. people come together to accomplish a job and at
© Andrés García, Fundación Omacha management. These agreements included the Wayúu
the end of the day have a meal together. In this
ethnic group’s and the Afro-descendant communities’
case, “Yanama” was implemented as a collective
worldviews of the mangrove ecological system.
77 78
work for the maintenance of canals that favor To begin, the participatory zoning concept guiding the
water circulation to the mangroves. overall project was informed by mangrove mapping by
drones and local knowledge of current and past land
Musichi: Two key activities were undertaken. To
use patterns. Specific knowledge informing the work
mitigate identified threats to the mangrove forest,
in each area included:
specifically cattle ranching and logging, this project
constructed a 6,240-meter fence around the mangrove Bahia Hondita: Ethnic, ancestral knowledge was
restoration areas. To improve natural flooding and central to the work conducted in this area. Besides
drainage and to regulate salinity in areas threatened inclusion of “Yanama”, this involved knowledge of
by coastal erosion, in turn helping mangrove seasonal changes of winds, tides, and currents
rehabilitation, 1.5 km channels were excavated. and how they influence the mangrove ecosystem.
It also included appropriate times for planting and
seed collection and species to be planted depending
Local Knowledge Local and ancestral knowledge informed the process of digging channels to secure water
on the site location. For example, artisanal on-site
flows to and from the mangroves in Musichi. © Adriana Daza
Although a Mangrove Restoration Guide was nurseries were implemented using the seeds that fell
adopted by the central government, differences in the environment.
in the biophysical, socioeconomic, and ethnic
Musichi: Wayuu knowledge was instrumental in Bahia Hondita: Around 500 mangroves have been Mangrove areas within Indigenous or Afro-
characteristics of local settings make it important to
sharing information about ecosystem services, planted by the community and visitors and 500 m descendant communities: 14 voluntary management
include the traditional knowledge and the beliefs of the
threats, and conservation approaches. The mangrove of channels have been rehabilitated. Twenty eco- agreements have been signed by 30 communities,
communities in the mangrove restoration processes.
ecosystem of Musichi protected area supports efficient cooking stoves have been installed in four covering 630 of the 995 hectares of mangrove
In Guajira, mangroves have unique meanings for important fishing and nursery grounds for the Wayuu communities. Since in Wayuu tradition one stove ecosystems in the province. Among the prioritized
the different groups. For the Wayúu ethnic group, clans. The Wayuu also identified threats to mangroves, is used by three families, this measure reaches 60 topics in the 14 agreements are restoration of
mangrove ecosystems are sacred sites. The four such as firewood and fodder for goats and cows. families. Substrate sampling occurred in nine plots to mangroves, management of solid waste, nature
mangrove species have special meanings and uses Traditional knowledge informed the fencing of the measure blue carbon. To strengthen local governance, tourism initiatives, and formation of environmental
and are associated with traditional production activities. mangroves and helped to prioritize the zones most members of four Wayuu communities were involved in groups. The agreements will last one year and
The Afro-descendants consider the mangroves as a relevant to the ecosystem services mentioned. In the creation an Indigenous mangrove guardians group CORPOGUAJIRA will carry out two follow-ups a year.
refuge for their ancestors, a source of fishing, and a addition, ancestral knowledge informed where and “ASOMANGLARES” and CORPOGUAJIRA supported the In addition, there were 14 environmental education
supply of fruits. how to dig the canals to ensure water supply to the effort. These results show that climate actions based on workshops and four workshops related to participatory
mangroves. This included understanding of changing the management of marine and coastal biodiversity at mapping and zoning of the mangrove areas, which
For the Arhuaca people, the Sierra Nevada
tides and wind directions during the year the local level are more efficient than efforts that simply was based upon current quantitative and qualitative
Mountain at the western end of this region
and dimensions needed to ensure water availability follow high-level national public policies. information. The above constitutes a very valuable
represents a sacred body and the heart of the
for mangroves and to reduce soil salinity. social cartography input for the management
world; the mangroves act as eyebrows and are Musichi: The project duration was one year and ended
processes of the mangrove ecosystem in the
the first barriers to protect coastal erosion. in October 2023. Monitoring in the subsequent months
department of La Guajira.
Outcomes will inform whether a reduction of cattle ranching
Thus, the coastal lagoons, estuaries, and mangroves
and logging resulted from the fencing. The physical
are considered part of the sacred spaces that constitute Overall, 14 agreements with 30 communities were To learn more about this case study visit:
and chemical conditions of the soil that enable the
the ancestral territory of these Indigenous people. signed for 588 hectares that includes 6.3 km of
development of the mangrove have been improved by https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2SMfe2jzd5A
channels dug, 180 eco-efficient stoves installed,
These sacred beliefs, as well as knowledge of land use, opening 3.8 km of channels. Additionally, within that
42 hectares mangrove protected with 6.4 km of https://www.international-climate-initiative.com/
mangrove species and locations, hydrological patterns, area 4000 seedlings were planted.
fencing, and activities such as nurseries and planting en/iki-media/news/using-caribbean-ecosystems-to-
and causes of degradation helped inform this project.
mangrove seeds. protect-against-the-impacts-of-climate-change/
79 80
Vida Manglar, blue carbon Project goals and objectives • In exchange for making specific commitments that
limit the amount of mangrove wood extracted and
program in the Morrosquillo Gulf

“Vida Manglar” is a local community and institutional
the active participation in monitoring and scientific
initiative. The project seeks certification of actions
activities, community members receive benefits,
related to the reduction of carbon emissions due
such as wages for opening channels to avoid high
to forest degradation or deforestation and the
Contributing authors salinity levels, capacity building opportunities and
conservation of coastal wetlands in 7,561 ha of
Yoger Yair Madarriaga – San Bernardo Community, Vida Manglar local expert. Paula Ortega – San Antero Community,
* *
training sessions, and economic alternatives (e.g.,
Vida Manglar local coordinator. Dalila Caicedo – Omacha Foundation. Yenyfer Mona* – Omacha Foundation. Paula Sierra –
mangrove forests. The grouped blue carbon project
ecotourism, local orchards, bee products).
Marine and Coastal Research Institute (INVEMAR). María Claudia Diazgranados – Conservation International. was approved by Verra under VCS and CCB standards
Yenis Simanca* – Corporación Autónoma regional del Valle del Sinú (CVS). Rafael Espinosa – Corporación Autónoma regional and began May 15, 2015. Over 30 years, an estimated
del Valle del Sinú (CVS). reduction of 939,296 tCO2e is expected through Groups involved and roles
the execution of activities related to the Integrated
Vida Manglar is led by a coalition of public and private
Management Plan (PMI) of the protected area (PA) of
B IO D IV ER S IT Y P H YS IC A L P R O C ES S ES organizations — including 14 community-based
Cispatá Bay. These activities include strengthening local
associations of mangrove workers, CVS, INVEMAR,
governance, promoting alternative livelihoods projects
R ES TO R AT IO N A P P R OAC H ES H A B ITAT CO NNEC T IV IT Y the local NGO Fundación Omacha, and Conservation
with local communities, recovery and rehabilitation
International. Communities living around the project
of mangrove areas, and monitoring the associated
area have a high economic dependence on the natural
biodiversity. During the first monitoring period, a net
COLOMBIA resources associated with the mangrove forests.
reduction of 69,027 tCO2e was certified; credits were
Historically, they have promoted different sustainable
completely sold in the international voluntary market.
management initiatives together with CVS to improve
their economic welfare and maintain the environmental
Methods/approaches quality of the ecosystem. They are also part of the
Location governance structure of the project and a key partner
Vida Manglar uses the following methods for
for decision-making processes.
Morrosquillo Gulf, Colombia. mangrove conservation and restoration, many of
The protected area covers 7,561 ha. which are informed by local ecological knowledge
(9°19’27.04” - 9°26’46.10” N and (LEK) and are described in more detail below. Local knowledge
75°43’32.08” - 76°0’15.43”).
• Opening and maintaining channels. Vida Manglar relies on the local community’s
Project Size knowledge of the ecosystem, which is rooted in
• “Assisted regeneration” using methods developed
7561 ha in the Cispatá Bay generations of utilizing and benefiting from the forest
together with local communities and learning from
and its associated fauna. The grandparents of the
Mangrove species many years of activities in the region.
Cispatá mangrove community relied on mangrove
Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove), • Conducting research and monitoring about wood for their livelihoods and the community’s
Laguncularia racemosa (white vegetation, fauna, and real-time threats, which is intimate familiarity with the system and its species
mangrove), Conocarpus erectus
used to inform proposed solutions. is derived from their local knowledge and continual
(button mangrove), Pelliciera
presence in the area.
rhizophorae (piñuelo), Avicennia • Extraction of wood through a community-based
germinans (black mangrove). sustainable use rotation system, which is based on
Artisanal transportation of harvested
their detailed knowledge of the forest.
Project Duration mangrove wood to the “Caño Lobo” collection
site in San Antero, Córdoba. © Vida Manglar
2015 - ongoing
81 82
caiman eggs laid on the shores would perish due Outcomes

to submersion. This led local members to create
The following are some key outcomes from the first
artificial nests in the forest to ensure the health of
monitoring period (2015-2018):
the deposited eggs. Initially done to sustain hunting,
over time, communities established an association • 297 hectares restored in the Regional Management
dedicated to the care and monitoring of caiman. District (DRMI) Cispatá, La Balsa, Tinajones and
The local population of needle-nosed caimans has Sectors bordering the Sinú River Delta.
significantly increased and the methodology used
• With community participation of those from San
was adopted by Vida Manglar.
Antero and San Bernardo del Viento, 23,343 meters
Rotating forest management mechanism: One of canals have been restored, prioritizing the
unique characteristic of Vida Manglar is the existence natural regeneration of the mangrove ecosystem.
of a community-based sustainable use rotation
• Community production and planting of 209,000
system, which is based on detailed local knowledge
mangrove seedlings for coastal erosion mitigation.
of the forest. In Colombia, the use of mangrove wood
is prohibited for any purposes except in the Cordoba • Community capacity building for the management
Local communities and institutions on a site visit Department because of the extensive mangrove and sustainable use of the mangrove ecosystem
to monitor an area being restored in the mangrove Community members participate in the baseline measurement of monitoring conducted with communities since 1990. and its natural resources for more than 337 local
ecosystem of the DRMI Cispatá protected area, physicochemical variables before the start of restoration interventions
Local communities can extract mangrove wood based community members.
Córdoba. © Vida Manglar in the mangrove ecosystem of DRMI Cispatá, Córdoba. © Vida Manglar
on permits granted by CVS on a yearly basis. The entire
mangrove forest is divided into 13 different subzones, To learn more about this case study visit:
which are harvested on a yearly rotation basis; after 14
LEK as a way of selecting channels to be maintained: Assisted regeneration and active restoration: Local www.vidamanglar.co
years, harvesting returns to subzone 1.
Traditionally, the grandparents recognized the communities possess a keen understanding of tidal
importance of maintaining open water channels, changes and effects of rising sea levels. This awareness
not only for accessing the interior of the forest, prompted them to adopt the mounding methodology
but also for ensuring the health of the trees. for tree planting, which prevents seeds from being
This valuable knowledge has been passed down constantly submerged, enabling seed survival. The
through generations. Through daily immersion success of this approach, tested in the early 2000s,
in the forest, community members identify areas led to its adoption by Vida Manglar. The other method
experiencing salinization due to insufficient water used, also adopted by Vida Manglar, is “broadcast
flow. They communicate this information to CVS planting”, where mangrove seeds are thrown randomly
and map the channels. After creating the map, the in the area to be restored. Learned from local
channel’s length is verified in the field. The system’s agricultural practices, mangrove farmers have been
hydrodynamics are examined, and in collaboration with using this method for decades with high effectiveness.
the community, a decision is made on the appropriate
Active participation on research and monitoring
intervention based on the channel conditions (e.g.,
processes: The local communities play a crucial
restoration, maintenance, opening). An agreement is
role in all scientific research conducted in the area,
signed between CVS and the community associations
contributing significantly to data collection on
so they may carry out the activities autonomously, but
various species. (e.g., caimans, migratory birds,
accompanied by an official from CVS and experts from
manatees, otters, dolphins). For example, the
Vida Manglar (NGOs and the Research Institute). Community delivery of the products of traditional rice agriculture as an alternative livelihood strategy
grandparents observed that due to sea level rise, in the municipality of San Bernardo del Viento, Córdoba. © Vida Manglar
83 84
CASE STUDY 5 | EL SALVADOR
Restoration and monitoring Additional location details guidelines from the Ministry of Environment and
Natural Resources (MARN). Yet, AMBAS (a local women’s
of four mangrove species in On July 23, 2014, The Barra de Santiago became
an internationally recognized Ramsar site covering
non-governmental organization) and others in the
communities observed that these interventions were
El Zaite, Barra de Santiago 11,519 ha at the western boundary of El Salvador.
The site includes coastal and marine areas as well
not enough. To make better decisions, they sought out
the knowledge of their elders, verified that information,
as terrestrial zones up to 5 to 9 meters of elevation.
and prepared a review on the state of the resources
Contributing authors The site is the main forested area with mangroves in
in the site, after which AMBAS developed their
Eder Caceros*, Coordinator of Environmental Projects for the local NGO “Women’s Association for the western part of the country and is inhabited by
Community Development of Barra de Santiago, El Salvador” (AMBAS26)27. Luis Roberto Quintanilla Guerra*,
intervention plan.
species such as the caiman (Caiman crocodylus); the
Technician for the AMBAS. Karla Evangelista, IUCN, site coordinador. Zulma Ricord de Mendoza, Regional Coastal
crocodile (Crocodylus acutus); the tropical gar fish,
Biodiversity Project IUCN-USAID.
known locally as the “machorra” (Atractosteus tropicus), Methods/approaches
otters (Lontra longicaudis), and various migratory and
. B IO D IV ER S IT Y P H YS IC A L P R O C ES S ES AMBAS, with the support of others in the
resident birds that are threatened or endangered.
community, created demonstration plots and focused
The mangrove forests continue beyond the border
on the eradication of the Dalbergia brownei. Through
with Guatemala, where protected areas and wetlands
a process of trial and error, they successfully
in Hawaii, Monterrico, and the Las Lisas Multiple Use
transplanted seedlings in the demonstration plots.
Area, among others, can also be found. The area is one
Although they are currently working in an area of
EL SALVADOR of the implementation sites for the Regional Coastal
5.5 hectares with the Regional Project, their goal is
Biodiversity Project, IUCN-GOAL/USAID (2017-2024).
to restore a total of 25 hectares by 2025. They also
provided training for communities on the dangers,
Project goals and objectives benefits, and commitment required to restore
the mangrove ecosystem. The restoration efforts
Local knowledge highlighted that mangroves in this
Location supported temporary work for 50 local people
area have undergone considerable deterioration in
hired under a “cash for work” program, where they
13°42’ N and 90°00’ W recent decades, having been damaged by two powerful
earned a rate of USD $7 per 4-hour workday. AMBAS
hurricanes (Hurricanes Fifi in 1974 and Mitch in 1998),
Project Size measures the effectiveness of the interventions by
as well as by fire. Parallel to these events, a native
The goal is to expand beyond the monitoring mangrove species size and noting the
liana species, “devil’s rib” Dalbergia brownei, colonized
81 ha currently protected. appearance of fauna in restoration sites. AMBAS has
former mangrove areas, preventing recovery. Thus, an
donated seedlings from its nursery to be used in other
Mangrove species area of rich biodiversity that in the 1980s was known
restoration sites.
as “El Colegio de Aves” (the Bird School) underwent
Four species are used in the
restoration process: white considerable declines.
mangrove (Laguncularia racimosa), Groups involved and roles
This project, known as the “El Zaite, 81 ha”, aims to
red mangrove (Rhizofora mangle),
restore a part of this site with vegetative cover; increase The project is supported by the Regional Coastal
black mangrove (Avicennia
germinans), and the button carbon dioxide (CO2) fixation; and eradicate Dalbergia Biodiversity Project, a coordinated restoration started in
mangrove (Conocarpus erectus). brownei. Until 2016-2017, only water rehabilitation 2020. The project also works in coordination with MARN
activities occurred at the Ramsar site, based on as the governing authority for mangroves; UNES28;
Project Duration Aerial view of restoration area in Barra de
Santiago Mangrove site. © IUCN / USAID
2020 - 2024
28 Unidad Ecológica de El Salvador UNES local implementation member of the IUCN consortium for the Project implementation.
26 AMBAS (Associacion de Mujeres de Barra de Santiago) is a local women’s non-governmental organization established in 2005,
which is currently made up of 50 members. The board is led by Doña Rosa, the NGO’s founder and leader.
86
27 Barra de Santiago, Women Association AMBAS.
FIAES29; FUNDEMAS,30 a private NGO; DAVIVIENDA of the community is committed, experiencing a change
Bank ; other cooperation agencies such as the Green
31
in attitude as they increased their awareness about
Fund (GIZ); local schools and national universities; and the restoration process. There has been an increase in
local communities. AMBAS has also participated in small-scale fishing and improved water rehabilitation
learning exchanges. practices in the area.
Local knowledge To learn more about this case study visit:
Elders identified the areas where there had been https://focostv.com/las-mujeres-que-restauran-el-

mangroves in the past, the types of mangrove manglar-de-la-barra-de-santiago-hectarea-a-hectarea/
species found, and the vertebrate species that
existed in those areas. This procedure is included in
the REM Ecological Mangrove Restoration methodology
according to MARN (Ministry of Environment and
Natural Resources) and IUCN guidelines, which
recommend in the guidelines to consider gathering
information from community elders. Afterwards,
El Zaite area to be restored in Barra de Santiago. © IUCN / USAID
AMBAS visited sites and verified the evidence of the
past hurricane and fire damage. From that knowledge,
it was possible to derive the original location of tidal
inundation and the original mangrove species.
Outcomes
To date, a total of 11.7 hectares have been restored,

representing an economic value of USD 18,000 per
year32. The restoration of the area and the elimination
of the “devil’s rib” has resulted in the return of species
such as the river otter, caimans and crocodiles, wildcats
(not reported before), and some six to seven species of
shore herons. In addition, due to their restoration
work, AMBAS has learned that the white mangrove has
greater adaptability as a pioneer species, allowing the Dredging channels on mangrove sites in Barra de
red mangrove species to develop in its shade. The rest Santiago. © IUCN / USAID
29 Environmental Investment Fund of El Salvador: FIAES
30 FUNDEMAS: Business Foundation for Social Action.
31 Davivienda is a bank of Colombian origin that has agencies throughout the national territory of El Salvador.
32 According to a chart managed by MARN AMBAŚ women participating in dredging in El Zaite, Barra de Santiago. © IUCN / USAID
87 88
Harnessing local knowledge Project goals and objectives Groups involved and roles
for mangrove restoration in Along the Pacific coast of El Salvador, lies the Bay of
Jiquilisco, home to one of the region’s most extensive
Seven communities were involved in the project,
namely Isla Montecristo, Las Mesitas, La Chacastera,
the Bay of Jiquilisco and diverse mangrove forests. Covering over 63,000
hectares, this invaluable ecosystem earned its
La Canoita, Los Calix, Los Lotes, and La Babilonia.
Asociación Mangle; the Ministry of Environment;
designation as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and the inter-governmental agency, Fondo de Inversión
Contributing authors Ramsar Wetland of International Importance due to its Ambiental de El Salvador (FIAES); and two international
José María Argueta* – Asociación Mangle, Ciudad Romero Community, El Zamorán Canton, Usulután, El Salvador. Giovanni unique biodiversity and global significance. NGOs, Mangrove Action Project and EcoViva, were also
Díaz* – Community Leader, Isla Montecristo, Bahia de Jiquilisco, El Salvador. Manuel González* – Wetland Ranger, Las key partners.
Mesitas, Bahia de Jiquilisco, El Salvador. Laura Michie, Alfredo Quarto, Leo Thom – Mangrove Action Project. However, the mangroves in the Bay of Jiquilisco face
an array of threats, including upstream flooding,
sedimentation, uncontrolled tourism development, Local knowledge
B IO D IV ER S IT Y large-scale agricultural expansion, and exploitation
A fundamental aspect of this project was
of mangrove resources. The aim of this project was
acknowledging and harnessing the local knowledge
to restore the degraded mangroves in the bay by
present within the communities. The residents, whose
implementing a community-based restoration project.
lives and livelihoods are intricately connected to the
mangroves, possess an innate understanding of these
EL SALVADOR Methods ecosystems. To determine where to dig the channels to

reestablish water flow, the local communities provided
The methods employed a distinctive blend of expertise,
essential knowledge about the site history, including
integrating the insights of the local community
the position of past tidal drainage channels and
with technical scientific knowledge. The restoration
specifics of the hydrological dynamics that defined the
efforts were rooted in the principles of Community-
sites. Furthermore, local community members shared
Based Ecological Mangrove Restoration (CBEMR),
Location their knowledge about past assemblages of flora and
which entailed a comprehensive assessment of both
Bay of Jiquilisco, El Salvador. fauna within the study areas. This local understanding
biophysical and social factors at the restoration sites.
13°12’00.9”N 88°28’57.6”W of the ecosystems’ historical composition helped
Due to sedimentation blocking many of the channels,
formulate the project’s biodiversity goals, with an
Project Size hydrological restoration was deemed necessary at all
aim of restoring all species that were historically
sites to restore the natural flow of water. Leveraging the
62 hectares present, contributing to the long-term sustainability
invaluable local knowledge of the ecosystem discussed
of the mangrove areas.
Mangrove species below, former mangrove channels were carefully
Rhizophora racemosa, Avicennia re-excavated, while new channels were strategically

germinans, Avicennia bicolor, created to enhance water flow in inundated regions.
Laguncularia racemose, Conocarpus Asociación Mangle, a regional non-profit focusing
erectus on community development in the Bay of Jiquilisco,
coordinated community groups in restoration activities,
Project Duration
which consisted of removing sediments and extracting
2011 - ongoing El Salvador site fallen trees and other debris that blocked the channels.
assessment Feb 2023. ©
After several months of concerted effort, over 4 km of
Mangrove Action Project
channels were opened, allowing the standing water to
drain and the mangroves to naturally regenerate.
89 90
El Salvador CBEMR Photo Sequence - Before and After Restoration. © Mangrove Action Project
Community Restoration Group Bay of Jiquilisco. © Asociación Mangle
Outcomes
An estimated 62 hectares of mangroves across the Today, the project continues to evolve and expand
project sites have been restored through natural its scope, incorporating mangrove management
regeneration. The benefits of restoration using and monitoring. The local knowledge, combined
this methodology is that it brings back a mangrove with structured technical training, has made the
ecosystem consisting of all five mangrove species. Since communities not just beneficiaries but active
the mangroves have been restored, the overall health participants in mangrove conservation. Furthermore,
of the ecosystem has improved. The bay has seen an the Ministry of Environment in El Salvador has adopted
increase in the number of animal species dependent CBEMR as the national policy for best mangrove
on this habitat, including migratory and wading birds, restoration practices.
mammals, crabs, fish, and mosquitoes.
http://mangroveactionproject.org/wp-content/
uploads/2023/11/Mangrove-Restoration-Impact-
Assessment-Report-2023.pdf
https://bit.ly/ElSalvadorVideo
Community Restoration Group Bay of Jiquilisco. © Asociación Mangle
91 92
CASE STUDY 7 | FIJI
Living with change Project goals and objectives Groups involved and roles
– Resilient mangroves,
The overall goals of this project were to restore and Ministry of Fisheries, Provincial Councils, District
protect mangroves, rivers, forests, coral reefs, and Councils, Village Women and Youth Groups,
fisheries and people of Fiji

fisheries, as well as increase community capacity and Traditional Leaders.
resilience. To address community resilience, the
project aimed to improve livelihoods, food security,
Local knowledge
and economic security, as well as eradicate poverty.
One way was through trainings and workshops aimed Actively participating in decision-making processes,
Manasa Naikasowalu*, (Turaga na Tui Drola). Filimoni Caucau* (Former Tavua District Representative). Vatemo Tinalevu*
(Former Nailaga District Representative). Apolosa Robaigau, Unaisi Malani, Alfred Ralifo, Francis Areki (WWF Pacific Office).
at capacity building and awareness. Another goal the community drew from generations of mangrove
was to create Mangrove Community Business knowledge and practices, ensuring informed and
Development and Nature Based Solutions. This culturally sensitive project decisions. This project blends
holistic approach to mangrove management combines the old with the new by combining traditional ways with
B IO D IV ER S IT Y R ES TO R AT IO N A P P R OAC H ES
protection efforts with community-led business modern methods, as well as including traditional rules
development, recognizing the importance of both and governance systems.
C U LT U R A L P R AC T IC ES T R A D IT IO NA L S K IL L S
ecological conservation and sustainable livelihoods.
The local communities have a deep connection with
Future plans envision expanding economic initiatives
H A B ITAT CO NNEC T IV IT Y mangroves, both culturally (e.g., seeing mangroves
by integrating ecotourism into the framework.
as totems) and practically (e.g. fishing spots). Their
FIJI This strategic move aims to not only boost local
generational knowledge about the different mangrove
economies but also raise awareness about the
species, their habitats, and the whole ecosystem
importance of mangrove ecosystems.
forms the backbone of how these resources are
managed sustainably. Project activities (e.g., fishing,
Location
Methods/approaches planting) are aligned with the community’s cultural
Ba Province
calendars. For example, early mornings of the third
• Western Division of Fiji - in the To achieve these goals, the project collaborated
and fourth week of the month are believed to be the
mainland districts of Tavua with the community and included their knowledge.
and Nailaga best time for catching crabs. In addition, replanting
Community consultation occurred with local leaders
mangroves and setting up nurseries aligns with the
• Maritime District of Nacula to develop District Sustainable Development Plans.
flowering and fruiting period, which are well known
The community helped with resource mapping and
Project Size by the communities.
was involved in workshops for creating Fisheries
Nacula District – 205.4ha
Management Plans. The project also held several Oral histories provide insights into how mangrove
Nailaga District – 5527.12 ha
training and capacity building and awareness sessions ecosystems have changed over time, helping the
Tavua District – 3153.25 ha
to formulate Disaster Risk Reduction and Response project make better decisions. For example, in
Mangrove species Plans for community resilience, sustainable farming selecting restoration sites, the collaboration with
Rhizophora stylosa, Rhizophora and fishing techniques, food preservation, livelihood community elders played a crucial role. With their
samoensis, Rhizophora selala, enhancement, governance and leadership, committee valuable support, priority sites were discerned,
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, and administration, and responsible ecotourism practices. encompassing locations of historical significance
Mangrove Associated species. The project worked to provide financial opportunities such as old village sites, some situated near mangrove
for the community. In addition, the project involves areas. Additionally, the identification process took
Project Duration We all have a role to play in building our
resilience to climate change. © WWF Pacific mangrove restoration through the planting of into account key fishing hotspots.
2019 - 2022
mangroves raised in nurseries started by the project.
93 94
CASE STUDY 7 | FIJI
The insights provided by the community elders For instance, the selection of healthy propagules and Outcomes
were instrumental not only in pinpointing potential the timing of planting are considered crucial knowledge
• Protection and preservation of 16,000 ha of • Livelihood diversification – alternative sources
restoration sites but also in discerning changes that shared by the community. Planting mangroves in
mangroves across the three districts through and improved finance in each household.
have transpired in the mangrove areas and their groups, rather than as individual plants, is believed
community management and restoration. Capacity building to ensure high quality of harvest
associated ecosystems. to result in a higher survival rate. It is also believed
and proper management of household finance
that when restoration efforts are carried out at the • 10 Fisheries Management Plans and Mangrove
Collaboratively, the project and the community was part of the project activity. Facilitate market
communal level and with a high and positive spirit, Management Plans established with its committee,
explored alternative livelihoods that can ease pressures access for locally produced goods to increase
success is more likely to be achieved. In essence, the incorporating traditional knowledge and practices
on mangroves and tap into local wisdom, such as crab income opportunities.
success of the project is intricately connected with the and climate smart strategies.
farming and fattening (bai ni qari) and fish preservation
rich local knowledge, practices, and active participation • Set up community savings and microfinance
methods (Ika sigani - sun drying, Ika Vesa - smoked • Establish community-based enterprises which link
of the community, surpassing a mere consultative initiatives to support local entrepreneurs Cultures
drying). Recognizing the cultural and spiritual ties to a Trust Fund to support the Sustainable Fisheries
role to establish a genuine partnership. Saving and traditions are acknowledged, respected, and
that people have with mangroves, the project Management and operations within the district.
mangroves is not the only objective; rather, the focus preserved through traditional governance systems
includes traditional ways of managing and restoring
is on implementing conservation efforts in alignment • Enhanced local ownership of resources and and leadership.
mangroves, such as setting areas on temporary
with the traditional practices that have been passed co-management with government agencies.
taboo (Tabu) or creating out of bound areas to • Mangrove Protected Areas and Mangrove
down through generations.
provide recovery period and using specific • Promote sustainable use of resources and Community Business Development. In
planting methods. its preservation through implementation of communities engaging in mangrove management,
management strategies and traditional practices the focus extends beyond conservation to also
that enhance proper management of mangrove include economic enhancement initiatives.
resources, including: traditional medicine, arts Through proper management practices, including
and crafts, and fishing practices. the integration of traditional knowledge for
optimal harvest timing, these communities have
• Knowledge exchange and enhancement.
experienced an increase in mangrove harvests.
Integrating traditional knowledge and scientific
data on trends and projections in climate data.
Consultation and awareness sessions provide great
opportunities for sharing lessons and traditional
knowledge from the elder community members to
the younger generations and project team.
This matriarch ensuring the homes of her grandchildren

are not only protected from the waves but fishes also have Nacula villagers actively support the replanting of mangroves
nurseries to multipl for food security. © WWF Pacific along their barren coastline. © WWF Pacific
95 96
CASE STUDY 8 | HONDURAS
Restoring the mangroves Project goals and objectives not allowing fish to breathe. Community members
canoed up and down the creek documenting the
of Estero Prieto, Omoa

To restore and protect the mangroves and improve
problem of invasive species with photographs
the water quality within the estuary of Estero Prieto.
and videos to convince other members of the
community to join their initiative to clean the
Contributing authors Methods/approaches creek and plant mangroves. Being the first to
Sandra Cardenas , Centro de Estudios Marinos, co-founder of the restoration committee. Sara Bonilla, Penn State
*
raise awareness about the threats and the need
University, technical support. Hannah Morrissette, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, technical support.
Methods used include cleaning the river channel of
to remove invasive species, the community group
Steven Canty, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, technical support. invasive species, such as water lettuce to increase
created a committee consisting of people from the
water flow and planting red mangroves along the
municipal government and local organizations to
banks of the channel, which the community raises in
address these issues. All activities carried out by the
B IO D IV ER S IT Y T H R EAT S & IM PAC T S nurseries that they created and maintain. In addition,
committee are designed by them according to their
the committee carries out environmental education
goals and priorities. In addition, local people’s presence
R ES TO R AT IO N A P P R OAC H ES H A B ITAT CO NNEC T IV IT Y activities highlighting the importance of mangroves
in the ecosystem enabled them to understand optimal
and the benefits they provide. The environmental
HONDURAS seasons for harvesting and planting propagules and
education activities are aimed at adults and youth.
identify optimal areas for these activities. In the words
of Sandra Cardenas,
“We have learned by trial and error...by observing the
A protection and surveillance committee, established
mangroves very closely, times when there are many
in 2015, is made up of leaders and members of Las
propagules, areas where regeneration was better…
Flores Estero Prieto community. Since its creation,
seeing what worked and what didn’t. Now some of us
the committee has had the advice and support of
Location have received training and people who know about
community member and co-founder Sandra
Las Flores Estero Prieto, Cortés, mangroves have come and taught us different
Cardenas, who has accompanied the committee
Honduras Community (N 15.777; restoration techniques and how to monitor these
members in each cleanup and reforestation activity.
W -88.038) areas. We have come to mix our knowledge with
In addition, the committee has had the support of
theirs and we have seen better results.”
Project Size the Municipality, the Navy, and the Center for
7.97 hectares Marine Studies, institutions that have been key to
the creation of the nurseries and execution of the
Mangrove species
Outcomes
cleaning and planting activities.
Rhizophora mangle - red mangrove Although not yet reaching the goal, the main
achievements so far are: (i) the involvement of men,
Project Duration Local knowledge
women, and youth in the restoration of the ecosystem;
2015 - ongoing The project was initiated by the community of Las (ii) clearing half of the estuary of the invasive water
Flores Estero Prieto and relied on their observations lettuce, allowing better oxygenation of its waters; (iii)
within the estuary. Community members noticed planting 17,952 mangroves, which will be important
Youth participating in a planting event. The the poor water quality and the deaths of fish and spawning and refuge sites for various species; and (iv)
boys were using one of the committee’s other species in the estuary. Fishers and families who being an example and motivating nearby communities,
boats to row to the Estero’s banks and plant
mangrove seedlings. © Sandra Cardenas lived near explained that some plants were growing as people from other communities and educational
too fast and covering the entire surface of the river, centers visit to learn from this experience.
97 98
CASE STUDY 9 | INDIA
Reviving mangroves: Sustaining Project goals and objectives Methods
traditional knowledge and using

The primary focus of this project was the restoration • Skill Training: Local women who knew the skill of
and conservation of mangroves in this region, while Palmyra bag-making shared this knowledge with
eco-friendly Palmyra nursery bags

reducing plastic usage in mangrove nurseries and other community members in trainings organized
simultaneously empowering the traditional craft of by OMCAR Foundation.
Palmyra bag-making to foster sustainable livelihoods
• Palmyra Bag Production: Locals made 6,000
for the local community. Palmyra bags are meticulously
Contributing authors palmyra bags, which were collected by OMCAR
hand-woven items, shaped like pots with dimensions
Sumantha Narayana – project design. Balaji Vedharajan – project conception and design. Murugesan Govindarajan Foundation and utilized for setting up
– set up mangrove nursery and planting work. Rajendran Magalingam* – set up mangrove nursery and planting work.
of approximately 15 cm in diameter and 23 cm in
mangrove nurseries.
K. Sathya*, managed Palmyra bag making, training, production and procurement. All are from the Organization for length. They are made by the traditional technique
Marine Conservation Awareness and Research (OMCAR). of interweaving the leaves of the Palmyra species, • Mangrove Restoration: Local communities were
Borassus flabellifer, which is commonly found in the involved in planting mangrove saplings using the
coastal areas of Tamil Nadu and is used to create a fishbone technique for hydrologic restoration.
T R A D IT IO NA L S K IL L S
Location range of household items including mats, baskets,
• Protected Area Establishment: Collaborated
and bags. These bags have traditionally been used for
Adirampattinam (Keelathotham, with local governments to designate the status
Agni estuary) Thanjavur District, a variety of functions, from storing and transporting
of protected areas to safeguard restored
Tamil Nadu India) (10°17’50.7”N groceries or fish to packaging food.
mangrove areas.
79°22’10.9”E)
INDIA Specific goals of the projects were:
• Education and Outreach: Awareness programs
Project Size
were conducted in local schools and communities
14 sites were selected along the • Enhancing livelihoods: Create economic
about the ecological importance of mangroves
coast of Thanjavur district, Tamil opportunities for local communities by promoting
and benefits of eco-friendly mangrove
Nadu, as the location also has their traditional craft of Palmyra bag making.
restoration approaches.
settlements with high human
populations, and is important • Involving women: With new skills and earning
for fisheries and other activities. opportunities, women can be more self-sufficient
Planting locations were spread out and independent in their daily lives.
in suitable areas where minimal • Local community: They are the core beneficiaries,
disturbances to mangroves occurs. • Reducing plastic pollution: Replace plastic
actively participating in skill training and the
Sites include 4 km linear planting nursery bags by using eco-friendly Palmyra bags
planting process.
along the coast and ranging from to reduce plastic waste in the mangroves and
0.5 to 1.5 hectares along the surrounding areas. • Government Agencies: Partnering with
shoreline. government bodies (Tamil Nadu Forest
• Encouraging nature-based solutions for
Department) enabled access to resources,
Mangrove species mangrove restoration: Using Palmyra bags in
establishment of protected areas, and support
Rhizophora mucronata, mangrove nurseries, which have more water
for sustainable practices.
Avicennia marina. seepage compared to plastic bags, enabling good
growth of spiral roots. • Schools and Educational Institutions:
Project Duration
Involving educational institutions aided in
2022 - ongoing Local community members • Encouraging palm plantation: Encouraging palm
sowing Avicennia marina awareness campaigns and engaging the youth
(Borassus flabellifer) plantations as palm leaves are
propogules © OMCAR in preserving mangroves.
used as the raw material.
99 100
CASE STUDY 9 | INDIA
Local knowledge Presently, local communities hold an abundance

of valuable information concerning mangrove
In the context of successful mangrove restoration and
locations, distribution, species diversity, as well
conservation, local knowledge plays a pivotal role, with
as changes that have occurred over time and the
traditional Palmyra bag-making emerging as a crucial
overall intricacies of mangrove ecosystems. Moreover,
practice that supplants plastic nursery bags for
their insights extend to identifying threats such
planting mangroves. Due to the prevalence of plastic
as erosion, pollution, illegal logging, the impact
products, only a handful of villagers, primarily
of climate change, and overexploitation on
fisherwomen, knew and continued to practice the
mangrove ecosystems. They also possess inherited
art of weaving Palmyra leaf into various products.
knowledge of the medicinal uses, food sources,
However, due to the time-intensive nature of weaving
building materials, and cultural significance
and their daily commitments, these women could
associated with mangroves. By integrating this
only produce 8-10 bags per day. To weave the
wealth of local knowledge, conservation efforts and
thousands of bags required for nursery planting,
mangrove restoration activities were substantially
these fisherwomen trained other local women.
strengthened, while fostering a profound and symbiotic
Mrs. K. Sathya orchestrated these training endeavors
bond between the community and the mangrove
and fostered greater participation of fisherwomen in
ecosystems.
Palmyra bag production as an alternative livelihood.
Palmyra nursery bags being filled with soil by local women

community members. © OMCAR Local women involved in palmyra bag making. © OMCAR
Outcomes
• Cultural heritage and social impact: The project training program has been expanded to include
helped revitalize the Palmyra bag craft, ensuring its 12 marginalized fisherwomen. It is actively working
continuation for future generations. to extend this training to additional coastal villages.
Interest extends beyond the region; an order of 4000
• Economic Empowerment: The project improved
Palmyra bags from West Bengal was recently fulfilled.
the livelihoods of a marginalized local fishermen
Also, given benefits of Palmyra palms (e.g., bio-shield,
community and increased their financial stability.
alternative livelihood opportunities) and the threats
• Environmental Sustainability: The project will they face (e.g. urbanization, agricultural expansion),
contribute to the conservation of palm trees, OMCAR has collaborated with the Tamil Nadu
reducing plastic nursery bags, and restoring government and Forest Department on a Palmyra
mangroves in an eco-friendly manner. seedling planting initiative. The goal is to plant
100,000 Palmyra seedlings over the next few years
The weaving of Palmyra bags has been ongoing and is in the degraded coastal areas of Thanjavur and
being scaled up. In response to the increasing demand Pudukkottai Districts.
for bags from the Forest Department and other
government agencies to replace plastic bags in both
Meeting with local villagers at the restoration site in presence of Forest Department officials and local community leaders. © OMCAR mangrove and terrestrial nurseries, the https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TS_HhJONkyk
101 102
CASE STUDY 10 | INDONESIA
Building with Nature (BwN) Project outcomes and goals cycle (i.e., construction, monitoring, and maintenance
phases). The exact location for building the permeable
Indonesia – Securing eroding

Coastal areas of Demak in Northern Java are suffering
structures was initially determined by remote sensing,
from coastal erosion mainly caused by near total
and then verified through participatory field surveys
delta coastlines
conversion of mangroves for the expansion of brackish
in which the community and their knowledge of local
water aquaculture. A thin outer barrier of mangroves,
conditions was involved.
which had previously protected community settlements
and aquaculture ponds, has been lost along 20 km of Over the course of the project, established community
this coastline. Erosion, in turn, has displaced villagers groups were involved in monitoring to assess the
Abu Dawud* (member of Sido Makmur community group of Betahwalang Village): informant. Mat Sairi*(member
of Barokah community group of Timbulsloko Village): informant. Kuswantoro, Woro Yuniati, Apri Susanto Astra
from their settlements and subsequently has led to a durability of the permeable structures, sediment
(Wetlands International Indonesia): interviewing the informants and writing the article according to the informants. reduction in income for the local communities. increment behind the structures, and natural mangrove
colonization. Monitoring also allowed for both acquired
The Building with Nature (BwN) project aims to
information to be implemented and further planning to
B IO D IV ER S IT Y P H YS IC A L P R O C ES S ES develop a coastal infrastructure design approach
Location increase the construction’s efficiency.
that combines local ecological knowledge, ecological
Coastal area of Demak Regency, R ES TO R AT IO N A P P R OAC H ES regeneration, and smart engineering, while introducing The project facilitators trained and accompanied
Central Java, Indonesia. 6°48’6.70”S
sustainable land management practices through the community initially and then the community
110°33’31.82”E
transdisciplinary cooperation and the involvement of groups conducted field monitoring and the project
Project Size multiple stakeholders. To achieve the long-term vision team analyzed the data. Results were discussed
of a ‘healthy mangrove greenbelt that provides coastal with community group members in a facilitated
20 hectares of mangrove area in
INDONESIA safety and enables local communities to prosper’, the discussion to elicit correction measures to optimize the
Betahwalang Village out of the total
119 ha in Demak intervened by the project had three objectives: rehabilitation of mangrove accretion process. Participatory monitoring enabled
BwN Indonesia project. coastal protection system, revitalization of aquaculture the local communities to address possible problems
ponds, and helping increase local capacity. by employing their local knowledge, as well as gain
Mangrove species
additional knowledge on the effectiveness of the
Acanthus ilicifolius, Avicennia alba, built structures. Besides providing the skills and labor
Avicennia marina, Excoecaria Methods and approaches
needed, participatory monitoring increased community
agallocha, Aegiceras corniculatum,
The reestablishment of a mangrove coastal protection engagement allowing for a sense of ownership over
Rhizophora mucronata, Rhizophora
apiculata, Bruguera sexangular, system was undertaken by following the ecological the structures.
Sonneratia alba. mangrove restoration (EMR) method that promotes
natural mangrove recolonization. The use of ‘permeable
Mangrove associates: structures’-- fence-like constructions consisting of two
Hibiscus tiliaceus/Talipariti tiliaceum/ rows of poles with brushwood fill in between-- creates
Ziziphus mauritiana sheltered zones with reduced flow velocities and
wave impact, which enables sufficient accretion of
Project Duration
suspended sediments.
2015 - 2021
Local communities were involved for the entire
Community members conduct process, including guidance, preparation, planning,
monitoring of sedimentation procurement, construction, monitoring, and
and natural mangrove
regeneration. © Kuswantoro maintenance. Participatory field surveys were
undertaken throughout the project implementation
103 104
Local knowledge material, ‘kayu gelam’ (melaleuca sp.), to improve

the efficacy of the permeable structures. However,
Locals contributed their knowledge during the planning
after one year of being inundated, the construction
process and the implementation phase to inform the
materials were deteriorating from shipworm and
spatial and structural design of the structures.
mollusk infestation, reducing their effectiveness. The
Spatial design relied on the community’s knowledge
community then suggested the use of petung bamboo
about local conditions including the locations of
(Dendrocalamus asper) for vertical pole material
muddy coasts with erosion, solid soil layers less
combined with protection wrapping (using plastic,
than 1.5 m from the high-water level mark, and
carpet, or terpaulin) and apus bamboo (Gigantochloa
minor land subsidence; sediment flow from the
apus) for the longitudinal beams, which has been
river; boat channels; and local sources of mangrove
more durable. Whenever they found broken joints,
seeds. The community suggested the structure be
collapsing brushwood or washed poles, they repaired
placed near the mouth of the river to more quickly
them, funded by a conditional loan scheme (Biorights).
trap sediment.
Although knowledge about maintaining the structure
The local community also applied their knowledge was obtained from the training provided by the
in construction and maintenance of the permeable program, the technical implementation was adapted to
structures. Initially, a wood expert recommended local knowledge and customs, such as the importance
using the locally available and durable construction of human labor. Community group installs warning boards at the rehabilitation site. © Kuswantoro
Outcomes among the community groups is Sido Makmur of

Betahwalang Village. The group members have been
At the locations where permeable structures were built,
actively practicing mangrove rehabilitation using
coastal erosion was halted. In addition, measurements
EMR (Ecological mangrove rehabilitation) method to
in the first year showed 0.45 m of sedimentation.
rehabilitate up to 20 ha of degraded mangrove area
Mangroves settled once elevation was above mean
(from the initial 3.7 ha restored area during the project)
sea level, which happened behind several structures
and plan to restore another 10 ha in the near future.
within a year. However, in 2017, elevation lowered
again in the western part of Demak adjacent to the City
of Semarang and mangroves disappeared due to land To learn more about the BwN Indonesia program,
subsidence. Mangrove rehabilitation activities have please visit:
been more successful in the eastern part of Demak
https://www.wetlands.org/case-study/building-with-
(including Betahwalang Village).
nature-indonesia/
Despite the uncontrollable subsidence in some
https://www.ecoshape.org/en/pilots/building-with-
areas, the local communities developed the technical
nature-indonesia/
knowledge and skill in rehabilitating eroded mangrove
ecosystems using low-tech but cost-effective methods. https://buildingwithnatureindonesia.exposure.co/
In addition, local communities learned about land building-with-nature-indonesia-1
subsidence in their region, so they have a better
https://www.decadeonrestoration.org/building-
understanding of how they can deal with and adapt to
nature-indonesia
Community group installs a simple sediment trapping structure. © Kuswantoro the situation. An inspiring example of empowerment
105 106
Kerakera: restoring traditional Project goals and objectives Methods/approaches
management practices to The project goal is to enhance protection and

management of mangroves areas. The targeted villages
To improve the protection and management of
the mangrove area, the project delivers several
safeguard mangroves are located inside the Teluk Berau Marine Protected
area (MPA), with part of mangroves in this area
interventions through awareness raising, capacity
building, and policy dialogue with local authorities
included as a mangrove zone in the MPA. Therefore, including local government and tribe/traditional
Contributing authors better management of mangroves will contribute to leaders. Several activities are being carried
Dahlan Iha – Head of Pattimburak Village, Fakfak. Hanggar Prasetio – Konservasi Indonesia, Ridge to Reef and GIS
*
improved management of the conservation area while out including:
Coordinator. Sefrianto Saleda – Konservasi Indonesia, Acting Fakfak Program Senior Coordinator. Susan Lusiana – also supporting international targets for conservation
Konservasi Indonesia, IKI PME Senior Programme Manager. 1. Drawing from Kerakera (i.e., local wisdom that
such as the “30x30” target under the Global Biodiversity
once agreed upon becomes an obligation) and
Framework. According to the Mangrove Health Index
building capacity for mangrove monitoring.
B IO D IV ER S IT Y C U LT U R A L P R AC T IC ES
(MHI) analysis, an internal report by the Indonesian
Location government agency Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional 2. Environmental education and awareness raising
Kinam, Kiminakra, Batufiafas, (BRIN), even though this area has many mangroves, among younger generations.
H A B ITAT CO NNEC T IV IT Y
Patimburak, and Mandoni Villages, only those in six of the villages are considered in good
Berau Bay, Fakfak, West Papua. 3. Developing alternative livelihoods through ridge
condition while the rest are in moderate condition.
Fakfak is a district in West Papua, to reef ecotourism development.
The MHI consists of three parameters, density, canopy
which is in the 6th position as a
district that has the widest mangrove cover, and diameter.
ecosystem of 4,007 ha (KLHK, 2020). Groups involved and roles
This situation is caused by both natural and human
INDONESIA activities, including: The project involves several stakeholders in the
Project Size
field activities:
The total intervention area is 762.16 1. Lack of awareness and unsustainable practices
ha33, with 389.5 ha managed under among younger generations, including mangrove 1. BLUD UPTD Pengelolaan KKPD Kaimana -
Kerakera/local wisdom intervention
logging, use of natural poison for catching fish, Fakfak (MPA Managers)
by a local indigenous community.
overfishing/overuse, and plastic pollution. With
2. Fakfak Mengajar (FM) - Local groups concerning
Mangrove species the naturally low canopy height of mangrove
on environmental education.
ecosystem in this region, mangrove logging
The total number of identified
mangroves is 22 species, of which 14 will worsen the location’s MHI. 3. POKMASWAS Nusa Matan - Community based
are true mangroves: Acanthus illicifolius MPA patrols group
2. Lack of knowledge in mangrove
Aegiceras corniculatum, Avicennia marina,
rehabilitation methods. 4. Petuanan Pegpeg Sekar - Indigenous community
Ceriops tagal, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza,
B. sexangula, Excoecaria agallocha, group (tribal authority holder)
3. Lack of livelihood options lead people to cut
Lumnitzera littorea, Nypa fruticans,
and sell mangroves for charcoal and limited 5. Petuanan Wertuar - Indigenous community group
Pemphis acidula, Rhizophora apiculata, R.
opportunities to enable mangrove conservation (tribal authority holder)
mucronata, Scyphiphora hydrophillacea,
Sonneratia alba, Xylocarpus granatum dan to enhance livelihoods (capacity, marketing,
6. Petuanan Arguni - Indigenous community group
X. mollucensis. funds, and policy support).
(tribal authority holder)
Environmental Education: Conservation Snakes and
Project Duration Ladders Game in Patimburak Village by Gen-K (Generation 4. Infrastructure development. This includes roads,
Conservation, a local community group based in Fakfak a small port for Crude Palm Oil (CPO) distribution,
Phase 1: 2022-2023,
Regency). © Orlin Ozora Yowei/Konservasi Indonesia
Phase 2: 2024-2027 and a chemical/fertilizer factory.
33 Based on Rencana Pengelolaan Dan Zonasi Kawasan Konservasi Taman Pesisir Teluk Berau Dan Taman Pesisir Teluk Nusalasi-Van Den
Bosch Di Kabupaten Fakfak, Provinsi Papua Barat (RPZ Taman Pesisir Fakfak). Enacted in 2018
108
The community presents a seasonal

calendar for utilizing the mangrove
ecosystem during training © Orlin Focus Group Discussion: Sustainable Tourism Management in Andamata Village Focus Group Discussion: Kerakera (customary closure) of Mangroves
Ozora Yowei/Konservasi Indonesia © Orlin Ozora Yowei/Konservasi Indonesia by the people of Mandoni and Kiminakra villages © Orlin Ozora
Yowei/Konservasi Indonesia
Local knowledge Responding to the threats facing the mangroves, the Outcomes
“adat” authority, a traditional authority similar to a
Pegpeg Sekar, Wetuar, and Arguni are three native/ A key outcome of this project was the establishment
kingdom usually inherited from one generation to the
Indigenous Papuan Kingdoms (Petuanan) located of Kerakera mainly aimed for protecting the “adat”
next, established a Kerakera implementation to protect
in Fakfak regency, West Papua. Most people are mangrove territory from outsider access. This is also
the existing mangrove. Kerakera is a kind of local
clustered in several villages including Kinam, Kiminakra, aligned with the spirit to bring back the traditional
wisdom or traditional mechanism inherited by the
Pattimburak, Batufiafas, Mandoni, and Andamata. Like practices and reintroduce this tradition of the “adat”
adat ancestor and belongs to the adat community,
other Papuan people, nature is their main source of life, and Kerakera to younger generations. Implementation
but is a practice rarely implemented today. As an
with two main products supporting communities’ needs of Kerakera to protect mangroves is expected to secure
adat mechanism, rules/regulations limit people
being fisheries and nutmeg harvest from adjacent economic benefits and enhance disaster risk reduction. Focus Group Discussion: Kerakera (customary closure) of
access to certain areas during a certain time with Mangroves © Orlin Ozora Yowei/Konservasi Indonesia
forests. People recognize mangroves as a source of A total of 389.5 ha of mangrove area is now protected
the purpose of protecting the area from overuse/
food, specifically a place to collect fishes, shells, shrimp, and managed under the Kerakera mechanism in
exploitation. In this case, it was implemented to
and crabs. People also collect “Tambelo” (wood-boring three villages. For the project management, Kerakera
legally protect and sustainably manage mangroves.
shipworm) from dead mangrove (mostly Rhizophora) has enriched the implementation of mangrove To learn more about this case study visit:
Prohibition of mangrove logging and overexploitation
wood, which is used for local culinary/ traditional conservation that was previously limited to only patrol
of mangrove biodiversity was accomplished by setting https://www.mangrovealliance.org/wp-content/
dishes. Locals can identify the crab’s egg laying activities; now, it connects with the local culture and
a closed and open season to access the location. Under uploads/2023/12/GMA-Policy-Brief_V6.pdf
season through the seasonal changes in mangroves tradition. Through the Kerakera implementation, it is
the initial agreement, mangrove areas will be closed
(Xylocarpus moluccensis). Some people use mangroves expected that communities can get more sustained https://www.mangrovealliance.org/news/improving-
for three months and only can be open for one month
as traditional medicine, such as using Xylocarpus for benefits from the mangrove ecosystem, while also livelihoods-mangroves-in-indonesia-with-the-food-
for each period. These time periods are based on local
toothaches. They also use the wood for fires, both for preserving their local values and knowledge. planet-prize/
knowledge of the ecosystem and its species (e.g.,
their daily lives and the nutmeg drying process. In
breeding periods). Kerakera assigned a community
addition, people use the leaves of Nypa frutican for the
representative to do regular patrol and monitoring.
local cigarette paper and for roofing material.
109 110
CASE STUDY 12 | KENYA
Protection of the 450 ha Project goals and objectives Methods/approaches
mangrove forest that surrounds

The mangrove forest in and around Matondoni An initial assessment was conducted to establish
village provides rich fishing grounds, particularly for the location and status of degraded areas within the
the village of Matondoni

prawn, as well as forest products. High demand for Matondoni mangrove forest. The assessment was
these products has degraded these mangroves. The conducted by a team drawn from several local groups,
highest demand for such products is from Lamu town including Beach Management Units (BMU), specifically
where most of the houses utilize mangrove poles for Matondoni BMU and Lamu County BMU network, and
construction and the nearby Mokowe jetty serves as the Lamu Community Forest Association (CFA), as well
Lionel Dishon Murage – Field Representative, East Africa, Seacology. Abdu Mahamudu*– Chairman, Matondoni Beach
Management Unit (BMU) and a local prawn fisher within the mangrove forest of Matondoni. Somo Somo* – Chairman,
a gateway to transport mangrove products to other as the Lamu station of the Kenya Forest Service. After
Indian Ocean Water Body BMU Network and Lamu County BMU Network. parts of the Kenyan coast. Ideally, harvesting forest the baseline assessment, two sites were selected for
products is regulated by the Kenya Forest Service restoration with suitable species for replanting based
working in partnership with the recently established on the recentness of degradation, importance of site to
B IO D IV ER S IT Y H A B ITAT CO NNEC T IV IT Y
Lamu Community Forest Association. However, due to local use (e.g., fishing), and type of species present.
KENYA
limited capacity, illegal activities (e.g., clear cutting of
T H R EAT S A ND IM PAC T S R ES TO R AT IO N A P P R OAC H ES Targeted awareness raising was conducted through
mangroves, illegal harvesting of poles), especially by
community meetings and events held in the village,
outsiders from Lamu and the mainland, is evident in
where members of the recently established CFA
some areas. In addition, there is still limited awareness
and BMU were invited to participate. One example
among local community members of applicable
was regular village clean-up exercises held twice a
national laws and policies such as the Forest and
month, with such events used to raise awareness of
Environmental Acts, especially in relation to their
Location environmental issues affecting the villages. Other
participation and contribution in sustainable natural
Matondoni Village (-2.269152°, approaches included a launch event held by
resource management.
40.839298°), Lamu West, Lamu Seacology at the beginning of the project to sensitize
County, Kenya Given these pressures, this project aims to restore community members on the expected outcomes of
mangroves in a site where a local community had the project and production of awareness materials
Project Size
observed illegal harvesting of mangrove poles. (e.g., t-shirts, signboards).
450ha
Specifically, the project aims to:
Mangrove species • Replant degraded areas of the mangrove

A total of seven different mangrove forest with appropriate species based on
species are found within the area an initial baseline assessment.
and include Avicennia marina (Mchu),
Ceriops tagal (Mkandaa), Rhizophora • Identify and support alternative livelihood
mucronata (Mkoko or Mrungu options, such as beekeeping, to reduce
or Msisi), Bruguiera gymnorrhiza pressure on the mangrove forest.
(Muia or Mkifi), Sonneratia alba
(Mpia or Mlilana) and Xylocarpus • Conduct targeted awareness raising and
granatum (Mkomafi or Mronga) and production of information and communication
Lumnitzera racemosa (Kikandaa) materials to sensitize local community and
Mangrove seedlings are carefully
chosen to ensure they are appropriate school children on the need to protect and
Project Duration
for the area. © Lionel Murage conserve the mangrove forest.
2014 – 2021
111 112
Groups involved and roles Local knowledge
1. Lamu Community Forest Association (CFA) - Local All project activities were implemented by the local
community based in Matondoni village represented
2. Kenya Forest Service (KFS) - National Government
through the BMU and CFA and local knowledge about
Agency
mangrove use, species selection, assessment, and
3. Lamu County Directorate of Fisheries – County preferred planting methods (e.g., raising seedlings
Government in a community-run nurseries) informed the project.
Members of the two organizations guided the team
4. Matondoni Beach Management Unit – Local/
in conducting the initial site assessments, and local
Village Resource Users
knowledge about how recently an area had been
5. Lamu County Beach Management Unit Network degraded and appropriate mangrove species for
– Local/County Resource Users the location were vital for the replanting efforts.
For example, Mr. Abdu, a fisher, indicated that the
6. Matondoni Primary School – Local Education
recently degraded mangrove forest around the
Mangrove replantation. © Lionel Murage
Matondoni village is a key fishing ground for prawn Outcomes

fishing, as the species both breeds and feeds there.
A key outcome from the project is the increased
Not all areas of the mangrove forest are ideal for
mangrove cover from the restoration efforts.
prawn, because prawns prefer areas populated by
Additionally, community groups have expanded the
Sonneratia alba (mlilana) and Rhizophora mucronata
number of nurseries. They are also including species of
(Mkoko). The degraded site identified by Mr. Abdu
commercial value for replanting on nearby farmlands,
was selected as a replanting site because it was one
as well as species that could be used for fuelwood,
of the key fishing grounds previously populated
thereby reducing dependence on the mangrove forest
by these two mangrove species. These observations
for firewood. Community groups continue to earn
were later confirmed by a site visit from the team
an income from the sale of seedlings. They have also
led by the Kenya Forest Service personnel. Since
established beekeeping as an alternative income
the area was recently degraded and Mr. Abdu knew
generating project to enhance and diversify their
the mangrove species previously at the site, he was
income sources.
confident replanting efforts using Sonneratia alba and
Rhizophora mucronata would be successful. This is just
one example where local knowledge of the mangrove
forests guided community member decisions as to
which species would be most suitable for replanting.
The purchase of 4,500 mangrove seedlings that were
used for replantation efforts came from mangrove tree
nurseries that the project had previously supported and
Women group members participating in the replantation. © Lionel Murage were run by the community.
113 114
Mwache mangrove forest regeneration: Project goals and objectives project. A prosocial approach was used to engage
stakeholders and work together. This approach is based
An integrated approach to restore The Mwache mangrove forest is under threat of

extinction. From 1997-1998, El Niño caused heavy
on a core design principle that enables community
members to transparently develop and stay focused
mangrove habitat with a local community sediment deposition in the creek, smothering
mangrove roots and leading to the destruction of
on their goals. The Mwache community members
identified benefits of mangrove conservation,
200 ha of mangrove forest in the upper region of the
shared clear goals for Mwache mangrove
Contributing authors creek. Further losses have been driven by human
restoration, and agreed on new behavior to achieve
Gilbert Nyabochwa Atuga – Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute. Researcher. encroachment and overharvesting. Efforts to restore
Said Chirunga Juma* – Bonje Community Forest Association in Mwache, Chairman of the group.
results (e.g. stopping destruction of mangroves
this forest through conventional planting have born
trees). Based on identified stressors, monitoring was
little fruit, which is unsurprising because the reasons
conducted with community members playing a leading
for mangrove degeneration were not addressed prior
role to identify suitable sites for Mwache mangrove
to planting, few stakeholders had been involved,
B IO D IV ER S IT Y T H R EAT S & IM PAC T S restoration and solutions to identified challenges.
and there was little community engagement in the
Prior to planting, a field survey in which the community
restoration process. Therefore, to restore the Mwache
was involved identified mangrove distribution and
mangrove forest, a community-led strategy was used
tidal requirements.
to remove anthropogenic and environmental stressors
KENYA
and create an enabling environment for replanting
and natural regeneration. Groups involved and roles
• Fisher communities: Provide insights on how

Objectives degraded mangroves can be restored to thereby
restore mangrove fisheries
• Application of nature-based approach with local
community involvement for Mwache mangrove • Local communities: Provide knowledge on
Location forest restoration (i.e. building with nature). suitable areas for mangrove restoration
Mwache community in the upper • Create mutual trust and sense of environmental • Mwache mangroves community-based
part of Port Reitz (4°3’S, 39°38’E),
ownership and knowledge sharing among the organization: Provides different strategies to
20 km Northwest of Mombasa City
Mwache community members. restore mangroves, considering challenges
Project Size encountered, and plausible solutions
• Devise strategies that include ideas from
Mwache mangrove forest covers marginalized community members (including • Kenya Forestry Service: Provides guidance for
12 km2, roughly 70% of the total women and people living with a disability). nursery development, and enforcement to avoid
area of the creek.
further Mwache mangrove destruction
• Have a compliance strategy that prevents
Mangrove species harvesting of Mwache mangrove forest by local • Fisheries Department: Brings together different
Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia community members. fisher groups, and creates awareness of Mwache
marina, Ceriops tagal mangrove restoration
Project Duration Mwache local community Methods/approaches • Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute:
taking care of mangrove
2017 - Present Plays coordinating role for local community and
nursery. © Gilbert Atuga The first important step was to harness community
different stakeholders in knowledge sharing
involvement and understand their knowledge of the
and implementation
Mwache mangroves and how it could inform the
115 116
Local knowledge Outcomes
During informal brainstorming sessions and forums, Approximately 50 to 100 hectares are under
the community mapped a suitable location for restoration. To address goats grazing on both old and
mangrove growth based on their knowledge of newly planted mangroves, the community suggested
where Mwache mangroves thrived historically. After mapping goats’ entry points to mangroves and fencing
identification of those sites, a Kenya Marine and these with locally available materials, which resulted
Fisheries expert guided the community with a survey to in a 5 km perimeter fence. To reduce plastic debris
assess suitability of the suggested sites for restoration that smothered mangrove roots and killed mangroves,
using the targeted planting of mangrove species. a community-led clean up initiative removes debris
from the restoration site monthly and the community
Additionally, the local community identified different
has increased awareness about litter in mangrove
stressors and solutions to these stressors. Identified
zones. Another major stressor, which the community
factors included: i) climate change impact of heavy
identified with the help of experts during the survey,
rains in 1998 and 2007 El Niño; ii) sedimentation; iii)
was influence of waves during high tide. Therefore, the
human pressures, such as cutting of mangrove trees
community constructed a 1.2m high brushwood groyne
for firewood and construction, iv) encroachment of
to attenuate waves and enable natural regeneration
mangrove areas for informal settlement; v) lack of skills
of mangroves.
in nursery development; vi) grazing of mangroves by
goats; and vii) a lack of clear coordination in planting, To read more about this case study visit:
with mangrove die-off after replanting from nurseries.
https://www.rufford.org/projects/gilbert-nyabochwa-
atuga/mwache-mangrove-forest-regeneration-
integrated-approach-to-restore-mangrove-habitat-
MTU1MTQ/
Community providing a solution to goat grazing stressor on mangroves by constructing a fence using
local materials without obstructing the water hydrology to the mangrove. © Gilbert Atuga
117 118
Greening the blue initiative Project goals and objectives • Kenya Forest Service:
Policy support role (mangrove space allocation to
The project seeks to restore the degraded patches of
the community, approval of Ceriops to support the
Contributing authors mangrove and conserve restored areas to protect the
community in active mangrove restoration).
Levis Sirikwa – Ceriops organization, Co-Founder: Project leader. Mwinga Ngozi* – Amani Jipange (Community Group), marine fisheries on which the adjacent communities
Chairperson, Community lead. Nelly Ndule* – Amani Jipange (Community Group), Woman representative. depend for their livelihoods. • Global Landscapes Forum
(Restoration Stewards Award):
Funding support to the project.
B IO D IV ER S IT Y T H R EAT S & IM PAC T S Methods/approaches
One of the major objectives of Greening the Blue

Local knowledge
model is to enhance long-term protection of the
restored mangroves through planting, monitoring, Local knowledge is the backbone of active mangrove
KENYA and incentives for sustainable alternative livelihoods restoration in Mwakirunge in the following ways:
(e.g., beekeeping). To work towards these goals, a
1. Navigation: The Indigenous groups first
knowledge co-production approach was used,
understood the nooks and crannies of the
where local knowledge and technical scientific
ecosystem due to their long history of fishing and
knowledge were intergrated to plan and implement
firewood fetching activities in the mangroves.
the project. The first phase, mangrove planting, was
Therefore, ground truthing in GIS studies consults
done through collaboration among community groups,
the locals for specific locations in the ecosystem
Location Ceriops organization, and Kenya Forest Service.
and the Kenya Forest Services relies on the local
The community groups and Ceriops Organization
Tudor Creek mangrove scape, knowledge to navigate through this ecosystem.
Mwakirunge, Kenya. established nurseries, planted mangroves, and
are monitoring the planted sites. The major roles 2. Threats: Indigenous knowledge informed the
Center coordinates of the planted
site: -3.98298, 39.62403 of the community groups include traditional government on the drivers of mangrove change,
knowledge sharing, labor, community mobilization, including illegal logging, commercial logging for
Project Size sensitization, and monitoring. Ceriops organization export in the late 20th century, oil spillage from
0.492 ha handles data management, reporting, mapping, Mombasa port (Kilindini Harbor), and the impact
capacity building (skills and knowledge based on of El Niño in 1998. Local elders had first-hand
Mangrove species
technical scientific insights), monitoring, and resource experience with these situations. Knowing that
Red mangroves (Rhizophora mobilization. Kenya Forest Service provides policy one of the largest causes of degradation was
mucronate, Mkoko) support on legal frameworks around the project area. logging, rather that biochemical or hydrological
degradation, indicates that restoration at this site is
Project Duration
possible through planting methods.
2023 - 2024 Groups involved and roles
The project has been supported by the

following organizations:
• Ceriops Environmental Organization:

Community-led mangrove Project lead organization.
restoration. © Ceriops
• Amani Jipange Community group:
Host community (mangrove restoration).
119 120
3. Species dynamics: Local knowledge provided the The sharing of this knowledge is both a work in Outcomes
local names of the nine mangrove species found in progress and a moving target because not only
The project has completed its first phase (planting), planned, the women sell their seedlings to the project.
Kenya. This particular project restores Rhizophora are elders being lost, but the world is transitioning
with a survival rate of approximately 95%. To date, The project has financially supported the labor of 20
mucronate, which in English is red mangrove or rapidly to a modern lifestyle that fails to recognize
the project has restored 0.492 hectares of previously men and women from the community who engaged in
loop root mangroves and in Swahili, Mkoko. Local and appreciate that old is gold in the face of
degraded mangrove landscapes by planting 2000 mangrove planting. The project’s main stakeholders are
knowledge on the reproductive dynamics of digitalization. Furthermore, avenues or platforms
mature red mangrove seedlings from the community set to actively monitor the planted mangroves for the
mangrove species informed restoration activities; for the elders to share the knowledge are lacking.
nursery. The women from the community established first 12 months to assess their growth performance
locals shared when propagules are found in the However, the co-production approach of this
the mangrove nurseries as a means to raise alternative and survival rate.
ecosystem, hence when to collect them and pot project allows the community to offer the wisdom
income. Whenever a mangrove planting project is
them in the nurseries for future planting. Locals and knowledge gained from experience, while
have also shared which marine species found in Ceriops Organization offers technology and scientific
mangrove ecosystems are important to adjacent knowledge. Working as a team allows for collaborative
communities and can enhance food security, roundtable sessions, planning, troubleshooting, and
such as mangrove eels, mud crabs, shrimps, embracing adaptive management when it comes to
and prawns. By providing information on tidal project development and implementation.
inundation (flooding dynamics), the community
has helped plan for efficient mangrove planting
activities during spring and neap tides. Through
a collaborative effort connecting science and
Indigenous knowledge, site selection and species-
site matching before any planting activities led to
higher survival rates (>90%).
Traditional knowledge informing hole Stakeholder collaboration is key to mangrove

digging using poles. © Ceriops restoration success. © Ceriops A sense of belonging in mangrove conservation. © Ceriops
121 122
CASE STUDY 15 | LIBERIA
Improving sustainable use of Project goals and objectives to resource users in return for these commitments.
Benefits were determined with the resource users
mangroves through protection,

Liberia may have lost up to 65% of its mangroves since
to respond to local needs and priorities and includes
1980 (FAO 2007). The most significant causes of loss
their local knowledge and experience. The delivery
planning, and livelihood creation

are urbanization, infrastructure development, mining,
of benefits depends on verified compliance with
and oil exploitation. Further loss and degradation have
conservation commitments. The project worked
been caused by hunting, firewood collection, charcoal
with the local community to provide contextually
production, timber extraction, and pollution from
Contributing authors relevant mangrove management and conservation
agriculture, oil exploration, mining. Climate change
Mike Olendo – Peace Amoah-Quiminee , Sabawu Yennego Conservation International (CI) Liberia.
* *
practices by integrating and documenting existing
may also be having an impact.
traditional/Indigenous practices into formal
In 2016, CI’s GEF Project Agency funded a mangrove management approaches.
project to “strengthen the conservation and sustainable
B IO D IV ER S IT Y R ES TO R AT IO N A P P R OAC H ES use of Liberia’s globally important mangrove forests
Local knowledge
through effective participatory land-use planning and
C U LT U R A L P R AC T IC ES H A B ITAT CO NNEC T IV IT Y establishment of marine protected areas in at least 35% Communities’ traditional norms and practices were
of Liberia’s mangroves”. used in developing the rules and conditions in the
conservation agreements. Participatory mapping
LIBERIA To achieve this objective, two project components
with the community helped to identify areas used
were developed:
for traditional practices that were to be protected.
1. Enabling conditions for establishing coastal For example, mangroves are the location for many
and marine protected areas in 20% of priority cultural practices, traditional ceremonies, and
mangrove forests. rites at particular times of year, and some of these
Location areas are traditionally protected and inaccessible
2. Reducing pressures on an additional 15% of
Grand Cape Mount County (Bendu to outsiders or for wood extraction. Wood is
priority mangrove forest areas through integrated
town, Bamboja, Falie, & Mando) traditionally collected by the community; there is
land-use planning, improving local community
Grand Bassa county (Blewein, Edina, no clear cutting, and sites for fuelwood cutting and
livelihoods, and increasing stakeholders’ capacity
Nyanba & Sanwein) extraction are alternated to avoid depleting a particular
and awareness.
Margibi (Ben’s town, Snafu, & Dorzon) site. Such approaches aim to reduce canopy and
crowding to allow for better growth/regrowth. Fish
Project Size
Methods and approaches spawning areas were also earmarked as important and
Establish a marine protected area of not to be fished during certain times, based on cultural
at least 35% of Liberia’s mangroves. The project conducted a site selection survey,
practices that relate to the moon (tides) and seasons.
mapping mangroves along the entire Liberian coast
Mangrove species using GIS and Landsat imagery. The project used
Acrostichum aureum, Avicennia conservation agreements (CA), a tool for poverty
germinans, Conocarpus erectus, reduction that also achieve ecosystem benefits. CA are
Rhizophora x harrisonii, Rhizophora an explicit agreement between a group of resource
mangle, Rhizophora racemose
Monitoring patrols in Liberia are designed users (communities around the mangroves) and an
to reduce violations in mangrove use, and
Project Duration organization representing conservation investors,
allow for early intervention where loss is
identified. © Solomon Carlon / CI Liberia specifying conservation commitments on the part of
2016-2019
the resource users and a benefits package provided
123 124
CASE STUDY 15 | LIBERIA
Outcomes
1. At least 20% of priority mangrove forests in 6. The project included 80 community meetings, nine
Liberia have been identified and delineated, and workshops, and the development of a Participatory
management plans to safeguard them have Land-Use Planning tool kit.
been completed.
7. Some 514 target beneficiaries, government officials
2. Enhanced integration of local Indigenous (168 women and 346 men), 4,058 community
knowledge in mangrove management, as well as members (997 women and 3,061 men), and 101
engaging the community and providing awareness county and community leaders participated in
and education opportunities. the project. For the community members, it was
through participatory engagement and
3. The project produced an ecological, socio-
knowledge sharing.
economic, and threats survey report, Mangrove
Map for Liberia, and base maps/map books for 8. The Liberia Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Lake Piso and Marshall Proposed Protected Area. developed and approved a mangrove monitoring
plan using Survey123 for ArcGIS. The system set
4. A validated Management Plan for Lake Piso
up at the EPA GIS Lab tracked and the community
Multiple Use Reserve.
reported a total of 4,455 monitoring patrols.
5. Two Co-Management Committees (CMCs)
9. Ten community land use plans were also developed
for Lake Piso Multiple Reserve and Marshall
as guides for the 18 communities that signed on to
Proposed Protected Area, including Liberia Forest
the Conservation Agreements.
Development Authority (FDA)-endorsed financial
plans for both Lake Piso Multiple Use Reserve and a
template for Marshall Proposed Protected Area.
Safeguarding mangrove forests is vital for vulnerable The creation of protected areas and improved mangrove management plans are
species, like sea turtles, who return to nest on their helping to reduce mangrove loss from illegal logging and timber extraction. Mangroves thrive after Conservation Agreements were developed for three Liberian counties, where the rules and conditions were
shores. © Solomon Carlon / CI Liberia © Solomon Carlon / CI Liberia largely based around the traditional norms and practices of the local communities. © Solomon Carlon / CI Liberia
125 126
CASE STUDY 16 | MADAGASCAR
Community-led mangrove conservation Project goals and objectives Local knowledge
and restoration in the Baie des Assassins To protect and restore mangroves for
improved fisheries, carbon sequestration,
Identification of mangrove loss/degradation:
Communities assessed the status of their mangrove
and community livelihoods. resources (i.e. increasing, decreasing, stable) based on
Contributing authors their daily relationship with these resources and stories
Jaona Ravelonjatovo , Mangrove Ecologist and Blue Carbon Science Manager. Lalao Aigrette , National Technical Advisor
† †
from their elders (e.g., comparison of current fisheries’
– Mangroves. Cicelin Rakotomahazo†, Regional Technical Advisor for Mangroves. Hanjara Rabemanantsoa†, Regional
Methods/approaches
catch with the past five years).
Coordinator. Aina Celestin†*, Mangrove Reforestation Technician. Giamalidiny Jaofary†*, Mangrove Reforestation Technician.
Community-based associations carry out mangrove
Establishment of the area to be put under strict
Blue Ventures Conservation
†
management and restoration with technical and
conservation and sustainable use: Communities
financial support provided by Blue Ventures. Local
zoned their mangroves in three zones based on
communities are fully involved in the project and
cover, use patterns (e.g. wood extraction areas),
decision-making, which begins with securing
B IO D IV ER S IT Y P H YS IC A L P R O C ES S ES and ecological value (e.g. important habitats and
Location community rights. This includes the participatory
nurseries for different species). Following these, they
Baie des Assassins, Morombe development and implementation of management
T H R EAT S & IM PAC T S R ES TO R AT IO N A P P R OAC H ES developed the rules to govern these zones based on
(District), Atsimo-Andrefana plans under legal frameworks that grant communities
(Region). 22°08’53”S, 43°18’23”E their traditional rules. For example, each village has
the rights to manage, conserve, and restore
C U LT U R A L P R AC T IC ES L EK IN O U T R EAC H its own resource boundary and outsiders need to ask
mangroves. The project supports the community
Project Size permission. In addition, taboo areas must be valued.
to harness their local ecological knowledge (LEK) to
10 villages who are managing
understand the drivers of mangrove loss and identify Identification and mapping of the degraded area
1393 ha of mangroves under
potential solutions. The project uses a participatory to be restored: The process was done through
Marine Protected Areas from
the Ministry of Environment and MADAGASCAR zoning system based on LEK that delineates mangroves participatory mapping. Zones to be restored were
Sustainable Development. KENYA into three management areas: strict conservation, delineated based on the local community’s spatial
sustainable use, and restoration. To restore degraded knowledge of the mangrove areas. They were
Mangrove species sites, propagules are directly planted by hand. asked to list degraded areas and then delineate them
Seven mangrove species (Rhizophora on the printed map. The process was followed by
mucronata, Ceriops tagal, Bruguiera ground-truthing.
gymnorrhiza, Avicennia marina, Groups involved and roles
Sonneratia alba, Xylocarpus granatum,
Grassroots groups, fishers and women associations,
Lumnitzera racemosa) occur in the
project area. Restoration work school children, aquaculture farmers, microfinance
focuses on replanting Rhizophora Savings and Internal Lending Communities (SILC),
mucronata, Ceriops tagal and church and youth groups, and football clubs all
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, as these participated in the mangrove reforestation and
species are the most commonly conducted awareness raising to get more people
harvested across Madagascar.
involved in this activity.
Project Duration
2014 - 2037
Participatory concept modelling
exercise with the community of the
Bay to identify drivers of mangrove
degradation. © Cicelin Rakotomahazo
127 128
CASE STUDY 16 | MADAGASCAR
A Member of local communities trained to lead reforestation monitoring in the village of Lamboara. © Cicelin Rakotomahazo
To ensure the success of the mangrove restoration, Outcomes

LEK was collected about the sites’ history, soils, and
Mangroves in the Baie des Assassins are on their
hydrodynamic factors. Specific knowledge included
way to recovering ecologically and increasing their
peaks of propagule availability, which species
provision of goods and services such fisheries, carbon
previously occurred, tides, soils, duration of inundation,
stocks, coastal protection, and improved livelihoods.
and the level of ongoing disturbance.
The majority of the degraded mangroves have now
Communities were also involved in developing been replanted with an average survival rate of 85%.
the details of reforestation initiatives, including LEK helped inform the development of the project
planting techniques and schedules; management design, management, and implementation, and
rules; stakeholders; equipment; budget; and positively influenced the effectiveness and efficiency
compensation strategies such as whether people of conservation and restoration initiatives in the area,
participating in planting sessions would be paid contributed to securing management rights, and
or volunteers. reduced mangrove exploitation and loss.
Including cultural aspects such as rituals has
Mangrove replanting event: Communities usually
promoted collective buy-in, ownership, and
scheduled replanting during the spring tide to ensure
participation in management and restoration
that the replanted area would have tidal inundation to
(including women and youth), which has supported
improve restoration outcomes. Before the reforestation
overall management success.
event, members of communities perform local rituals
using rum to ask for the ancestors’ blessings to make
replanting successful. Members of local communities trained to lead reforestation monitoring in the village of Tampolove. © Cicelin Rakotomahazo
129 130
CASE STUDY 17 | MEXICO
Raíces para las comunidades Project goals and objectives Methods/approaches
y el clima: Network of mangrove

Recognizing that local people are experts in defining The project works with local beekeepers and
key issues and developing solutions, the Raíces incorporates their traditional knowledge to promote
honey producers in the Yucatán

(Mangroves for community and climate) project the conservation of mangroves and their ecosystems
seeks to incorporate their knowledge and work with services and generate ideas of sustainable livelihoods.
them to generate solutions to strengthen sustainable First, community members helped map enterprises
livelihoods that are susceptible to climate change, by: that were: 1) community or family owned, and 2) result
in positive mangrove conservation. Then, led by a local
Claudia Durán – field officer, WWF Mexico. Alejandra Calzada – Climate Change Adaptation Coordinator, WWF. 1. Restoring and conserving mangroves through the
José Chulim* – beekeeper, community member of Rio Lagartos. Manuel Marrufo* – beekeeper, community member
community member and supported by the project,
creation of alliances, design of public policies, and
of Rio Lagartos. Pilar Jacobo – Deputy director for conservation impact, WWF. a community group of mangrove beekeepers from
strengthening of mangrove monitoring systems.
Rio Lagartos and San Felipe Yucatán was created. The
2. Fostering learning communities and community- group and project team generated ideas for increasing
B IO D IV ER S IT Y T R A D IT IO NA L S K IL L S
based restoration strategies. access to markets. The project also includes trainings
that focus on best practices, governance, and resilience
H A B ITAT CO NNEC T IV IT Y 3. Increasing community resilience to climate
to climate change.
change through disaster risk reduction and
capacity building to support livelihoods. Groups involved and roles
MEXICO 4. Identifying and supporting innovative • World Wildlife Fund (WWF) - Mexico: Channeling
financial solutions that support mangrove of funds, creation of alliances and accompaniment
ecosystem services. of the group of beekeepers.
This write-up details one such solution, mangrove • Small-scale community beekeepers from Rio
beekeeping in San Felipe and Rio Lagartos. The Lagartos and San Felipe.
Location Yucatan peninsula in Mexico generates about 40% of
• National Commission of Natural Protected Areas
Rio Lagartos (21.5965° N, 88.1579° the national honey yield, most of which is exported.
(CONANP): Institutional support.
W) and San Felipe, Yucatan, Mexico Increasing opportunities for mangrove honey
(21.5665° N, 88.2333° W). production could benefit both local livelihoods and the • ECOSUR: Research and postgraduate center,
ecosystem, for example, through enhancing pollination technical support and training for groups
Project Size
surrounding the apiaries. of beekeepers.
1 protected area, two communities
and 9 honey producers In San Felipe and Rio Lagartos, beekeepers are small
producers with less than 50 boxes per person. They Local knowledge
Mangrove species
have traditionally produced forest honey but are
Red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), Beekeeping has been part of the Mayan culture
exploring production of mangrove honey, which
since pre-Hispanic times. With the arrival of the
White mangrove (Laguncularia has a distinct flavor and potentially high value.
racemosa) Mangrove beekeeping is Spanish, breeding Apis bees replaced native bees.
an innovative alternative Despite little external technical support, they have
However, traditional beekeeping practices have
Black mangrove (Avicennia livelihood with vast benefits great knowledge about their activity, which can be
germinans) for both the communities survived thanks to the experience and tradition
strengthened with the incorporation of organic
supported by it, and the of the region’s producers.
production, increased access to markets, and
Project Duration mangrove trees pollinated
by the bees. © C. Duran improved climate change resilience.
2021 - 2025
131 132
CASE STUDY 17 | MEXICO
Traditional knowledge has been passed on from Local knowledge also informs adaptation and
generation to generation about climate, phenology, restoration. Beekeeping is threatened by climate
and ecology. Their knowledge of climate, specifically change, as flowering is closely dependent on sufficient
rainfall, results in part from the strong connection rainfall, while flooding and drought affect apiaries,
to fishing in this region, which requires the ability to However, beekeepers use their knowledge to
observe and understand clouds, winds, storms, and monitor the climate, adapt their hive management,
their effects on nature. Other knowledge includes the and rescue hives from floods. The monitoring of
flowering of different plant species, understanding plant cycles carried out by beekeepers also allows
which insects can affect bees, and identifying the tracks detection of the mangrove tree fruiting season,
of animals that roam the apiaries. All this traditional which can inform restoration activities such as
knowledge is key to management of hives and when to relocate seedlings.
honey production.
Local beekeeper checking on his hives. Mangrove beekeepers often face challenges like flooding, and are exploring creation of a knowledge
exchange network to learn from each other the best ways to adapt to these challenges. © C. Duran
Outcomes The group expressed:
The Raíces project, along with community members, “The legacy we seek to build as mangrove beekeepers
identified an opportunity to strengthen sustainable is to be a living testimony of what we can achieve
livelihoods through the production of mangrove when we work collectively. Our work will not only seek
honey. An alliance was created with 15 independent to care for the precious resource which is honey, but
beekeepers interested in forming a network of also benefit and preserve the mangroves and the
mangrove beekeepers. As a result of the work with environment that surrounds us. We will work with
the group, a roadmap has been created for the dedication and passion to become a reference of
coming years to strengthen their activity with support change for our community.”
from WWF.
The beekeepers have proposed creating a joint

apiary to exchange knowledge, create agreements,
and designate tasks. The network will reinforce their
capacities and support development of mangrove
honey production and commercialization, which had
not yet been explored. Technical capabilities gained
through this network will help them face the various
Mangrove beekeepers are experts not only of their bees, but of the patterns and trends emerging
challenges of beekeeping, such as pest attacks,
in the mangroves that help to inform restoration activities. © C. Duran fluctuating market prices, and extreme weather events.
133 134
CASE STUDY 18 | NEW CALEDONIA
Educational trail in the Project goals and objectives Local knowledge
mangrove forest of the Koé tribe

The Hô-üt association, a local environmental Local ecological knowledge on mangrove forests
organization, began this project with the aim of raising has been passed down through the generations in
public awareness on the importance of mangrove the families of the Koé tribe. Many inhabitants of
ecosystem conservation and restoration through the the tribe are members of the Hô-üt association, which
creation of an educational trail in the mangrove forest facilitated the sharing of this local knowledge and its
Didier Amouine* – deputy treasurer of the Hô-üt association. Amaury Dubano* – coordinator of the Hô-üt association.
Virginie Tsilibaris – coordinator of the French mangrove monitoring network, IUCN-FNC.
of the Koé tribe. The educational trail offers visitors inclusion in the project. In addition, some members
(students, locals, tourists) a wide range of information: of the Hô-üt association visited several families of the
mangrove tree species description (names in Cèmuhî, tribe to gather additional information, in particular,
NEW CALEDONIA B IO D IV ER S IT Y R ES TO R AT IO N A P P R OAC H ES the local Kanak language; characteristics; phenology; the translation of plant species into Cèmuhî, the local
and local uses), explanation of the mangroves’ role Kanak language.
T R A D IT IO NA L S K IL L S L EK IN O U T R EAC H in coastal ecology, history of the mangrove in the
The local knowledge involved
Koé tribe, and demonstration of current planting
in this project includes:
techniques. The trail also offers a visit to the tribe’s
mangrove plantations. • Names of the mangrove and seaside trees in
Cèmuhî. This translation work was carried out
Location with elders from the Koé tribe.
Methods/approaches
Koé tribe, Touho (Tuo cèmuhî),
• Uses of mangrove trees. Examples include:
North Province of New Caledonia The project is a public awareness and
Approximate coordinates: education project. • Bruguiera gymnorhiza: The trail offers a
East portion of the trail: -20.795190, presentation of the tree’s characteristics,
165.261016 to -20.793900, phenology, and adaptations, as well as an
165.260885 explanation of the use of propagules in
West portion of the trail: -20.795190, The educational trail project was created in cooking accompanied by the recipe.
165.261016 to -20.794273, collaboration with several partners:
• Lumnitzera littorea: The tree’s characteristics
165.259839
• The clan council of the Koé tribe, which is the and breeding system are presented, and
Project Size customary authority in the area. explanations are provided on the use of
The trail is approximately 500 branches as poles for growing yams.
• The Hô-üt association, an environmental
meters long.
organization working on the conservation projects • Rhizophora selala: The trail guide explains
Mangrove species in the municipality of Touho, listed as a UNESCO how roots can be used as bows for fishing
World Heritage Site, and in charge of the trail visits. in the mangrove and presents some
Rhizophora stylosa; Rhizophora
samoensis; Rhizophora apiculata; fishing techniques.
• The Touho city council and the New Caledonia’s
Rhizophora lamarckii; Rhizophora
North Province, who provided financial support.
selala; Sonneratia alba; Avicennia
marina; Lumnitzera littorea; Bruguiera • The inhabitants of the Koé tribe who took part
gymnorhiza; Xylocarpus granatum in the creation of the trail and, with the help of
the Hô-üt association, maintain the trail and
Project Duration Mangrove trail tour 2020.
© Association Hô-üt accompany visitors.
2019 - ongoing
135 136
CASE STUDY 18 | NEW CALEDONIA
Mangrove trail sign. © Association Hô-üt
• History of the mangrove in the Koé tribe, including “When I was a child, we often went to the sea with
information on the use of trees for firewood and my dad, brothers and sisters to swim and fish. If one
the construction of lime houses, which led to of us got into a fight, the punishment was to pick
excessive cutting of trees in the 1960s; observation propagules from the mangroves along the beach and
of a progressive shoreline retreat over the years; plant them. As a child, I didn’t realize the importance
and the beginning of mangrove planting in the of this gesture. Now that my father is gone, I realize
1990s by tribal families. that our elders were already well aware of the
benefits of mangroves, and that we must continue
• Presentation of different mangrove fishing
to preserve them.”
techniques (e.g., bow, line, seine, underwater gun).
All this information is shared with visitors orally and

Outcomes
through 22 information panels that are placed and
removed at each visit to the trail. The educational trail project in the mangrove of the Koé
tribe was initiated in 2019-2020. Since then, hundreds
This knowledge adds a cultural vision to the project
of visitors have visited the Koé tribe mangrove
as it enables visitors to better appreciate the cultural
forest (e.g., school students, tourists, associations,
importance of mangroves and the link between the
international delegations). They learned how to
tribe’s inhabitants and this ecosystem. Testimonies
identify different mangrove species, were informed
from local residents underscore the importance of
about mangrove tree planting techniques, and were
this link, such as the following collected by the Hô-üt
sensitized to the link between this ecosystem and local
association during a mangrove inventory project in
Kanak communities.
the Touho tribe (BEST 2.0 project): Mangrove trail tour 2023. © Association Hô-üt
137 138
CASE STUDY 19 | PANAMA
Restoring the wetland Project goals and objectives Groups involved and roles
of Laguna de las Lajas

Las Laja Lagoon has long been used by local residents Project Management: Wetlands International
for fishing, especially for shrimp (Penaeus sp.), drinking
Collaboration in restoration, technical studies,
water for cattle, and recreation. Although the lagoon is
meetings with key actors:
still used, the mangroves that once existed have been
degraded and lost. This project aims to reestablish the • Ministry of the Environment.
Andrés Emiliano Fraiz-Toma* – Project Manager, Wetlands International. Jorge Elías Jaén – Head of the Department
of Regulation of Spaces of Coasts and Seas, Ministry of the Environment. Guillermo Ricardo Carrera Patiño* – Manager
mangrove ecosystem as a nature-based coastal climate
• Las Lajas City Hall.
(JALA S.A.). Harris Mendoza – Forestry Engineer West Panamá Regional, Ministry of the Environment. change adaptation solution. Community engagement
Nicomedes Jiménez – Regional Forestry Engineer Chiriquí Regional, Ministry of the Environment. made the project possible and continues to restore the • Carrera Family (help maintain the area and
community’s sense of care and belonging to the local perimeter fence).
ecosystem, now on a path to recovery.
B IO D IV ER S IT Y T H R EAT S & IM PAC T S
Participation in mangrove restoration campaigns:
Methods/approaches • El María Elementary School in Remedios & Las

Lajas High School (teachers support calls for
The project began in 2016 with the information
PANAMA students for the restoration days, obtain student
gathering stage to better understand the lagoon’s
permits, encourage participation).
history and where a restoration project should be sited.
The project was identified and defined with the critical • Community Board of Santa Lucía in Remedios.
input of the local community, notably the Carrera family
• Las Lajas Community.
who highlighted a degraded mangrove ecosystem,
which had lost almost all of its forest cover and had also • La Miel y El Cuero de Horconcitos Agroartisanal
Location suffered considerable hydrological manipulation. Their Producers Association in San Lorenzo [Asociación
Las Lajas lagoon, San Félix district, historical knowledge enabled the development of a de Productores Agroartesanales de la Miel y el
province of Chiriquí. vision and a plan that uses two approaches: Cuero de Horconcito en San Lorenzo (APAMICUH)].
Boca del estero: 8.165193N,
Planting: Although mangrove forests exist nearby, they • Chiriqui Autonomous University [Universidad
81.841826W
are no longer directly connected. The lack of mature Autónoma de Chiriquí].
Boca la Peña: 8.171507N,
trees within the main lagoon area is one of the reasons
81.86701W • El María Community Board (assists getting people
why recruitment is not observed in the site. Mangrove
involved in restoration activities).
Project Size planting is intended to create patches of trees through
The lagoon is approximately 155 ha, different parts of the lagoon so that they can act as
of which an estimated 74.53 ha has mother trees (sources of recruitment) and disperse
reforestation/restoration potential their propagules through currents, thus colonizing and
spreading throughout the lagoon over time.
Mangrove species
Hydrological restoration: Flow analysis revealed
Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia
racemosa, Conocarpus erectus obstructions limiting water passage. As a corrective
measure, bridges were designed to replace the two
Project Duration obstructing structures. Meetings have been held with
Restoration in Aug 2023 with
2016 - ongoing Las Lajas College. © Andres Fraiz neighboring farmers to confirm the plan’s viability.
139 140
CASE STUDY 19 | PANAMA
Local knowledge forest, which over the years was destroyed. Professor
Ermila Arjona Carrera, a resident of San Félix, former
Local knowledge was invaluable to project initiation,
politician, and UNACHI professor, explained that the
and the identification and selection of the site. Andrés
mangrove forest was fumigated in the 1970s:
Emiliano Fraiz-Toma grew up nearby and on family
trips to the beach wondered why the lagoon’s trees
“Although we do not know what they fumigated with,
had fallen. Recently, as a Technical Officer for Wetland
the purpose was to enable agricultural use.”
International, he studied the causes of its degradation
and began work to restore the lost mangrove forest.
Several area residents (Santa Cruz community, In the following decade, the trees began to die and the
San Félix district), including people of some influence, mangrove forest was forgotten. The trunks of the trees
such as landowners and a former mayor, provided that grew in the lagoon still appear at low tides during
key information, specifically that the lagoon was the dry seasons-- a vestige of what once dominated the
previously a continuous, uninterrupted mangrove entire lagoon.
Planting at the Lagoon with students, community members, and Ministry of the Environment April 2022. © Andres Fraiz
Outcomes Tidal currents destroyed one of the dams that

hindered the passage of water from the estuary to
A key early achievement was to document that Las
the lagoon, leaving another that still needs to
Lajas lagoon had indeed been a mangrove forest
be removed. This project laid the foundation for
that had been degraded, thereby highlighting it as a
restoration, environmental education, and research
promising candidate for restoration. After its selection
projects that have increased knowledge of wetlands
for the project, a restoration campaign was initiated.
in the region.
There are currently three patches of mangrove
covering 5.16 hectares, which are already providing
propagules and improving the ecological condition To read more about this case study visit:
of the ecosystem. Students, teachers, community
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3PZStm2COF4
members, and local authorities have actively
participated for five years in restoration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9fo-d1Mw4qA
campaigns and continue to do so.
This amounts to approximately one hundred people

each year and older students now talk about the
mangroves they planted. The community also helps
Planting at the Lagoon with students, community members, and Ministry of the Environment April 2022. © Andres Fraiz maintain the perimeter fence that excludes cattle.
141 142
CASE STUDY 20 | PHILIPPINES
Rehabilitating an abandoned Project goals and objectives Barillo. Another important part of this project was
a public awareness campaign about the benefits of
fishpond in Nula-tula, Tacloban City

This case study describes the reversion (rehabilitation)
mangroves launched by the local CENRO.
of an abandoned, underdeveloped, and underutilized
(AUU) fishpond back to a mangrove forest, a
Contributing authors project led and guided by the local community Groups involved and roles
and urban authorities. In response to the storm
Annadel Cabanban – Country Manager, Latian Internasyonal Pilipinas Inc, Wetlands International Philippines. This project was included as one of the nature-based
Marito Barillo – City Environment and Natural Resources Office (CENRO).
surge brought by Super Typhoon Yolanda (Typhoon
solutions in the Integrated Coastal Management Plan:
Nelia Malate* – Nula-tula, Tacloban, Leyte, Punong Barangay (Village Chief). Haiyan – international name) that devastated coastal
City of Tacloban and Municipality of Palo34, which
communities in the coastal city of Tacloban in 2013,
had been developed through the collaboration of
the One Resilient Team – Tacloban Project was
resource managers, Nula-tula community members
B IO D IV ER S IT Y T H R EAT S & IM PAC T S implemented with the aim of building a greenbelt of
and village chief, conservation organizations (One
mangroves and beach forest to serve as nature-based
Architecture, Wetlands International Philippines,
PHILLIPINES protection for coastal communities. This case study is
Zoological Society London (ZSL)-Philippines), and the
part of this larger project.
Philippine government (the CENRO Tacloban, Philippine
Reclamation Authority, City Government of Tacloban,
Methods/approaches and Barangay 74 Nula-tula).
The reversion of the fishpond included breaking down

a dike to restore tidal flow and replanting mangroves. Local knowledge
Location Replanting used an approach where scientific and
The Nula-tula community drew attention to the
Barangay 74, Nula-tula, City of technical guidance complemented local knowledge. A
fact that the fishpond in Barangay 74 Nula-tula was
Tacloban, Leyte, Philippines, two-week training program for steps in rehabilitation
a former mangrove site with potential to play an
Coordinates: 11° 15’ North, for the village officials and community members of
important role in coastal protection. They further
124° 58’ East Barangay 74 Nula-tula was conducted. The collection
provided knowledge on local mangroves species and
of wildlings of mangrove species from a nearby natural
Project Size the location of wildlings and, with strong support of
mangrove forest was informed by local knowledge
1.9 hectares the mayor, they also provided labor in the replanting
and supplemented by the saplings of Rhizophora spp.
of seedlings. Community members also shared
Mangrove species from adjacent nursery sites and restored flora diversity.
knowledge on the uses of and threats to mangroves
The wildlings were planted one meter apart in a zig-
Aegiceras floridum (tinduk-tindukan), (aside from the conversion to fishponds). All these
zag pattern, providing sufficient space for tidal water
Aegiceras corniculatum (saging- helped determine the location and approach in the
saging), Avicennia marina (api-api), flow and exchange between the coast and fishpond.
reversion of the fishpond. Wildlings formed the primary
A. officinalis (mi-api), A. rumphiana Community members planted 11,000 saplings on a
source of material for the rehabilitation of the fishpond,
(bungalon), Ceriops decandra voluntary basis. The planting was organized by an
which could not have occurred with only one species
(malatangal; baras-baras), Rhizophora enthusiastic villager, the late Violeta Cormero, and
apiculata (bakawan lalaki), R. stylosa from nursery sites.
supervised by the local City of Tacloban Environment
(bakawan bato), Sonneratia alba
and Natural Resources Office (CENRO) staff, Marito
(pagatpat)
Nula-tula fishpond with
newly planted mangrove
Project Duration
saplings in 2018. © Wetlands
2017 - 2018 International Philippines
34 Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan: City of Tacloban and Municipality of Palo was completed in 2019 and turned over to the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources.
143 144
CASE STUDY 20 | PHILIPPINES
Outcomes group of Wetlands International-Africa conservation

professionals visited in 2019 to learn from the practices
The replanting project was completed in 2018 with
demonstrated by the project. Visits by students and
an impressive survival rate of 96.5 %. The saplings
offers to replant mangroves in adjacent areas by
displayed significant growth over the years. Over time,
the private sector were inspired by this pilot and
some species matured and the canopy closed in 2020.
continue today (2023).
By 2023, the trees grew to 6-8 meters.
The rehabilitated fishpond started providing ecosystem

services in 2020. The matured trees began to produce
seeds and propagules, which were tidally dispersed https://www.preventionweb.net/news/one-resilient-
to adjacent damaged mangrove areas. In the channel team-replanting-mangroves-combat-flood-risk-
built to allow tidal water to flow from the sea to the philippines
fishpond, mud has been deposited and provides a
https://www.royalhaskoningdhv.com/en/projects/
feeding ground for shore birds. Locals have reported
sustainable-coastal-protection-for-cities-in-the-
recruitment of fish (mudskippers and others) and
philippines
invertebrates (e.g., shells, shrimps, mud-crabs).
These species have become sources of food for
sustenance and/or livelihoods. For example, villagers
from Nula-tula and nearby villages have started
harvesting horn snails, locally known as bagongon.
Community support, expressed through their

knowledge sharing, engagement in the initial
replanting, and their acceptance of legal protection,
continues through their monitoring and surveillance
of the project site. The villagers of Nula-tula and the
CENRO take pride in the project. This pilot site is now a
model of successful mangrove restoration in Leyte
and the Philippines, being a focal point of good
mangrove restoration practices to showcase the
feasibility and benefits of rehabilitating abandoned,
undeveloped, and underutilized (AUU) fishponds in
mangrove areas. Students, the private sector, and a
Nula-tula mangroves have grown to 6-8 meters in 2023 and mud has deposited in the channel for birds to feed.
© Wetlands International Philippines
145 146
CASE STUDY 21 | VIETNAM
Mangrove reforestation for Project goals and objectives planting events. While all community members could
be involved in the planting seasons every May and
disaster risk reduction and

In Vietnam, mangroves were cut for rice planting
August, fishers who worked in the mangroves planted
and aquaculture in the 1980s. Without mangrove
mangroves every day.
climate change mitigation

protection, typhoon waves destroyed sea dykes, sea
water intruded rice farms, and coastal communities
were flooded. To combat the loss of natural coastal Groups involved and roles
protection, Vietnam Red Cross (VNRC) launched a
Contributing authors • Local government agencies such as Provincial,
mangrove restoration project in 1994 to safeguard sea
Dang Van Tao – Program Manager. Nguyen Van Hien – community member from Dai Hop commune, Kien Thuy district, Hai
*
District and Commune People Committees played
Phong province. Truong Van Lai*, community member from Hoang Chau commune, Hoang Hoa district, Thanh Hoa province.
dykes, reduce flooding risk, and protect livelihoods.
a role in providing land use rights and permission
The project aimed to restore aquaculture/agriculture
for planting mangroves, as well as providing
areas through planting/natural recovery, as well
additional support for mangrove protection
as to support community-based management and
B IO D IV ER S IT Y T H R EAT S & IM PAC T S after planting.
ownership of the mangrove areas. An important part
of the project was incorporating local knowledge to • VNRC staff at all levels were responsible for
R ES TO R AT IO N A P P R OAC H ES
provide information about mangrove history and planning, implementation, and monitoring
effective planting practices. From five initial pilot the mangrove planting and protection.
VIETNAM communities in Thai Binh province, the initiative was VNRC negotiated with government agencies,
scaled up to over 100 communities in eight coastal and encouraged mangrove protection and
provinces. A capacity-building component was added maintenance within 25 years or to recognize
to strengthen community disaster risk reduction. In mangroves as a protective forest (i.e., forests
addition, the project also included educational trainings that protect human beings, settlements,
about mangrove ecology and disaster risk reduction in infrastructure, soils against natural hazards
schools in 222 communities. and environmental impacts).
Location
• Women’s Union, local coastal community
100 coastal communes (i.e. Methods/approaches members are key labor forces in raising and
communities) in Ha Tinh, Hai
protecting mangroves.
Phong, Nam Dinh, Nghe An, Ninh The project used participatory, community-based
Binh, Quang Ninh, Thai Binh, Thanh approaches at many stages. Local representatives • Teachers and children at primary and
Hoa provinces, Vietnam. shared their knowledge in meetings, and secondary schools share information on the
representatives of VNRC, communities, and local benefits of mangroves.
Project Size
authorities together generated a mangrove
9,000 hectares • Danish Red Cross and Japanese Red Cross
planting design and a long-term planting plan that
mobilized funds for covering the project costs
Mangrove species would provide benefits to all stakeholders. They
from 1994 to 2017.
also created several community groups (planters, seed
Kandelia Candel, Rhizophora Candel,
and Sonneratia sp. transporters, seed collectors, mangrove protectors,
monitors) and the group members received incentives.
Project Duration A woman is collecting sea Mangrove protectors watched mangroves daily the
creatures from mangrove
1994-2017 (although some communities first four years after planting when seedlings are most
forest at low tide. ©
are continuing planting and protection with susceptible to damage. VNRC also organized capacity-
Vietnam Red Cross
different sources of funding)
building workshops, school education trainings, and
147 148
CASE STUDY 21 | VIETNAM
Outcomes In each community, about 150-250 people rely

on the forest for their daily livelihoods, through
The project was completed in 2017 and provided
aquaculture and non-timber products. The project
many socio-economic and ecological benefits to the
has increased aquaculture product yields by more
communities. The mangrove forest has been handed
than 200%. The project also contributes to climate
over to local communities and governments who
mitigation, with the value of estimated minimum
issued a decree in 2017 to protect all coastal forests,
CO2 emissions that will be absorbed by the planted
including mangroves. 9,000 hectares of mangroves
mangrove between 1997 and 2025 at US $218 million.
continue to grow well along 100 kilometers of sea
In addition, fishers have become long-term partners
dykes. The project has reached 350,000 beneficiaries
of the project, as their livelihoods rely on healthy
directly. Reduced dyke damage saves US $80,000
mangrove ecosystems. All community members have
without typhoon direct impact or $295,0000 with
played a key role in the project success by protecting
landed typhoon direct impact per year.
the planted mangroves to ensure survival and growth.
Plantation training on the spot. © Vietnam Red Cross
Local knowledge sea harbors). Planting efforts were also informed by

local knowledge, as community members shared
Knowledge-sharing meetings with coastal community
reasons why previous planting efforts failed
members helped inform this project. This included
(e.g., unsuitable mangrove species, poor planting
information on mangrove species that had existed
design, lack of protection) and how to successfully
in the area and ways mangroves were used and
plant and protect new mangroves. Based on this
benefitted locals’ daily lives (e.g., collection of marine
knowledge, local community members and VNRC
fauna). Community members also shared their
together decided where to plant mangroves, how to
understanding of the reasons mangroves were cut,
design planting areas, which mangrove species to
what happened to the mangrove area after the trees
select, and how to collect and transport mangrove
were cut, and additional threats that mangroves faced
propagules/seeds for best survival rates.
(e.g., aquaculture farms, road developments, and
Mangroves planted in Bang La and Dai Hop Aug 1998. Current mangroves planted in 1998 in Bang La Dai Hop Hai Phong.
© Vietnam Red Cross © Vietnam Red Cross
149 150
4.4
Engaging with
and sharing LEK
These case studies highlight that LEK is already
being included around the world in practical
mangrove conservation and restoration efforts.
They provide examples of the various types of LEK knowledge at times becomes blurred. The sharing of
that can inform projects, and the process of how such LEK is typically part of a more complete engagement
knowledge is appreciated and included. They also with local communities. In many projects that process
illustrate how local communities and settings can be involves knowledge co-production, where a two-way Before beginning a restoration project, Mangrove Action Project trainers meet with community leaders to learn from their experiences
very different: Indigenous knowledge is highlighted flow of ideas benefits both local and external partners. and the local context that only they can provide. © Dominic Wodehouse, MAP
in a number of studies (Colombia, New Caledonia,

Fiji) with traditional knowledge also important (India,
Alongside knowledge, local communities can be key beyond the local setting. But by drawing attention to
Mexico), but there are also examples that include recent
implementors. These case studies show how projects such studies, we hope to encourage further recognition
knowledge, such as replanting methods or causes of
can support employment or other benefits, as well and uptake, particularly in those places where local
degradation (Vietnam, Kenya), and where the “local”
as how local engagement can enable monitoring and knowledge and expertise may be overlooked.
population includes local politicians, professionals,
adaptive management. The year-round presence and
and academics (Honduras, Philippines, Panama).
engagement of local people in the mangroves will Perhaps the most important and urgent task for
ensure that successes or failures in replanting efforts, mangrove management is to embed LEK, alongside
It is noteworthy that, in most of these projects, LEK
hydrological interventions, or invasive species are the collaboration of local communities, into all
and other forms of knowledge inform the project,
quickly spotted and enable adaptive management. conservation and restoration projects. LEK can
and indeed, the line between LEK and other forms of
In addition, continued engagement with local provide a critical contribution, while full and equitable
communities on these projects alleviates the risk of local engagement can create a sense of ownership and
parachute science, as well as ensuring LEK is accurately ensure long-term continuity of outcomes.
understood and included.
In the final section we consider some processes by
These stories represent a few examples, probably only which researchers, planners, and practitioners can
a tiny fraction of LEK in mangrove management. In equitably engage with both LEK and those who hold
Community members use their extensive knowledge of the nearby many places LEK and local interventions may indeed this knowledge.
mangroves to create a hand-drawn map. © Laura Michie, MAP be the only form of mangrove management, unseen
151 152
"How to" Tools
5. “How to” tools 5.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................155

5.2 Guidance for including LEK in mangrove research or management.................................156
5.2.1 Additional guidance for researchers in combining LEK with AEK ......................................................160
5.2.2 Additional guidance for engaging with LEK and local communities ethically and inclusively ......161
Caption © Credit
“Teaching to care for the environment is teaching to value life”.
A sign placed by local people who are leading conservation and
ecotourism efforts in Cartagena, Colombia. © Mark Spalding
153 154
"How to" Tools
5.1 5.2
Introduction Guidance for including

Local knowledge presents a remarkable
LEK in mangrove
opportunity for any individual (including local
people) or group to optimize research, planning, and
research or management
management in mangrove ecosystems.
Respect, collaborate and share
The approaches to considering and including
• At all stages, even in exploratory project planning, respect cultural and traditional norms,
LEK require thoughtful planning from the onset of
including seeking permissions and respecting hierarchy and leadership.
project conceptualization through to the end of
the project – and beyond! • To engage with LEK and knowledge holders respectfully and appropriately, build in the necessary
time needed to engage in the all the steps described below. Do not rush these.
These steps are meant to provide general guidance
throughout the process. Anyone working with LEK
and knowledge holders should understand the local
context and adjust accordingly. These steps are
also recommended for local community members
leading such work: communities are diverse and
understanding these complexities can help ensure
that the work is done in an inclusive and ethical way.
Zulfa Hassan, the founder and chairwoman of the Mtangawanda

Women’s Association, a group that manages mangrove restoration
off the coast of Lamu County, Kenya. © Sarah Waiswa
Working in mangrove environments needs to be driven by respect, with the knowledge of local people being shared
in a collaborative and inclusive manner, strengthening and empowering their engagement. © Annette Ruzicka
155 156
"How to" Tools
Pre-project planning Implementation
Understand “who” is local Identify types of LEK that may be critical Engage
• Visit the location, and use direct contacts, maps, • Review lists or classifications of types of LEK that • Try to connect fully, possibly through multiple
and literature to identify all people who may have may be relevant to your work. Gain a greater or ongoing engagements.
local knowledge. understanding of the many types of LEK that exist.
• Consider appropriate language and
LEK holders can provide knowledge beyond their
• Be aware that there may be multiple communities technology, engaging translators and All work needs to be documented, and shared with local people,
use of mangroves or threats in the area. listening to feedback and adjusting or correcting methods and
and these may include different ethnic or societal approaches that will communicate effectively.
outputs as required. © Annette Ruzicka
groupings. Be inclusive of all communities. • Seek out specific examples of LEK from the area,
• Listen and revise. Keep an open mind to new
the country, or similar projects elsewhere.
• Note that “local” may extend beyond directly knowledge that may fill data gaps or answer
adjacent settlements to other areas and even • Keep an open mind for opportunities to engage novel questions. New ideas and approaches
Document and share
displaced communities. with and include LEK. may arise at all stages of engagement.
• Document all work, interactions, and findings.
Consider fair use and equity Collaborate • Validate analyses and findings with the people
who shared the knowledge to ensure accurate
• Plan for free prior and informed consent to • Build work in a collaborative manner where
interpretation. Correct any inaccuracies or
any knowledge-sharing. Be aware of national local engagement is an integral part of
misinterpretations.
and local regulations, but be prepared to go research or management. Where possible
beyond these. allow co-ownership or leadership. • Continuously share knowledge, understanding,
and inferences from the work.
• Identify ways the project can engage in knowledge • Provide tools or training if needed to enable
co-production activities, and at which deeper local engagement.
stages (consultation, planning/design, Acknowledge
• Expect and include feedback and suggestions
implementation, data collection/monitoring,
from local participants. • Ensure that outputs are shared and local
data analysis, dissemination).
partners appropriately acknowledged as
• Ensure local sources can be beneficiaries (through co-authors or co-creators.
funding, acknowledgement, empowerment).
• Respect local participants’ time and needs. Ask Monitor, review and adapt
if and what sort of compensation they need to
• Monitor both the work and the process
engage in this work. Not doing so risks
(particularly any safeguards).
undervaluing their time and contributions,
which they might provide in addition to or in • Review and adapt – review should be an ongoing
place of other responsibilities. component of any research or management
intervention, with an eye to improving processes
• Plan for risks and conflict resolution in the event
of work or stakeholder engagement. Take local
of disputes or misunderstandings. Engaging and collaborating with local people is critical in
concerns or suggestions seriously and adjust as
research and management, and every effort should be made
Know who is “local”: it may encompass more than one to build strong partnerships with co-ownership of work and is feasible. This should be done multiple times
community, ethnic group, or activity. © Annette Ruzicka outcomes. © Dominic Wodehouse, MAP throughout the project.
157 158
"How to" Tools
Follow-through
Leave a legacy
• Report your findings in a collaborative manner
with all participants.
• Encourage other projects to learn from your

work – both your errors and your successes.
• Seek to ensure that communities are supported

and empowered in a manner appropriate to
your work (from simple sharing of information
Through collaborative work in Madagascar, local communities are
to a long-term management framework in now restoring and monitoring their mangroves and reaping the
which they are leaders or key participants). benefits. © Cicelin Rakotomahazo
Through their Community Based Ecological Mangrove Restoration work, local communities inform the Mangrove Action Project of places and
issues where mangrove restoration may be most beneficial and are then supported and empowered to undertake restoration and management. Swafia Shahibu (right) and Mariam Bwana (left) rest after working in the mangroves. They are members of the Mtangawanda Women’s
(Bengkalis Island, Indonesia). © Dominic Wodehouse, MAP Association, a group that manages mangrove restoration off the coast of Lamu County, Kenya. © Sarah Waiswa
159 160
"How to" Tools
5.2.2 Additional guidance for engaging with LEK and local communities
ethically and inclusively
Given the interest in working ethically with Indigenous and local communities, several organizations have created
best practices and guides to assist in such projects. We provide several here that practitioners can use to assist in
developing and implementing projects.
Source Relevance Link
The Nature Guide that offers tools for how to support and Human Rights Guide for
Conservancy uphold the autonomy, decision-making, and self- Working with Indigenous
determination of people who have stewarded the Peoples and Local Communities
It is important to build local people into the team, and even to engage them directly into research. © Konservasi Indonesia/Hanggar Prasetio lands, waters, and resources for generations.
Conservation Provides policies, standards, procedures, and Environmental and Social

5.2.1 Additional guidance for researchers in combining LEK with AEK International guidance to ensure projects are effective, efficient, Safeguard System
and equitable.
The potential for LEK to inform, guide and support academic research is considerable, and while the
guidelines outlined above are equally applicable for researchers and practitioners, the following points
WWF Guide that provides information, guidance, and Communities and Inclusion
may also be valuable for those conducting research:
tools for practitioners who seek to address the
threats of corruption in community-based work
• Consider the breadth of knowledge that could be helpful. Understanding the scope of LEK can and inclusive conservation efforts.
enhance opportunities.
Global Mangrove Includes best practices for community The Best Practice Guidelines for
• Be aware of additional institutional requirements, and the requirements of academic publishers Alliance engagement in mangrove restoration projects. Mangrove Restoration
for appropriate and equitable engagement, including ethics reviews.
Henriika Mustajoki Guides best ethical procedures and provides A new approach to research
• Avoid “parachute research” by allowing sufficient time for building trust and understanding, and for and Arto Mustajoki more in-depth understanding. ethics: Using guided dialogue
to strengthen research
sharing knowledge in a two-way process.
communities
• Build local people into your team in a way where their knowledge and contributions are respected
IPBES Provides an approach to recognizing and Key Messages from the IPBES
and valued. working with Indigenous and local knowledge. Global Assessment
• While academic research can be short-term or transitory, leave a legacy through knowledge-sharing FAO Toolkit and e-learning product for practitioners Free, Prior, and Informed
and appropriate acknowledgement. working with Indigenous peoples. Consent (FPIC)
UNESCO To further understand local knowledge and Local Knowledge, Global Goals
how it supports science and policy.
The Nature Practitioner framework to strengthen outcomes Strong Voices, Active Choices
Conservancy for people and nature.
161 162
Appendices
6. Appendices Appendix 1: References for the 90 studies reviewed.....................................................................165

Appendix 2: Types of LEK in mangrove research............................................................................173
Appendix 3: Methodology for mangrove LEK systematic review...............................................175
Appendix 4: Mangrove LEK case studies guidelines and template ...........................................178
Caption © Credit
A local resident walking through the mangroves in Guangxi

Beilun Estuary National Nature Reserve in China, which is
home to several endangered species. © Mark Spalding
163 164
Appendices
Appendix 1: Brown, M. I., Pearce, T., Leon, J., Sidle, R., & Wilson, R. (2018). Using remote sensing and traditional ecological
knowledge (TEK) to understand mangrove change on the Maroochy River, Queensland, Australia. Applied
References for the Geography, 94, 71-83.
90 studies reviewed
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degradation: Visualizing mangrove forest dynamics and local stewardship with remote sensing in coastal based mangrove rehabilitation and management in Demak, Indonesia. Regional Environmental
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Hugé, J., Velde, K. V., Benitez-Capistros, F., Japay, J. H., Satyanarayana, B., Ishak, M. N., ... & Dahdouh-Guebas,
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171 172
ESS
Size
173
State
Range
Extent
Height
Spatial
Growth
Threats
Climate
Change
Cultural
Impacts
Location
Conflicts
Changes
Seasonal
Function
Recovery
Temporal
Condition
Condition
Regulating
Ecosystem
Supporting
Abundance
Distribution
Endangered
Provisioning
Connectivity
Biodiversity
Tenure/Laws
Identification
Identification
Identification
Other Species
Drivers of loss
Nursery Areas
Population Size
Presence/Absence
Presence/Absence
Presence/Absence
Mangrove Species
Ecosystem Impacts
Community Dynamics
Applied/Management
Conservation Attitudes
Community participation
Ecosystem State or Condition
Human-Mangrove Interactions
knowledge
Conservation/Restoration strategies
Traditional/Artisanal fishing or crafts

Author
Local ecological
Almasi et al. (2018)

Amin (2020)
Atindana et al. (2020)
Aubé & Caron (2001)
Avtar et al. (2021).
Badola & Hussain (2005)
Badola et al. (2012)
research
Beitl (2014)
Beitl et al. (2019)
Berkström et al. (2019)
LEK in mangrove
Brown et al. (2018)

Carney (2017)
Carrasquilla-Henao et al. (2019)
Chakraborty et al. (2020)
Choi et al. (2009)
Conchedda et al. (2011)
Cormier-Salemet al. (2017)
Dahdouh-Guebas et al. (2006)
Dahdouh-Guebas et al. (2000)
management
Damastuti & de Groot (2017)

LEK in mangrove
Damastuti & de Groot (2019)

Darkwa & Smardon (2010)
DasGupta & Shaw (2017)
De Thoisy et al. (2003)
Deb (2015)
Duangjai et al. (2013)
Feka & Manzano (2008)
Fekaet al. (2011)
Firmo et al. (2011)
“How to” tools
Francisco et al. (2019)

Furukawa et al. (2015)
Gallup et al. (2020)
Gardner et al. (2017)
Glaser (2003)
Gnansounouet al. (2021)
Griffin et al. (2013)
Hassan et al.(2018)
Hema & Devi (2014)
Appendices
Hernandez-Cornejo et al. (2005)

Hernández-Félix et al. (2017)
Appendix 2: Types of LEK in mangrove research
Hoque Mozumder et al. (2018)
Hossain et al. (2015)

Hugé et al. (2016)
Hussain & Badola (2010)
Iftekhar & Takama (2008)
Islam et al. (2018)
Jumnongsong et al. (2015)
Kaewploy et al. (2018)
Kaplowitz (2000)
Kovacs (2000)
Kovacs et al. (2004)
Leeney & Downing (2016)
Longépée et al. (2021)
Malik et al. (2015)
Marschke et al. (2014)
Martínez-Espinosa et al. (2020)
Mateos-Molina et al. (2020)
Mayaka et al. (2013)
Mmom & Arokoyu (2010)
Munji et al. (2014)
Nfotabong-Atheull et al. (2011)
Nfotabong-Atheull et al. (2009)
Nguyen et al. (2017)
Nguyen et al. (2016)
Nijbroek (2014)
Nyangoko et al. (2021)
Ocampo-Thomason (2006)
Owuor et al. (2019)
Palacios & Cantera (2017)
Pattanaik et al. (2008)
Pearson et al. (2019)
Queiroz et al. (2017)
Rakotomahazo et al. (2019)
Reyes-Arroyo et al. (2021)
Rönnbäck et al. (2007)
Rumahorbo et al. (2020)
Salte & MacKenzie (1985)
Satyanarayana et al. (2012)
Satyanarayana et al. (2013)
Seary et al. (2021)
Simpson et al. (2016)
Singgalen (2020)
Singh et al. (2019)
Sulaiman et al. (2019)
Suyadi et al. (2021)
Than et al. (2022)
Treviño & Murillo-Sandoval (2021)
Walters (2005)
Warren-Rhodes et al. (2011)
Zapelini et al. (2017)
7
9
6
3
4
4
4
9
3
4
8
8
4
4
3
6
4
30
29
25
33
56
28
35
35
68
75
16
51
59
60
83
20
10
20
12
32
11
11
18
26
57
14
20
30
24
23
37
25
11
34
55
174
Appendices
Appendices
Appendix 3: • Studies that interview only government Accepting/rejecting mangrove LEK studies:
Methodology for mangrove

officials/tourists. Many studies of local people collected information
• Non-mangrove ecosystems. about household income salary/occupations; these
• Modelling data. were rejected unless they also included LEK. E.g.,
local ecological knowledge •

•
Non-English.
Not conservation or restoration focus.
If it asked how much of a mangrove product was
used, then no. If ask why they use it, how they collect
systematic review • Reviews.
YES- include
it, where its from, etc. then yes, this is LEK. A Kappa
value was run between the two reviewers. A 0.64 =
substantial agreement on 250 papers of which 157
• All years.
were reviewed by both. In Sysrev, both reviewers went
• Geographical location: global.
through the conflicts and discussed any disagreements
• Studies that have LEK in a mangrove ecosystem.*
in accepting/rejecting articles according to the criteria.
• English.
Primary Question:
“group discussion*” OR “Indigenous knowledge” OR • Primary data on specific mangrove location(s).
Data extraction:
• What traditional and local knowledge is there “interview” OR “local ecological knowledge” OR “local • Mangrove associated local knowledge.**
Began data extraction of the 90 accepted articles in
for mangrove ecosystems? experience” OR “local knowledge” OR “local livelihood” • Conservation/restoration focus.***
January 2022 using Excel. A codebook was used to
OR “local people” OR “local residents” OR “non- • LEK from the local population.****
extract the same information from each article. Data
Secondary questions? scientific knowledge” OR “participant observation” OR
*Ecological knowledge = relationships between the extracted was a mixture of qualitative and quantitative
“participatory mapping” OR “resource management”
• What are the aims and focus of the studies? land, water, animals, and plants within a particular area. information, selected from the aims and objectives of
OR “resource users” OR “semi-structured interviews”
• How is this knowledge being used and integrated? the study. A sample size of 10 articles were selected
OR “socio-cultural value*” OR “structured interviews” **e.g., also including articles about fauna
• What are the different types of knowledge collected? at random and extracted to assess and refine the
OR “traditional ecological” OR “traditional knowledge” associated with mangroves for all or part of their
• Where are these mangrove sites located? extraction list and order.
OR “gendered knowledge” OR “knowledge exchange” life cycle and fisheries that occur in and around
• What were the methods to collect LEK and how
OR “participatory” OR “empowerment” OR “Integrated mangrove ecosystems.
was this analysed? Categorizing and organizing into themes:
knowledge” OR “knowledge-based approach*” OR
• Who are the people involved? ***can have management/governance related To understand the type and scope of LEK in the studies,
“knowledge transfer”.
• Who are the people collecting the information? LEK as part of it, but the main study focus is LEK was categorized into three themes. This was done
• Are authors from the country of focus included? conservation/restoration. through a coding approach combining deductive
Inclusion/exclusion criteria:
• What were the main results? (predetermined categories) and inductive coding
****local population = includes anyone living in the
• If LEK and AEK were integrated, how was NO – exclude (ground-up approach). First, qualitative codes were
local area - local communities.
this done? • Studies that mention LEK without having organized into categories and subcodes, followed by
primary data. further rounds of qualitative coding. Then, codes and
Title and abstract level screening:
Literature search: • Studies that have local knowledge (management, categories were turned into the final category.
Sysrev - a platform for collaborative extraction of
Carried out on 29th - 30th July 2021 in Scopus, policy, etc.) but it is not specifically ecological
data from documents - was used for management
Web of Science (WOS) and Proquest International knowledge - (e.g., about species; landscape;
and transparency in this systematic review.
Bibliography of the Social Sciences (IBSS). mapping; conditions; beliefs; cultural values; and
relationships between plants, animals, natural Stage 1: abstract level screening can be seen here:
Search string: phenomena, landscapes, and timing of events https://sysrev.com/u/4865/p/81676
Mangrove AND “biocultural value*” OR (including hunting, fishing and forestry).
Stage 2: full text level screening can be seen here:
“community participation” OR “ecological knowledge” • Studies that discuss local participation but not
https://sysrev.com/u/4865/p/96265
OR “ethnobiology” OR “focus group” OR local knowledge.
175 176
Appendices
Appendix 4:
Mangrove LEK case
Searching
Records identified through

database searching (n=1543)
studies guidelines
Records after duplicates
removed (n=1158)
Duplicates
(n=385) and template
Records after title and abstract Excluded titles In June and July, 2023 the lead authors of this report reached out via email to mangrove managers and
screening (n=535) (n=623)
conservation practitioners around the world to solicit the submission of a series of case-studies that would
illustrate the practical use and application of LEK. The following text presents that message, and explains
Screening
the guidelines and template that was provided to all authors.

Articles retrieved at full Unretrievable full texts
text (n=520) (Cannot access, n=7. Not found, n=8)
The integration of local or Indigenous knowledge in mangrove conservation

and restoration
Articles after full text Excluded full texts, with reasons (n=430)
screening (n=90) Excluded on: The Nature Conservancy and Global Mangrove Alliance, with partners, are compiling a review of the
• Not in English (n=16)
• Did not meet the inclusion criteria, use of local, traditional, or Indigenous knowledge within mangrove conservation and/or restoration
(not mangrove area, not local
projects around the world. In particular, we are keen to identify examples where the local providers
participants etc.) (n=414)
of such knowledge are active participants.
Our vision is to develop a series of 10-20 such case studies, which will be included in a wider report
and guide on the use of local ecological knowledge (LEK) in mangrove research and conservation.
The case studies will be reviewed to develop a summary narrative and all contributors will be invited
Synthesis
to be full authors on the final report. Submissions must include at least one author who is a
Articles included in the
review (n=90) member of the local community.
Figure 9: ROSES Flow Diagram for Systematic Reviews (adapted from Haddaway et al. 2017)35
35 Haddaway, N. R., Macura, B., Whaley, P., & Pullin, A. S. (2018). ROSES RepOrting standards for Systematic Evidence Syntheses:
pro forma, flow-diagram and descriptive summary of the plan and conduct of environmental systematic reviews and systematic maps.
Environmental Evidence, 7(1), 7.
177 178
Appendices
Case Study Guidelines: Methods/approaches used: Describe methods/approaches used (e.g., hydrologic restoration, planting,
establishing a protected area, economic opportunities, education and outreach).
We are interested in case studies that:
Groups involved and roles: Mention the key supporting organizations (e.g., government agency, NGO,
• Include local community members and their knowledge in some aspect of the project (e.g., project
partnerships, schools) and the key practitioners and/or local collaborators, which must include (but not restricted
design, implementation, monitoring).
to) local/traditional/Indigenous individuals, groups, or organizations.
• Are restoration or conservation projects, NOT academic research projects; although cases can include
Local knowledge and how it has informed the project: What local/traditional/Indigenous knowledge is involved
research as part of the larger project (e.g., assessing outcomes of implementation).
in this project (e.g., mangrove locations, threats to mangroves, uses of mangroves, traditional management
practices)? Who are the holders of this knowledge? How has this knowledge been shared and included? Has
Although important, for this review, we are NOT interested in case studies that:
this knowledge informed or shaped the project? Has this knowledge changed how project was envisioned,
• Use local knowledge WITHOUT any additional engagement with local community members understood, conceptualized? Anything else that you would like to include about local/traditional/Indigenous
(e.g., we do not want studies where information, such as the location of nursery grounds for fish, is knowledge?
extracted but there is no other local involvement).
Outcomes: If the project is completed or has been running for some time, describe the achievements overall in
• Focus on STUDYING local knowledge of mangroves (e.g., identifying community perceptions of relation to goals/objectives. Also, please include some specific description of the influence or impact the project
benefits or threats). may have had on the local communities engaged in, or associated with, the project.
If your mangrove conservation or restoration project fits the above guidelines and you are interested in
submitting your project as a case study, please see the template below to guide your writing. You do not
need to follow it strictly, but please be sure to include all the information.
Template:
Word Count: 400-500 (not including project name, authors, location, project size, and mangrove species)
Contributing authors: Names, affiliations, and roles.
Location: Community (village, estuary/lagoon/river basin/etc., county), region, country.

If possible, provide coordinates or a map location so we can build a map showing all sites.
Project Size: How many hectares is the project and/or area being protected?
Mangrove species: List the species of mangrove involved in this project.
Project goals and objectives: Describe the basics. Include project focus/foci
(e.g., restoration, conservation) and reason for the project. For example, is the project:
• restoration of aquaculture/agriculture through planting/natural recovery
• rehabilitation of mangroves diminished by excessive harvest/storm damage/pollution
• enhanced protection and management of mangroves areas threatened by x/y/z
• development of a larger program to do some of the above
• other…
Aerial view of a restoration site in Morrosquillo Gulf, Colombia (Case study 4). © Vida Manglar
179 180
www.mangrovealliance.org

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Including Local Ecological

Authors Organizations for Marine Conservation Awareness and Research

1. Introduction 1.1 Mangroves

1.2 Local ecological knowledge (LEK)

1.3 Why this guide? 12

Local communities know the geography of their

1.2 Table 1: Definition of diverse knowledge types.

With growing interest in conserving

can provide the

economic settings are unique. societies in their innumerable interactions with

The inclusion of Indigenous and local communities

Why this guide?

makers. Sharing knowledge and learning from

It begins with a brief background to LEK and highlights the relevance

2. Local ecological 2.1 Why is LEK important in management and research? 17

2.3 Ethical awareness, understanding and responsibility 23

Members of the Pate Women’s Association in Lamu, Kenya, know

2.1 Despite the importance of considering LEK in research

Why is LEK important

LEK can be a critical

information source for

natural resource significant inaccuracies. Bringing in local information

with change. can play in providing a historical perspective. LEK

LEK is so widely present that many people utilize

Even so, there has been increasing awareness of

Table 2: Examples of global policy instruments and frameworks, their purpose,

3. Local ecological 3.1 Introduction 27

3.3.2 Community involvement in LEK research 43

3.3.3 Data collection methods 48

3.3.4 Increasing connections between LEK and AEK 56

On route to visit mangroves on Lembongan Island, Indonesia.

3.3 3.3.1 Mangrove LEK

Interviewees informed Griffin et al. (2013) about the

Respondents on Nijhum Dwip Island, Bangaldesh,

The impacts on mangroves from the rapid

Extended engagement with the community Research needs to

Engagement in knowledge below. Despite its importance, no studies mentioned

They also engaged in project implementation by Ethics of validating results

Hernandez-Cornejo et al. (2005) purposely selected

Research approaches may focus on only a specific area of

Ocampo-Thomason (2006) lived in her study area

Combining data sources provided a more holistic and

The sharing of knowledge between local people and

4.2 Methods and summary of case studies 63

8. Honduras – Restoring the mangroves of Estero Prieto, Omoa .............................................................................97

9. India – Reviving mangroves: Sustaining traditional knowledge and using eco-friendly

11. Indonesia – Kerakera: restoring traditional management practices to safeguard mangroves....................107

14. Kenya – Greening the blue initiative..........................................................................................................................119

19. Panama – Restoring the wetland of Laguna de las Lajas.....................................................................................139

20. Philippines – Rehabilitating an abandoned fishpond in Nula-tula, Tacloban City............................................143

Traditional honey collectors of the Sundarbans

Methods and summary

R ESTO R AT IO N A P P R OAC H E S TRA DI TI O NA L SKI L L S

Finally, some projects explained how communities

Threats and Impacts 10

Figure 8: Map with locations of the projects represented in the subsequent

CASE STUDY 1 | BRAZIL

pride for Mangroves

Amazon Coastal Zone of Pará movement to protect mangroves, bringing visibility to

CASE STUDY 2 | COLOMBIA