Silent Sentinels

SILENT
SENTINELS
VED
RECLA
AUG -6 1928
2. P. & CO.
POWER DEPT.
KENNEWAGK , WABA
WESTINGHOLISE ELECTRIC &MAGICO 17775OUNCE CON

TimeEuralQuartert Relay
TypeC.O.
188806ADO
TIVE RELAYS
PROTEC
AC and DC
for SYSTEMS
SILENT SENTINELS
Protective Relays for
A-C and D-C Systems
W
ELECTRIOUSE
WESTINGH C
S. P. 1666-A
Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company
Newark Works , Newark, New Jersey

Silent Sentinels
ELAYS have been aptly termed " silent

99
sentinels . And they are silent sentinels .
They stand on duty twenty - four hours a
day, every day in the year, and - year in
and year out. They guard thousands of dollars worth
of property and equipment. They prevent service

interruptions and costly shutdowns . They are really
and truly the silent sentinels of the electrical industry.
Automatic control is a reality.
Supervisory control has been introduced .
The inter - connection of systems is no
longer an experiment .
Service is now reliable and continuous .
All of these are attributes of super - power - a new
era in the electrical industry . And they were made
possible through Westinghouse pioneering in the

relay art. Not only has Westinghouse introduced
most of the present - day relays , but this Company

has also developed various schemes and methods
of relay application .
Westinghouse relays and relay practice have played
an important role in the progress of the electrical
industry. It is the purpose of Westinghouse to main-

tain and extend this leadership to meet the
exacting requirements of the future.

Contents
PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION . 5
1. The Functions of Relays .

2. The Development of the Relay Art .. 5
II. METHODS OF APPLYING RELAYS TO CIRCUIT-BREAKERS . 7
1. Alternating- Current Circuit- Breakers .. 7

(a) Automatic Characteristics
(b) Shunt Tripping
(c) Alternating-Current Shunt Tripping
(d) Series Tripping
666
2. Direct-Current Circuit-Breakers . 9
3. Control Circuits .. 9
(a) Circuit-Opening vs. Circuit-Closing Tripping

(b) Supervision of Control Circuit
Trip-Free Breaker Control
Multiple Control Circuits
Time Required to Open Circuit- Breakers
(f) Signals
III. ALTERNATING - CURRENT SYSTEMS . 11
1. General Theories of Line Troubles .. 11
(a) Solidly-Grounded Systems

(b) Ungrounded Systems
(c) Reason for Grounding Through Resistance
(d) Nature of Open-Wire Short Circuits
Nature of Cable Troubles
(f) Power Factor of Short Circuits
Distortion of Phases
(8) (h) Effect of Phase Distortion on Relay Operation
(i) Phase Relations with Delta-Star-Connected Transformers
soeote
2. Methods of Clearing Short Circuits . .18
(a) Radial System

(b) Ring or Loop System
Protection of Parallel Feeders
Network Systems
Pilot-Wire Scheme
(f) Split-Conductor Scheme
3. Methods of Clearing Ground Faults . . 25
(a) Solidly and Low-Resistance- Grounded Neutral Systems

(b) Medium-Resistance-Grounded Neutral System
(c) High-Resistance-Grounded Neutral System
4. Calculation of Short- Circuit Current . 26
(a) General
(b) Sample Calculations
5. Protection of Alternating- Current Apparatus . ..31
(a) Overload Protection

(b) Protection Against Internal Faults
(c) Open or Reverse Phase Protection
(d) Temperature Protection of Windings
(e) Temperature Protection of Bearings
***
Contents - Continued
PAGE
IV. DIRECT-CURRENT SYSTEMS . .35
(a) General
(b) Service Restoring System
Protection of Direct-Current Apparatus
Electrochemical Work
V. AUTOMATIC CONTROL . .36
VI . RELAY SETTINGS 39
VII. TYPICAL RELAY APPLICATION 40
VIII . APPLICATION CHART OF WESTINGHOUSE RELAYS . 42
IX . WESTINGHOUSE PROTECTIVE AND CONTROL RELAYS . 46
1. Alternating- Current Relays .. 46

(a) Type CO Overcurrent Relay
(b) Type COA Overcurrent Relay
Type CO Low-Energy Overcurrent Relay
Type CR Directional Relay
Type CR Low-Energy Directional Relay
Type CRA Directional Relay
Type CZ Impedance Relay
(h) Type CA Ratio Differential Relay
(i) Type CB High-Voltage Overcurrent Relay
(j) Type CD Selective-Differential Relay
(k) Type CW Power Relay
(1) Type CV Voltage Relay
(m) Type CP Reverse-Phase Relay (voltage)
(n) Type CM Phase-Balance Relay (current)
(0) Type CQ Phase-Balance Relay (current)
(p) Type C Operation Indicator
(q) Type RF Frequency Relay
2. Direct- Current Relays . . 58
(a) Type D Overcurrent Relay
(b) Type D Reverse-Current Relay
(c) Type TO Overcurrent Relay
(d) Type MF Flash Relay
(e) Type A Polarity Directional Relay
(f) Type TV Voltage Relay
3. Temperature Relays . .61
(a) Type HM Bearing Thermostat Relay
(b) Type HN Grid Thermostat Relay
(c) Type CT Temperature Relay
(d) Type DT Temperature Relay
(e) Type BA and BD Oil- Filled Thermal Relay
4. Auxiliary Relays . 64
(a) Type BT Transfer Relay
(b) Type MC Multi-contact Relay
(c) Type M Multiple-contact Relay
(d) Type MS Banked Multi-contact Relay
Type O Line of Auxiliary Relays
(f) Type GK Long-Time Relay
(g) Type JM Group Annunciator
(h) Portable Phase Indicator for Testing Relay Circuits
X. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS . 69
(a) Voltage Transformers
(b) Current Transformers
SILENT SENTINELS - Protective Relays for A- C and D- C Systems
The Functions of Relays
HE protective relay is an electrical instrument , nent and the line should be temporarily cut out of
accurate in operation, sensitive in adjustment, service.
Tand sturdy in construction , interposed between Apparatus Protection -Another use for protective
the main circuit or apparatus and the circuit-breaker in relays is to protect apparatus, either by disconnecting
such a way that any abnormality in the circuit acts on it from service in case of failure, or the occurrence of
the relay. The relay, in turn, after the proper discrim- abnormal conditions, or by functioning to remedy
ination as to the magnitude and character of the fault, wholly or partially the abnormal conditions. In cases
causes the circuit-breaker to function and relieve or where a short circuit or ground occurs in the winding
protect the circuit or apparatus . The protective relay of a machine such as a generator or transformer, it is
is used for three types of application : Service protec- usually necessary to have the apparatus disconnected .
tion, apparatus protection and automatic control . When the windings of a motor become overheated on
account of overload, a relay may be used to set in
Service Protection- The most important duty of operation some device for reducing the load over a
the protective relay is to protect the service against
period of time, thus allowing the overheated condition
interruption . This may be done either by automatically
to adjust itself.
sectionalizing the electrical system so as to disconnect
Automatic Control The recent phenomenal
the disabled section, or by automatically restoring the
c
growth of automati control has called for the develop-
service after it has been accidentally interrupted. In
ment of a class of relays having mechanical and elec-
large systems the main lines are usually so arranged,
trical characteristics similar to those of the protective
either by means of parallel feeders or loop systems , that
relay, but whose function is to govern the automatic
each sub-station on the main system has two or more operation of the group of machines to which they are
circuits over which power may flow from the generating
connected . These relays might be called control or
station . Thus , when a fault develops on one of the
discriminating relays, but because their structure is
circuits, it may be disconnected without entirely cut-
similar to protective relays , and also, because they are,
ting the sub-station off the system . In smaller systems
where small faults, which will clear themselves in a primarily , for the purpose of protecting or improving
service, they are usually treated as protective devices.
short time, are liable to occur, it is sometimes desirable
to have a breaker reclosed after it has tripped out. In These relays are used for automatically starting and
stopping sub-stations and isolated hydro -electric sta-
such a case, if the fault has cleared itself, the breaker
will stay closed, but if, after two or three reclosures, tions, governing their loading conditions , and for other
such work met with in automatic control.
the breaker continues to open, then the fault is perma-
The Development of the Relay Art
Protective devices, more or less crude in their struc- nect a circuit upon the occurrence of any fault causing
ture and operation , have been in use for many years. excessive overcurrent, low voltage, or some other abnor-
However , the exacting conditions of present-day prac- mal condition . As systems became still larger and more
tice demanded accurate and reliable devices, and these complicated and the demand for continuity of service
devices are the result of Westinghouse pioneer develop- became greater, it was found impossible to embody
ment. conveniently the discriminating features in the circuit-
The first protective relay to be used was what is breaker and still maintain the requisite sturdy struc-
ture . This led to the development of the present - day
known as a fuse . This piece of apparatus was very
relay which provides the automatic "reasoning
reliable and included many of the characteristics of the
"thinking" power of the circuit-breaker.
present -day relay . It has by no means become obso-
lete, but as electrical systems began to grow the cost When, in 1902, the engineers of the Westinghouse
of maintenance and replacement and the delay in the Company were seeking a more accurate and reliable
restoration of service became a serious objection to the relay principle than the simple solenoid and core then
use of fuses on larger lines. This led to the development in common use, it was natural that they should have
of the automatic switch , which was the forerunner of turned to the induction watthour meter. This meter,
the present-day circuit-breaker and served to discon- another Westinghouse development , was already firmly
e
Pag Five
SILENT SENTINELS — Protective Relays for A - C and D- C Systems
entrenched as an example of simplicity, accuracy, and directional relays, selective differential relays, impe-
reliability among electrical measuring devices, and lent dance relays, temperature relays, reverse-phase relays ,
itself readily to relay adaptation . So it happened that voltage relays, power relays, polarity- directional relays,
relay protection became at once a precise art, capable transfer relays, long-time-limit relays, periodic reclos-
of fully responding to the advancing needs of the alter- ing relays, thermostatic relays, multiple-contact relays,
nating-current system. The first induction overload phase-balance relays, short- circuit selective relays and
relay was brought out in 1902. In 1910 the improved service-restoring relays.
overload and reverse-current relay was produced .
The Westinghouse Company not only introduced the
designs of most of these relays but also has developed
methods of applying them. As a result of this pioneer
work, and the satisfactory operation of the relays , their
use has grown enormously. Today the necessity for
their application is generally recognized.
OVERLOAD.
A good relay system is also a money-saver because
the damage caused when a fault occurs is reduced to a
REVERSE minimum by having the faulty part of the line imme-
GHOUSE ARK & diately cut loose from the rest of the system. Another
WESTIN F
01
economic consideration is the smaller quantity of dupli-
cate line equipment required to provide satisfactory
CPITSBURGPA...Nio
service, or the increased load which can be carried on
ACTERIZATING LOrion an existing system. Stated in other terms , the auto-
matic sectionalizing of a transmission and distribution.
2.RELEAS system allows all the copper to be used to its greatest
possible advantage .
1902 THE FIRST INDUCTION-TYPE RELAY
It was not until 1913, however, that the fullest

advantage was taken of the inherent possibilities of the
induction relay by combining with it a saturating trans-
former known as a "torque compensator , " a device
developed by the Westinghouse Company with the
collaboration of Mr. F. E. Ricketts of Baltimore. It
gave the relay a combination characteristic of both
inverse and definite timing-an indispensable feature
in selective operation.
In 1914 the type CO overcurrent relay was brought WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC& MFG.CO.
out, embodying improvements and combining in one PITTSBURG.PA.USA.
case the induction relay and the torque compensator. OVERLOAD & REVERSE CURRENT
In 1916 the type CR reverse -power relay was put on RELAY
the market, combining in one case two induction ele- STYLE SERIAL
ments , one an overload relay with torque compensator ,
and the other a selective watt element, preventing
operation except on reverse power.
Recently the CZ impedance (distance) relay was per-

fected. This relay has a voltage element in addition to
an overcurrent element like that used on the CO relay.
It is intended for use on large complicated transmission
1910-TYPE C OVERLOAD AND REVERSE- CURRENT RELAY
systems when sectionalizing by means of overcurrent
and directional relays is often difficult and sometimes
impossible.
All operating companies have not taken advantage
There are so many things to guard against in the of the economies and improved service resulting from
protection of apparatus and transmission systems that the use of relays . Others, who use relays to a limited.
many different types of relays have been perfected. extent have, in no way, exhausted their possibilities .
Just the mention of the various types of relays manu- The rapid extension of transmission lines and the inter-
factured today will give an indication of the various connection of power systems emphasizes the increasing
uses to which they may be applied : Overcurrent relays, importance of relay protection .
Page Six
SILENT SENTINELS — Protective Relays for A- C and D- C Systems
Methods of Applying Relays to
Circuit -Breakers
1 -Alternating-Current Circuit-Breakers
Automatic Characteristics -Small alternating- voltage, because of bad connections or poor contacts in
current circuit-breakers often have automatic charac- the circuit. Twelve-volt batteries give less trouble of
teristics built into them, in which case relays are not this sort, and are often used, but it is recommended
required. These self- contained automatic characteris- that twenty-four volt batteries be given preference.
tics are simple and usually consist of plain overcurrent A large part of the expense of such an installation con-
trip coils arranged so that they can be adjusted to sists of the cost of the device necessary to keep the
operate on any desired battery charged, and, therefore, the extra expense of
current value, a common increasing the voltage from six volts to twenty-four
range being 4 to 8 or 12 volts is not a large percentage increase. Automobile
amperes. Sometimes these batteries are probably the cheapest for this purpose.
These can be obtained readily, but are said to have
trip coils are equipped
with simple time-limit de- the disadvantage of losing their charge more rapidly
vices such as dash pots, than do some other types. Where the battery can
which are not very accu- be charged only at rare intervals it is suggested that
rate, but which are reli- special batteries of the type used in railway signalling
able and, because of their be installed . Sometimes the battery can be arranged
so that it will be kept charged by a trickle charge, and
simplicity, are in common
this practice is recommended . It is important to install
use. Breakers , so equip-
ped, are used without a type of battery which will not freeze in severe weather
relays on small feeders
where there is little need
for the more highly de-
veloped, discriminating
action of the relay.
Sometimes breakers are
equipped with low-volt-
age release coils, but from
FIGURE 1- REMOTE CONTROL the consideration of con-
DOUBLE- THROW CIRCUIT-BREAKER
COVERPLATE WITH INVERSE TIME- tinuity of service this is
LIMIT DASHPOTS, DOUBLE - COIL not desirable because the
WITH ONE SIDE AUTOMATIC-OVER- circuit breakers so equip-
LOAD TRIP
ped will be tripped open
whenever there is line trouble in the vicinity, even if
the disabled line is automatically cleared from the rest.
of the system .
Shunt Tripping-Where automatic circuit-breakers
in themselves are not suitable, it is necessary to use
relays. The simplest method of doing this is to place
a direct-current coil on the breaker and connect the
protective relays so that their contacts will close the
tripping circuit whenever it is desired to automatically
open the breakers . This is known as "shunt" tripping.
Most large circuit-breakers are now electrically oper-
ated, and the trip coil to which the relays are connected
is the same trip coil as that used during non-automatic
operation of the breakers . Sometimes, however, the
breaker is closed by hand, and supplied with a trip coil
for automatic opening.
The question arises as to where to obtain power for
tripping purposes. In the past it has been common
practice to use six-volt storage batteries for this pur- FIGURE 1A- TYPE OE-6 ELECTRICALLY OPERATED OIL CIRCUIT-
pose, but trouble is often encountered with such a low BREAKER, 2000 AMPERES, 15,000 VOLTS
Page Seven
and it is important also to test each circuit occasionally -Fuses

to see that it is in working order.
w
In most of the present-day generating stations and
larger sub-stations, a 125-volt direct-current source is
used for all control work. This source is usually main-
tained by a motor-generator set having a storage bat-
tery floating on the line in order to insure against any Trip Coils
possible interruption. Most standard circuit-breakers
can be equipped with trip coils for any of the mentioned
voltages .
Alternating- Current Shunt Tripping- Some-
times trip coils have been operated by alternating- DirectTrip Attachment
current voltage but the trouble with such an arrange-
ment is that their source of power is usually so closely Gr
associated with the circuits to be protected, that in case FIGURE 3- CONNECTIONS FOR TYPE CR RELAY USED WITH DIRECT-TRIP
of a heavy short circuit the voltage will be too low to ATTACHMENT ON CIRCUIT-BREAKER
operate the trip coil, and thus the breaker will fail to
ability of the current transformer to supply it . Such
short-circuit values through the trip coil may amount
CurrentTransformer to 100 or 200 or even 300 amperes . It is, therefore ,
Overload necessary for the relay contacts to be able to carry five
Relays
amperes continuously without over-heating and at the
same time be able to successfully withstand the open-
HET
Switch
Switch ing of a circuit of approximately 300 amperes at 300
in volts . Needless to say, no satisfactory relay has yet
‫חו‬
GA
Tripping
Position Normal been designed for this service. Where conditions are
Position
such that tripping by means of the current transformers
Auxiliary
Relay Rear is demanded, the type BT transfer relay can be used ,
View provided reasonable attention is given to keeping its
contacts in proper operating condition .
Certain types of circuit-breakers are furnished with
a "direct-trip" attachment, an excellent device even
Trip Coil Gr
though the name is somewhat misleading. Such break-
Note:- All Connections shown as viewed from Rear of Apparatus ers are tripped by current from the current transform-
ers, but the arrangement is such that sensitive relays
FIGURE 2- CONNECTIONS FOR WESTINGHOUSE TYPE BT can easily control the operation of the trip coils without
TRANSFER RELAY AS USED ON THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
FOR SERIES TRIPPING injury to their contacts. This " directtrip" attachment
operates on the same principle as does the type BT
transfer relay, which is itself, described farther on in
open at the time when its proper operation is most this book.
necessary .
Series Tripping-A common method of tripping,
known as series tripping, is to use the ordinary alter-
nating-current trip coil connected in series with the
current transformer secondary, and to normally short
circuit this trip coil by means of contacts on the relay.
When the relay operates it opens these contacts, and
allows the current from the current transformers to flow
through the trip coil and thus operate the breaker.
There are several objections to this method, one of
them being that some protective relays are intended to
operate when the current flowing through the trip coil
is comparatively small and, therefore, insufficient to
operate the breaker. Another objection to this arrange-
ment is that heavy contacts are required and it is diffi-
cult to apply these contacts to relays having the accu-
racy required of present-day service, and having the
other necessary requirements, such as a small burden
on the current transformers. It usually is demanded
that the trip coil shall be capable of operating when the
current is at least as low as five amperes, which requires
that it shall have an impedance of one ohm or more.
On the other hand, a short circuit may be so heavy FIGURE 4-250 VOLT D-C., TWO- COIL, PLAIN OVERLOAD,
that the current in the trip coil is limited only by the TYPE CL CARBON CIRCUIT- BREAKER
Page Eight
2 - Direct- Current Circuit-Breakers
Direct-current circuit-breakers usually have auto- so that when the relay short circuits the coil it does
matic features included in their structure . Over- not short circuit the line. This same method can also
load trip coils are customary and often they are be applied to any alternating-current circuit-breaker
equipped with inverse-time-limit devices. Underload equipped with a low-voltage release coil.
release coils have been used in a few rare cases and low-
voltage release coils are quite common . Where relays Another method of opening a direct-current breaker
are used to open direct-current breakers the conditions is by means of a shunt trip coil deriving its power from
are sometimes such that tripping can be done by the the direct-current bus-bars. Usually such breakers are.
low-voltage release coil. This can be effected either by hand-operated, but occasionally they are electrically-
connecting the relay contacts in series with the voltage operated. The recent increase in the use of auto-
release coil, so that the relay opens the circuit, or by matic control equipment has called for new designs in
connecting the relay contacts around the trip coil, so circuit-breakers that are both opened and closed elec-
that they short circuit it when the relay operates. trically. These are particularly useful on service re-
When the contacts short circuit the low-voltage release storing equipment or, as they are sometimes called,
it is necessary to use a resistance in series with the coil automatic reclosing breakers.
3-Control Circuits
Circuit- Opening vs. Circuit - Closing Tripping through it and through the entire tripping circuit ,
Occasionally the question arises as to the relative merits including the trip coil. In case of a failure anywhere
of circuit-opening and circuit- closing methods of con- in the tripping circuit, the lamp will, of course, be
necting relays into the circuit. However, where a sepa- extinguished . The control circuit can be so arranged
rate tripping circuit is used, it is the universal practice that the red indicating lamp, which normally indicates
to use circuit-closing relays to protect against short that the circuit-breaker is closed, will also supervise the
circuits . It is true that the method of control used in tripping circuit .
industrial work, particularly elevator control, makes
use of circuits that are normally closed, so that any Trip-Free Breaker Control- Hand-operated , auto-
failure in the circuit will shut down the apparatus. matic circuit-breakers for both alternating current and
However, when the service is to be protected, as dis- direct current are almost invariably "full automatic,
tinguished from the apparatus, it is considered the that is, the operator cannot hold them closed on a short
better policy to use control circuits which are normally circuit. When a circuit-breaker is operated by protec-
de-energized. In the case of automatic operation of tive relays it is usually considered desirable to retain
stations, the question is largely one of convenience, and this characteristic and, therefore, it is customary to use
both methods are used. what is known as a " trip-free auxiliary relay" in the
control circuit , so that if the operator closes the breaker
on a short circuit and the relay trips it open, it will not
Indicating Lamps reclose, no matter how long the control switch may be
Control Switch held in the closing position. The trip -free relay locks
Protective Relays Close out the closing circuit until the control switch is
released .
Cur.Trans- Ground -Trip
D.C. ControlBus Multiple Control Circuits- Sometimes it is desir-

ControlRelayPanel able to trip several breakers simultaneously from one
BreakerClosingCoil
relay. This can be done by connecting their trip coils
OperatingCoil-
Release Coil 1888 Knife Switch permanently together, but it is objectionable when it is
Aux.SW- also desired to operate them independently by hand .
-BindingPosts
The usual requirements are to have the circuit-breakers
BreakerTrip Coil- operate independently under normal conditions and
Trip Free Relay operate simultaneously only by the relays. It is, there-
fore, necessary to keep the trip coils separated when
FIGURE 5- SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS USING TYPE S-1 they are to be manipulated by hand. One way of
RELAY FOR TRIP-FREE CIRCUIT-BREAKER CONTROL
accomplishing this is to interpose an auxiliary multi-
contact relay between the protective relay and the
Supervision of Control Circuit-Closely allied group of circuit-breakers. This is sometimes consid-
with this question is the one of supervising the control ered objectionable because it introduces another piece
circuit so that the operator can be certain that the cir- of apparatus into the protective scheme.
cuit is always in an operative condition. This supervi-
sion can easily be accomplished by the use of a super- Another method of accomplishing the same result,
visory lamp which is connected in the control circuit in where it is desired to operate only two breakers
such a way that a small current continuously flows simultaneously, is to use protective relays equipped
Page Nine
SILENT SENTINELS Protective Relays for A- C and D- C Systems
with double contacts. These contacts are arranged to parts so that after the contacts have once separated
keep the two tripping circuits separate and to close the time required for the breaker to complete its travel
them simultaneously. is not long. Small circuit-breakers, equipped with
Another method quite commonly used is to arrange instantaneous automatic overcurrent trip coils, can be
the tripping circuits so that normally all of the trip coils made to operate very rapidly, because upon the occur-
are connected together so that a single relay can trip rence of a short circuit the trip coils will release the
all the breakers . A special contact on the control latch quickly, sometimes within a cycle.
switches is so arranged that whenever one of the break- The characteristic curves (Fig. 7) show the time re-
ers is operated by hand, the special contact on the con- quired to open several modern types of circuit-breakers .
trol switch will first break the tie between the various
circuits .
C
Signals
Trip Circuit Terminals An audible signal of some kind is usually provided

to sound whenever a breaker is tripped automatically.
A common method of accomplishing this is to provide
a separate bell bus on one side of the control circuit
Moving
and interpose a series signal relay between this bus and
Contacts
the source of supply.
Control +
Stationary Bus
Contacts Bell Bus
Reset
Push-
Current Terminals Unlatching To Breaker
Button
Coil Trip Coil
ма
Main
FIGURE 6-DIAGRAM OF TRIP CIRCUIT FOR DOUBLE-CONTACT CO Protective
Coll
RELAY USED FOR ACTUATING TWO CONTROL CIRCUITS. (
Bell) Relay ww
Contacts shownin
Time Required to Open a Breaker
normalposition.
Where a time-limit is depended on to discriminate
between various relays, it is important to consider the FIGURE 8- SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS SHOWING TYPE OX
time required for the operation of the circuit-breakers RELAY USED FOR BELL ALARM WITH DOUBLE-CONTACT TYPE CO RELAY
themselves. Although the size of the circuit -breaker has
much to do with its speed of operation, its mechanical The normal hand-operation of the breakers is done
adjustment is also of importance. Much of the time from the main control bus, so that no alarm is given ,
required for operation is consumed in energizing the
but whenever a primary relay operates it energizes the
trip coil and in overcoming the inertia of the moving
bell bus and the signal relay. The operation of the
signal relay usually causes a bell to ring continuously
Broken
Belpre
isReached
Pointthis
Are
until the relay is tripped. A type OL relay which can

be manually reset by a pull button on the relay cover
is recommended for this purpose. If the signal relay is
to be mounted in the rear of the panel the type OX
should be used . This type is electrically reset by means
of a push button conveniently located on the front of
the panel .
The objection often arises that this relay scheme

interposes an additional hazard in the tripping circuit ,
although its operating coil is wound with wire of such
size that it is not liable to become accidentally open-
circuited . Because of this objection , it is becoming the
Unches ofTravel common practice to use an alarm relay having a shunt
coil operated in parallel with the trip coil of the circuit-
FIGURE 7- TYPICAL TIME CHARACTERISTICS OF OIL CIRCUIT-BREAKERS breaker. In order that one signal relay may be oper-
SHOWING TIME OF OPENING CONTACTS WITH VARIOUS TYPES ated by any number of protective relays, it is necessary
CURVE NO. 1-15,000 VOLTS, 2000 AMPERES
CURVE NO. 2-88,000 VOLTS, 300 AMPERES to have a separate signal contact on the protective
CURVE NO. 3-66,000 VOLTS, 300 AMPERES relay, as shown in the diagram, Fig. 8.
Page Ten
SILENT SENTINELS 1 Protective Relays for A- C and D- C Systems
Alternating- Current Systems
1 - General Theories of Line Troubles
Alternating-current systems suffer from more severe these unbalanced short circuits, such a system can suf-
short circuits than do direct- current systems, primarily fer from a balanced three-phase short circuit . In con-
because of their better inherent regulation and often sidering a system which has its neutral grounded, it is
because of the greater power concentration . Modern customary to assume that the ground resistance be-
polyphase systems have become so large and compli- tween the neutral and the fault is comparatively low,
cated that they present many difficult problems, due so that it does not decrease the value of the short-cir-
to the various unbalanced faults which can occur.
cuit current by any great amount . However, in some
Alternating -current transmission systems may be di- localities the ground resistance may be high, but such
conditions are not of common occurrence . In calculat-
vided into two general classes :
ing the quantity of ground current likely to flow, it is
First, those having the neutral insulated from important to bear in mind that the impedance of the
ground. circuit is high, because of the great separation between
the line wire and the path through the ground.
Second, those having the neutral connected to ground
metallically . Ungrounded Systems- On systems having an iso-
lated neutral, the three-wire short circuit and two-wire
The second classification may be further sub-divided short circuit are the same as on grounded systems, but
into four groups, known respectively as solidly-grounded an accidental ground does not produce a short circuit
neutral systems, low-resistance-grounded-neutral sys- as it does in the solidly-grounded system. If the system
tems, medium-resistance-grounded-neutral systems, and is small, an accidental ground will make little distur-
high-resistance-grounded-neutral systems . The solidly- bance, or at least it will not cause any abnormal value
grounded-neutral system is one having its neutral con- of current to flow, but if the system is large in extent,
nected metallically to ground without any limiting so that the electrostatic capacity between conductors
resistance in the circuit. and ground is high, a noticeable charging current will
flow into the fault . On a large system there is always a
The terms low-resistance, medium-resistance and charging current flowing in the conductors , but such a
high-resistance refer to the relative values of the limit- charging current is normally balanced and is distrib-
ing resistance inserted in the neutral connection be- uted throughout the network. When an accidental
tween the neutral point of the system and ground, and ground occurs on one wire, the potential between each
are dependent on the neutral voltage of the system of the other two conductors and ground throughout the
under consideration. As a general rule a system may
system is increased beyond its normal value by the
be considered as low-resistance-grounded neutral if the factor 1.73, and these wires, therefore , require a greater
grounding resistor is of such a value as to produce in
any circuit, for a fault to ground, a current which, under charging current than that which they normally carry.
As shown in Figure 10, each of these wires represents a
minimum generating capacity conditions, is at least plate of a condenser , the ground being the other plate,
four times the line relay current setting.
and the wire leading to the fault represents the connec-
A medium -resistance- grounded neutral system has a tion between the source of potential and the ground
grounding resistor of such a value as to limit the cur- plate. Therefore, this grounded wire must carry all the
rent for a fault to ground to less than four times the charging current for the two condensers . The value of
current setting for the line relays of that circuit. This this current is difficult to calculate accurately, but an
"fault" current will still, however, be greater than the approximate value can be very easily obtained, and it
maximum load current over the feeder, even under is about twice the normal charging current of the sys-
abnormal operating conditions . tem . The normal charging current can be calculated
from tables which take into account the size and spacing
A high-resistance-grounded-neutral system has its of the conductors and the frequency of the circuit.
grounding resistor of such a value that the current for
a fault to ground is on the order of full-load current of Reason for Grounding Through Resistance-
the grounding transformer bank, or less. Protection for If an ungrounded system is small, with a consequently
faults from wires-to-ground may or may not be possi- small charging current, it is possible to operate the
ble, depending upon certain local conditions which will system when one of the conductors is accidentally
be discussed under "Methods of Clearing Ground grounded so that the necessity for cutting out the dis-
Faults ." abled section is not urgent. Furthermore, most grounds
are usually of a temporary nature, such as a flash-over
Solidly- Grounded Systems -Systems having their on an insulator, and they will clear themselves without
neutrals solidly grounded are subject to short circuits damage. If the system is large these disturbances will
between one wire and ground, whenever that wire be- become more frequent and the charging current will
comes accidentally grounded . They can also suffer from increase, due to the greater electrostatic capacity of the
short circuits between only two wires of the system , as system, to such a value that an are over the insulator
well as between two wires and ground. In addition to will not break, but will continue until serious damage
Page Eleven
141
E
L B
EL EL
# C
88
Neutral
00
00
Generator
Ground
////
FIGURE 9- SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM REPRESENTING THE CAPACITY RELATIONS OF A THREE-PHASE SYSTEM AND GROUND UNDER
NORMAL CONDITIONS. SYSTEM UNGROUNDED.
POTENTIAL BETWEEN NEUTRAL AND GROUND Eg = 0
POTENTIAL BETWEEN LINES A, B, C, EL - LINE VOLTAGE
POTENTIAL BETWEEN LINES A, B OR C AND NEUTRAL OR GROUND = LINE VOLTAGE /1.73
CHARGING CURRENTS Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 ( CONSIDERED VECTORIALLY) Ia = Ib = Ic.
has been done and until the line probably is burnt the ground is increased 1.73 times. The solidly-grounded
down. Therefore, on large systems it is necessary to neutral has been considered, and it was shown that an
provide some means of cutting out a disabled section accidental ground on a conductor results in a short
and this, usually, requires some method of grounding circuit. This causes considerable disturbance which is...
the neutral . Grounding is also necessary in order to frequently so severe that some of the load, particularly
relieve strains on insulators because as has been shown, synchronous motors, will be forced to drop off the sys-
when one line is accidentally grounded in an ungrounded tem before the fault can be cleared . This disadvantage
system, the voltage between the other two lines and may be overcome by inserting sufficient resistance in
EL EL
C
石
Neutral
Ic
Generator
Ground
FIGURE 10- SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THREE-PHASE LINE SHOWING CAPACITY RELATIONS WITH ONE WIRE GROUNDED.
(GROUND FAULT.) (NEUTRAL UNGROUNDED.)
POTENTIAL BETWEEN GROUNDED LINE C AND GROUND = 0 POTENTIAL BETWEEN LINES A OR B AND GROUND = EL OR LINE
POTENTIAL BETWEEN LINES A, B AND CEL OR LINE VOLTAGE VOLTAGE OR 1.73 TIMES NORMAL CONDITIONS, SEE FIG . 11 .
POTENTIAL BETWEEN NEUTRAL AND GROUND = EL / 1.73 CHARGING CURRENT Ja + Ib-Ic = 0 OR Ia + Ib = Ic
(HENCE UNBALANCED CONDITIONS)
Page Twelve
SILENT SENTINELS - Protective Relays for A- C and D - C Systems
EL -+F-
B
EL
C
elle
Generator
Ic
Grounding Resistance
Ground
7744
FIGURE 11 - SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THREE-PHASE LINE SHOWING CAPACITY RELATIONS AND CURRENT FLOW WITH ONE LINE GROUNDED
(GROUNDED NEUTRAL) . I WILL VARY IN VALUE ACCORDING TO THE VALUE OF THE GROUNDING RESISTANCE.
the neutral connection to limit the current to a small arcs and the resistance across them is small and of a
value so that an accidental ground will not seriously fairly stable value. Short circuits of this nature some-
disturb the load. Sometimes this resistance is so low times cause extensive trouble wherever there are sev-
that the ground current approaches a short circuit in eral transmission lines on the same structure due to
magnitude and can therefore be handled by ordinary the blowing of the arc from one circuit to the adjacent
relays intended for short-circuit protection, but it is ones . Flash-overs caused by lightning are a particular
becoming a common practice to use a resistance of such annoyance because the lightning usually strikes on the
magnitude that the ground current is kept below the windward side of the structure (the lightning coming
full-load value of the current in any of the feeders. with the storm) and the wind then may blow the arc
This is particularly useful in cable systems because cable across all the other circuits. For this reason , it is advan-
faults usually start between one conductor and the tageous, if possible, to disconnect the first line in trouble
grounded lead sheath, and as the ground current is held before the arc has had time to involve the neighboring
to a small value, it is possible, by means of suitable lines, but this is always difficult and usually impossible
relays, to disconnect the faulty cable before the trouble to accomplish.
has developed into a short circuit with a consequent Several cases are known where trouble has commun-
interruption to the nearby load. icated itself in this manner to several parallel circuits
Nature of Open -Wire Short Circuits-The nature each of which was equipped with practically instan-
of a short circuit, and its effect upon relay operation. taneous relays and yet the circuit-breakers could not
have been determined both by experiment and years of open fast enough to clear one line before the are had
experience . On overhead lines short circuits are usually blown across to the other lines . In checking some of
Scales
1000Volts
5Amps
Normal Conditions 2000Watts
Total
Loaded WestLine
Transformers 16
Switch #5 A
Total
Star Connected Station 113
Total
-Wattmeter Farmington Grace
Salt A
Lake Readings Station ic
Station Total A Total Total A0
128" B
Ic
GB Generator
Unloaded GA EastLine
Transformers
Switch #9
Switch #8 Total
Total
FIGURE 12- VECTOR DIAGRAMS SHOWING CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND PHASE RELATIONS ON A
THREE- PHASE SYSTEM UNDER NORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS.
Page Thirteen
SILENT SENTINELS -
- Protective Relays for A- C and D- C Systems
Two Wire Short Circuit Scales

1000Volls
5Amps.
2000Watts
Ic Ic
IA WestLine
Sw.#3 A
Loaded 18
Transformers. B-
Total Star Connected Total Total
Switch #2 Total
TA Wattmeter Station 13"
A Readings A Station 91" A Station 0"
Station B A B 8
B 18 C
I TG "128" C Total
Total Total A Total
Total A C
Ic Ic
18 Generator
Total Load
A EastLine
G Short Cir
CB Here.Wires( 8
"B&C
Switch" IC
Total
FIGURE 13- VECTOR DIAGRAMS SHOWING CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND PHASE RELATIONS AT DIFFERENT POINTS ON A
THREE-PHASE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM WITH A TWO-WIRE SHORT CIRCUIT AT ONE POINT.
A Scales
Three Wire ShortCircuit
1000Volts
A A A 5Amps
Ic IC WestLine 2000Watts
Loaded
Transformers Total
Sw.#5 Star Connected
Total Wattmeter Total-
Station Station 113" Station
Reddings
CTB "128" Nowattmeter
Total readings, since Total- B
IB allthree voltages
Total Generator
are zeroIA
ΠΙΑ
S
EastLine
Sw Short Switch #4
Circuit
Here
Total
FIGURE 14- VECTOR DIAGRAMS SHOWING CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND PHASE RELATIONS AT DIFFERENT POINTS ON A
THREE-PHASE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM WITH THREE LINES SHORT CIRCUITED.
Scales
One Wire Grounded 1000Volts
Neutral Ungrounded 5Amps
2000Watts
Star Connected
Wattmeter Readings
A West Line
Total- Station 113" C
A A Total A
B B B
Total Total- Total C C
Total
Sw#5
Station StationD
128
Generator
Wire8" B
Ground Here C
Total Total
Load VIC JA East Line
Sw #8 Current
from Ground
FIGURE 15 - VECTOR DIAGRAMS SHOWING CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND PHASE RELATIONS AT DIFFERENT POINTS ON A
THREE-PHASE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM WITH ONE WIRE GROUNDED AT ONE POINT (NEUTRAL UNGROUNDED) .
Page Fourteen
these faults the weather bureau records were consulted fined in the cable its resistance will increase as the
and it was found that the average wind velocity at that pressure increases due to the generated gases, and this,
station was about four miles per hour which corre- naturally, will increase the voltage across the arc .
sponds to approximately six feet per second. When This voltage will insure the correct operation of direc-
it is considered that an arc has no inertia , it is easy to tional relays even when a fault occurs close to the
see why trouble on one circuit will involve the neigh- switching station .
boring circuit even on a quiet day.
Most faults start as a ground between one conductor
It sometimes happens that in testing lines after an and the lead sheath, usually due to the entrance of
extensive interruption , the switchboard operator closes- moisture into the cable. By means of a suitable relay
in the good lines first and then closes-in the bad line, installation , it is often possible to disconnect any of
thus starting trouble which involves all the lines and these faulty cables before the arc has involved the other
trips them out again. Therefore, in testing circuits, it two conductors . One operating company has found, by
is good policy to vary the sequence of closing the an analysis of the defective sections of the cable, that
breakers after one sequence of operation has failed to about 50 per cent. of the cable troubles are cleared
hold . without developing short circuits ..
On systems having a large connected generating Power Factor of Short Circuits- It is the general
capacity the length to which an arc can be drawn out impression that short circuits are of low power factor,
One Wire Grounded

Neutral Grounded Scales
1000Volts
A 5Amps
A
Current from 2000Watts
Ground Ic WestLine
LoadedTrans-
formers Is IA
Switch #5 TB B
Starcon C Total Total Total-
Total nectedwatt- Station 91 Ic
-meter read- Section 13" Station O
Total B
Station 128 4 ings A C Total C-
A IB IB Voto Total Total
Unloaded Total
Generator
Transformers
Switch #g A Ic V JA EastLine
B Ground
Total Switch"8 Here
IG Wire& C
Total
FIGURE 16-VECTOR DIAGRAM SHOWING CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND PHASE RELATIONS AT DIFFERENT
POINTS ON THREE-PHASE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM WITH ONE WIRE GROUNDED (NEUTRAL GROUNDED) .
by the wind is almost unbelievable. Arcs more than but this is usually not so . It is true, of course, that the
20 feet long within a station have been seen, and au- total reactance of the circuit involved in the short cir-
thentic cases are recorded of arcs having a length of cuit is high compared to the resistance, but most of this
200 feet or more on high voltage lines . These long arcs reactance is in the apparatus, and is not usually of
usually occur on lines of 66,000 volts or above, but importance in relay work. We are interested usually
where towers are used to support the structure it is in the power factor of the line itself during times of
surprising how seldom they jump from one circuit to short circuit and this, of course, depends on the relative
11
another. This is probably because the grounded steel resistance and reactance of the line conductor and is,
tower acts as a shield between the circuits at the point therefore, independent of its length . High voltage 60-
where the trouble starts ; namely, at the insulators . cycle overhead transmission lines sometimes have a
Nature of Trouble in Cables - Because trouble in power factor of less than 50 per cent., but this is not
the rule, and 25-cycle lines and all cable circuits have
cables usually occurs at the joint in manholes where
a much higher power factor. It should be remembered ,
there is danger of injuring adjacent cables it is essential
however, that the power factor of a short circuit or
that the defective section be disconnected within a rea-
ground fault may vary widely according to conditions,
sonable time . Tests have been made on a 11,000-volt
and this fact should always receive consideration when
system which prove that the voltage across the arc applying relays, especially those dependent for their
between the two conductors amounts to two or three
operation upon both voltage and current.
per cent. of normal voltage, the value being practically
independent of the current. This is easily explained if Distortion of Phases-In faults involving all three
we assume that the resistance of the arc decreases as wires of a three-phase system the only abnormal con-
the current through it is increased . These tests were ditions which ordinarily will exist are the excess flow of
made by sawing off the cable and allowing the arc to current into the fault, and low voltage in its vicinity ,
form between the conductors at its end . It is not only but these present no difficulties in relay protection.
possible, but also probable, that when the arc is con- Any other fault which may occur, such as a two -wire
Page Fifteen
Two Wires Grounded. Scales

Neutral Grounded 1000Volts
5Amps.
Ic 2000Watts
Ic West Line
Loaded
Transformers. IA
Switch #5
Star con B A
IG A- Total nectedwatt Section 113" t Total
Station en d A Station
Total "128" ofmeler A-Bf uormr oun 8+
ICIB Total reading. fCr Gr Total
Unloaded Total Total-
Transformers. ΤΑ AIB
Switch#9
IC Generator
B A East Line
IG fotal Ic Grounds HereIc CB
Switch #8 Wires B &C
Total
FIGURE 17- VECTOR DIAGRAM SHOWING CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND PHASE RELATIONS AT DIFFERENT
POINTS ON A THREE-PHASE SYSTEM WITH TWO WIRES GROUNDED (NEUTRAL GROUNDED) .
short circuit, or a ground on one or two wires (3-wire, phase distortion must be considered . A true wattmeter
3-phase system considered) , will not only cause an ab- will reverse if the angle between the current and the
normal current flow, but will also necessarily result in applied voltage becomes greater than 90 degrees.
an unbalanced or distorted condition of phases, on Therefore, the problem in the application of directional
account of the abnormal current flow being in only one relays is to make the voltage and current phase rela-
or two of the three lines. This distortion is greatest in tion such that the worst conditions of phase distortion
the vicinity of the fault, and gradually lessens as the will never cause the angle between the current and
distance from the fault increases . voltage to exceed 90 degrees .
Exact conditions existing after a short circuit or The vector diagrams , Figs. 18 and 19, show the con-
ground has occurred are hard to determine because so
ditions which may exist. In Fig. 18 the current and
many conditions and characteristics are present in every voltage vectors of only one phase are shown . AO repre-
system which vary widely in different systems . Some sents the voltage from A to neutral and I represents
few years ago Mr. G. H. Grey and Mr. L. N. Crichton the current in leg A with a slightly lagging power fac-
made extensive tests respecting such conditions , using tor. Fig. 19 shows a possible distortion of phases when
an artificial transmission line for the purpose . Figures
a short circuit occurs from line A to C. A short circuit
12, 13, 14, 15, 16 and 17 show some of the results of
these tests plotted vectorially . The values plotted were of unity power factor would mean a heavy current in
taken from oscillograms and thus represent actual con-
ditions existing after the fault occurred .
Effect of Phase Distortion on Relay Operation- B
Phase distortion has no effect on the operation of
straight overcurrent relays. In the case of directional
relays, however, where the correct operation of the relay
is dependent on the operation of a wattmeter element,
C
FIGURE 18 - VECTOR DIAGRAM SHOWING CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND FIGURE 19- VECTOR DIAGRAM SHOWING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
PHASE RELATIONS ON THREE-PHASE SYSTEM UNDER NORMAL RELATIONS UNDER SHORT-CIRCUIT CONDITIONS.
CONDITIONS . (ONLY ONE LINE SHOWN.)
REFER TO FIGURE 20
Page Sixteen
PotentialTrans. Line Power PowerTrans. Potential Trans

Line Prim. Sec. Trans.Prim Sec. Prim. Sec
C C C C
Directional
B-
contacts
element
B A A
Directional
close
direction
B b
power
Vector Relations ofCurrentandPotentialCircuits
s
with
flow
element
this
contact
Vector Relations ofCurrentand Potential Circuits C BAO 0

on
in
close
Sub-Station Bus.
directi
power
with
B
flow
this
B
in
Reverse Power Re- 0

lays. 3-Required for
3phase line Prim
w w A Sec CO
AC CBB bo 40
ww -Prim IC IB9 ΙΑ
bå. A 9
0 0
C B A
w
Short circuitor
MA
groundcausing
AMA
AAA!
reversal of
power. B A C
Line
FIGURE 22- PROPER CONNECTIONS FOR TYPE CR DIRECTIONAL OVER-
CURRENT RELAY USED ON THREE-PHASE SYSTEM WITH A-Y POWER
TRANSFORMERS BETWEEN LINE AND SUBSTATION.
Generating
Station NOTE-The relay neutral must not be connected to the transformer
FIGURE 20- ORDINARY METHOD OF CONNECTING TYPE CR DIREC neutral as shown by the dash line, unless the transformer neutral
TIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAYS ON THREE-PHASE SYSTEM. VOL is stable.
TAGE VECTORS SHOWN. CONNECTIONS GIVE CURRENT 30° LEAD .
AT 100 % P.F. Grounding the neutral of a Y-Y bank of transformers will not
make it stable. But it is necessary to connect it to some source off
power having a fixed neutral such as the neutral of a generator
or of a A-Y bank of transformers. This scheme of connections
phase with voltage AC , but due to the reactance of the requires three voltage transformers, but enables the standard 125-
circuit the current would probably lag considerably volt relays to be used.
more and would take a direction as shown by the vector
I. AO, the voltage to neutral, changes its direction only
slightly and, as is evident, the angle between AO and Line & Power PowerTrans. PotentialTrans.
I may easily be greater than 90 degrees. Now, if a Trans. Prim. Sec. Prim
C Sec.
C
Directional
PowerTrans Potential Trans. B

Line&Power Prim. Sec.
contacts
Sec.
element
Trans. Prim. C B
close
direction
Vector Relations ofPotentialand Current Circuits

power
Directional
-A C B A
with
flow
this
10
contacts
element
A
in
a
,close
n
Vector Relations ofCurrentand PotentialCircuits

directio
power
A
www.www
C B
flow
with
this
in
0 a Prim
.
10 w w - Sec. CO
C&CB&BA b 114
C MCM A Prim. IC IB IA
0 00
Prim
Sec.
0
WCWB WA Ca 0 0 0 C
Prim. IC IB IA
мими 8 오
C BA
FIGURE 23- PROPER CONNECTIONS FOR TYPE CR DIRECTIONAL OVER-
CURRENT RELAY WHEN USED ON THREE-PHASE SYSTEM WITH
A-Y POWER TRANSFORMERS BETWEEN LINE AND SUBSTATION .
CONNECTIONS USE ONLY TWO VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS, AND AS
B A C SHOWN GIVE CURRENT 30° LEAD AT 100 % P.F.
Line
FIGURE 21- DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT TYPE CR RELAY CONNEC- NOTE-These connections require voltage transformers with 200-
TIONS WITH Y-A POWER TRANSFORMER BETWEEN LINE AND volt secondary, the star voltage on the relay in such case being 116
STATION. CONNECTIONS AS SHOWN GIVE CURRENT 30° LEAD AT volts. If standard 110-volt secondary transformers are used, special
58- volt relays or extra 58-116 volt step-up transformers are necessary.
100 % P.F.
Page Seventeen
directional relay with a wattmeter winding has its volt- Phase Relations with Delta - Star
age coil connected to AO and its current coil to phase Connected Transformers
A, it will tend to reverse as soon as the angle OAI
exceeds 90 degrees. It will thus close its contacts and Where directional relays are to be applied at sub-
trip the circuit breaker with current flowing in the nor- stations having delta-star connected power transform-
mal direction (opposite to that for which the relay is ers, it is often desirable to connect the voltage trans-
supposed to trip) . formers on the low-voltage side while it is necessary to
have the current transformers connected in the high
Actual tests have shown that the angle OAI may
voltage leads in order to get the true current flowing.
be as great as 120 degrees with a short circuit between
Special care is necessary in such cases in order to secure
A and C. This will cause directional relays to close their
the connections which will give the proper phase rela-
contacts on normal direction of power flow when the
directional contacts should be held positively open. tions between the voltage and current for the relay.
As already stated, in order to assure proper operation
The most satisfactory solution of this problem is to of the relay with the phase distortion accompanying a
connect the potential coil of the relay to a voltage short circuit or ground, the relay current should lead
which is 30 degrees behind the current at 100 % power the relay voltage by 30 degrees under normal conditions
factor. Referring to Figs. 18 and 19, if the voltage with 100 % power factor on the system. Figs. 20 , 21 ,
were taken from phase A to C, then under short-circuit 22, and 23 show the correct connections for such com-
conditions, the angle CAI always would be less than 90 binations to be used in applying type CR directional re-
degrees and the directional relay contacts would never lays . The vectors show the relative phase relations for
close on normal direction of power flow. each step of transformation .
2 -Methods of Clearing Short Circuits
Radial System Figure 24 shows a typical radial system . The small-

The simplest system of distribution is one having est branches, such as those leading out from substa-
tions C and D, may be sufficiently protected by fuses,
a single source of power with a number of feeders leav-
while other remote feeders carrying greater power may
ing the generator bus-bar, each feeder, in turn, being
sub-divided into a number of small feeders. This is
Phase A Phase B
Inst. Load
5Sec. Inst Load
C Load
Jost
SubStation Inst Load
.5Sec. Load
15Sec B Load
0 10Sec. Load TripCoil Cir.Bkr Cir.Bkr.
4 M SubStation
X Trip Coil Trip Coll
5Sec. Inst. Customers Feeder
Gen A N Inst
中 Feeder CirBkr.P Bkr. Aux. To D-C.Trip
Gen. 15Sec 5
+2 Switch pingSource
Station Feeder Single-phase where 2-Phase To D-C. Trip- Three-Phase
SubStation Inst thereis no three-
SubStation Inst Feeder ping Source 3or4Wire
10Sec. phase grounded
6 t Feeder This gives complete
Keyto Symbols 5Sec Ins ㅁ
neutral conne cted
protection butintro-
0 Circuit Breaker. SubStation 07 tosame.
Feeder duces complications
Overcurrentrelaywith inwiring whenrelays
currenttransformer areusedwith other
~ Fuse
instruments.
FIGURE 24- TYPICAL RADIAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM SHOWING RELAY
PROTECTION WITH TYPE CO OVERCURRENT RELAYS.
termed the radial distribution system. The protection

ABC
of such a system against short circuit may be secured Cir. Bkr
by overcurrent protective devices . The smaller branch- ABC ToRelay
es may be disconnected automatically from the re- CirBkr. RelaySm
mainder of the system by the blowing of a fuse or the Trip if used.
Coil
operation of instantaneous circuit-breakers. The cir- Trip
To D-C.Tripping Source Coil
cuit-breakers near the generator should be equipped 3- Ph as e To D-C. Source
with definite-time relays. A time interval between the For ungroundedNeutral. 3or 4 Wire
Three-Phase Circuits.
successive relays, long enough to assure a reasonable Completeprotection and
Failsincase ofgroundon B, avoids complicated wiring
margin of safety above that required for the circuit- andaccidentalground
breaker to operate, is allowed . Relays at the generator ingenerator atthe when relays are used with
other instruments.
bus are given the highest time settings . The settings of same time.
the other relays are decreased as their distance away
from the generator increases until the most remote relay FIGURE 25- DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS FOR DIFFERENT INSTALLA-
TIONS OF TYPE CO INVERSE AND DEFINITE-MINIMUM-TIME-ELEMENT
has an instantaneous setting. OVERCURRENT RELAYS.
Page Eighteen
require a circuit-breaker which may be equipped with The directional relays applied at each substation are
an overcurrent trip coil so that the breaker will be fixed so that they will trip only when excess current is
opened almost instantly upon the occurrence of a short flowing away from the substation bus. It is, therefore,
circuit on the feeder. evident that with successive time settings the relays
As we proceed back towards the generating station at each end of any faulty section will be the first to
A, overcurrent relays such as the CO relays are neces- operate, serving to isolate this section of the loop .
sary in conjunction with the circuit-breakers to give a Straight overcurrent relays may be used at the gener-
definite time for tripping. ating station or source of power, as any fault on the
Assuming that there is a short circuit at M, the system can cause power flow in only one direction from
this point.
excess current will flow through relays Nos. 1 and 4,
Feeder
but No. 4 will trip in one second, thus cutting off the Feeder
short circuited line before No. 1 has had time to trip . 0
Likewise, with a fault at N, both relay Nos. 2 and 5 JSec. B 1.6Sec .
6Sec COLISEc.
M
will be affected, but No. 5 will trip its breaker first.
It is common practice to allow approximately 0.5
second between successive relays and 2.0 seconds as Keyto Symbols
the maximum permissible setting. 21Sec. Circuit Breaker
In addition to securing discrimination on the part of Overcurrent relay typeCO
Gen Directionalovercurrentrelay type CR.
the relays by means of a definite-time feature, it is also Arrow shows direction ofcurrentflow 1.1Sect
Generating Sta. A necessary totrip relay
possible to discriminate by the current setting, because Currenttransformer connection torelay D
trouble which occurs at the far end of one of the branch Gen.
21Sec .6Sec
lines will not draw so heavy a current as if it were near
the generating station . Relays, such as Nos. 7 and 8,
Figure 24, on the remote lines may, therefore, be given.
a setting which will cause them to operate on a much
lower current than will the relays near the generator.
The Westinghouse CO relay is especially adapted for 1Sec 16Sec
such installations because it combines the inverse and
definite-minimum-time characteristics, and because it
also may be set to operate on various values of current. FIGURE 26- TYPICAL RING OR LOOP TRANSMISSION SYSTEM WITH
OVERCURRENT AND DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAY PROTECTION.
In radial systems in which the number of branches
becomes so great that it is difficult to allow the neces- NOTE This method of sectionalizing a loop by means of gradu-
ated time elements and sensitive directional elements, which is now
sary time setting between successive relays without in such common use, was invented by Mr. Paul McGahan, a West-
making the time setting on the relays at the generating inghouse Engineer, as was also the principle of the CR relay itself.
station extremely high, the CZ distance or impedance wasalso the pr
relay may be used instead of the CO relay. When this
Fig. 26 shows a typical loop system tying-in four sub-
relay is used, the relay nearest the fault operates the stations with the generating station. It shows the
quickest, thus making time settings unnecessary. This application of directional overcurrent relays on each
type of relay is slightly more expensive than the CO,
and requires voltage connections in addition to the side of the substations and straight overcurrent relays
at the generating station . The arrows indicate the
current connections .
direction in which the overcurrent must flow to trip
the relay and the figures show the definite-minimum
The Ring or Loop System time setting of the relay.
Considering a fault at M, current will flow to it from
The ring or loop system, as indicated by the name,
is simply a continuous transmission line running substations B and C. The 0.6 second relay will trip
through a series of substations and finally terminating out the substation C end, and the 1.6 second relay at
the substation B end. It should be noted that the same
at its starting point. This forms one of the best ways
of securing uninterrupted service with a minimum ex- fault current flows through the 1.1 second relay at sub-
pense for feeders . The number of substations which station D in the proper direction and the 1.6 second
relay at E. The relay at C, however, trips first, clearing
may be thus tied together depends upon the geograph-
ical location and the relay protection that is desired. the fault. This same current flows through the 0.6
Where the CO and CR relays are used, the number of second relay at D and the 0.1 second relay at E , but
in the wrong direction to cause them to close their con-
stations is limited , due to the fact that the required
time intervals necessary between successive relays add tacts. A fault at any point may be similarly checked
up to an unsafe value . With the advent of the CZ out.
relay, however, this difficulty is largely removed . Where a loop system has more than one source of
power, the application of relays becomes somewhat
On a simple loop system having only one source of
power, directional overcurrent relays, with definite- more complicated . The same type of relay may be
time-limit characteristics, may be used for protection applied with the same system of successive time-settings .
against short circuits . The time setting of each suc- One difficulty that is encountered in such a system is
cessive relay must be increased by an amount sufficient that if the relays are set for a condition with both
(usually 0.5 second in practice) to allow time for the sources of power connected, such settings must be
circuit-breaker in the preceding substation to open. changed somewhat when one source of power is discon-
Page Nineteen
137
nected. In this case, the entire relay system has to be increase in timing with increase in distance to the fault.
readjusted . This illustrates the necessity for using is the unique feature of a CZ installation .
relays whose adjustment can be changed quickly. With the addition of a directional element to the
relay main element, this relay may be applied on loop
Types CO and CR Relays The Westinghouse CO
systems in the same way as CO and CR relays . The
and CR relays are specially adaptable for use on loop
systems as they embody the definite-time-limit charac- Trip for Faultinthis direction
teristics with a very flexible adjustment for values of w
operating current . In addition to the dependable accu- 35
OilCir. Bkr.. Generator PowerTrans
racy of the relay settings and the speed of action , any AY
TripCir. !-
necessary changes in the settings or adjustments may DirectionalC.Z. AA 2
be made quickly and conveniently. eee
Line Relays
3 3
Type CZ Impedance Relay Sometimes it is very To Bell Fuses
difficult to arrive at a suitable method of protection for Relays Pot.Trans
a loop system due to the fact that, when applying Fuses Aux.Pot Gr. 31
the standard time-element relays and allowing the nec- www Trans
3
essary time-intervals, in order to secure selectivity, the 32
time-settings of the relays at the ends of the loop be- Adj. K.X. Comp.
come necessarily higher than is either safe or advisable. External 3USLA
3USLI ZUSLA USLL
A more recent and flexible relay application for such Res.
complicated systems is the use of the impedance or
distance relay developed by the Westinghouse Com- C.Z.NonDirectionalGroundRelays Gr.
pany . With the proper application of the CZ relay ,
all time-settings are taken care of automatically after FIGURE 28 - GENERATING STATION WITH POWER TRANSFORMERS
each relay has been set to protect its own section of the CONNECTED Y, AND WITH NEUTRALS SOLIDLY- GROUNDED.
line. Each relay is set to trip out its own section of NOTE-Voltage transformers are on the L. T. side of the power
transformers. KX compensators compensate for transformer drop .
TripForFaultin thisdirection
Cur.Trans. 321
HighVoltage Line MA choice between the use of the two applications is de-
OilCirBkr Polarity pendent mainly on the cost. The CO- CR application
Marks. 123 0 is preferable wherever it can be supplied satisfactorily,
Directional Polarity inasmuch as the relays themselves are less expensive
Aux.Sw.TripCoil
Element Marks
From D-C.- Fuse and the CO relays do not require a voltage connection .
ControlSource Stud D
Adj.Ext Res High Where the system is complicated , and the sections of
C.Z.Directional 213 Voltage sufficient length (long enough to give approximately 3 %
Bus
Relays:
To BellRelay Pot.Trans Trip for fault in this direction .
Gr ofx 444 HighTensionBus.
99
Type C.Z.Non- Breaker
directional Relays Gr
ww
ww
ww
ww
13 £32 Adj.Ext.Res Gr
E31 13.
8888
eeee
E21 2-
E12 12 C.Z.Directional 3-
12" To Bkr.TripCir.
E2-3 E1-3 Relay Vectors Pot
Normalincoming Directional Generator DirectionalC.Z. Trans
ContactsOpen LineRelays Fuses
line vectors Fuse
TRANSFORMERS To BellRelays. Fuse
FIGURE 27 - GENERATING STATION, WITH POWER K.X.Comp
CONNECTED Y, AND WITH SOLIDLY- GROUNDED NEUTRAL. 2
Aux. 3
NOTE CZ line relays are for line protection, and CZ ground re- 98 Pot.
lays are for are
ground to o Trans. USL USL USL
transformers on theprotection. Voltage
H. T. side of transformers
the power transformers
and. current
2.
the line in a time corresponding to the distance to the Adj.
fault, the maximum time required being 0.75 second, 300 200 Ext.
Res.
which corresponds to a short at the far end of the PILE PLE40000
20010 0 4001007 PILE
line . Regardless of on what section of the system the 372
fault takes place , the proper relay will trip out, and at
no time will the isolation of the faulty line require more Non Directional C.Z.Gr. Relays Gr
K.Y.Comp.
h
than 0.75 to 1.0 second to accomplis . The other CZ FIGURE 29 - UNGROUNDED SUBSTATION ON
relays on other sections of the line will start to func- SYSTEM. A SOLIDLY-GROUNDED
tion but by reason of their greater distance from the
NOTE - KX compensators are used to compensate for the drop
fault they will not trip out their breakers , but will through the transformers, which is present when short-circuit currents
flow through the transformers from some source of back feed. KY
return to their normal position lt.n as
soo theau toays
the faulty line have isolated theas
fau This rel mation
c
compensators compensate for the shift in the neutral which accom-
panies a single line ground .
Page Twenty
SILENT SENTINELS - Protective Relays for A- C and D-C Systems
voltage drop between ends of the section) , the CZ relay

. are balanced against one another. If the currents main-
is applicable and should be used . tain their equality in spite of their magnitude it is a
This voltage, which is a measure of the impedance good indication that no fault exists in that particular
group . On the other hand, a certain degree of unbal-
voltage drop to the point of short circuit , is supplied
ancing would be a safe indication of trouble . The prob-
to the voltage element of the relay by potential trans-
lem, therefore, is, in general, to separate a current
formers connected either to the high or the low side of
which is representative of the actual unbalancing and
the power transformers . If connected to the high side.
pass it through proper relays so that the faulty feeder
of the power transformers , the potential transformers
will supply to the relay elements voltages correspond- may be disconnected.
ing exactly to the line voltage, and accordingly the re- 2 See 0.1 Sec. 1.5 Sec. 0.1 See 1 Sec. 0.1 Sec. 0.5 Sec. Instantaneo
lays will function properly . In case only potential
transformers connected to the low side of the power G
transformers are available , it sometimes becomes neces- Hos Sec. 0.1 Sec. Fuse
sary to use voltage compensators , similar to those used
with voltage regulators , to compensate for the drop 5 Sec 0.1 Sec. Overload Relay:
through the transformer which has been inserted be- Reverse Power Relay
tween the relay and the line to be protected .
640
Compensators are provided : FIGURE 31 - DIAGRAM SHOWING USE OF OVERCURRENT TYPE CO AND
DIRECTIONAL-OVERCURRENT TYPE CR RELAYS ON
(1 ) To compensate for the impedance drop in the PARALLEL FEEDERS.
power transformer, which drop is present when short-
circuit current is flowing through the transformer into the
line that is shorted. One method of solving this problem is by balancing
(2) To compensate for the shift in the neutral at the the current flowing in the two feeders by the cross-
ungrounded substation end of a solidly-grounded sys- connection of directional relays. This scheme may be
tem , which shift occurs in case of an accidental ground applied to any system no matter how complex, if its
feeders are run parallel between the switching points.
on the high side.
The relays may be set to act almost instantaneously.
Figs . 27 , 28 and 29 show typical CZ applications with With this system the relays can be set to operate on
and without compensation, as required. currents smaller than the full load value of each feeder.
This arrangement enables the clearing of trouble on a
7)
system having the neutral grounded through a high
-Protection of Parallel Feeders resistance, when the total trouble and load current flow-
Where two or more identical or similar lines connect ing through a single cable may be less than the maxi-
a generating station and a substation, two substations mum load current of that cable. The schematic dia-
or two generator stations, they are termed parallel gram, Fig. 32, shows the scheme of cross-connection of
feeders. Such an arrangement of feeders may be applied directional relays applied to a system of four parallel
to either radial systems or loop systems and it has come feeders. Fig. 33 shows a complete diagram of standard
into very common use due, not only to the fact that connections for a pair of 3-phase feeders, except that
it is an economical and convenient means of increasing the tripping circuit is omitted .
transmission capacity, but also , to the fact that it forms
By reference to these two figures it will be seen that
a most flexible system for economical operation of lines , all the current transformers in the generating station
and lends itself very readily to relay protection.
CO and CR Relay Scheme-In general, the stand- Generating Station
ard application of CO overcurrent and CR directional
overcurrent relays may be applied to parallel feeders in Circuit-
the same way as in the case of single lines of loop sys- Breaker
tems . Where the system is large, however, the time Reverse-
Current Power
settings on some of the relays must necessarily be high Trans Relay
in order to secure selectivity, and this in itself is often
a difficulty which cannot be overcome.
Trouble
Balanced Power Scheme-A general solution of this
problem is to use a balanced system of relays . Separate
parallel circuits which normally carry equal currents
Generating
Station
Substation
FIGURE 32- SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF CROSS-CONNECTED RELAY SYS-

TEM, USING DIRECTIONAL-OVERCURRENT TYPE CR RELAYS. ARROWS
SHOW DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW WITH SHORT CIRCUIT ON
FIGURE 30 - FIVE PARALLEL FEEDERS CONNECTING SUB - STATION RIGHTHAND FEEDER AS SHOWN. (ONLY ONE PHASE SHOWN, VOL-
WITH GENERATING STATION. TAGE AND TRIPPING CIRCUITS OMITTED . )
Page Twenty-one
119
are connected in series ; likewise, those in the substation . a relay is available under the name of the Duo- Direc-
Each relay is a uni-directional relay and is shunted tional Type CR Relay. Its chief disadvantage is that
across its own current transformer . Under normal con- either abnormal phase distortion or mechanical vibra-
ditions the load in each of the cables will be the same, tion may displace the relatively light directional ele-
and since the relays are of a higher impedance than the ment and trip the circuit-breaker before the fault has
current transformers, the current from the latter will been isolated, thereby interrupting service over the
good line.
Balanced load - Two parallel lines.
484
A A further adaptation of the cross-connected CR relay

B
C protective scheme gives both short-time low- current
Use volt. trans.for Fuses
3Phase over 100volts. protection, when two feeders are operating in parallel,
Bus and long-time directional overcurrent protection when
one of the feeders is operating singly as a part of a
00 00 00
C29 28 A29 transmission loop . Fig. 34 shows the complete connec-
tions for two incoming feeders to a substation . The
voltage and current connections to the relays are so
made that the relays of each set close their directional
Power may Flow element contacts when unbalanced power is flowing out
either direction over the line which those relays protect. Each relay is
Relays trip only when power in4 provided with a tap between the directional element
lines is unbalanced.
contacts and the overcurrent element contacts and these
FIGURE 33- DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS OF TYPE CR RELAY, USED taps are joined to a common bus for each pair of lines,
FOR PARALLEL LINE PROTECTION. AUXILIARY PALLET
so that any overcurrent element can trip either circuit-
SWITCHES ON BREAKER SHOWN.
breaker by acting through the directional element con-
tacts of the corresponding set of relays.
circulate through all of the transformers in series
without any flowing through the relays . If the With the feeders carrying equal loads there is no
trouble occurs at any point outside the section pro- current flowing through the current windings of the
tected by these cross - connected relays , the current relays . As soon as a fault develops on one line an unbal-
through the protected lines will still be balanced and anced current circulates through the relays, causing the
consequently there will be no unbalanced current tend- directional element contacts on the faulty line group
ing to operate the relays. On the other hand, if trouble to close, and those of the good line group to open . The
occurs on a line within the section, the current through faulty line circuit-breaker is tripped by the closing of
the defective cable will be higher than that in the other the contacts of the overcurrent element having the
and the excess current from its current transformer short-time setting.
must, therefore, pass through the relays . While the As soon as the faulty line circuit-breaker has opened,
system is in this unbalanced condition , current will flow
the control circuit to the short-time overcurrent ele-
through all the relays , but in the proper direction to
cause only the relay at each end of the defective cable ment is broken by the series connection through the
to act. circuit-breaker auxiliary switches. The remaining line
then has directional overcurrent protection only, the
Fig . 33 shows auxiliary pallet switches connected in
time and current settings of the overcurrent element
the transformer secondary circuit. These switches are
also connected mechanically to the operating mechan- being determined by operating conditions on the loop.
It is general practice to base such settings on the
ism of the
current bre
tran sfor r so tha
akemers whe
on t ,the feed er bre
n the willake
ber ope ns,
shor the
t cir- assumption that, with a loop composed of normally
cuited. By this method, a line can be cut out of service balanced lines, not more than two sections will be
without interfering with the electrical balance in the operating as single lines .
remaining transformer circuit. However, these pallet
switches are not needed in the transformer circuits ex-
cept where low ratio bushing-type current transformers 0 0 0 Potential
are used. Ordinarily the impedance of the current www.www. Trans
www.ww
transformer secondaries is sufficient, when the primar- " Fuse
D-C.Control Bus
ies are open- circuited, to prevent any appreciable cur-
Trip
rent from passing through them. Breaker trip Coll Trip Breakertop
for fault AuxSw Coil forfault
By referring to Figs. 32 and 33 it will be observed in this -Aux Sw inthisdirect
that under balanced conditions no current is flowing direction 100
in the relay current coil . When a fault develops on one
line the current and voltage in that group of relays
are in such a relation as to close the directional element Current Current
Trans
Trans
contacts, while in the other group of relays the volt- Long-Time High-
Current RelaySetting Gr
age is in the opposite direction and so opens the direc-
Short-Time Low- SchematicInternal
tional element contacts. It is therefore apparent that Current RelaySetting WiringofSpecial-7
if the directional element were made double throw, one Stud Type CR Relay
set of relays could be made to protect two parallel feed- FIGURE 34 CONNECTIONS OF TYPE CR RELAYS TO TWO INCOMING
ers by cross-connecting the current transformers . Such FEEDERS OF A SUB- STATION.
Page Twenty-two
934
It is interesting to note that this scheme of connec- No. 2 against No. 3, No. 3 against No. 4, and No. 4
tion obviates the use of a circuit-opening definite-time- against No. 1 , any one line can be disconnected and the
delay direct- current relay to prevent improper opera- remaining lines will still be balanced . If, however ,
tion of the good line circuit-breaker. It has been found Nos . 1 and 3 lines both have been disconnected Nos .
necessary in many instances to employ such relays with 2 and 4 will be left with only overcurrent protection.
cross-connected schemes in order to prevent unneces- On the other hand, if No. 2 or No. 4 lines were discon-
sary tripping . nected with No. 1 the remaining two lines would still
Balanced-power relays are satisfactory particularly be balanced .
where there is no source of power available at one end Inasmuch as the action of the balanced-current relay
of the parallel lines, but the use of differential current is practically instantaneous in clearing faulty lines it
relays is simpler and is usually preferred where power makes an ideal application for the protection of parallel
can be supplied from both ends of the group of lines. lines between generating stations . On other parallel
Type CD Selective Differential Relay Scheme- feeders it is very often advisable to use overcurrent
Another scheme which is coming into common use for relays in connection with balanced current relays, thus
securing single line protection in addition to quick
parallel line protection is a scheme using the balan-
balanced protection , when both lines are in service.
ced current relay known as the type CD relay. It may
be used at the transmitting end of any number of par- The chief advantages of the CD balanced-current
relay scheme are as follows: 最
Power Bus 1. The relay operates on current alone, no source of
potential being required.
2. The differential-current setting is automatically
doubled when one line is opened at one end. This per-
驗
慢。
mits the use of a minimum- differential current setting
Bustrol
Con
DC
B
21 63 63 Aux Sw 5388 011
5358 8383
FIGURE 35--TYPE CD SELECTIVE DIFFERENTIAL CURRENT 68 T Tnp Coil 63100
T Cir Bkr 6000
63T
RELAY APPLIED TO TWO PARALLEL LINES. of
allel lines and at the receiving end of any number of

parallel lines in a system having a source of power at
both ends, or at the receiving end of three or more
parallel feeders in a radial system. It cannot be used
on a single pair of radial parallel feeders, for in case
of a fault on one line, there would be an equal and
opposite current in the two elements, and the relay
would not operate. The same condition will exist after
one of three parallel lines has been disconnected at the CO Relays
Ground CD Line Current
Relays
receiving end. For this reason crossconnected power
directional relays are usually used at such points. FIGURE 37- DIAGRAM SHOWING COMPLETE CONNECTIONS FOR BAL-
ANCED AND STRAIGHT OVERLOAD PROTECTION OF THREE
With three parallel lines protected by these relays, PARALLEL FEEDERS. TYPE CO AND CD RELAYS ARE USED
No. 1 line is balanced against No. 2 ; No. 2 line is bal-
anced against No. 3 and No. 3 line is balanced against and eliminates the necessity of additional apparatus in
No. 1. In this way complete balance protection is
the trip circuit in order to render it non-automatic until
secured until only one line remains in service, after the two lines are again in service .
which overload protection is left on this line . If four
3. Each current transformer may be grounded, thus
or more lines are thus protected , complete balanced giving maximum protection to apparatus. This is not
protection cannot be assured after more than two lines
have been removed from service . Thus, with four possible ordinarily with balanced protection .
4. Only one relay is required for two lines.
parallel lines, No. 1 line being balanced against No. 2,
5. Relay action is practically instantaneous.
Power Bus Type CZ Impedance Relay The CZ impedance

relay may be used for parallel line protection in the
same way as the CO and CR relays. The CZ direc-
tional relay is applicable in places where the CR is used .
The advantages of the impedance relay have been
explained in detail on page 20.
Network Systems
12 +3 14
FIGURE 36- TYPE CD SELECTIVE DIFFERENTIAL CURRENT The simple radial and loop or ring systems, very
RELAYS APPLIED TO PARALLEL FEEDERS. often involving parallel lines between stations, lend
Page Twenty-three
themselves very readily to a scheme of relay protection, Pilot -Wire Scheme of Relay Protection
as has been outlined. However, when additional tie
lines are added, connecting substations and several On systems where definite-time relay protection is
sources of power into the system at different points, it desired, the number of substations which may be con-
becomes what may be termed a network, and then the nected successively in a system is limited by the sum
relay protection problem becomes more difficult. of the time intervals which it is necessary to allow
between successive relays. When such a difficulty is
SubStation encountered and the distance between some of the sta-
of
Sub tions is small, a pilot-wire scheme of protection may be
Gen used on the shorter sections . As this scheme acts almost
- C
Gen. Station HH Gen instantaneously upon the occurrence of a fault within
Gen Gen.Station the section, and is unaffected by the faults outside of
A Keyto Symbols the section, the section may be disregarded entirely
O=CircuitBreakers. when applying other relays . The system may be con-
Gen. Type CZimpendancerelay
withdirectionalelement sidered as if that particular section were entirely cut
Arrows indicatedirectionof
currentFlownecessaryto out.
trip therelay.
Type COovercurrentrelay. The pilot-wire scheme has current transformers at
Note-Notimesettingsnecessary each end of the conductor short circuited upon each
for thetypeCZrelay
CurrentTransformer Feeder other through the pilot wire, see Fig . 40. The relays
are connected between the pilot wire for each respective
SubStation transformer and the common return . When a short
SubStation circuit or fault occurs on the line between the two sub-
stations, the current transformers at the two ends are
Feeders no longer short circuited upon each other, but the cur-
rents which they produce are opposed to each other so
FIGURE 38- TYPICAL NETWORK SYSTEM .
that current must flow through the relays, and the faulty
section will thus be tripped out.
Type CO and CR Scheme The CO overcurrent
Substation
n
and CR directional overcurrent relays are sometimes Special Current Transformers
Substatio with small secondarycurrent.
applied to such a system, provision being made to have
Bus
Bus
certain lines trip out almost instantly with a short cir- PilotWires
cuit in their vicinity. With such an arrangement the
network is often converted into a simple ring after the
tie lines have been disconnected, and the usual scheme .
of time and current settings clears up the trouble. The 글어글Amp. Type
cutting out of the tie line or lines in such cases does "CO Relays
not in any way jeopardize the service, and serves to FIGURE 40- DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS FOR PILOT WIRE RELAY
make selective relay protection possible . For example, SCHEME.
in Figure 38 the tie line between substations E and B
may be disconnected without disturbing the service
supplied by the network. Inasmuch as the current flowing in the pilot wire
must be kept at the minimum, special current trans-
Type CZ Impedance Relay Scheme-A more re-
formers and CO relays with special windings to operate
cent and flexible relay application for such complicated
on low current are used for the pilot-wire protection
systems is the use of the impedance or distance relay . scheme.
With the proper application of this type of relay all
time settings are taken care of automatically, the in- Split Conductor Scheme
Customer's
Customer's
Customer's
Customer's
herent characteristics of the relay being such that the

Customer's
Customer's
The split conductor scheme is a modification of the

one nearest to the fault will operate first.
current-balanced scheme of parallel-line protection in
Load
PD07
Load
PD07
Load
NO
2.0sec. 0
Inst. 1.5sec 5sec Insti
Generator 1.0sec. 10sec. 5sec 2.0sec
9 호 9 15sec Inst
Generator
A B C D 9
E F
Pilot Wires G H to
Legend. Pilot Wires
Circuit Breaker
O Overcurrent Type CO Relay.
Directional Overcurrent Type CR Relay.
FIGURE 39- DIAGRAM SHOWING A CUSTOMER'S FEEDER LINE WITH GENERATOR AT EACH END PROTECTED BY
CO AND CR RELAYS AND TWO SECTIONS BY PILOT WIRES.
Page Twenty-four
which a special cable is used to obtain a division of the by the use of current transformers, a differential
current which is susceptible to being balanced . As ordi- connection between the two halves of each conduc-
narily installed, the split-conductor cable is a three- tor and overcurrent relays connected in the circuit,
strand cable in which the strands forming each con- very effective system of protection is obtained .
ductor are separated into two parts, a central portion This system is not widely used in the United States
and a circumferential portion, the two being separated due largely, perhaps, to the high cost of the special
from each other by the necessary insulation. Thus, cable.
3 -Methods of Clearing Ground Faults
Solidly and Low- Resistance - Grounded for satisfactory operation, and 2 sets of elements must
Neutral Systems be employed for complete protection.
These systems when protected by types CO, CR and Medium - Resistance - Grounded
CD relays require no additional relays for wire-to-
ground faults . Three current transformers and three Neutral System
relays are necessary for the complete protection of each Relay equipment additional to that required for line
circuit- breaker .
short circuits is required to care for phase-to-ground
Control Bus + failures. For those installations, where the magnitude of
the ground current in the circuit and the ratios of the
current transformers are such as to produce a single-phase
Aux. Sw 4-12Amp.type current of at least 2 amperes in the secondary of one
TripCoil COrelays(or
non- direction-
altypeCZ PD-C.Cont
relays) Aux Oil Bus
SW. 98 Cir.
Bkr. Bell
Low energy -2 amp.
type COgroundrelay ResetPush
Coil Button
BellRelay
FIGURE 41 - CONNECTIONS FOR THE GROUND RELAY WHEN CIRCUIT- Internal
Cur Contactor
BREAKER IS CONTROLLED BY TYPE CO OVERCURRENT RELAYS. Trans
Magnet
Coils
Schematic Diag Torque Com-
pensator
However, where type CZ impedance relays are used
in order to obtain the minimum time for clearing 321 321 ofTypeCDRelay
faults, two sets of impedance elements are required for Double -Contact TypeCOgr.relay
Type CORelays TypeCDLineCur- www
phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground faults. The reason rentRelays
for this is that a ground fault on one wire results in *Thesefourwiresare
connected togetherwhen TypeCDgr Schematic Diag ofDouble
57.7 per cent. voltage being maintained across two sides gr.relaysarenotused currelay Contact TypeCORelay
of the voltage triangle, and 100 per cent . voltage across
FIGURE 43- CONNECTIONS FOR LINE AND GROUND PROTECTION ON
the third side . The voltage between the grounded wire TWO BALANCED LINES FOR BOTH BALANCED AND SINGLE LINE
and neutral is of course zero, or nearly so . If only
OPERATION, USING TYPES CO AND CD RELAYS.
ControlBus current transformer for a fault from that wire to ground,

a type CO relay having a low-current winding is in-
AUX.SH. 4-12Amp.type serted in the neutral connection between the neutral
TripCoil O O o CRrelays(or point of the line relays and the neutral point of the cur-
8 directional
9 rent transformer secondaries. The low-current type
typeCZrelays) CO relay has taps for operation at 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.5 ,
2.0, and 2.5 amperes. It can generally be operated on
the 0.5-ampere tap without danger of tripping improp-
Low energy -2 amp.type erly, as under normal operation there is no current flow-
COgroundrelay ing in the neutral connection .
FIGURE 42-CIRCUIT-BREAKER CONTROLLED BY THREE TYPE CR LINE Fig. 41 shows the connections for the ground relay
RELAYS AND ONE TYPE CO LOW-ENERGY GROUND RELAY. when the circuit-breaker is controlled by type CO over-
current relays . It will be observed that the tripping
contacts of the ground relay parallel the tripping con-
three elements , having their directional element poten- tacts of the line relays. The same scheme of current and
tial coils connected in star, are used, a wire-to-wire short tripping connections is employed when non-directional
circuit will reduce the voltage across each relay coil
single -impedance element type CZ impedance relays
from 57.7 per cent. of line voltage to 28.8 per cent . line are used to protect the feeder against line faults.
voltage, so that each relay still has 50 per cent . normal
voltage impressed across it. With 50 per cent. normal When the circuit-breaker is controlled by type CR
voltage acting on the potential coil of the CZ relay the directional overcurrent or type CZ single-impedance ele-
time required to close the contacts is entirely too long ment relays for phase-to-phase faults, the low-current
Page Twenty-five
relay is inserted in the neutral circuit for ground fault. High- Resistance- Grounded Neutral
protection . The tripping contacts do not, however, go System
directly to the circuit-breaker trip coil, but are con-
nected in series with the directional contacts of the line Protection against wire-to-ground faults on high-resis-
relays, to secure proper directional indication on ground tance-grounded neutral systems cannot readily be pro-
faults as well as line faults. A tap must therefore be vided unless the magnitude of the ground current in
provided on the line relays between the directional ele- the circuit and the ratio of the current transformers are
ment contacts and the overcurrent or impedance ele- such as to produce 112 or 2 amperes in the secondary
ment contacts. Fig. 42 shows the connections using of one current transformer with a ground fault on that
three type CR line relays and one type CO low energy wire . Since the ground current is less than the load
ground relay. The same tripping circuit connections current in the circuit to be protected, a directional
hold when type CZ impedance relays are used for line element which shall be independent of load is required .
faults .
Fig. 44 shows complete line and ground protection
This arrangement should be used with care . It has for two parallel lines on a high-resistance-grounded
been found that a high resistance at the point where neutral system .
an accidental ground occurs will limit the current to The line potential transformers are connected star- star,
such a small value that the load current flowing through with the star points grounded. The line relay potential
coils are energized by the delta voltages of this bank.
From D-C.ControlSource D-C.ControlSource -1 If the potential transformers are so chosen as to give
-3 115 volts single-phase secondary when energized by a
OilCir OilCir single-phase voltage of line-to -line value, the line relays
Bkr. Bkr.
should be provided with 125-volt potential coils. The
Cur Aux Sw TripCoil 3PhaseGenerator Cur
secondaries of the line potential transformers also ener-
Trans. LowCur. gr. relay Gridres.tolimitgr.cur Trans.
type to TypeCR gize an auxiliary bank of three 200/ 100 -volt potential
tolowervaluethan
normalfeederpwr gr.relay transformers connected star on the primary side, the
Cur Trans- star point being connected to the two star points of the
mission line potential transformers. The secondaries of the
ナー
・ line auxiliary bank of transformers form a closed delta
Cur through the potential coil of the ground relay.
Trans POL
Trans. Trip Coil A low-current low-energy directional type CR relay,
OilCir OilCir. having the same current winding as the low-current
Bkr. Pot.Trans 18kr.
Gr Q Aux.Sw
type CO previously mentioned, is required for ground
protection. The current coil of this relay is connected
Disc.Sw ReceivingStationBus Fuseswithresistors DiscSw
between the neutral point of the current transformer
ifrequired.
secondaries and the neutral point of the line relays.
*Type CO Line Overload Relays. When a fault from one wire to ground occurs, the dis-
†Type CR (100-Volt Coil) Directional Overload Relays. tortion of the voltage triangle caused by current being
FIGURE 44- COMPLETE LINE AND GROUND PROTECTION FOR TWO fed to the ground fault by the potential transformer
PARALLEL LINES ON A HIGH-RESISTANCE GROUNDED-NEUTRAL SYSTEM develops sufficient voltage across the potential coil of
USING TYPES CO AND CR RELAYS.
the directional relay to obtain, in conjunction with the
residual current in the relay, the proper directional
the CR relays will be greater than the ground current, indication. The proper time of operation for the relay
and the CR relays will not operate in the proper direc- is secured by adjustment of the time index lever of the
tion . overcurrent element.
A low-current type CD selective differential current When power transformer banks are connected star-
relay is available for ground protection at those loca-
delta and the star point is grounded through a resistor
tions protected against line faults by type CD relays. the potential for the directional ground relays can be
Each winding is provided with taps for 0.5, 0.6, 1.2
secured by connecting the primary of a 200 / 100 - volt
and 2.0 amperes operating current . One winding is con-
potential transformer between ground and a point on
nected in each neutral connection of the balanced pair the resistor which is 200 volts above ground when car-
of lines. Fig. 43 shows the complete connections for line rying the maximum ground current . The secondary of
and ground protection on two balanced lines for both the potential transformer energizes the potential coil of
balanced and single-line operation . the relay .
4 -Calculation of Short- Circuit Current
In applying any protective scheme it is necessary to mined by the normal load on the feeder . Such a setting
determine the short- circuit currents which may develop is possible if definite -time-limit relays are used, but
under all conditions. It is unfortunate that the term where a relay having inverse-time characteristics is used
"overload" has ever come into use in connection with it is necessary to consider the current that occurs dur-
sectionalizing distribution systems, because it implies ing times of trouble, and that may be tens or even
that the relays should be set to operate at a value deter- hundreds of times greater than the normal current. An
Page Twenty-six
SILENT SENTINEL'S - Protective Relays for A- C and D- C Systems
approximate method of determining the possible short- ferred to an assumed zero line between the peaks . This
circuit current is to observe the voltage drop between value is used to calculate the electrical constants of a
two stations at normal load. circuit , such as impedance, reactance, etc.
normal voltage The maximum asymmetrical value of a transient
Short-circuit current =1 -x load current.
current in r.m.s. amperes during a short circuit on an
voltage drop
ordinary alternating- current generator is approximately
For example, if a certain load current causes a drop equal to 1.8 times the generated voltage (pressure) of
of five per cent . in voltage between a generating station the generator, in volts, immediately preceding the short
and substation , the maximum short-circuit current circuit, divided by the impedance of the circuit in ohms
would be 20 times the load current . Results obtained between the point of power supply and the point of
in this way are likely to be too large, particularly on short circuit. The maximum symmetrical value of the
lines having high inductance. transient current is approximately equal to 0.55 times
In order to determine more accurately the r.m.s. cur- the maximum asymmetrical value .
rent, an analysis of short- circuit phenomena on an The transient of an electrical system at a point
alternating-current network is necessary , and it may
remote from the source of power supply will be different
be desirable to call attention to some of the conditions
from that at the terminals of an alternating- current
under which relays may be called upon to function. generator. Its amplitude and duration will depend upon
A short circuit is a transient condition and this cur-
the electrical constants of the system and the distance
rent at any point in an electrical system is a variable between the point of short circuit and the source of
depending on the resistance, inductance, electrostatic power supply. In general, the greater the distance
capacity, magnetic capacity, point on the voltage wave between the source of power and the point of short
at which the disturbance takes place, and current con- circuit, the less the amplitude of the transient and the
ditions of the circuit immediately preceding any change shorter its duration .
in the steady condition of that circuit. It represents a Automatic generator-voltage regulators introduce sys-
readjustment of the stored electro-magnetic and electro- tem transients differing from those which occur in sys-
static energy in the system from an initial steady con- tems not so equipped. They tend to maintain constant
dition until a final steady condition is reached. It is
manifested during every change in the steady condition
of the circuit, although its effects on the circuit are
usually not appreciable. Under certain conditions, such
GENERATOR CHARACTERISTICS
as short circuits , the effects of the transient current, Illustration ofbehavior ofGenerator
-Current when80per
shortcent
circuitedfrom
fullloadat powerfactor
however, are of prime importance .
Short- Circuiting a system at any point immedi-
ately causes an abnormal current rush to occur on that
D
system. During the first complete cycle following the T
short circuit, the current usually rises to maximum D 8 IX
E 6
value. If, now, the generator field circuit is assumed T31
to remain unchanged by automatic generator-voltage
regulators or similar devices, then, during succeeding
cycles, the current will rise to lesser and lesser values
until a steady condition again exists on the system. FIGURE 45 - SHORT-CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS OF GENERATORS .
The current wave during the transient period , as shown
by oscillograms , may be symmetrical or asymmetrical the system pressure, but on account of the inherent
with respect to the line representing zero current, de-
time lag of the iron portions of the generator and exciter
pending upon the point on the voltage (pressure) wave armatures and fields, their effect is not felt immediately .
at which the short circuit occurred . The transient cur-
The effect of automatic voltage regulators on system
rent is said to be symmetrical when the assumed line,
transients may be predicted for any known set of con-
connecting points on the current wave midway between
ditions and account taken of such effects in the appli-
the peaks, coincides with the line of zero current.
cation of relays.
Similarly, a transient current is said to be symmet-
Fig. 45 is a typical oscillogram showing the current
rical when the assumed line connecting points on the
flowing in one phase of the external circuit when a sys-
current wave midway between the peaks does not tem is short circuited under ordinary operating condi-
coincide with the line of the zero current . tions. In this diagram O is the origin of the co-ordinates
The value of the current at any point on the current and is taken at the instant at which the short circuit
wave during the transient condition , if referred to the
occurs, OX is the axis of abscissae, and the abscissae
line representing zero current , is a measure of the effects
represent time. OY is the axis of ordinates, and the
produced by the current at that point . Some of these
ordinates represent current. CD is a curve passing
effects are indicated by the breaking of insulators sup-
through the maxima of the wave of the total current,
porting busses, the displacing of windings of trans-
formers and generators, the distortion of oil circuit- and EF is a curve passing through the minima . AB
breaker connections, and the fusing of conductors in is a curve which cuts the vertical everywhere midway
between CD and EF.
various parts of electrical systems .
The value of the current at any point on the current The wave of total current of which the crests lie
wave during the transient condition is frequently re- along curve CD and EF and of which the ordinates are
Page Twenty-seven
BBND-JE -TAB
SILENT SENTINELS -
1 Protective Relays for A- C and D- C Systems
measured from the axis OX may be regarded as having 4. Maximum kv-a . capacity of synchronous appa-
two components, namely : ratus, transformers, reactors, and lines.
1. A direct component. 5. Transient current characteristics during short cir-
2. An alternating component . cuit or overload .
The direct component is represented at any time. The r.m.s. current at any point of a system under
by the ordinate to the curve AB or at the time X by short -circuit conditions is affected by the following
the ordinate GH. factors :
1. The total kv-a., reactance and transient charac-
The alternating component is a wave whose crest
teristics of the synchronous machines connected to the
value at any time is the difference between the ordinates
system .
to the curves CD and AB . This difference, at the time
X , has the value HJ. The r.m.s. values of this alter- 2. Number, reactance, resistance, capacitance and
nating component are shown on curve ST. At any arrangement of all circuits over which power can be
instant this component is considered to have the same supplied to the point of short circuit .
r.m.s. value as an alternating wave of constant ampli- 3. Kv-a. , arrangement, resistance, reactance and
tude whose crest value is represented by one-half the capacitance of all reactors and transformers through
distance between curves CD and EF at that instant . which power can be supplied to the point of short.
circuit.
The r.m.s. value of the total current wave under
4. Contact resistance at the short circuit.
short circuit, at any instant, is the square root of the
sum of the squares of the value of the direct component 5. The nature of the short circuit, whether single-
and the effective value of the alternating component at phase or polyphase.
that instant. 6. The kv-a . and power factor of the load being car-
ried at the time of short circuit.
The correct application of relays to an electrical
system requires that certain characteristics of the sys- 7. The point of the voltage (pressure) wave at which
tem be known or assumed . the short circuit was established .
8. The use of automatic voltage regulators .
These system characteristics are :
The short-circuit transient for systems may be deter-
1. Normal voltage.
mined by test, by calculation or, less closely, by assump-
2. Maximum current carried by the circuit in which
tion . Obviously, the determination by test for all cir-
the relay is connected. cuits of a large system is expensive and involves con-
3. Normal frequency . siderable time and interruption to service . This will be
TABLE 1
System Short- circuit Current Factors Applicable

to Three-Phase Short Circuits on Three -Phase Systems
(To be used in application of relays)
Time in R. M. S. Total Current Expressed in Number of Times Full-Load Current for Various
Seconds from Per Cent . Reactance.
instant of
Short Circuit
5% 8% 10% 12% 15% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 75% 100%
0.00 35.00 22.00 17.75 14.90 12.00 9.01 6.00 4.52 3.55 2.94 2.36 1.74
0.05 21.18 13.60 11.10 9.40 7.74 5.89 3.98 3.04 2.41 2.03 1.64 1.23
0.08 18.15 11.65 9.50 8.15 6.72 5.14 3.50 2.89 2.15 1.81 1.47 1.11
0.10 16.50 10.70 8.81 7.52 6.22 4.79 3.28 2.54 2.03 1.72 1.40 1.06
0.15 13.48 8.85 7.36 6.32 5.30 4.13 2.87 2.25 1.83 1.56 1.28 0.981
0.20 11.90 7.86 6.56 5.66 4.82 3.74 2.67 2.11 1.72 1.48 1.22 0.943
0.25 10.54 7.10 6.00 5.20 4.45 3.53 2.52 2.01 1.66 1.42 1.18 0.919
0.30 9.56 6.50 5.55 4.85 4.19 3.35 2.42 1.94 1.61 1.39 1.16 0.904
0.40 8.33 5.80 4.96 4.38 3.83 3.10 2.28 1.86 1.55 1.35 1.13 0.888
7.30 5.15 4.48 3.99 3.52 2.91 2.18 1.79 1.51 1.32 1.11
0.50 0.877
5.94 4.35 3.84 3.48 3.13 2.64 2.04 1.70 1.45
0.70 1.27 1.08 0.862
3.24 2.98 2.75 2.38 1.90 1.61 1.39
1.00 4.60 3.55 1.23 1.05 0.843
1.50 3.42 2.90 2.70 2.56 2.43 2.17 1.78 1.54 1.34 1.19 1.03 0.836
2.00 2.72 2.43 2.34 2.27 2.21 2.02 1.71 1.49 1.31 1.17 1.02 0.828
3.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.88 1.63 1.44 1.28 1.15 1.00 0.820
Page Twenty-eight
practicable in but few cases . The determination by cent. and due allowance made by calculation for the
calculation is also a matter of considerable labor, but is effect of the external reactances . In the latter case, if
feasible if only the important factors listed above are alternating-current generators of other reactance had
considered . Practical approximate selection , sufficiently been used the results would have been somewhat differ-
accurate for most cases, can be made by using only ent but the error is not large enough to be of practical
reactance* and an accepted group of time-current importance.
decrement curves .
The final values of the current, i . e., the sustained
Table I gives decrement factors for three-phase short short-circuit current, have been assumed in accordance
circuits. These factors are intended primarily for use with experience and tests and are based on the behavior
in relay application and setting, where minimum short- of machines of predominating design.
circuit values are important .
The study of representative oscillograms of short-
circuit tests showed that in most cases the direct com-
The effect of using r.m.s. values instead of peak values ponent disappeared within 0.5 second and that the
is to appreciably reduce the ratio between short circuit transient portion of the alternating component disap-
and rated amperes . For example, assuming ten per cent. These time values have
reactance and a short- circuit current containing the peared within 3.0 seconds .
therefore been used in constructing the characteristic
maximum possible direct component, the ratio of the
decrement curves .
peak value of the first alternation of the short- circuit
current to the peak value of rated current is roughly Several alternating-current generators with the same
twenty. Under the same conditions the ratio of the reactance and synchronous impedance will not neces-
r.m.s. value of the first alternation of the short- circuit sarily have the same rate of r.m.s. current decay. This
20 10.0
current
86208
18 9.0
times
load
Full
22Initial
No
of
16 8.0
current
7.0
times
load
14
full
No.
of
12 350 Initial 6.0

5.0
40% 50% 60% 75% 100%

6X2
10% 2.0
+12% 15%
10
Time in Seconds
Time in Seconds 02 0.4 0.6 0.8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 2.6 2.8 30
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
FIGURE 46 - SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS OF COMBINED GENERATOR AND TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS R. M. S. TOTAL CURRENT
(INCLUDING ALTERNATING -CURRENT AND DIRECT- CURRENT COMPONENTS IN TERMS OF FULL LOAD CURRENT) FOR USE IN CALCULATIONS
CURVES PLOTTED FROM TABLE I, PAGE 28.
OF THREE-PHASE SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT AND RELAY SETTINGS ON THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS.
has been considered in constructing the characteristic

current to the r.m.s. value of the sinusoidal rated cur- curves, and the decrement curves may therefore safely
rent is roughly seventeen . be taken as representing the greatest r.m.s. current that
The effect of using the flux at rated voltage and the will be given by modern alternating -current generators
assumed load , instead of at rated voltage and no load, of normal design .
is to increase the short-circuit current by a somewhat The percentage reactance in any leg of a circuit is
lower percentage than the alternator reactance percent- the reactance drop in that leg of the circuit at normal
age . This effect in alternating-current generators of low rated current expressed as a per cent. of the voltage to
reactance is relatively unimportant , but becomes of the neutral of that circuit . For single and two-phase
increasing importance as the generator reactance systems this is the voltage between phase wires divided
increases . by 2. For three-phase systems this is the voltage be-
tween phase wires divided by 1.73 . The percentage
The characteristic shapes of the time-current decre-
values in Table I are initial values based on a sym-
ment curves have been reached by analysis of generator metrical sine wave and on the maximum rating of the
tests including oscillograph studies of short circuits
machines connected to the bus . The percentage of
occurring when the generators were excited to full voltage
and were carrying various loads at various power factors . reactance of generators varies from about 8 per cent .
to 30 per cent. The percentage reactance of transform-
In the curves for total reactances up to and including ers varies from about 3 per cent. to 15 per cent .
15 per cent., the reactance is assumed to be wholly
Nature of Short Circuits-When making current
within the alternating -current generators and for higher
calculations it should always be assumed that a short-
valu es of reac tanc e the gene rato rs were take n at 15 per
Where external resistance is appreciable compared to the reactance it should be taken into account.
Page Twenty-nine
circuit is due to a metallic connection between the con- interest to note that on a high-voltage ungrounded-
ductors. In a high-voltage aerial line using wooden neutral system the capacity current to ground through
pins and cross-arms it sometimes happens that an insu- an arc is greater than it is through a direct ground.
lator is broken, with the result that the wood is grad- There is only one case where a short- circuit is likely to
ually heated by the passage of the current through it increase in intensity as it develops, and that is on a
until it finally bursts into flame, thus causing an arc system where the neutral is grounded through a resis-
between conductors . A little consideration shows that tance . A cable breakdown , for instance, frequently oc-
the flow of current is small until the arc is established, curs first between one conductor and the sheath and
and that it is wrong to speak of automatically discon- the current flow may be limited by the neutral resis-
necting a section of line which has such a high-resistance tance ; the trouble will quickly involve all the conduc-
short-circuit. It has sometimes been assumed that an tors in the cable, resulting in a heavy short-circuit, but
arc has a high resistance, but this is not the case, and it is possible that it will require an appreciable time to
in general the presence of an arc at the point of short- do this, in which case the relay operation may be unsat-
circuit will not decrease the short-circuit current by isfactory. This is particularly liable to happen if the
more than a few per cent. Incidentally, it may be of neutral is not grounded at every substation .
Sample Calculations
In order to show the use of decrement tables in making short- circuit current calculations for relay application ,
the following examples are given:
Example 1 : Arrangement of Apparatus

A B C
Shown by Fig . 47
2300 Volts Alternating-current generator A rated 2000 kv-a., 2300 volts, 3-phase; reactance = 8 per cent
Alternating-current generator B rated 5000 kv-a., 2300 volts, 3-phase; reactance = 12 per cent.
Alternating- current generator C rated 8000 kv-a. , 2300 volts, 3-phase; reactance = 16 per cent .
Total alternating- current generator kv-a., 15000
Normal current based on 15000 kv-a., 2300 volts = 3670 amperes.
Short Circuit Value of current wanted 0.5 second after start of short circuit.
1
Alternating-current generator A reactance based on 15,000 kv-a. 15000 X 8 = 60 per cent.
FIGURE 47 ( 2000
Alternating-current generator B reactance based on 15,000 kv- a. 15000 X12 = 36 per cent.
5000
15000
Alternating-current generator C reactance based on 15,000 kv-a.
8000 X16 = 30 per cent.
Total reactance at bus= 1 1 1 1
= 12.85 per cent.
2300 Volts 1 1 3 5 6 14 .0775
+- + + +
60 36 30 180 180 180 180
3% Reactor on From Table I, using 12.85% reactance, we find that at 0.5 second the current
2500 K.V.A. feeder will be approximately 3.7 times normal ; therefore, the short-circuit current equals
Short Circuit 3.7 x 3670 amperes =
13,920 amperes.
FIGURE 48
Shown by Fig . 48
Same as Example 1, excepting that power is distributed over 2500 kv-a . ,
8 feeders in which are installed current-limiting reactors having a reactance of 3
per cent. based on 2500 kv-a.
Current wanted 0.4 second after start of short circuit.
2300 Volts
H
Total alternating-current generator reactance based on 15,000 kv-a. - 12.85 per cent.
Feeder reactance based on 15,000 kv-a. 15000
ww 7500 K.V.A Trans- 2500 X3›) = 18 per cent.
WW Total reactance based on 15,000 kv -a.= (
former bank. 30.85 per cent.
при
From Table I, using 30 per cent . reactance, we find at 0.4 second the current
will be 2.28 times normal; therefore, the short-circuit current equals 2.28 x 3760
amperes = 8580 amperes.

Shown by Fig . 49
ww 7500 K.V.A Trans-
former bank Current wanted 0.1 second after start of short circuit.
11000 Volts Alternating-current generators same as for Example 1.
Two transformer banks each 7500 kv-a.; reactance based on 7500 kv-a. each = 6.25 per cent.
Two lines-20 miles of 1/0 copper each; reactance based on 7500 kv-a. each 5.5 per cent.
Total alternating-current generators; reactance based on 15,000 kv-a. = 12.85 per cent.
Parallel reactance of step-up transformers based on 15,000 kv-a. = 6.25 per cent.
Short Circuit Parallel reactance of lines based on 15,000 kv-a. = 5.5 per cent.
Parallel reactance of step-down transformers based on 15000 kv-a. = 6.25 per cent.
FIGURE 49 Total reactance 30.85 per cent.
Page Thirty
SILENT SENTINELS -
1 Protective Relays for A- C and D- C Systems
From Table I, using 30 per cent. reactance, we find that at 0.1 seconds the
current will be 3.28 times normal. The normal current based on 15,000 kv-a.,
11,000 volts, 3-phase, is 788 amperes; therefore, the short-circuit current equals
3.28 x 788 amperes = 2580 amperes.
B C
HH
2300 Volts Example 4 : Arrangement of Apparatus

H
Shown by Fig . 50
ww 7500K.V.A Trans- Current is wanted 0.4.seconds after start of short circuit. Conditions same
MM former bank
as for Example 3, except that a 475 kv-a., 2300-volt feeder has been added to the
low-voltage distribution .
Transformer reactance = 3 per cent. based on 475 kv-a.
Total reactance up to 11,000 volt bus based on 15,000 kv-a. = 30.9 per cent.
15000
Feeder transformer reactance based on 15,000 kv-a. 475 X3 94.5 per cent.
WW 7500 K.V.A Trans- Total reactance based on 15,000 kv-a, = 125.4 per cent.
former bank
11000 Volts Turning to Fig. 46, page 29, we find that the curves are not carried beyond
н
100 per cent. and at that point they begin to flatten out so as to approach a constant ·
value. It is seen that with these high values of reactance, the alternating current
generator portion of the total reactance becomes of small importance and when
a value of over 100 per cent. is reached the short-circuit current factors approach
ww 475 K.V.A Trans-
MM Former bank the same value regardless of the lapse of time. Therefore, when reactance values
2300 Volts exceed 100 per cent. we can neglect the generator reactance and solve the problem
in the following manner :
Short Circuit Total reactance 125.4 per cent. less generator reactance of 12.9 per cent. equals
112.5 per cent.
100
FIGURE 50 The short-circuit current on this basis would be- .5 X normal or .890 x 3760
112
= 3340 amperes.
5-The Protection of A- C. Apparatus
attention inasmuch as the relays provided for short-

Overload Protection
circuit protection serve also for overload protection of
Overload protection of the larger type of electrical the apparatus of the system. In addition to this, in
apparatus, as a general rule, receives little special generating and substations where there are operators
in attendance, the load on the apparatus is usually
3 Ph. Line
under their supervision, and is governed by them
accordingly, except in cases of short-circuit trouble on
Cur Relays. the system . In small installations where some scheme
Trans.
Trip Coil D-C Control
Fuses
Circuit Pallet Switch
Cir Breaker
Bkr Voltage Trans.
Generator
50
www
Gr Gen LowEnergy
To D-C Control Cir. Type CO..5to25
Field
FIGURE 51 - DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS FOR CW OVERLOAD RELAY Ampere Relays.
USING THREE RELAYS WITH UNBALANCED LOAD. (Double trip)
сту
3Ph.Line
Cur.Trans.
Relay
Fuses
Reactors
Cir.
Bkr. Volt. Trans.
fff Current Coil

570 Gr. To D-C. Control Cir
FIGURE 52- DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS FOR CW RELAY USING ONE FIGURE 53- DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS FOR DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
RELAY AND Y BOX WITH BALANCED LOAD. OF THREE-PHASE GENERATOR.
Page Thirty-one
therefore, rather difficult to locate until it has devel-

Diff.relays. Tripping
circuits not shown. oped into a phase-to-phase short circuit. Thus, from
the consideration of protection, it is best, wherever
Inc. Line possible, to have the neutral grounded.
31,21 11 Grounds are more likely to occur near the line end,
Cur. Trans. rather than the neutral end of a winding, but in the
event of the latter, the current which flows may be
10 20 30 relatively small, especially if a high resistance ground
Lead runs to is used. The fact that the fault current is often very
Bbeprotected. small at the beginning, and that it is highly desirable
to detect such a fault and disconnect the apparatus
31.
from the line before a phase-to-phase short circuit can
develop, makes the protection of apparatus against
/ 11/
3 internal faults rather a difficult problem.
10 20 A differential scheme of protection, making use of
Cur either standard overcurrent relays, or special over-
Trans. 31 current relays operating on very small current, is the
Motor
most general scheme for protection against internal
30 2021 10!! faults. This form of protection consists of balancing
the current entering the apparatus against the current
Allcurrent trans. have same ratio. flowing from it . This scheme of protection is usually
Ground connection for cur. trans. notshown. accomplished by connecting a current transformer at
each end of each phase winding, connecting their second-
FIGURE 54- DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS FOR BALANCED RELAY aries in series, and then connecting a current relay
PROTECTION OF MOTOR. (CO RELAYS .)
across these secondaries . As long as the secondary cur-
rents are equal, no current will flow through the relay
of overcurrent protection is necessary, the CO over- windings. Any leakage of current, however, to other
current relay, or the CW overpower relay can generally
be used to give satisfactory protection .
Protection Against Internal Faults Circuit Bkr.
Protection against internal faults in the windings of Type "CO" Relays.

electrical apparatus is receiving much attention in
present-day practice . These internal faults might be
roughly classified as phase-to-phase short circuits, short-
circuited turns, open circuits and grounds. Experience
has shown that most of the internal faults developed
in larger types of rotating electrical apparatus develop
originally as a ground from the phase windings to the
frame. If the neutral is not grounded, a fault of this
sort will not unbalance the phase current, and it is ,
13200V.30-60-Buses Power To Trip Circuit

Transformers
Circuit Bkr.
60/1 Cur. Trans. Aux.

Relay
CO
Relay CO FIGURE 56- DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS FOR DIFFERENTIAL
www
Leeeed
Relay PROTECTION OF THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER BANK.

Leeeed
Auto
Trans. DC.Control phases or to ground will upset this balance, and send
current through the relay. The relay in turn operates
330/1 to trip the circuit-breaker and disconnect the faulty
Cur.Trans apparatus .
The principle of operation used in this scheme allows
relatively low- current settings on the overcurrent re-
lays, because, obviously, no current will flow under
2400V-20-60-3Wire Buses. normal conditions . It is also free from trouble due to
circulating current, when synchronizing or switching
FIGURE 55- DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS FOR DIFFERENTIAL PROTEC- on any part of the system is taking place, inasmuch as
TION OF THREE-PHASE TWO-PHASE TRANSFORMER BANK. such current should be balanced in each phase. This
Page Thirty-two
scheme is very flexible in its application, and might be 321

applied to machines of any size, either star or delta To Trip Relay
connection, provided that both ends of each phase wind-
ing are capable of being brought out and connected to
current transformers. .Trans L/5A
Cur PD-C
Power
To BellRelay NControl
No definite rule can be set down in regard to the size Trans.
Bank
of apparatus to which relay protective schemes should
tw Type "
CA"
be applied. It is largely a question to be decided from a
consideration of the importance of limiting the amount Gr. M Different-
of damage that can be done to the machine . In other High Cur- ialRelay
words, it resolves into an economic consideration in rent Stud
Polarity Low Cur-
which the cost of relay protection must be balanced Marks 0 rentStud
against the value of service rendered, and then com- CurTrans.L/5A
pared with the cost of possible damage to the apparatus . 321 Gr.
FIGURE 58 — DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF DELTA-STAR TRANSFORMER
BANK, USING CA DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS.
Currentratio
balance auto particular value, especially when bushing-type trans-
formers are to be used .
trans. Normal
www
8.3 amps. with

mmm
mmm
taps. Open or Reverse Phase Protection

In many installations of polyphase motors , and rotary
converters of any size, it is becoming a common prac-
tice to provide protection against running in case of an
open phase, or in case of reversal of phases. A reversal
Std.5amp. over- of two phases, of course, reverses the direction of rota-
load cir. closing relay tion of any motors on the line, and so it is especially
Select current trans. ratios to desirable to have this condition protected against in
cases where a reversal of the direction of rotation of
give primarycurrent capacity
approx.125% atnormalfullload any driving motor, such as one in elevator service, may
be disastrous.
rating ofpower trans.
FIGURE 57- DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS FOR DIFFERENTIAL The CQ phase-balance current relay gives ample pro-
PROTECTION OF YA TRANSFORMER BANK WHERE CURRENT tection against the occurrence of such conditions on a
TRANSFORMERS ARE NOT OF THE SAME RATIOS. system .
Temperature Protection of Windings

In the case of large generators, and sometimes mo-
Inasmuch as the overheating of the windings in elec-
tors, where the neutral is grounded directly or through
resistance, and the faulty currents may or may not be trical apparatus is closely related to overcurrent pro-
of tection, the overcurrent protection is often adequate to
any great value, a relay sensitive to very small cur-
rent is required. The low-energy CO relay is especially provide the necessary temperature protection. In some
adapted for the differential protection of such applica- cases, however, it is more desirable to furnish protective
tions . apparatus which will include in its operation, not only
the load on the apparatus, but also the existing temper-
An improvement on this method has been made by ature of the windings. In other cases, the temperature
designing a relay (the type CA) that trips on a per- of the winding alone is taken as the determining factor
centage of the line current rather than on a given value
in the operation of a temperature protective scheme.
of current. This makes it possible to get more sensitive
protection without danger of having the relay operate
due to the circulating currents, which usually occur at
times of through short circuits. D.C.
In the differential protection of transformers , highly
sensitive settings are not so necessary, and in many Cir. BKr T.C
cases are undesirable as they would only serve to dis-
connect the transformers upon some transient condition
which accompanies a momentary unbalance, but not a 3 4
fault. The standard overcurrent CO relay is, therefore,
applicable for the differential protection of trans- 82 BI
Normal Phase
formers. A2 Rotation A-B-C
A special form of the type CA relay with taps pro- A B C
vided so that unequal currents can be balanced with-
out the use of auto transformers has been developed
for transformer protection. This tap arrangement, com- FIGURE 59 - DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS OF TYPE CQ RELAY ARRANGED
bined with its adaptability to cases where circulating TO TRIP A CIRCUIT-BREAKER EQUIPPED WITH DIRECT-CURRENT
current appears under transient conditions, makes it of TRIP COIL.
Page Thirty-three
In most of the larger generating stations or substa- D.C.Control Circuit

tions, where constant supervision of the operation of
the various machines is possible, temperature indicat- Type HM Thermostat
ing devices are used to show the attendant when the
temperature of the windings in question becomes such Contact- Bearing
that some means should be used to reduce it . Such
indications are usually provided by means of exploring
Bellows
coils imbedded in the windings of the apparatus serving
either to actuate a signal when the temperature reaches
some predetermined point , or to operate some temper-
ature indicating instrument. Thus when the critical
To alarm ortrip Thermostat Bulb
degree of heat is indicated, the operator may relieve the coil ofbreaker
condition either by reducing the load on the apparatus ,
FIGURE 61- SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF TYPE HM THERMOSTAT
or by increasing any existing cooling means, such as the INSTALLATION
flow of air or water , as the case may be.
buried in the windings, and connected in some sort of
Oil- Filled Thermal Relays Where manual super- bridge arrangement, so that the change in the resis-
vision is not possible, such as in automatic substation tance of the exploring coils, due to any change in the
equipment, and in plants using numerous motors , it is temperature of the windings, will give the proper tem-
necessary to have temperature protection that will perature indication to the protective relay by using the
disconnect the apparatus when any predetermined con- change in the resistance values to cause a flow of cur-
ditions exist . A common scheme for providing such rent. In addition to this, a current proportional to the
protection is to apply in a protective relay a heating current flowing in the apparatus, flows through another
element with thermal characteristics similar to those winding of the relay, and thus the following three con-
of the machine to be protected . A current proportional ditions are necessary before the apparatus is discon-
to the load current in the apparatus itself flows through nected from the source of power. First, the temperature
the heating element of the relay. The characteristics of the windings of the apparatus must be above the
of this element are such that its temperature will be value for which the relay is set to operate ; second, the
approximately the same as that of the protected appar- current flowing in the apparatus must be above the nor-
atus under all loads and at all times. When the tempera- mal value ; and third, these two conditions must have
ture of this element reaches the critical point, it serves existed for a given period of time. Thus the liability of
to trip the apparatus off the line . The Westinghouse the machines being disconnected upon the occurrence of
BA and BD oil-filled thermal relays serve to provide a transient overload is guarded against . The CT temper-
this class of protection. ature relay provides such protection, and embodies the
necessary characteristics to assure maximum continuity
Type CT Temperature Relay-Another scheme
used for the temperature protection of windings is to of service .
have the protective apparatus dependent on the current The simplest form of overtemperature protection is
flowing at any given time , and also at the same time that in which the temperature of the surrounding mate-
on the temperature within the windings of the apparatus rial is alone used as an indication of the temperature of
to be protected . In such a scheme , the temperature is the winding, and is taken as the determining factor in
usually determined by means of copper exploring coils the operation of any protective relays used. Such a
scheme is used largely in the protection of transformers
where the exploring coils, expansion bulbs, or whatever
Direct- Current ControlCircuit means are used for measuring the temperature of the
To Three-Phase-Line
surrounding material, may be embedded between the
Relay Circuit coils of the transformers in such a way that an approxi-
Breaker
mate indication of the temperature of the windings is
TripColl secured . The HM thermostat relay is sometimes used
for this purpose.
Current
Trans
Temperature Protection of Bearings
In the case of rotating machinery , it is often neces-
sary to provide some scheme of protection whereby any
overheating in the bearings will either cause a signal to
operate, or else cause the machine to be disconnected
entirely. Where actual supervision is possible, such
protection may provide only for the operation of a sig-
nal to call the attendant's attention to the fact that all
is not well with his machinery . In cases such as auto-
Search Coils matic substations , it is usually necessary to have the
Apparatus to be protected from high temperature protective apparatus disconnect the machine entirely,
either shutting down the station or else disconnecting
FIGURE 60- CONNECTIONS FOR PROTECTING WINDINGS FROM the individual piece of apparatus . The HM thermostat
OVERHEATING WITH CT TEMPERATURE RELAY. relay is used largely for this application .
Page Thirty-four
Direct- Current Systems
The direct-current systems of today, though small the fault has been cleared sufficiently to allow the cir-
in comparison with the alternating-current systems, cuit-breaker to be closed with safety .
offer relay problems equally important . Comparable to
When continuity of service is of great importance and
the service demanded of other public utilities is that
when the capacity behind the feeder is large, it is desir-
which congested cities demand from Street Railway able to have the breaker remain closed, except in cases
Companies . The growth and inter-connection of some
of actual short circuits or of violent overloads . Oper-
of these systems have created a demand for adequate ators of large urban railway systems demand this class
direct- current relay protection .
of service, as it permits heavy peaks for acceleration of
This demand for service brought about both the the cars and prevents untimely interruption of the
development of service-restoring equipment and the service . Nevertheless, in meeting this demand, the
supervision of feeder apparatus by supervisory con- feeder circuits must be protected against short- circuits
trol . Protection against overcurrents, caused either by and heavy overcurrents. The short-circuit- detector type
accidental faults on feeders or lines, or by excessive
of equipment provides this protection without inter-
overloads on lines, can be effected by the use of over-
rupting the circuit on ordinary overloads.
current relays . The short- circuit-detector type of equip-
ment, meeting the demands of railway systems, permits Except for heavy railway service, it is usually desir-
heavy overloads due to acceleration, but gives pro- able to open a circuit on a definite overcurrent . For
tection upon the occurrence of a short circuit on the this application the overcurrent type of equipment with
line. an overcurrent relay is used instead of the short- circuit
detector. The overcurrent setting is usually for instan-
Service Restoring System taneous tripping, but occasionally a time element is
As in the case of alternating-current service, the ques- provided.
tion of continuity of service often makes necessary some
sort of device to restore service
Protection of Direct- Current Apparatus
after it has been interrupted .
Where a feeder has been trip- The protection of the direct-current apparatus might
ped out because of a fault, it be classed as protection against overcurrent, reversed
may sometimes be necessary current, and overtemperature. In most cases, such pro-
to provide means for automa- tection on motors and generators is secured by means
tically reclosing the breaker of circuit-breakers equipped with necessary overcurrent
several times, allowing a defi- or reversed-current coils, or by fuses of suitable capacity.
nite interval of time between In many installations, however, it is found necessary to
each reclosing. Thus, if the use a protective relay in order to secure the needed
fault is of a transient nature accuracy and reliability of protection. In such cases,
and clears itself quickly, the the D or the TO overcurrent relay is used, and in cases
breaker will remain closed, and where protection is required against reverse current,
service will be continued on the D reverse-current relay is applicable.
the line. However, if the fault
Overtemperature protection of direct- current appa-
is of a permanent nature, the ratus is obtained in a manner similar to that described
breaker will open each time it
under alternating-current apparatus. The BD oil-filled
is reclosed until the specified
thermal relay is used largely for motor protection, while
number of reclosures have oc-
curred, and then it will remain in some cases where it is possible to have exploring coils
in the windings the DT temperature relay is used.
open permanently, indicating
that the line requires attention .
Another method used for Electro - Chemical Work
service restoring is to have a
relay which has included in its When a line supplies a load for such work as electro-
design characteristics whereby chemical processes, where a reversal of polarity is ex-
it discriminates between a good tremely dangerous, it is sometimes necessary to supply
and a bad feeder. a highly sensitive relay which serves to disconnect the
In this case, the feeder is circuit when any condition shows that the polarity is
opened under overcurrent or liable to reverse. The A polarity directional relay has
short-circuit conditions and been used very successfully for this purpose , fulfilling
the breaker reclosed auto- the protective requirements , and passing the under-
writer's inspection .
matically as soon as the exces-
sive load is removed. The sensitivity and design of this relay are such that
After the breaker has been the contacts will be closed upon any reversal of the
FIGURE 62 D. C. SHORT-
CIRCUIT DETECTOR FEEDER opened, it may be reclosed by polarity of the circuit to which it is connected, or upon
PANEL USED FOR RAILWAY a resistance measuring relay. a fall in the voltage to below 20 per cent of normal
SERVICE . This relay determines when value.
Page Thirty-five
Automatic Control
Substations , depending on the method used in their While many of the operations are common to both
operation, may be divided into three classes, -manual, synchronous converters and motor-generators, the fol-
semi-automatic and automatic. Regardless of its type lowing outline of system is especially applicable to syn-
a station must be a highly reliable source of power chronous converters .
supply.
When conditions are favorable for starting, a se-
The necessary operations in a substation which serves
quence of relay actions serves to perform the necessary
the purpose of transforming alternating current into
functions, such as lifting the converter brushes, con-
direct current by means of synchronous converters or
necting the converter to the starting tap of the power
motor-generators are, therefore, the starting and stop-
ping of such machines when the system demands it, and transformers, and other operations depending on the
type of substation. After the converter has started to
the provision of adequate protection against faulty ac-
rotate, synchronism and polarity are indicated by a
tion either in case of some trouble out on the system, or polarized motor relay, which, in case of reversed polar-
in case of trouble within the substation equipment . ity, causes the polarity of the machine to be corrected
The automatic substation , today, is more dependable by reversing the field. The armature of the relay motor
than is the manually -operated station . The design and
development of relays with a high degree of accuracy , is connected to the converter pilot brushes, and during
the period of starting, the polarity of the relay becomes
sensitivity and reliabilty have made such an automatic
substation a possibility . that of the machine. As the converter comes up to
synchronous speed, alternating current of diminishing
The characteristics of the automatic substation , frequency flows through the motor armature until syn-
which must be supplied by adequate relays , might be
chronism is reached without causing rotation . At that
roughly divided into two classes, namely, control and
time, the armature will revolve, and drive a drum
protection . The control methods consist in the auto- switch in the direction corresponding to the converter
matic starting of one or more of the machines in the polarity. If the polarity is incorrect, the drum switch
station . This may be introduced in any one of several
causes the field connection to reverse by means of a
ways depending on the conditions to be met, and is gen- double throw contactor switch. The reversed connec-
erally accomplished through some form of remote con-
tion is maintained only long enough for the voltage to
trol, or by means of a voltage relay which closes its
fall to zero, and then to release the controlling relay
contacts at some predetermined value of reduced line
which causes the normal field connection to be re-estab-
voltage . Starting, due to momentary drop in voltage, lished. By this operation, the converter has been caused
or when the alternating- current voltage conditions are
incorrect, is prevented by an induction -type alternat- to slip a pole, and thus correct the polarity. The polar-
ing-current voltage relay. ized motor relay continues to operate, and causes a
transfer relay to function . This relay, in turn , opens the
FIGURE , 63- AUTOMATIC SUBSTATION OF ROCHESTER & SYRACUSE RAILROAD COMPANY AT

MACEDON, N. Y. 400 KW., 600 VOLT MOTOR-STARTED CONVERTERS.
Page Thirty-six
000
00
扇
771
FIGURE 63 (a)-AUTOMATIC SUBSTATION CONTROL FOR IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS, JAPAN
FIGURE 63 (b)-AUTOMATIC EDISON SYSTEM- DETROIT EDISON COMPANY
Page Thirty-seven
SILENT SENTINELS -
SENTINELS — Protective Relays for A- C and D- C Systems
starting contactor, causing operation of the direct- cur- In addition to this automatic operation of the sub-
rent brush-operating mechanism which lowers the brushes station, a number of automatic selective relay equip-
to the commutator. At this time, the main direct- ments are in use, for automatically cutting out a short-
current switches are closed, and the machine is con- circuited line or for automatically reclosing and other
nected to the load . types of necessary feeder operation .
The final function of the control part of the substa-
It can be seen from this description what a large part
tion equipment is to disconnect the machine from serv-
the relays play in automatic substation equipment, and
ice . This operation is introduced by the action of a
also how absolutely necessary it is to have relays which
sequence of light-load control relays . are not only highly reliable, and accurate at the time
Protective equipment is provided not only in the of their installation, but also which will maintain this
automatic substations, but also in the manually-oper- high degree of accuracy and reliability throughout con-
ated or the semi-automatic stations. It is provided by tinued service. The success of the Westinghouse auto-
induction-type single and polyphase relays which pre- matic substations, and past experience, have proved the
vent the station from starting under abnormal condi- induction type of relays, first developed and manufac-
tions of alternating-current line voltage, such as low- tured by the Westinghouse Company, to be especially
voltage, open-phase, or reverse-phase. This same type suitable for this type of service . By the use of the
of relay causes the station to shut down on unbalanced induction-type relays, precision of operation is not only
phase conditions. If the trouble is within the station, assured, but the exact calibration can be maintained
a lockout relay prevents restarting, and if the unbal- throughout a long period of operation . Thus, the induc-
anced phase condition is outside of the station, the auto- tion relay has solved many of the difficulties which were
matic equipment functions to bring the apparatus into formerly experienced when plunger-type relays had to
service as soon as the line is restored to normal. Each be depended on for the various functions.
bearing is equipped with a thermostat which in case of
a hot bearing, locks the machine out of service until Most of the relays supplied with the present-day
the contacts of the thermostat device have been reset automatic substation equipment are standard protec-
by hand. tive relays as described elsewhere in this publication.
In some cases, it is necessary to somewhat modify the
A thermal relay also protects the winding of the
characteristics of the relay, but the fundamental prin-
machine from overheating due to continued overload. ciples of design and operation are maintained. The CV
Other protective devices are the direct- current direc-
voltage relay is used throughout as a timing voltage relay
tional relay , an overspeed device, an inductive-type
to provide a definite time delay where necessary . A slight
alternating-current overload relay, a thermostat pre-
modification of this relay consists in having the contacts
venting overheating of the current limiting resistors, and geared to the disc shaft rather than mounted directly
a lockout relay which locks the equipment out of ser-
vice in case of failure of any part of the apparatus . on it, which provides a relay with a much longer time
delay characteristic than the standard. The GK time-
The protection of the equipment is complete , and delay relay, also used largely in automatic substation
responds immediately in case of trouble, thus eliminat- equipment, is motor operated, and is highly reliable.
ing the losses which often occur in manually - operated
A recent addition to the relay family is the MF flash
substations, because of the very impossibility of hand- relay which is used in automatic substation protection
ling an emergency in the required time or the inability
of the operator to do so . to disconnect the rotary in case of a flashover occurring
between the commutator and the frame.
Page Thirty-eight
Relay Settings
The selection of the proper current tap and time index the "flat" or minimum time interval of the time- current
lever setting for induction-type overcurrent relays de- curve, i . e., when the secondary current is 500 per cent.
mands a knowledge of the load conditions in the cir- or more of the relay current tap setting.
cuit, or portion of the circuit to be protected, and the
amount of short- circuit current available under mini-
Time Settings on Loop Feeders
mum generating capacity conditions . It is also desirable
to know the amount of short- circuit current available For the simple loop system, involving only one source
under maximum generating conditions, but in case the of power, the relay time settings are as described in the
data is not available, the interrupting ability of the paragraph on "Time Settings on Radial Feeders. " The
oil circuit-breaker will serve as a first approximation . loop is opened at one of the generating station breakers
While there are minor modifications in the actual set- and the relays on the outgoing sides of the substations
tings of the relays dependent on the particular type of set for successively higher times of operation from the
protection employed, the following remarks will outline outermost substation (considering the feeder as straight
the general considerations with reference to the simpler radial) to the generating station . The loop is then
cases. closed up and the other generating station breaker
opened, the time settings on the remaining relays being
Current Tap Settings on Radial and Loop determined as already outlined . Starting on the loop
at any point and approaching the generating station,
Feeders
it will then be observed that the relays set to trip for
14
The proper current tap is determined largely by the power flowing from the generating station will be set
current transformer ratio and the full-load current in for increasingly longer times of operation, whereas the
the feeder. In general, the current tap is so chosen as relays set to trip for power flowing towards the gener-
to be at least 200 per cent. of the secondary current ating station will be set for increasingly shorter times of
from the current transformers when carrying full load operation .
in the line . In cases where the load is subject to violent The loop system which receives power at two or more
fluctuations it may be necessary to make normal oper- points in the ring is especially difficult to relay. If the
ating current for the relay 300 per cent . of the secondary various substation relays are timed for one source of །།
current corresponding to normal full load. The current power, as outlined in the preceding paragraph, the tim-
tap should not, however, be chosen so high that the ing is wrong when considering the other source or
relay winding receives less than 300 per cent . of its sources of power. Parallel lines between any two points
current setting under short circuit with minimum gen- can, of course, use some form of balanced protection for
erating capacity on the system, as otherwise the time parallel operation, but this is not applicable when the
of operation will be so long as to completely disrupt lines are operating singly. In applying a series of time
service . settings to such a system, it is generally necessary to
consider both the amount and source of short-circuit
current available . Selection usually can be obtained
Time Settings on Radial Feeders by working on the inverse portion of the time-current
The proper time of operation of the relay is deter- curve of the relay.
mined by its location with respect to the source of power
and other relays on the same circuit. For a radial feeder Parallel Feeders Protected by Type CD
system , the outermost relay is set for the shortest time ,
Relays
and the relays toward the generating station for suc-
cessively longer times . The relays at the source of For lines protected by type CD relays it is usual to
power must be set sufficiently long to allow any out- set the relay to operate on a differential current of 3
lying faulty section to be cleared . With induction-type amperes . For through short circuits the current in the
relays and direct -current operated circuit-breakers, it two equal lines will be balanced so that there will be a
is common practice to set successive relays for time very slight amount of differential current tending to
intervals 0.5 second apart with the outermost relay set trip the relays . For the somewhat infrequent case where
for 0.1 second. Adopting a maximum of 2.1 seconds type CD relays protect two parallel lines of unequal
as the longest time a fault should remain on the system impedance, but equipped with current transformers of
we therefore find that five sections is about the most the same ratio , type A current-balance auto-trans-
that should be protected by selective timing alone. formers should be used to make equal the currents flow-
ing through the relay windings. The time setting is
Although some systems are operating satisfactorily with
relays set 0.3 or 0.4 second apart, such systems achieve generally on the order of 0.1 or 0.2 second.
success only by using extreme care in the maintenance
of the oil circuit -breaker mechanism and careful adjust-
Settings for Ground Relays
ment of relays and trip-circuit mechanisms. Time inter-
vals closer together than 0.5 second are not to be recom- Ground relays are set the same as line relays except
mended for average systems . The time of operation that ground current flow differs in magnitude from the
current flow for a line-to-line short circuit.
should be that required when the relay is operating on
Page Thirty-nine
Typical Relay Application

When it is desired to relay a power transmission at each substation . The type CR relays are connected
system there are many factors which enter into the so that the directional element contacts will close only
problem, all of which must be given consideration . In when power is flowing away from the substation bus
most systems, so many complications are present that bars. It should be remembered throughout this discus-
it is almost impossible to secure an ideal application of sion that excess current flowing in this direction is
relay protection. However, in most cases it is possible necessary to complete the tripping circuit.
to arrange the relay settings so that certain lines, in After assigning relays to the various lines, the next
case of a fault, may be disconnected without disturb- problem is to assign time settings to the relays and then
ing the service, and the disconnecting of these lines check out to determine if the proper time- intervals
leaves conditions such that ideal selective action is necessary for selective action can be allowed without
secured on the rest of the system. Where distance having excessive time-settings on any of the relays .
between stations is great enough to give the necessary A five-tenths second interval between relay settings is
3 per cent . drop, and it is convenient to use the type commonly used in present- day practice, this value
CZ relay, these complications may be eliminated .
allowing 0.35 second for the breaker to open after the
Fig. 64 shows a schematic sketch of a typical network trip circuit has been made, and 0.15 second margin .
system which will be used as a basis for illustrating one
The maximum allowable setting, of course, depends on
method of making an initial relay application . Upon the system, but 3.1 seconds is considered the highest
analysis , the network is found to be really a loop sys- time- setting which it is safe to use, and a maximum of
tem, with tie line No. VIII connecting Parsons and
Kubiac substations , and No. IX connecting the gener- 2.6 seconds is adhered to wherever possible .
Referring to the system in question, there are seven
ating station with the Kubiac sub . This loop, without substations in the loop which would require a maximum
these ties, connects seven substations with the gener-
time-setting of 3.6 seconds for the relays at the gener-
ating station. Either the CO- CR or the CZ relay
scheme will be the typical one to use; therefore the ating station. This value is rather high, therefore some
CO- CR scheme will be chosen, with the CZ scheme as way must be found to lower it . When checking the
an alternative . Standard CO overcurrent relays are, distance between stations, it is found that line VI is
therefore , allotted to each outgoing line (Nos. I, II, comparatively short, hence a pilot wire scheme may be
used to protect this section . That makes one less sec-
IX, XI) at the generating station , and standard CR
directional overcurrent relays on each line of the loop tion to be counted in adding the successive time-inter-
vals, but 3.1 seconds is still higher than is desirable .
Key to Symbols .
Woodward
Circuit Breakers. Numberin square Feeders

refers to relay.
Sub
44 Type CO overcurrentrelayortypeCZ
impedance relay
21Sec
1 Type CR directional overcurrentrelay or

Sec
. c
Breisky Sub.
Se
type CZrelaywithdirectional Feeders

Parsons
element. Sec
11Sed Feeder
Sub
Selective differentialcurrent balance

type CDrelay. III
IV mi
3 mi. 6 .
Sec
HO
.Sec
1.6
1.6
m3i
II
12000.
25000KVA 66000 Trans 26Sec
Gen- X
ine
TLiIeI
25000KV.A.
V
2.6Sec
5mi
25000KVA
.
(Gen 3./Sec. IX
Crichton 41
5mi
Generating Feldman Sub
XI2mi
Goldsborough
Station VII
21Sec
viny
21500
16Sec
ans
3mi
X VI e Feeders
6Sec
4mi
10
Anderson
www PilotWire
Sub
Imi.
Sub
Feeders
Feeders
Feeders
FIGURE 64- TYPICAL ALTERNATING -CURRENT TRANSMISSION SYSTEM WITH PROTECTIVE RELAYS .
Page Forty
Trying to find some means of eliminating one more sec- flow in from both directions , tending to trip relays 7
tion , it is observed that the Anderson sub might be at Breisky, 14 at Kubiac and 21 and 22, in addition to
eliminated from the loop for the first trial application , 3 and 4, at the immediate ends of the line. Relay 3
making tie line No. IX a part of the loop . This will make will beat 22 and 21 out, thus clearing the fault in that
it possible to obtain the proper intervals between suc- direction, and relay 4 will trip in 0.6 second, which is
cessive relays, with a maximum setting of approxi- a shorter period than that of any of the others that
mately 2.6 seconds . will be likely to trip. Assuming faults at c on line
Definite time-settings may now be assigned to the IV, d on V, g on VIII, e on line VI, h on line IX, j
successive relays in the following manner : Beginning on line XI and i on line X, the action may be checked
at the Woodward sub, the CR relays Nos. 1 and 2 on out in the same way. Assuming a fault on line VII at
lines I and II, set to trip with power flowing from the f, we find that current may be drawn from both direc-
sub to the generating station, may be set to trip almost tions; that coming from sub Kubiac, being possibly
instantly, because a fault on line No. I or II is the only drawn from lines VIII, IX and X. In case enough cur-
circumstance to cause excess current to flow in this rent is drawn from line VIII to give relay 5 its definite
direction, and therefore the relays may be set to clear minimum time of tripping, it may trip before relay 13
as soon as possible. It is customary to make this set- clears . However, relay 13 will trip before any other
ting 0.1 second. Going on to the next sub (Parsons) , relays in the system, therefore the opening of the tie
we find that relay 4 on line No. III at this sub is set line is not serious . There is also a possibility of setting
to trip with power flow in the same direction, namely the current taps on relay 5 so that it will be operating
away from the bus bars towards Woodward sub . This on the inverse part of the curve under such a condition
relay must, accordingly, be given a higher time-setting and thus increase its time of tripping to the extent that
because a fault on line I or II will draw current through relay 13 will trip first .
relay 4 and, therefore, it is essential to have relay 1 If it is desired, and an analysis of short-circuit cur-
trip first. A definite setting of 0.6 second is, therefore, rent values shows that sufficient unbalance will exist
assigned to it. In like manner each successive relay between lines I and II with a fault in either one, addi-
connected to trip with the power flow in this direction tional current balance CD relays may be installed at
is given a setting of 0.5 second higher than the next pre- each end. These will provide a means for clearing either
ceding one which leads to a setting of 2.6 seconds on line almost instantly when they are both in service and
relay 20 at the generating station . Relay No. 11 at one develops a fault.
Goldsborough sub may be ignored, because it can be Type CO relays should be used on each outgoing
set to trip almost instantly when a fault occurs in line feeder from the several substations. Type CA relays
VI, but a fault on any other part of the system will should be used for the differential protection of the
not affect it. three banks of transformers in the generating station .
A similar procedure is followed out for the relays set The transformers in the substations also may be sup-
to trip with the power flow in the other direction , or plied with differential protection if their size and loca-
clockwise, as it might be considered . Beginning at tion justify it. In most cases, however, where the trans-
Kubiac sub, relay 15 is assigned 0.1 second setting; formers are relatively small (less than 2000 kv-a.) and
relay 12 , 0.6 second ; relay 8 , 1.1 second and so on , until where the overload relays may be given a low time-
relays 21 and 22 at the generating station are reached . setting, the overload relays serve also as sufficient
The next problem which must be met and solved is transformer fault protection .
the time-setting for relays 5 and 14 on line VIII and On complicated systems employing CO and CR re-
relays 16 , 17 , 18, 19 on lines X and XI. No definite lays for protection , the time required to trip sometimes
rule can be followed for making the settings on relays becomes excessive in some parts of the system . This
5 and 14. Very often the relays on a tie line are set objectionable feature is entirely absent in a CZ installa-
to trip in a short time whenever excess current flows, tion as all lines have their relays set to clear the line
because this action makes the relay operation on the in a maximum time of 0.75 second, with a short at the
rest of the system simpler, and does not injure the far end . If the short takes place at or near the relay,
service . In this case, however, by assigning a setting the short is cleared almost instantaneously, since the
of 1.6 seconds to relay 5, and 2.1 seconds on relay 14, voltage restraining action is zero . The other relays on
comparatively good protection is secured for line VIII , the system are restrained in proportion to their dis-
and neither relay will trip with a fault elsewhere on the tance from the short, and accordingly do not open their
system except in one or two cases, as will be shown later . breakers .
The lines X and XI may be considered as complet- Type CA relays should be used for the differential
ing the loop from substation Kubiac rather than line protection of the three generators .
IX, and the settings assigned to fit-in with the rest of It should be understood that definite current and
the loop as already described . time-settings, and final checks on the relay operation
A check can now be made, assuming a fault in each can be made only after a short- circuit study of the sys-
tem has been made, thus determining the actual cur-
line in turn, and then determining whether the proper
relay operation will take place. Assuming a fault on rents which will flow in different lines with faults at
line I at a, current will flow to the fault from the gen- the different locations. After this information is avail-
erator station and from Woodward sub. Thus relay I able the proper current transformer ratios and current
will clear within 0.1 second , cutting off all flow from taps on the relays may be specified, and with the time-
that direction , and relay 22 will clear within 2.6 sec- setting assumed, the exact time of operation may be
onds . Assuming a fault at b on line III, current will found from the relay time-current curve .
Page Forty-one
Application Chart
For Westinghouse Protective and Control Relays
Volt-amps.
Application Туре Rating Time Operating Required to
Description
Characteristics Principle Operate
General
To give signal at over or under a-c. CV Contacts normally Inverse Induction a-c. over and
voltage. closed above 55v., 90v., undervoltage
140v., or 280v.
Contacts normally
closed below
80v. , or 160v.
To disconnect a-c. apparatus upon CO 4 to 12 amps. Inverse with Induction a-c. overcurrent 16 v-a.
overcurrent . 4 to 16 amps . definite mini-
mum
COA 4 to 12 amps . Inverse with Induction Type CO with cur- 16 v-a.
definite mini- rent indicator
mum
To disconnect a-c. apparatus upon L.E. 4 to 12 amps . Inverse with Induction a-c. overcurrent 2 v-a.
overcurrent . Applicable where CO definite mini-
only low ratio bushing-type cur- mum
rent transformers are available.
To protect a-c. installations CW 5 amp., 70 & 125 volts Inverse Induction a-c. reverse power
against excessive power flow in 50 to 300 watts
reverse direction (normal volt- 100 to 600 watts
age). Applicable on regenerative
systems .
To protect windings of a-c. appa-
ratus from overheating. Appli- CT 5 amps. Inverse Induction
cable where exploring coils may a-c. overtemper-
ature
be installed in windings. (Oper-
ates only on excess current and
temperature.)
To protect windings of apparatus

from overheating.
Oil-filled thermal relay operating

from current transformer .
(Short Time) BA 2 to 15 amps . 10 sec. to 90 Differential a-c. thermal 16 to 52 v-a
minutes Expansion at 5 amps.
(Long Time) BA 2 to 15 amps . 10 sec. to 120 Differential a-c. thermal 16 to 52 v-a
minutes Expansion at 5 amps.
BF 1 to 60 amps . Inverse Differential a-c. or d-c.
Cartridge type thermal relay.
Expansion thermal
BK 60 to 100 amps. Inverse Differential a-c. or d-c.
Expansion thermal
(Hand Reset) BH 1 to 100 amps. Inverse Differential a-c. or d-c.
Expansion thermal
To protect windings of d-c. appa-
ratus from overheating. Appli-
cable where exploring coils may DT Inverse
Special Moving coil d-c. overtemper-
be provided. ature
Oil filled thermal relay operating
from bus current shunt or inter-
pole drop. (Short Time ) BD 2 to 15 amps. 10 sec. to 90 Differential d-c. overtemper-
minutes Expansion ature
(Long Time) BD 2 to 15 amps . 10 sec. to 120 Differential d-c. overtemper-
minutes Expansion ature
To protect hearings of rotating HM 100° C. Volatile Overtemperature
machines from overheating. Liquid
To protect resistance grids from HN 150° C. Volatile Overtemperature
overload. (Auto Substation 300° C. Liquid
Control. )
Page Forty-two
APPLICATION CHART-Continued
Time Volt-amps.
Application Туре Rating Operating Description Required to
Generators
To protect against excessively high CV Contacts normally Inverse Induction Operates on
voltage upon sudden clearance closed above 55 volts undervoltage
of short circuit. (Used with vi-
brating-type Voltage Regulator. )
To disconnect a-c. Generator in CA 5 amps. Instantaneous Induction a-c. current.
case of fault in winding. (Dif-
ferential protection . )
To disconnect a-c. Generator in L.E. 0.5 to 2.5 amps. Inverse with Induction a-c. current 2 v-a.
case of fault in winding. (Dif- CO definite mini-
ferential protection. ) mum
To limit the power fed into system CW 5 amp . -70 and 125 volts Inverse Induction a-c. overpower
by generators in small substa- 50 to 300 watts
tions. 100 to 600 watts
To protect 3-wire d-c. generator ΤΟ 40 to 80 millivolts Instantaneous Armature d-c. overcurrent

against excessive unbalanced
current.
Converters
To prevent starting of Syn. Con- CV Special Inverse Induction a-c. over or under-
verter on low voltage. Auto- voltage
matic Substation.
To prevent operation on single CM 2 to 6 amps . Inverse with Induction Balanced phase

phase or on badly unbalanced 4.
definite mini- current
phases. mum
CQ 2 to 6 amps. (60cy.) Inverse with Induction Balanced phase 20 v-a.
definite mini- current
mum
To prevent converters from run- D 50 millivolts Inverse Moving d-c. reverse cur-
ning inverted (Reverse d-c. Coil rent
current).
To disconnect converter when flash- MF 100 amps. d-c. Instantaneous Armature d-c. overcurrent
over occurs. (Flash relay)
Motors
To disconnect a-c. motors upon CV Contacts normally Inverse Induction
closed above a-c. undervoltage
fall in voltage.
55 volts
90 volts
140 volts
280 volts
To disconnect a-c. motors in case

of fault in windings (Differen- CA 5 amps. Instantaneous Induction a-c. current
tial Protection) .
To disconnect a-c. motors in case L.E. 0.5 to 2.5 amps. Inverse with Induction a-c. overcurrent 2 v-a.
of fault in windings (Differen- CO definite mini-
tial Protection ). mum
To prevent a-c, motors from draw- CW 5 amps. 70-125 volts Inverse Induction a-c. reverse power
ing excess power from line 50 to 300 watts
100 to 600 watts
(Normal voltage) .
To prevent a-c. motor from re- CW 5 amps. 70-125 volts Inverse Induction a-c. overpower
turning overpower to line when 50 to 300 watts
it is being run by load. 100 to 600 watts
To prevent polyphase a-c. motors CM 2 to 6 amps. Inverse with Induction Phase current bal-
from operating single phase or definite mini- ance or phase failure
with badly unbalanced phases. mum
To prevent polyphase a-c. motors CQ 2 to 6 amps. Inverse with Induction Phase current bal- 20 v-a.
from operating single phase, re- definite mini- ance or phase failure
verse phase or with badly un- mum
balanced phases.
Page Forty-three
Volt-amps.
Application Туре Rating Time Operating Description Required to
Motors-Continued
To prevent starting polyphase in- CP 110 or 220 volts Inverse Induction Reverse phase
duction motors single phase or
with reversed phase.
To disconnect polyphase motors CP 110 or 220 volts Inverse Induction Reverse phase
upon phase reversal.
Transformers
To disconnect transformers upon L.E. 4 to 12 amps. Inverse with Induction a-c. overcurrent 2 v-a.
overcurrent. Applicable where CO definite mini-
only low ratio bushing-type cur- mum
rent transformers are available.
To disconnect high voltage trans- CB 4 to 12 amps . Inverse with Induction a-c. overcurrent 44 v-a.
formers upon overcurrent. Ap- definite mini-
plicable on circuits carrying ap- mum
proximately less than 100 amps.
To disconnect transformers in case CA 5 to 10 amps . Instantaneous Induction a-c. current
of fault in winding (Differen-
tial protection).
To disconnect transformers in case CO 4 to 12 amps . Inverse with Induction a-c. overcurrent 16 v-a.
of fault in winding (Differen- definite mini-
tial protection). mum
To protect windings from over- HM 100° C. Volatile Overtemperature
heating (Thermostat) .
Liquid
To protect windings from over- CT 5 amps . Induction Overtemperature
heating (Exploring coil) .
Transmission Lines
For feeder protection from over- CO 0.5 to 1.5 amps . Inverse with Induction a-c. overcurrent 16 v-a.
current with pilot wire. definite mini-
mum
To cut out section of transmission CO 4 to 12 amps .
line where S.C. occurs (Line Inverse with Induction a-c. overcurrent 16 v-a.
4 to 16 amps. definite mini-
sectionalizing) . mum
COA 4 to 12 amps . Inverse with Induction Type CO with cur- 16 v-a.
definite mini- rent indicator
mum
To cut out short-circuited section L.E. 4 to 12 amps .
of transmission line (Line sec- Inverse with Induction a-c. overcurrent 2 v-a.
CO definite mini-
tionalizing). Applicable where mum
only low ratio bushing-type cur-
rent transformers are available .
To cut out faulty section of high CB 4 to 12 amps . Inverse with 44 v-a.

voltage transmission line upon Induction a-c. overcurrent
definite mini-
overcurrent. Applicable on cir-
mum
cuits carrying less than 100
amps.
To cut out faulty line from group CD 3 to 7 amps . Inverse with Induction a-c. selective differ- 7 v-a.
of parallel feeders (Differential definite mini- ential current
current). mum
To cut out faulty sections of trans- CZ 70-125 volts Direct with Induction Distance or Cur.-el.
mission lines. Operates accord- 4 to 33 amps . distance 5 v-a.
ing to distance from fault. impedance
voltage-el.
16 v-a.
To cut out short-circuited section CR 4 to 12 amps . Inverse with Induction a-c. directional Cur. el.
of transmission line with reverse 125 volts definite mini- 17 v-a.
current
power flow. Applicable at sub- mum voltage el.
station end of feeders. 25 v-a.
CRA 4 to 12 amps. Inverse with Induction Type CR with cur- Cur. el.
125 volts definite mini- rent indicator 17 v-a.
mum voltage el.
25 v-a.
Page Forty-four
SILENT SENTINELS - Protective Relays for A- C and D -C Systems
Volt-amps.
Application Туре Rating Time Operating Description Required to
Transmission Lines-Cont'd.
To cut out short-circuited section CZ 70-125 volts Direct with Induction Direction Dis- Cur. el.
of transmission line with reverse (With 4 to 33 amps. distance tance 7 v-a.
power flow. Applicable at sub- direc- Voltage el.
station end of feeders. tional 30 v-a.
element)
To cut out short-circuited section L.E. 4 to 12 amps. Inverse with Induction a-c. directional Cur. el.
of transmission lines with re- CR 125 volts definite mini- current 2 v-a.
verse power flow. Applicable at mum Voltage el.
substation end of feeders where 25 v-a.
only low ratio bushing-type
transformers are available.
To cut out grounded section of L.E. 0.5 to 2.5 amps. Inverse with Induction a-c. overcurrent 2 v-a...
transmission line (Line section- CO definite mini-
alizing). Applicable on systems mum
with neutral grounded through
high resistance.
To cut out grounded line from CD 0.5 to 1.2 amps . Inverse with Induction a-c. selective dif- 2 v-a.
group of parallel feeders (Dif- definite mini- ferential current
ferential neutral current) . mum
To cut out grounded line upon L.E. 0.5 to 2.5 amps . Inverse with de- Induction a-c. directional 2 V-A.
reversal of power flow. CR 125 volts finite minimum current
To disconnect grounded lines on 70 and 125 volts Direct with Induction Distance or Cur. el.
solidly-grounded neutral and CZ 4 to 33 amps . distance impedance 5 v-a.
low-resistance-grounded neutral Voltage el.
systems. 16 v-a.
(Automatic network relay) (Sec- CN 120 volts Inverse Induction Network relay
tionalizing low - voltage net-
works) .
Auxiliary
To trip breaker with a-c. current BT 5 amps Instantaneous Plunger Current transfer 28 v-a.
from current transformer.
To control tripping of circuit 20-C 125-250 volts Instantaneous Hinged Contactor
breaker where heavy current is 75-40 amps . armature
required. 30-C 125-250 volts Instantaneous Hinged Contactor
150-75 amps . armature
To prevent holding circuit break- S-1 125-250 volts Instantaneous
ers closed on short circuit. Hinged Trip free
armature
To introduce a definite time delay CV Special Inverse Induction
in switching operations. a-c. voltage
To control time of switching oper- GK 110 volts Definite Motor-

3 to 40 minutes Long time delay
ations (Time delay) . operated
Auxiliary Multi-contact Relays for Instantaneous Hinged Multiple contactor 2 W. min.
Control Circuits . armature S W. max.
For continuous service on a-c. MC 8-12-16-25-32-50-62-110 25 v-a.
or d-c. 130-250 volts d-c.
62-110-130-220-440
volts a-c.
For intermittent service on d-c . M 12-50-125-250 volts d-c.
only.
Auxiliary control and interlocking
relays for switchboard , control
and signal work.
Inst. Automatic reset. OA 12-50-110- Instantaneous Plunger Contact making
250 volts d-c.
Hand reset. OL 110-220 a-c.
12-50-110- Instantaneous Plunger Contact making
Unlatching coil . OX 250 volts d-c.
Holding coil. OS 12-50-110-250 volts d. c. Instantaneous Plunger Contact making

Banked multicontactor (Super- MS Special Definite Supervisory group
visory control ) . of contacts
Indicator to indicate when relay C 0.1 and 1 amps. Instantaneous Hinged Operation indicator
has functioned. armature
Frequency relay-to actuate an RF 110 volts rated Instantaneous Plunger Two coils with
alarm or trip a circuit upon a Freq. balanced lever
rise or fall in frequency.
Page Forty-five
SILENT SENTINELS — Protective Relays for A-C and D-C Systems
Westinghouse Protective and Control Relays
1 -Alternating- Current Relays
Type CO Overcurrent Relay

The protective relay now having the most universal
application is one that may be used to disconnect cir-
cuits or apparatus, when the current flowing in the
circuits or apparatus exceeds any given value. Such a
relay has a wide variety of uses . The most common
uses are applications to outgoing feeders, transmission
lines , generating and substations, distribution feeders
at substations and to motor and transformer circuits .
A relay designed for such a diversity of applications
must have very reliable characteristics which will allow
a flexible adjustment for operation under all circum- ESA
OUSE O.FOR
stances and conditions . WESTINGH ELECTRIC &MFG.C
Inverse-Time Characteristics-The CO overcur- おす
Time Bl SerialNe
rent relay embodies characteristics which make it appli-
cable to the widest variety of uses for overcurrent pro-
tection . The relay is similar in operation to the OA
FIGURE 66- DOUBLE CONTACT TYPE CO OVERCURRENT RELAY

(COVER REMOVED) .
way that a definite-minimum time must elapse before

WESTINGAUGE ELECTRIC&MFG. CO.PITTIG FLISA the contacts will close regardless of the value of current
GO GolesTumeElementOverload
TypeCO 4-12 Reley
. Jungerg
SerialNo504069
flowing in the winding. This is termed the definite-
minimum time characteristic of the relay.
Current Settings- Conditions very often arise

where the current supply used for operating an over-
current relay varies widely due to different current
transformer ratios, different conditions under which the
relay is desired to act and different degrees of sensi-
FIGURE 65- TYPE CO OVERCURRENT RELAY.
tivity required in the relay. Such an adjustment of
watthour meter . It operates on the induction principle,
the contacts being closed by the rotation of a disc . It is Operation Indicator
Coilwhen supplied
necessary to have a certain quantity of current flowing
in the relay winding before the disc will begin to rotate. Contacts
After it once has been started the speed of rotation is
proportional to the current flowing in the winding
until such current reaches an excessively high value.
This gives the relay an inverse-time characteristic or,
in other words, the greater the current flowing in the
Connecting
50
40
relay winding the sooner the relay contacts will close. 12 10 8 7 6

Block OOOO
The design of the relay and the action of the damping
magnet are such that the time of action is definite for
any given current value.
Definite-Minimum Time Characteristics - Con-
ditions arise in overcurrent protection which demand -C
that a relay used for such a purpose should never close
its contacts instantaneously. Because of the inverse
characteristics of the CO relay it is evident that upon
excessive overcurrent the action of the relay would be- Punchings
come almost instantaneous. A small torque compen-
Torque
sator is added in the relay winding for the purpose of Compensator
placing a definite limit to the inverse-time character- B
istic. This compensator becomes saturated at excess- FIGURE 67-INTERNAL WIRING DIAGRAM OF TYPE CO
ively high currents and acts upon the relay in such a OVERCURRENT RELAY .
Page Forty-six
operating current is obtained in the CO relay by vary- relay gives the time required for the contacts to close
ing the number of active turns in the main coil winding. with different values of current flowing in the relay
winding with the time lever set on the No. 10 gradua-
tion . It will be noted from this curve that two seconds
10 is the minimum time in which the relay will close its
9876543210
contacts for any value of current regardless of how great

seconds
Time
it may be. This definite-minimum time may be reduced,

in
of course, by placing the time lever on a smaller setting.

For instance, if the lever is placed on the No. 1 gradua-
tion, the action of the relay will be almost instanta-
neous, because the disc has practically no distance
100200300400500600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 through which it must rotate before the contacts are
Per cent current required to close contacts closed. (See Fig. 68.)
FIGURE 68 - CHARACTERISTIC TIME-CURRENT, CURVES OF TYPE CO Contact troubles have always been very plentiful in
RELAY FOR DIFFERENT TIME SETTINGS. relay operation . This source of trouble has been largely
eliminated from the CO relay by introducing an aux-
This is accomplished by means of a screw in the terminal iliary contactor switch inter-connected with the trip-
block at the top of the relay element. The numbers on ping contacts so that it closes the instant that the main
this terminal block represent the minimum current relay contacts close. This arrangement relieves the
which will operate the relay. relay main contacts from carrying the tripping current
Time Settings-It is also very often desired to vary and also assures good contact, even though barely
the time in which the contacts will close when any given enough current is flowing in the relay winding to close
amount of current is flowing in the relay winding . This the main contacts . The action of the contacts responsi-
adjustment is accomplished in the CO relay by varying ble for making the tripping circuit is, therefore , made
the distance through which the disc must rotate before positive and a tripping current of as high as 30 amperes
the contacts are closed. This distance through which may be safely handled without fear of contact trouble .
the disc must travel is adjusted by means of the scale 111
and hand lever located directly above the disc . The
time-current curve shown on the nameplate of each Type COA Overcurrent Relay
In many power plants and substations the space for
mounting instruments and other switchboard apparatus
is limited. In such stations it is often very essential also
to have supervision over the current flowing in each
circuit leading out from the station . A means of provid-
ing this current supervision and also relay protection
300 for each circuit without the necessity of supplying and
SeralNo providing room for mounting both ammeters and relays ,
is provided by the COA relay.
0100 0100 200 300

SerialKe
FIGURE 70- SINGLE-PHASE TYPE COA OVERCURRENT RELAY WITH

OPERATION INDICATOR (COVER REMOVED) .
0100 300 This relay consists of the CO relay with the addition
of a current indicator which serves to show at all times
the value of the current flowing in the circuit. The cur-
rent indicator consists of a thin copper segment mounted
on a separate shaft directly above the main disc of the
relay in such a way that it is actuated by the same flux
that passes through the relay disc . As the relay winding is
FIGURE 69- THREE-PHASE TYPE COA OVERCURRENT RELAY WITH
COVER REMOVED. connected directly in the circuit to be protected by
Page Forty-seven
means of a current transformer, the current indicating ele- CO relay, except that the contacts are not closed di-
ment shows at all times the quantity of current flowing in rectly by the action of the disc but through a train of
gears . This train of gears also supplies the definite-
Time Dial Setting

14
12
இ CurrentTime Curve
Low EnergyCO Relay
10 Various Time Settings
Seconds
6
Trip
to
∞ 9
2
0 100
500 1000 1500 2000
%Amperes to Close Contacts
FIGURE 73- TYPICAL TIME- CURRENT CURVES OF LOW- ENERGY
TYPE CO RELAY.
FIGURE 71- VIEW OF TYPE COA RELAY ELEMENT WITHOUT minimum time characteristics, thus eliminating the
THE ELECTROMAGNET. torque compensator. Due to the construction of the
relay it is somewhat more sensitive than the other CO
the line. The current indicating element also gives a relays and is, therefore , suitable for use on applications
double protective assurance, inasmuch as any accident requiring great sensitivity. The differential protection
which occurs either within or without the relay to pre- generators is an example of this type of application .
vent the main electro-magnet from operating the relay
disc will also keep the indicating disc from operating. Type CR Directional Relay
All rel ays dependent on current alone for their opera-
tion function when sufficient current is flowing in the
Low Energy Type CO Relay winding regardless of the direction of the flow. In pro-
tecting transmission lines and in making possible the
Certain relay applications are such that only very sectionalizing of such lines on the occurrence of trouble,
little energy is available for operating the relay. This
it is often necessary to have protective relays which
is especially the case on high-voltage lines where low- will close their contacts only when current is flowing
ratio bushing -type current transformers are the only
convenient means for supplying energy for the operation in one certain direction . The CR relay has been devel-
oped to fill these requirements.
of relays or instruments.
The CR directional relay is a combination of the
CO overcurrent relay and a watt element. The cur-
56
32
RoversePengerRelay
W 4-14 Jeports
E ELECTINC &MFG.COL.PRYSBURG FALSA

Time Element Overload Relaym
Type CO 5-2-5m
ec 31n 1783A™ SerialNo684573
GOCale
Sp
CHARACTEDRISTIC THECURV E
WI THEGETTING
FIGURE 72- LOW-ENERGY TYPE CO RELAY.
A modification of the CO relay has been designed to

fit such conditions . This low-energy CO relay requires
approximately 2 volt-amperes for tripping. In construc-
tion and operation it is very similar to the standard FIGURE 74- TYPE CR DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAY.
Page Forty-eight
SILENT SENTINELS-— Protective
SENTINELS Relays for A- C and D- C Systems
tary surges of current in the reverse direction, or the

overcurrent element may close its contacts on the flow
@
of excess current in the normal direction, but the trip-
ping circuit is completed only when both elements
close their contacts .
ELECTRIC &MFG.CO.PRESSOROL.FL.OSA
RaveresPowerHelay
goTypeCR
ValisSerialNoCSTEDT
4-13 Aspure Low- Energy Type CR Directional Relay
The low-energy CR directional relay has been devel-
oped to be used in the same way as the standard CR
Potential Terminals
Excess Current
Connection Block Contacts
12 10
Excess
Whenusing Current
operation Element
indicator
connect as
shown
Contactor Switch
Directional
Contacts
Directional
FIGURE 75 -TYPE CR RELAY WITH OPERATION INDICATOR, Element
COVER REMOVED.
rent element is the same as that of the standard CO Punchings

overcurrent relay and has identical operating charac- Current Terminals
teristics . The watt element is similar to the CW FIGURE 77- DIAGRAM OF INTERNAL CONNECTIONS OF
LOW-ENERGY TYPE CR RELAY.
power relay except that it operates on a very small
percentage of normal voltage. The contacts of the over-
current element are connected in series with the con- relay, except that it is suitable where only a small
tacts of the watt element and as this element will quantity of energy is available for the operation of the
close its contacts only when the power flows in one relay.
direction, the relay as a unit operates only when current
is flowing in any given direction . As the relay has all
the characteristics of the CO relay, the following con-
ditions must exist before the tripping circuit is com-
pleted : (1) Excess current must be flowing ; (2) current
must be flowing away from the bus bars or in the direc-
tion for which the relay is connected ; (3) current must
be flowing for a sufficient length of time. Thus the
directional element may close its contacts upon momen-
Directional
Third Terminal Contacts
When
using
Operation
Indicator
Connect
as shown -Excess
12108 7654 Current
Contactor Contacts
Switch 0 200 400 600
Connec-
ting
Block
Torque Punchings
Compen-
sator
FIGURE 76- DIAGRAM OF INTERNAL CONNECTIONS OF FIGURE 78- TYPE CRA DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAY
DOUBLE CONTACT TYPE CR RELAY. WITH COVER REMOVED.
Page Forty-nine
The low-energy characteristic of the relay has been 5 66 8 10 14 20 2533

obtained by substituting the low-energy CO overcurrent
element for the standard CO overcurrent element .
Thus the low-energy CR relay has overcurrent charac-
teristics similar to those of the low-energy CO relay, and
directional element characteristics similar to those of
the standard CR relay.
Type CRA Relay

In cases where it is desired to have an indication of
the current flowing in the circuit, the COA overcurrent
element has been used in the CR relay in place of Westinghouse
VOLTS TYPE CZ CYCLES
the standard CO element . This makes a compact, con- 60
IMPEDANCE
venient arrangement serving the purpose of an ammeter RELAY
without adding greatly to the expense of installation or STYLE SERIAL
252914 643809
detracting at all from the operating characteristics of 7393(1987)
HOUSE
WESTINGNEWARKELECTRIC PATENTED
TURING L
& MANUFAC
WORKS NEWAR K JUS ACOMPANY
the relay.
The Type CZ Impedance ( Distance ) Relay

On large complicated transmission systems the FIGURE 81--TYPE CZ NON-DIRECTIONAL RELAY
method of sectionalizing by means of overcurrent and WITH COVER REMOVED.
inghouse Company has recently developed a relay which

overcomes all such difficulties experienced on large and
complicated systems. Its application does not supplant
13
12
//
10
9
Seconds
Trip
to
Westinghouse 100Volts
VOLTS TYPE CZ CYCLES
7
IMPEDANCE 60 5
RELAY
STYLE SERIAL
3
2
WORKS NEWARK NJUSACOMPANY
NEWARKELECTRIC&MANUFACTURING
WESTINGHOUSE
0 100 300 500 700 1000 1500 2000

Percent CurrentSetting
FIGURE 82- CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF TYPE CZ RELAY .
FIGURE 79- TYPE CZ NON-DIRECTIONAL IMPEDANCE
(DISTANCE) RELAY. When using operation
indicator connect
asshown
directional relays is often difficult to apply and some-
times even impossible . This is due to the necessity of Distance
employing such a large number of relays that it is Voltage Element Cont's
Element 33 25 20 1410 8 665 4
impossible to keep the timing sequence within safe
limits. At times it is impossible to secure proper dis- Current
crimination at all, especially in the case of a compli- Taps
cated loop which is fed at several points, and where the
points of feed change with load conditions. The West- Current
Element
BellAlarm
Terminal
Wesunghouse
Contactor Switch.
FIGURE 83- WIRING DIAGRAM OF NON-DIRECTIONAL
FIGURE 80- EXTERNAL RESISTOR USED WITH CZ RELAYS.
TYPE CZ RELAY.
Page Fifty
02508
5299
Westinghouse
VOLTS TYPE CZ CYC40LES
125 IMPEDANCE
RELAY SERIAL
STYLE
159313 643765
Westinghouse
RATIO TYPE CA 25-60
5TORES RATIO
5 DIFFERENTIAL CYCLES
AMPE RELAY SPATENTED1-20-10
10130 (2-3-35) FOR GENERATOR SERIAL
STYLE PROTECTION
WESTINOGHOUSEK WORKS,
NA ELECTRIC & MANUFA CTURING COMPANY
NEWARK NJ USA
NEWAR
FIGURE 86 - TYPE CA RATIO DIFFERENTIAL RELAY FOR GENERATOR

PROTECTION (COVER REMOVED) .
overcurrent element, and when the relay is a consider-

ble distance from the fault, the voltage on the element
is comparatively high, thus lengthening the time re-
quired for the relay to close its contacts. On the other
FIGURE 84- TYPE CZ DIRECTIONAL RELAY WITH COVER REMOVED . hand, the relays near the fault will have a very low
voltage imposed on the voltage element, thus causing
that of the standard CO and CR relays, but makes the relay to operate in much less time, due to less oppo-
protection possible where otherwise it would be difficult sition being offered to the action of the overload element
or even impossible . The only requisite is that, with a by the voltage element. Thus the relay that is nearest
short at the far end of the line, the impedance drop in to the fault operates first, and at no time does the time
the line should be at least 3.0 % of the normal voltage exceed 0.75 to 1.0 second .
that is, the line must be of sufficient length to give this
For some applications it is necessary to restrain the
drop . relay from operating unless the power is flowing in a
The CZelement
a voltage relay consists
. The of an overcurrent
overcurrent element
element and
is similar given direction . To fill such needs a directional element
similar to that of the CR relay is added to the CZ relay.
to that of the CO relay . The special feature of this
relay is the construction of the voltage element . The
voltage element is so constructed that its action in Type CA Ratio Differential Relay
relation to the closing of the relay contacts depends on The type CA ratio differential relay, Fig. 86, is a
the distance the relay is away from the fault. In other current- operated induction relay, similar in appearance
words, the voltage element acts in opposition to the to the type CO relay. As the name implies, it operates
differentially, but it differs from the relays usually used
in that the tripping current varies with the load. The
Voltage Element When using oper- current required to trip the relay increases in propor-
ation indicator
33252014 10 86654 tion to the line current instead of remaining constant
connectas shown
for all load conditions .
Current
Element This feature of the relay provides against faulty trip-
ping due to a combination of " through" short circuits
and variations of current transformer ratio, and allows
Resistance the relay to be set for close protection at normal loads.
Other methods of differential protection generally act
on a difference of two currents, so that a slight differ-
Terminals
ence in current transformer ratios, increased by heavy
loads or by "through" short circuits, is often sufficient
Directional
Element to cause enough circulating current to operate the relay.
Contacts -Series Coils The CA relay is designed to avoid this trouble, and will
trip out generators and motors on a trouble current as
Directional low as 2.5 % of the line current, without danger of
Element PotentialCoil tripping them out on system troubles .
For protection of star-delta transformer banks , Scott
connected banks, or in any case where the currents in
RearView
the circuits to be balanced are unequal, the relay is
FIGURE 85- WIRING DIAGRAM OF TYPE CZ RELAY WITH
DIRECTIONAL ELEMENT. provided with taps, so that balancing auto transformers
Page Fifty-one
are unnecessary. A saving in expense and in switch- The direction of current in coil A with respect to coil
board space is made possible by the provision of these B does not affect the tripping direction of the relay.
taps. This relay is less sensitive than that used for gen- The flux produced by coil B tends to hold the relay
erator protection . open, and that due to coil A tends to trip the relay.
As the line currents increase, the torque holding the
Generator Windings
relay open increases, and more torque (and conse-
Gr quently more current) is required to close it.
www The relay for generator protection is provided with a
tapped "difference coil" winding (coil A, Fig. 87) , so
that the sensitivity may be varied readily . Fig. 88
shows the way the taps are brought out.
On the transformer relay the conditions are very sim-
-Coil A ilar, except that both the "sum coil" and the " difference
coil" windings are tapped, in order to compensate for
the effect of unbalanced currents . The sensitivity can-
Coil B. not be varied on this relay.
FIGURE 87- SCHEMATIC VIEW SHOWING HOW CA RELAY IS USED FOR The energy required to operate the relays, particu-
THE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF A GENERATOR. larly the transformer relay, is very small . This , com-
bined with the fact that the operating current increases
In order to get the ratio feature of the relay, both of in proportion to the line currents, makes the relays very
the secondary currents to be balanced, as well as the adaptable to conditions requiring the use of bushing-
differential current, are used in the relay. A field pro-
type current transformers.
portional to the sum of the currents reacts with a field When greater sensitivity is required, as in the case
proportional to their difference, and the resultant field of the generator relay, the burden of the relay is some-
acts to produce rotation . The quadrature flux is sup- what greater, but under these conditions the current
plied to the upper poles by transformer windings on transformers used are of higher grade, and the load is
each of the lower poles, as shown in the wiring dia- well within the capacity of the current transformers .
gram, Fig. 88. The relay is very rugged , there are no adjustments to
get out of order, and no delicate mechanical parts to
Operation give trouble. The contacts are set well out in front,
Indicator
Terminals where they can be seen through the glass cover, and
where they are easily accessible for adjustments or
Percent Un- Contacts
repair . All the relays are provided with two trip cir-
balance to cuits and with an operation indicator and contactor
Operate Contactor switch, as in the CO relay .
Middle
100000 5.0 Contact Switch
20-0880-25 Type CB Overcurrent Relays
The cost of the current transformers used with relays
Connector Block often forms a considerable part of the entire cost.
CoilB
Coil A
Rear View
FIGURE 88 -WIRING DIAGRAM OF CA RELAY FOR GENERATOR
PROTECTION.
Fig. 87 shows schematically the connections of the

CA relay for the protection of a generator. The arrows
show the relative instantaneous directions of current
flow under normal conditions . If the currents supplied
by each transformer are equal, there will be no current
flow in Coil A. If the current transformers supply un-
FIGURE 89- TYPE CB OVERCURRENT RELAY FOR USE ON
equal currents, the difference flows through coil A. HIGH-VOLTAGE CIRCUITS.
Page Fifty-two
Current Trans.
Terminal Bd.
60N 25M
WORLD CAST PITTSBUROPAEAA

Type COOverload TIMEELEMENT CURRENT BALANCE RELAY
TYPE CD
00434 DATE100
AMPS TOELDER CONTACTS
Type BT Transfer Relay

Micarta
Chain FIGURE 92-TYPE CD RELAY WITH COVER AND TIME
SCALE AND OPERATION INDICATOR REMOVED.
To Tripping Circuit
on an insulator. The contactor switch is separate from
Contacts
this assembly and is connected to the BT relay by
means of a micarta chain. Thus the tripping circuit is
Contactor Switch insulated from the high-voltage circuit which is to be
FIGURE 90- SCHEMATIC WIRING DIAGRAM OF TYPE CB protected . When the CO relay contacts close they serve
OVERCURRENT RELAY. to operate the BT transfer relay. This relay, in turn ,
by means of the micarta chain, closes the tripping-
circuit contactor switch. The operating characteristics
Where the current transformers must be connected to
of the CB relay are the same as those of the standard
high-voltage circuits , they must be insulated for the CO relay.
high voltages , and their cost is high. The CB relay
has been designed for use on high-voltage installations .
It is a combination of the CO overcurrent relay and Type CD Selective - Differential Relay
the BT transfer relay with the addition of a special con- Balanced-current protection is very often desired
tactor switch . A standard transformer is used without where two or more similar transmission lines are used
regard to insulation for the high-voltage line, and the to connect two stations or two different points in a
CO relay element is connected in the usual manner . system . Balance-current protection on such lines means
The CO and BT relays, however, with the current trans- that each line normally carries approximately the same
former, are mounted on a slate base which is mounted current, and if this condition does not exist the line
Seconds
Trip
to
O
WERTHEHOUSE ELECTRIC &HFB.CO.FASTPATTERSONISK

TIME ELEMENT CURRENT BALANCE RELAY
TYPE CO
476507
Time Curve
No 5 Setting
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Percent Differential Amperes to Close Contacts
FIGURE 91 - TYPE CD SELECTIVE-DIFFERENTIAL FIGURE 93- TYPICAL TIME-CURRENT CURVE WITH

CURRENT RELAY. TYPE CD RELAY.
Page Fifty-three
Adjustable Contacts.- When usingOperation Indicator in a group will necessarily destroy the balance connec-
connect as shown tion between the remaining lines.
Flexible Connections The CD relay has the same current adjustment and
Extra Contact (middle)- Contactor Switch
time adjustment as that of the CO relay. The time
Extra Contacts (middle) adjustment is, however, seldom of importance, inas-
Connecting Block- Moving Contacts
much as the relays usually are desired to operate almost
instantaneously .
Punchings-
Start of Main Relay Coil N°2- Type CW Power Relay
(outside coil)
Torque Compensator
Start of Main Relay Coil Nº1- In many instances a motor is so connected to its load
( inside coil) Finish of Torque that under certain conditions the load may drive the
Finish nd PCom Coior
rimpen
arysat l No.I. motor, causing it to act as a generator. A mine hoist
and Start -Start
driven by an induction motor is a good example of such
of Torque Compensator an installation . In such cases it is sometimes necessary
Primary Coil N°2.
to provide some sort of protection to insure against
FIGURE 94 - INTERNAL WIRING DIAGRAM OF TYPE CD RELAY.
having the motor return too much power to the line
when it is being driven as a generator . The CW power
carrying the greatest current must be in fault. The relay serves this purpose. It is also often used to pre-
CD relay furnishes a simple method of securing such vent undesirable or excessive interchange of power be-
protection . It avoids the necessity for any special appa-
tween parts of a system, as in the case of a small plant
ratus, such as split conductor cable, and as it operates
on current alone, potential connections , or potential
transformers are not required . When using operation
indicator connectas
The relay operates on the induction principle and is shown.
in reality two overload elements so located that they
ми
act in opposition upon a common disc through a com- Contacts
mon magnetic circuit. Each element is connected sepa-
rately to its own current transformer and to corre- Contactor
Connecting Block
sponding phases of the two lines that are to be pro- Switch
300 250 200 150 100 75 50
tected. These two elements are electrically opposed,
and under conditions of balanced line load, which will
give approximately the same current in each element, Current Coils
the fluxes in the magnetic circuit of the relay are equal
and opposite, giving a resultant zero torque in the relay
disc. When a fault occurs in either line, however, the
current in that line will become greater and the un-
balance will cause the relay to operate, tripping out the
line in which the greater current is flowing.
The CD relay has inverse-time characteristics and
also a definite-minimum time of operation with excess-
ive overcurrent . The inherent characteristics of the re-
lay are such that when one line of a pair is tripped out Potential Terminal
double the normal current is required in the other line Coil
before it will be tripped out, thus making it possible
for one of a pair of protected lines to be open and the
other line to carry its load without interference from Punchings
the relay. Any number of lines may be balanced
against one another, but the tripping out of certain lines
Rear View
FIGURE 96- INTERNAL WIRING DIAGRAM OF TYPE CW RELAY.
connected in parallel with a larger plant where some

means must be provided to prevent the small plant
from being subjected to the entire load of the system,
should the larger plant be suddenly disconnected .
QUEELECTRIC&NIE.CO.PTIONALFLASA
TimeElement PowerMalay The CW relay is essentially a contact-making watt-
20Gto PH150110 ValiteSortet $94214
Sole meter. It operates on the induction principle and is
similar to the CO relay, except that it requires both
current and potential connections. It closes its contacts
in but one direction and only after a predetermined
by time, when a predetermined quantity of power is flow-
flow in Co ing in a predetermined direction, which direction may
be either the normal or the reverse, according to the
equal curre GURE 95- TYPE CW OVERPOWER RELAY.
way the relay is connected.
Page Fifty-four
2006
Numerals on
2086 42
12 12 Numerals on
Seconds
Seconds
100 120 140 100 100 200 230 10 Curve refertoSet- Curve refertoSet
ing on TimeScale tingonTimeScale
.
10 18
20
140 150 160 170 180 190 200210 220
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Volts.
Volts.
Westinghouse Overvoltage Relay.
CONTACTSEN
VOLTAGE CLOSED Undervoltage Relay
RELAY
TYPE CV VOLTAGE FIGURE 99 - TYPICAL CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF TYPE CV RELAY.
WIND SPALTH
STOLY
This adjustment, which is shown in Figure 97, con-
sists of a slide-wire resistor connected in the upper pole
circuit of the relay. The resistor is provided with a
FIGURE 97- TYPE CV OVERVOLTAGE AND UNDERVOLTAGE RELAY calibrated scale so that the relay can be readily set to
SHOWING A NEW DESIGN OF VOLTAGE ADJUSTMENT. close its contacts at the desired voltage value. The
time adjustment of the relay is identical with that of
The relay has a standard time adjustment and also the CO relay.
taps for changing the wattage values necessary to trip One form of the CV relay closes its contacts only
the relay . when the voltage is raised to the operating point or
above, and another form closes its contacts only when
Type CV Voltage Relay the voltage is lowered to the operating point or below
The CV relay is designed for general use when it is that value. These two forms are called overvoltage and
desired to have circuits or apparatus protected against undervoltage relays respectively. A third form is
voltage changes of any predetermined value. It oper- equipped with front and rear contacts, as shown in
ates to close a circuit either for the purpose of discon- Figure 98. The front contacts close when the voltage is
necting the apparatus or of actuating a signal. The The raised above the operating value and the rear contacts
time-delay characteristic of the relay is used also in close when the voltage is lowered somewhat below that
many applications where a timing-device is desired . point.
In these applications the relay is used to close a circuit When a relay having a long time-delay is desired, it
after a predetermined interval when the relay winding is possible to supply a CV relay with a geared element
is energized. similar to that of the low-energy CO relay. With this
This relay is similar in appearance to the CO relay relay, a time-delay of as much as 60 seconds can be ob-
and operates on the same principle . The chief difference tained.
between the two types is that the CV relay operates
on voltage, whereas the CO relay operates on current. Type CP Reverse - Phase Relay
The latest design of the CV relay is provided with a
In many motor installations it is very essential that
voltage adjustment, by means of which the operating
the direction of rotation of the motor always be in a
voltage can be adjusted over a wide range . given direction. This applies particularly to motors
used in connection with control equipment or for motors
used for operating elevators , pulleys, conveyors , cranes,
machine tools, etc. The reversal of phase rotation in a
polyphase system, caused by the reversal of two wires,
WESTHOUSE ELECTRIC &MPSCOPRITSALSA

ReversePhase Relay
GOQeles Type CP 110 Volts
Phase
StylaNe 245710 Serial No.902730
WESINGHOGER ELECTRIC AMFG.CO.PITTSBURN, FAELS.A Contactsclose PheFellans PhaseReven
or ifValteseFalls to 02 Wills.
05-60 Voltage Relay 440 Wall
Type CV
WylaHa.Reaso Serial No.60500
Copy clossof
FIGURE 98- TYPE CV RELAY WITH COVER REMOVED SHOWING FRONT FIGURE 100- TYPE CP REVERSE-PHASE RELAY WITH
AND BACK CONTACT ASSEMBLY. VOLTAGE ADJUSTMENT REMOVED. COVER REMOVED.
Page Fifty-five
Contacts Contacts duced by the two windings . In case either winding is

de-energized or the direction of current in one winding
is reversed , the torque becomes zero or is reversed and
the contacts are closed by the reversed torque or the
action of a spring.
Punchings As the relay operates on the induction principle and
Punchings
Phase the closing of the contacts depends on the rotation of
PhaseA PhaseA PhaseA CorB the disc, a time-delay action is produced when the relay
Phase B For 2phase 3wire, Phase BorC operates on low or unbalanced voltage . This time-delay
2Phase 4Wire service connect
common wire to 3Phase 3Wire 2Phase 3Wire action is a very important characteristic of the relay
RearView this terminal Rear View because it prevents the relay from tripping upon the
FIGURE 101-INTERNAL CONNECTIONS OF TYPE CP occurrence of momentary voltage disturbances in the
REVERSE-PHASE RELAY. line to which the relay is connected .
although not of frequent occurrence, yet is liable to

happen at any time when lines are being changed or
repaired. Such a reversal of phase rotation means a
reversal in the direction of rotation of all polyphase
motors connected to the line. The CP reverse-phase
relay serves to protect against such occurrences . It
operates upon phase reversal or when any one phase of
a polyphase circuit opens . In case of a phase reversal WESTINGHOUSE
ELECTR MFG. CO.
ICURDA&PAUSA
PITTSBNCE
the relay may serve to disconnect the motors from the PHASE BALA OURRENT RELAY
circuit. However, in case of one phase opening with PHAS
AMPERES E CYCLES
STYLE
PATENTEDFOO FIN BERIAL
polyphase motors operating on the system, the relay 184
will not operate until the motors have been stopped,
due to the fact that practically normal voltage is main-
tained on all phases by the motor. The relay will oper-
ate, however, as soon as the machines are stopped , thus
preventing them from being again started .
The CP relay operates on the induction principle,
and has two windings, each of which is energized from
a separate phase . The construction of the moving ele-
ment is such that the disc is maintained in its normal
position, with the contacts open, by the torque pro-
Tripping Circuit
A B C 3 Phase 3Wire
Contacts FIGURE 103- TYPE CM PHASE-BALANCE CURRENT RELAY
WITH COVER REMOVED.
Relay
Type CM Phase- Balance Current Relay
Windings
Transformers when used In installations where polyphase machinery , such as
rotary converters and motors, is used, it is necessary
to have some protective means available whereby the
A B machine will be disconnected from the source of power
2Phase 3Wire
in case of an unbalanced condition of the current flow-
ing in the phases, or in case of a phase failure where the
apparatus would be compelled to operate on single
phase . This protection is necessary because a polyphase
machine operating on a system with unbalanced phases ,
or on single phase , draws excessive current and may
overheat. The CM phase- balance current relay is used
A B to prevent such occurrences .
2Phase 4 Wire
The CM relayoperates on the induction principle
and consists of four single- phase current elements
mounted in a single case. The four elements are
mounted in pairs, one pair being in the upper part of
the case with its own disc, and the other pair in the
lower part of the case with its disc. Each disc carries
its own set of contacts, the two sets being connected
in parallel in order that either disc may close the
FIGURE 102- TYPICAL EXTERNAL CONNECTIONS OF TYPE CP RELAY. tripping circuit .
Page Fifty-six
SILENT SENTINELS 1 Protective Relays for A - C and D- C Systems
Upper Rear Electro Magnet. Upper FrontElectro Magnet

614 RESISTOR F
West
Contacts TYPECO
REACTOR E REACTOR D
PhaseA
CURRENT TAPS
Trip Circuit CURRENT SCREW-
TIME INDEX RELAY ELEMENT R
Contactor LEVER & SCALE
PhaseBO SPRING
Switch CONTACTS DISC
TIME LOAD CURVES TIMING MAGNET
PhaseCo CARD HOLDER
CONTACTOR SWITCH
Contacts FIGURE 106 - TYPE CQ PHASE BALANCE RELAY WITH COVER REMOVED .
Torque
Compensator an open phase, the reversal of phases, or in case of a
Lower Rear Electro Magnet LowerFront Electro Magnet three-phase unbalance such as is caused by a single-
FIGURE 104- INTERNAL CONNECTIONS OF TYPE CM RELAY. phase short circuit. This is necessary because operation
with any of these conditions existing for considerable
The two current elements in each pair are mounted. time will cause serious overheating. It is generally
on opposite sides of the disc and are so connected that desirable to have machines disconnected from the line .
the torque produced by one bucks that produced by on as small an unbalanced condition as possible, and
the other. Therefore , when balanced conditions exist they should not operate on single-phase currents at all .
on the system there is no movement of the disc , but With machines in isolated locations , however, it is some-
with an unbalanced or opened phase the balanced con- times desirable to have the machines kept on the line,
dition on the disc is destroyed and the tripping circuit running on single-phase or unbalanced current, if the
is closed . load to be carried is not high enough to cause serious.
The relay has inverse and definite-minimum time overheating or vibration in the machines. The CQ relay
characteristics, and it gives protection for each phase has current and time adjustments which make this
because all phases are represented in the winding. The operation possible wherever it is desired .
value of the unbalanced current necessary to trip the The relay operates on the induction principle, the
relay may be adjusted by means of current taps as in operating element being very similar to that of the CO
the CO relay. relay. The winding of this element is so connected that
under normal conditions of operation no current is flow-
Type CQ Phase - Balance Relay ing in it. However, with any unbalanced condition,
The CQ relay is designed to protect polyphase mo- current will flow through the winding, operate the ele-
tors and rotary converters against running in case of ment and close the contact which may either actuate
an alarm, or disconnect the protected machine from its
(4 Resistor G source of power.
The CQ relay has an inverse-time characteristic . Its
construction is such that it is extremely sensitive to
Reactor E small quantities of unbalanced current. The current
Reactor D 20
18
When using Operation 16
Indicator connect as 14
Resistor F shown
12
-Contactor Switch
Seconds
10
Contacts
Trip
To
S-Resistor Spools
6
Resistor H
T-Resistor
*
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Relay Element R Single Phase Amperes
FIGURE 105- DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS OF TYPE CQ RELAY WITH FIGURE 107- CHARACTERISTIC TIME CURVE FOR 2, 3, 4, 5 AND 6
TWO-POINT CONTACTOR SWITCH (REAR VIEW). AMPERE TAPS, NO. 10 TIME SETTING.
Page Fifty-seven
necessary for operation may be adjusted, and the time relay is designed to take care of such applications and
required for the contact to close may also be changed. may be used either to disconnect a circuit or to simply
Its application is practically the same as that of the actuate a signal when the frequency changes above or
CM , but it is a more sensitive and a later-designed relay below the normal value.
and should be used unless the CM is desired for some
good reason. The relay consists of two coils operating on a balanced
lever . The coils are connected across the same source,
one with a reactance and the other with a resistance
in series . As long as normal conditions exist, a balance
is maintained on the lever and the contacts remain.
open, but a change in the frequency causes a change in
the current flowing in the coil that has the reactance
in series, whereas, the current flowing in the other and
resistance coil remains practically the same. This con-
dition causes an unbalance which closes the contacts
and serves to perform the required operation. The
relay can be made very sensitive and is adaptable to a
variety of applications .
FIGURE 108- TYPE RF FREQUENCY RELAY.

FIGURE 110-TYPE C OPERATION INDICATOR.
Type RF Frequency Relay

Sometimes it is desired to have the frequency of a Type C Operation Indicator
circuit or system maintained at a given value or to In many installations where a number of relays are in
have some means whereby a signal is given if the fre- service, a circuit-breaker may be tripped by one of several
D.C. tol
quency varies from the given value. The RF frequency protective relays.
relays . As each relay affords protection
Contr
Circui
Connect to these Terminals against some special kind of fault in the line, it is
for Tripping on highly desirable to know which relay has tripped the
High Frequenc breaker in order to be able more easily to locate the
y
Low trouble . As most protective relays reset automatically
Contacts. as soon as the circuit-breaker opens, it is difficult to
Relay Switch
or determine which relay has operated without some aux-
Connect thisTerminal to
Trip Coil Terminal on Resistor iliary means. The operation indicator is a small coil
marked "R" serving to attract a semaphore into a visible position
Circuit whose frequency when the coil is energized . This operation indicator
/ actuates relay
may be installed within the case of all the standard
-A.C.
types of protective relays, and is connected in series with

volts
110
the tripping circuit. As soon as the relay closes its con-

Connect thisTerminal to
Terminal on Resistor tacts, thereby closing the tripping circuit, the operation
marked "L" indicator is energized and attracts the indicator to the
R operated position . The indicator remains in this posi-
Resistor
tion until reset . The hand reset of the indicator is so
FIGURE 109- DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS FOR TYPE RF arranged that it may be actuated without removing the
FREQUENCY RELAY. cover of the relay.
914
2 -Direct-Current Relays
Installations where direct - current is employed are so dependable relay service as protection against over-
few and small in size as compared with the present-day current , reverse current and other sources of trouble .
alternating-current installations that their importance
is sometimes overlooked. It must be remembered that Type D Overcurrent Relay
there are still many applications where alternating cur- This type serves to furnish protection against over-
rent cannot be used, or at least, where no means have current in direct -current circuits . The relay is of the
yet been devised for using it instead of direct current. moving coil type with an electromagnet energized by
On such installations, therefore, it is important to have a voltage winding. The winding on the moving coil is
Page Fifty-eight
Shunt Resistor used

onhigh voltage
circuits Trip Coil
0SNOTREMOVE
ON MOELE RELAYCOVER on
ISINCIRD DC. Control Circuit
MILLIVOLTS
FIGURE 113- DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS FOR TYPE D RELAY.
the moving and stationary contacts. By using shunts

of different capacities in series with the line to be pro-
FIGURE 111- TYPE D OVERCURRENT OR REVERSE CURRENT RELAY tected, almost any sensitivity required can be obtained.
WITH COVER REMOVED. For example, suppose the relay is set to operate on 1
millivolt drop in a given direction and is connected to
connected across a shunt in series with the line and in
a 100 millivolt shunt. It will then trip when approxi-
this way receives a current proportional to the current
mately one per cent . of full-load current is flowing in
flowing in the circuit to be protected . the reverse direction.
The moving contact is carried by the moving coil
and is held open by the action of a spring. The torque
Type TO Overcurrent Relay
produced by current flowing in the coil opposes the
The TO relay serves practically the same purpose as
action of this spring, and when the current reaches any
predetermined value the opposing action of the spring the D overcurrent relay, except that its action is not
is overcome, and the contacts are closed . The electro-
magnet field is highly saturated and thus the action of
the relay is unaffected by voltage changes . The over- Shunt
current relay may be adjusted to operate over a range
with from 40 to 80 millivolts impressed upon the winding .
Trip Coil
A 80
8
7 D-C. Control Circuit
6 FIGURE 114- DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS FOR TYPE TO RELAY.

Seconds
5
as sensitive , and its construction is such that it can be

supplied at a lower price. The relay consists of a two-
pole electromagnet serving to attract a pivoted armature
5 O 10 15
Milli-volts
FIGURE 112-OPERATION CURVES OF TYPE D RELAY.
Type D Reverse Current Relay

Conditions are often such that a reversal in the direc-
tion of current flow may prove very disastrous . For
example, it requires a very small percentage of normal
full-load current to cause a rotary converter to run
away, when running inverted . A slight modification of
the D overcurrent relay makes it serve as a highly
sensitive reverse -current relay applicable for protection
against such conditions .
The moving coil used in the D reverse -current relay
is such that approximately two millivolts will cause the
contacts to close. This tripping value may be adjusted FIGURE 115- TYPE TO OVERCURRENT RELAY
to a smaller amount by changing the relative position of WITH COVER REMOVED.
Page Fifty-nine
SILENT SENTINELS — Protective Relays for A-C and D- C Systems
品品品品
FIGURE 118- TYPE A POLARITY DIRECTIONAL RELAY.
occur between insulated circuits and the frame of the

machine, this arrangement will give immediately a flow
FIGURE 116- TYPE MF FLASH RELAY WITH OPERATION INDICATOR of current to ground through the relay coil which acts
(COVER REMOVED) . almost instantaneously to disconnect the machine from
the line. The action of the MF relay is so fast that with
the ordinary flash-over, the machine will be disconnected
against the pull of a helical spring. The tension of before other protective relays farther back on the sys-
the spring ' determines the tripping point of the relay.
tem have time to operate , thus cutting out the machine
The relay is suitable for use with a 50- millivolt shunt,
without disturbing the rest of the system . Its speed
and may be adjusted to close contacts on from 40 to also aids in disconnecting the machine before any great
80 millivolts.
damage has been done.
Type MF Flash Relay

Type A Polarity Directional Relay
The flashing over of commutators on rotary con-
verters has been the source of much trouble in the past, In many electro-chemical processes a current reversal
even of small magnitude is serious, in many cases serious
and, although the improvement of modern design has
enough to cause considerable damage. Such conditions
eliminated the possibility of such occurrences to some
give reasons for the development of a relay to prevent
extent, the trouble still exists. The MF relay has been
any reversal of polarity. The Type A polarity direc-
developed for the purpose of instantly disconnecting a
tional relay fills the requirements for such protection
machine upon the occurrence of a flash-over.
and is applicable also to other uses where a check on
The MF relay operates by having an armature attrac- the direction of polarity is desired .
tion close its contacts. The coil serving to attract the The relay consists of a polarized electromagnet serv-
armature is connected directly between the frame of ing to attract a soft iron armature. The one pole of the
the machine and the ground. As flash-overs usually permanent magnet consists of two steel cores upon
which are placed the two coils of the relay. The rela-
To Tripping Coilor Control Circuit tive action of the current flowing in these coils with
respect to the pull of the permanent magnet on the
Terminals
D.C. Bus.
Operation
Indicator Type 'CC' Fuses Res (Whenrequired)
Carbon Cir--
Fixed Front cuit Breaker. Connect these
Contact leads so that
Underload contacts ofrelay
Moving Contacts -Fixed back Contacts Coil Low Volt- are closed when
age Coil voltage is ofthe
Overload
Operating Coil To Rotary Frame correct polarity
Coil
Type A'Polarity
Feeder Directional Relay
11
FIGURE 117- DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS FOR TYPE MF RELAY.
FIGURE 119- CONNECTIONS FOR TYPE A RELAY.
Page Sixty
soft iron armature determines the operation of the Type TV Voltage Relay
relay. Its sensitivity and design are such that the con-
tacts will be closed upon any reversal of polarity of Wherever it is desired to protect direct-current cir-
the circuit to which it is connected and upon the fall cuits against excessive overvoltage or undervoltage a
of the voltage to below 20 % of normal. Upon the slight modification of the TO overcurrent relay may be
occurrence of an open circuit in the relay winding itself, used. The TO overcurrent relay with the coils wound
action of the relay is assured before any voltage has for voltage constitutes the TV voltage relay, and is ap-
built up in the reverse direction . plicable for such voltage protection .
3-Temperature Relays
Type HM Bearing Thermostat Relays The relay usually is made to operate at 100 degrees,
but different thermal elements, having the temperature
Type HM relays are designed for use in protecting of operation 70 degrees, 90 degrees or 100 degrees
the bearings of rotating machinery from the disastrous Centigrade, may be supplied.
effects of over-heating. With this relay installed , it is
unnecessary to have constant supervision of the bear-
ings of rotating machinery. This relay is particularly Type HN Grid Thermostat
valuable in automatic substation work.
A slight modification of the HM thermostat is used
for the protection of grid resistors from damage, due to
overload or to sustained short circuits on the system.
The construction of this relay is largely the same as
the HM with the exception of the manner of resetting.
This HN relay resets automatically, whereas the HM
relay has to be reset by hand. The thermal element
supplied with the HN relay is also somewhat different ,
giving operation at either 150 degrees Centigrade or
300 degrees Centigrade.
FIGURE 120- TYPE HM BEARING THERMOSTAT RELAY.
The action of the thermostat is largely mechanical . Breder

It consists of the operation of a toggle switch by means TipleH , 20
of the expansion of a bellows. The thermostat unit
consists of a bulb which is to be embedded in the bear-
ing, the connecting tube, and the expansion bellows.
As the temperature of the material in which the bulb
is embedded rises, the liquid enclosed in the bulb and
bellows volatizes , and thus creates a pressure, causing FIGURE 122- TYPE CT TEMPERATURE RELAY.
the bellows to expand lengthwise. This expansion
serves, in turn, to operate the toggle switch, thereby
closing the contacts of the relay. Type CT Temperature Relay
D.C. Control Circuit The problem of protecting electrical apparatus
against over-temperature presents many difficulties.
Type HM Thermostat The object in any such protective apparatus is to allow
the protected machine to remain in service as long as
Contact- Bearing it is safe to do so, and yet to disconnect it from the
source of power as soon as the temperature becomes
unsafe for further operation. In order to obtain the
Bellows
most efficient protection, a relay used for this purpose
must take into consideration the ambient temperature,
the speed with which the windings of the apparatus
To alarm ortrip Thermostat Bulb heat up when subjected to overload, and the conditions
coil ofbreaker existing when the temperature of the machine becomes
FIGURE 121 - SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF HM THERMOSTAT RELAY. dangerously high.
Page Sixty-one
Contactor Switch
Contacts
Resistance Elements
WESTINGHOUSE
ELECTRIC & MFG. CO.
PITTSBURG, PA , U.S..
Temperature Relay
Current Current FIGURE 124- TYPE DT TEMPERATURE RELAY.

Terminals Terminals
Punching
Main Coil relay . The resistances of the different arms of the
bridge are so arranged that at normal operating tem-
Trip Circuit perature no current flows through the upper winding
FIGURE 123-INTERNAL WIRING DIAGRAM OF TYPE CT RELAY. of the relay. When the apparatus becomes heated,
however, the resistance of the arm formed by the explor-
ing coils changes, thus destroying the balance and caus-
The CT temperature relay is applicable on alternating current to flow through the upper coils of the relay.
ing-current circuits where the apparatus is so arranged This produces a torque tending to rotate the discs and
that exploring coils can be installed in the windings . to close the contacts . As it is necessary to have a cer-
It operates on the Wheatstone Bridge principle, the tain quantity of current flowing in both the upper and
moving part operating on the induction principle. The lower coils of the relay before the disc will rotate to
relay in its appearance is similar to the type CO over- close the contacts , the operation of the relay depends
current relay. The lower coil is directly connected to upon three conditions :
a current transformer in one lead of the machine which
is to be protected. The upper coils are connected across 1. The temperature of the material surrounding the
coils must be such as to cause an unbalance sufficient
the two points in the bridge arrangement to which the
galvanometer is ordinarily connected . Two permanent to send current through the upper coils of the relay.
resistance units mounted in the relay case serve for two 2. The current flowing in the line at that time must
arms of the bridge, while two copper exploring coils, be such as to give a sufficient current value in the lower
embedded in the winding of the apparatus to be pro- coil of the relay .
tected, serve for the other two arms. 3. Heat that has been generated in previous over-
The points of the bridge opposite those connected load, but that has not yet been dissipated, tends to
to the upper coils are connected to the current influence the temperature of the exploring coil.
transformer in parallel with the lower coil of the
Type DT Temperature Relay

D-C.Control Circuit
Circuit Breaker- The DT temperature relay is simply a modification
of the D overcurrent relay used in connection with a
Trip Coil
Current
Transformer
wwww
Westinghouse
THERMAL
TIMELIMIT
STYLE RELAY EITIAL
Exploring Coils Power transformerorother

apparatus to beprotected
againsthigh temperature.
FIGURE 123 (A) -EXTERNAL WIRING DIAGRAM OF CT RELAY. FIGURE 125- TYPE BA OIL-FILLED THERMAL RELAY.
Page Sixty-two
arm consists of a copper exploring coil embedded in

To Control Circuit (Top Stud) the winding of the apparatus to be protected.
The resistance values of the arms of the bridge are
so proportioned that when the temperature of the
Contacts apparatus reaches a safe operating point there is no
appreciable current flowing through the relay moving
coil winding. With a low temperature in the winding
Thermal
of the apparatus, current will flowthrough the relay coil
Element in one direction, and with a high temperature current
Case will flow in the other direction . Thus with low temper-
ature, contact is made in one direction , while with high
Bimental Relay temperature contact is made in the opposite direction.
From this it is evident that the operation of the relay
Springs Cover
depends solely on the temperature of the windings in
the apparatus, leaving out the consideration of the cur-
rent drawn by the apparatus at the time the critical
temperature is reached. This relay, therefore, is appli-
cable wherever a constant source of direct-current volt-
age is available and where the load conditions may be
Circuit to disregarded .
A B
Current Trans.
Lelelelelelel
Ratio Coil
Characteric Curve
VOoOqlllllll of
600 60Ampere ThermalRelay.
560
520
FIGURE 126 --INTERNAL CONNECTIONS OF TYPE BA RELAY. 480
440
Wheatstone Bridge. Its use is similar to that of the Seconds
400
Open
CT relay, except that the DT depends altogether on 360
to
.
direct current for its operation, and does not take into 320
consideration the current flowing at the time when the 280
critical temperature is attained. As in the case of the 240
CT relay, the operating coil replaces the galvanometer 200
connection in the bridge circuit . The two opposite 160
points of the bridge are connected across a constant 120
direct-current source of voltage . Three arms of the 80
bridge are made up of fixed resistance, while a fourth 40
50
2345678 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

120 Percent Rated Current
FIGURE 128 - TYPICAL OPERATION CURVE OF CARTRIDGE TYPE
Numbers on curves re- THERMAL RELAY.
100 fer to dial settings.
Type BA and BD Oil - Filled Thermal Relays
80 Another type of temperature relay which does not
Minute s
require the use of exploring coils embedded in the wind-

Time
ings of the apparatus to be protected has been de-

in
60 veloped . This type depends upon the expansion of

a bi-metal element . The element has characteristics
such that it heats up at the same rate as the windings
of the apparatus to be protected. In order to further
40
duplicate the temperature rise of the protected appa-
ratus, the bi-metallic element is immersed in oil and
the walls of the container are such that the dissipation
20 of heat will be, approximately, the same as in the case
of the apparatus to be protected. The operation of the
relay is simple. When the bi-metallic element heats to
0 a certain temperature it expands sufficiently to operate
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
the relay, closing its contacts.
Amperes in thermal element ofrelay .
FIGURE 127 -TYPICAL OPERATION CURVES OF TYPE BA RELAY (LONG The BA relay is suitable for use on alternating-
TIME RELAY; CURVES TAKEN FROM NO LOAD CONDITIONS) . current circuits.
Page Sixty-three
Protective Relays for A- C and D- C Systems
SILENT SENTINELS —
as that of the BA and BD relays , except that precau-

tions are not taken in the relay to have its temperature
rise identical in degree with that of the rise in the
Ood
protected apparatus.
2345678 Numbers on curves re-

100 fer to dial settings.
Westinghouse
THERMAL 80
Minutes
TIME LIMIT
STYLE RELAY SERIAL
Time
in
60
40
FIGURE 129-TYPE BD OIL-FILLED THERMAL RELAY.
The BD relay is suitable for use on direct-current 20

circuits . It is similar to the BA relay in construction
and operation .
A cartridge type of relay which is not oil-filled is made 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
suitable for either alternating -current or direct - current Amperes in thermal element of relay.
application, where high precision is unnecessary . The
operation of the cartridge type relay is dependent on FIGURE 131 -TYPICAL OPERATION CURVES OF TYPE BD RELAY
the expansion of a bi-metallic element in the same way (LONG TIME RELAY; TAKEN FROM NO LOAD CONDITIONS) .
4-Auxiliary Relays
In the design of relays, as with any other line of several different relays are sometimes used to accom-
apparatus, it is desirable to adhere to the simplest plan plish
plish the
the purpose
purpose desired.
desired . In such applications , one
relay is usually responsible for starting the sequence
possible . Many relay applications require only a single, of contact operations . This is termed the main or pri-
simple contact arrangement , while others require a more
or less complex scheme of inter-connected contacts. mary relay of the application . The other relays simply
serve as contactors , their coil or coils being energized
by the action of the primary relay. These relays are
termed auxiliary control relays.
Type BT Transfer Relay

In most relay applications where the relay serves to
energize the trip coil of a circuit-breaker, direct- current
is used as the source of energy for the trip coil . In some
cases, however, it is desired to use alternating- current
taken from the current transformer to which the relay
windings are connected . In such cases it is necessary
to provide some contact arrangement whereby the sec-
ondary circuit of the current transformer will be closed
at all times and whereby the trip coil of the circuit-
breaker will be simply inserted in series with the trans-
former secondary, when the relay operates to energize
the trip coil . The BT transfer relay is used in connec-
tion with the primary protective relays to accomplish
this purpose . The main winding of the relay is con-
nected in series with the secondary of the current
transformer and the winding of the primary relay, and
serves to hold the contacts in the normal position .
FIGURE 130-TYPE BT TRANSFER RELAY . When the primary relay closes its contacts they short-
circuit an auxiliary winding on the BT relay and cause
Rather than complicate the design of any one type of the contacts to operate and thereby cut the trip coil of
relay to take care of these more complex applications , the breaker into the circuit. The design of the con-
Page Sixty-four
SILENT SENTINELS - Protective Relays for A - C and D- C Systems
The MC multiple-contact relay fulfills either of the

purposes just described and is used also in many other
control installations where a simple multiple contactor
is required. Its design is simple and such that it is
suitable for operation either on alternating- current or
direct-current circuits and may be allowed to remain
energized continuously. The action of the relay is posi-
600
tive and windings may be supplied which are suitable
for various values of alternating-current or direct-
current voltage . There are also a variety of contact.
arrangements which may be supplied . The standard
contact arrangements are :
First-4 independent makes
Second-3 makes, 1 break, all independent
Third-2 makes, 2 breaks, all independent
Fourth- 1 make, 3 breaks , all independent
Fifth- 5 makes , 1 break, all parallel
FIGURE 132-TYPE MC MULTI - CONTACT RELAY (COVER REMOVED) . Sixth- 1 independent make, 5 parallel breaks
Seventh-4 parallel and 1 independent makes
tacts is such that when they are in the normal position Eighth- 6 parallel makes ,
the trip coil of the circuit-breaker is mechanically and
electrically isolated from the current transformer circuit .
The windings of the relay are designed to carry 5 Type M Multiple - Contact Relay
amperes continuously, but during times of short circuit The Type M relay is similar to the MC, but is simpler.
they may be required to handle as much as 100 or 200 It is suitable for use only on direct-current, and is in-
amperes. This can be done satisfactorily for a short tended only for intermitted service . This relay is
period of time.
furnished with either 2, 4 or 6 contacts, the first having
the independent, and the last two the parallel arrange-
Type MC Multi- Contact Relay ment.
In the application of protective relays , it is often

desirable to have several circuits energized at the time Terminals
the primary relay operates. As most of the standard
protective relays close only one or two circuits when
they operate, auxiliary relays are necessary when it is Core
essential to have more than the two circuits closed.
Another case where an auxiliary relay is needed is when
the current required in the control circuit , which is to
be closed by the action of the primary relay, is greater Coil
Stationary
Contacts
than the contacts of the primaryrelay can safely handle. Arniature
Stationary
As in the case of the multiple circuit requirements , aux- Contacts
iliary relays are used to accomplish this purpose, the
relay winding being energized by the closure of the
primary relay contacts.
Moving Contacts Moving Contacts

Insulation
Coil Terminal Coil Terminal

015110 Common Terminal
FIGURE 134- INTERNAL CONNECTIONS OF TYPE MC MULTI- CONTACT

RELAY.
Type MS Banked Multicontact Relay
The MS relay consists of a group of 10 different and

distinct contactors similar to the MC assemblies,
except that each contactor operates only two con-
tacts, or in other words, makes only 2 complete cir-
cuits . The 10 units are mounted in a neat case and
the complete assembly is used on supervisory control
systems wherever it is necessary to insulate the low-
voltage telephone equipment from the higher-voltage
FIGURE 133- TYPE M MULTI-CONTACT RELAY.
power control circuit. The coils of these contactors may
Page Sixty-five
be supplied for various values of voltage and the entire

group of relays may be applied to various applications
wherever it is desirable to have a number of contactors
in as compact an arrangement as possible.
Terminals Stationary Contacts
Coils
Terminal Boards Moving Entrance For

Contacts Cable
FIGURE 135 - INTERNAL DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONS FOR FIGURE 137- TYPE OA AUXILIARY RELAY .
TYPE MS RELAY.
There are 4 types of the O line of relays classified

Type O Line of Auxiliary Relays according to the method of resetting.
The O line of auxiliary relays is intended for miscel- Type OA- The OA relay has a main operating coil
laneous switchboard and control use. Arrangement and resets itself automa main y as soon as the
excitation is removed from theticall
only coil.
usually is such that the auxiliary relays are energized
by protective or other primary relays, and they in turn Type OL- The OL relay has only the main coil, but
energize or de-energize any desired combination of it has a latching mechanism which latches the contacts
circuits. They have instantaneous time characteristics. in the operated position as soon as the coil has been
energized, and holds them until the latch mechanism
The O relays are so designed that when placed in
is tripped by hand.
the normal position , and with the main coil de-energized,
they make a set of 4 contacts, and when in the operated Type OS- The OS relay is equipped with a main
position, a second set of 4 contacts. coil to operate the relay and also an auxiliary coil which
serves, when energized, to hold the contacts in the
The inter- connection between the 4 sets of contacts
operated position after the main coil has been de-ener-
may be changed so that a large number of circuit com- gized. This type of relay resets automatically if the
binations are obtainable, thus making the relay adapt-
holding coil is not energized and otherwise resets when
able to a variety of applications.
the holding coil is de- energized.
&
(C
Westinghouse
TYPS
MS SUPERVISORY
RELAY
FIGURE 136 - TYPE MS SUPERVISORY CONTROL BANKED MULTIPLE-CONTACT RELAY.
Page Sixty-six
Holding or
Unlatching Coil
Stationary
Back Trip Coil
Contacts
Stationary
Front Moving
Contacts Contacts.
O
FIGURE 140 -TYPE OX AUXILIARY RELAY.

FIGURE 138 - INTERNAL WIRING DIAGRAM OF TYPE O RELAYS (HOLDING
OR UNLATCHING COIL WINDING OMITTED IN TYPES OA AND OL).
Type GK Long - Time Limit Relay

Type OX - The OX relay is equipped with a main
coil and also an auxiliary coil which is located similarly It often is desirable to introduce a time interval of
to that of the OS relay. It has the latching mechanism considerable length between control switch operation ,
so arranged that when the relay operates the contacts mechanical operation, or factory processes where a series
are locked in the energized position until the latch is of operations occur in sequence. A specific example of
tripped either by means of energizing the auxiliary coil, such application is in the case of automatic railway sub-
or by hand. stations where various operations must be correctly
timed.
Coils which are suitable for operation on various
alternating-current and direct- current voltages may be
supplied for the various types of relays. On account of The GK relay is used for this purpose. It consists
of a small motor driving a contact assembly through
vibration only the latching types are satisfactory on
a-c. The contacts are of sturdy construction and will a train of gears. The contacts of this relay are carried
on a drum connected to a worm gear. This worm gear
carry 10 amperes continuously, or will break 5 amperes
is engaged with the driving gear by an electro-magnet,
at 500 volts, satisfactorily .
either simultaneously with the starting of the motor or
at a certain definite interval after the motor has been
started. The GK relays may be supplied with a time
limit as high as 40 minutes. Relays whose time can be
adjusted to from 1 to 10 minutes can be supplied on
special orders.
100
FIGURE 139--TYPE OL AUXILIARY RELAY.

FIGURE 141- TYPE CK LONG-TIME DELAY RELAY.
Page Sixty-seven
SILENT SENTINELS .— Protective
SENTINELS Relays for A- C and D- C Systems
46 68 38
76X SI 62S
340 0 20
320 Phase Meter 40
64 26 300 60
280 80
260 100
ELET
240 RICA GREES
L DE 120
22 140
200 80 160
1
FIGURE 142-TYPE JM ANNUNCIATOR FIGURE 144- PORTABLE PHASE INDICATOR FOR USE IN MAKING
RELAY CONNECTIONS.
Type JM Group Annunciator
Portable Phase Indicator for use in
Many features in Electric Service Stations require
operation indicators . To satisfy this need the Westing- Making Relay Connections
house Company has developed the Type JM Group
In order to obtain correct operation when connecting
Annunciator which comprises a group of twelve opera-
a relay, which requires both current and voltage con-
tion indicators assembled in a glass-covered case similar nections, to a polyphase circuit, it is necessary to select
to that of the Type MC Relay.
the current and voltage having the proper phase rela-
The twelve indicators are mounted in four rows of tion to each other. One of the most convenient methods
three each and all are connected in parallel. That is, of checking such relay connections is to use a Westing-
each has one terminal stud for one side of the line, and house Phase Indicator.
all the indicators are connected to a thirteenth stud
The phase indicator shown in Figure 144 is a portable
which goes on the other side of the line . instrument built on the same principle as is a power
The indicators of this Annunciator are similar in factor meter. However the phase indicator is calibrated
appearance to the Type C operation indicators de- to indicate degrees, from 0 to 360, instead of power-
scribed elsewhere in this book, but they differ somewhat factor percentages. It readily shows the exact phase
from these in construction . The target, which is made relation between any current and voltage to which it
of non-magnetic material, is latched in place behind the may be connected.
front plate. When the indicator coil is energized, the
The phase indicator can also be used to check the
latch is pulled back, allowing the operating spring to phase relation between two or more currents . An ex-
pull the target into view.
ample of such an application is the checking of relay
All indicators can be seen readily through the glass connections for differential protection . To select the
cover of the relay. They are reset without removing two current transformers the secondaries of which should
the relay cover, by pulling a small knob which pro-
trudes from the right side (front view) of the relay case. be connected together, it is necessary only to select
There is a separate reset knob for each row of indica- some voltage for use as a reference , and then to measure
the phase relation of the different currents with respect
tors, or four for the relay.
to this reference voltage .
Protective Circuit closed

Circuit closed
tee Relay by main contact by intermediate
Contacts
Motor
A.CorD.C
Engaging Coil
A.C or DC Control Contacts

FIGURE 143- DIAGRAM OF INTERNAL CONNECTIONS FOR TYPE GK RELAY
Page Sixty-eight
Instrument Transformers
Instrument transformers are used for two reasons ; lead, or vice versa. This marking of the leads is carefully
first, to protect station operators from contact with checked by a polarity test .
high-voltage circuits, and second, to permit the use of
instruments with a reasonable amount of insulation and Grounding of Secondary-All instrument trans-
a reasonable current carrying capacity. The function formers should be grounded on the secondary side as
of instrument transformers is to deliver to the instru- an extra precaution against danger from the high volt-
ments a current or voltage which shall be always pro- age in case the insulation should be punctured by light-
portional to the primary current or voltage, and which ning or other abnormal stresses . In polyphase groups ,
shall not exceed a safe potential above ground. Gener- any point of the secondary may be grounded, but it is
ally, the secondary of a voltage transformer is designed preferable to use a neutral point or a common wire
for about 115 volts and the secondary of a current trans- between two transformers.
former for 5 amperes, and both these secondary circuits
are grounded, together with the cases of the relays, in- Insulation-The insulation of instrument trans-
struments or meters to which they are connected . formers protects the meters and control apparatus as
well as the power station operators from the high-
voltage circuits . It is highly important, therefore, that
it be able to withstand the strains of service. For this
reason, the insulation of Westinghouse instrument
transformers is designed with special care. Dry-type
transformer coils are impregnated with a compound
impervious to moisture. Coils for oil-insulated trans-
formers are dipped in varnish or impregnated to seal
them against moisture.\\\
Insulation Tests - The insulation tests conform to

the Standardization Rules of the A. I. E. E.
FIGURE 145- TYPE KA SWITCHBOARD CURRENT TRANSFORMER

Voltage Transformers
(DRY TYPE).
Uses Voltage transformers are used with volt-
meters, wattmeters, watthour meters, power factor me-
Types and Ratings * -There are two general classes,
ters, frequency meters, synchronoscopes and synchro-
of instrument transformers , dry and oil- insulated. Dry-
nizing apparatus, protective and regulating relays, and
type voltage transformers are listed for primary volt-
the no-voltage and over-voltage trip coils of automatic
ages up to the 6900 -volt class and the oil- insulated type One transformer can be used for a
circuit - breakers .
up to the 66,000 -volt class . Current transformers are
number of instruments at the same time, if the total
listed for primary currents up to 10,000 amperes. For
current taken by the instruments does not exceed that
voltage classes up to 23,000 volts , the dry type of cur-
for which the transformer is designed and compensated.
rent transformer is used, and for the higher voltages
the oil-insulated type . The demand for transformers of
higher ratings than those given * is so small that they
are not listed, although they can be built on special
order.
Oil is used in oil- insulated instrument transformers ,

chiefly for its insulating properties. It is extremely
important, therefore, that it be of the proper quality
and that it be kept free from dirt and moisture.
Polarity- In connecting instrument transformers to

wattmeters , watthour meters, power factor meters, etc. ,
it is necessary to know the relative instantaneous direc-
tion of currents in the leads. For this reason one pri-
mary and one secondary lead of each Westinghouse
transformer are marked with a white polarity marker.
The relation of the marked leads is such that the instan-
taneous direction of the current in them is the same;
that is, toward the transformer in the marked primary
lead and from the transformer in the marked secondary
* See Westinghouse Catalogue of Electrical Supplies for standard types and ratings. FIGURE 146- DRY TYPE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER .
Page Sixty-nine
Voltage transformers have a capacity of 200 volt- phase to the primary voltage, on account of the losses
amperes, but are compensated to give correct ratio at in the transformer and the magnetic leakage between
40-volt-amperes, as this is the average load demanded coils.
of a voltage transformer. Special transformers may be There are two classes of errors inherent in voltage
compensated for correct ratio at any load up to the transformers ; ratio error and phase-angle error . The
full capacity of 200 volt-amperes . part of these errors due to the exciting current is con-
stant for any particular voltage. It can be reduced to
The standard secondary voltage is 115 volts (nominal) a minimum by choosing the best quality of iron and
to suit standard instruments . Instrument transformers
working it at a low magnetic density. The part of the
with special secondary voltages can be made if neces- errors due to the load current varies directly with the
sary. load and can be minimized by making the resistance
and reactance of the windings very low.
Current Transformers
General-The current transformer is a special de-

velopment of the transformer principle. The object is
to maintain a constant ratio between the currents in
the primary and secondary windings, instead of a con-
stant ratio between voltages, which is the usual require-
ment.
Uses Current transformers are used with amme-
ters, wattmeters, power factor meters, watthour meters,
compensators, protective and regulating relays, and the
trip coils of circuit-breakers .
One current transformer can be used to operate sev-
eral instruments provided that the combined burden
does not exceed that for which the transformer is
designed and compensated.
Principle of Operation- The ordinary voltage
transformer or distribution transformer is connected
across the line and the magnetic flux in the core depends
upon the primary voltage. For a given voltage the flux
is, therefore, fixed , while the current in the winding
rises and falls as the load of the secondary winding
changes.
The current transformer is connected directly in series
with the line . For a fixed number of instruments in the
secondary (which is the usual condition) a rise or fall
in the line current requires a corresponding rise or fall
FIGURE 147 -TYPE MA CURRENT TRANSFORMER (DRY TYPE) OUTDOOR. in the secondary voltage to force the secondary current
through the impedance of the meter load. The magnetic
Principle of Operation-The voltage transformer flux in the iron , which supplies this voltage, thus follows
is, in principle, an ordinary constant potential trans- the rise and fall of the primary or line current .
former, especially designed for close regulation , so that In any transformer, the primary ampere-turns may
the secondary voltage under any condition will be as be considered as made up of two parts, one small ele-
nearly as possible a fixed percentage of the primary ment which supplies the magnetizing and core loss cur-
voltage. rent, and another element which supplies the "working
The secondary voltage can never be exactly propor- current. " The "working current" ampere-turns are
tional to the primary voltage, or exactly opposite in always exactly equal to the secondary ampere-turns .
Page Seventy
Westinghouse Electric International Company
WESTINGHOUSE BUILDING
150 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, U. S. A.

MAIN WORKS: East Pittsburgh, Pa .
EUROPEAN OFFICE : No. 2 Norfolk St. , Strand , London , W. C.
EXCLUSIVE DISTRIBUTORS
Anglo-Egyptian Soudan-ARNOLD Denmark-WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC New Zealand -TURNBULL & JONES, LTD.
CHENEY & Co. , INC. INTERNATIONAL COMPANY Wellington, Auckland, Dunedin, Christchurch
Khartoum . Hamilton, Ashburton and Oamaro.
Postboks 736, Oslo, Norway.
Argentina CIA. WESTINGHOUSE ELEC- E. J. HYAMS, LTD.
TRIC INTERNACIONAL , S. A. Dutch East Indies- WESTINGHOUSE Wellington, Auckland and Christchurch.
Avenida de Mayo 1035 , Buenos Aires. ELECTRIC INTERNATIONAL COMPANY (Lamp Distributors. )
Calle Colon 59, Córdoba.
Australia - AUSTRALIAN WESTINGHOUSE 150 Broadway, New York, U. S. A. Nicaragua- M . GUTIÉRREZ PEÑA
ELECTRIC COMPANY, LTD. Managua.
Cathcart House, 11 Castlereagh Street, Sydney. JAVA- LOETIONGYAN
Temple Court, 428 Collins Street, Melbourne. 39 Passar Besar, Sourabaya JUAN IGNACIO GONZÁLES
(Miniature Lamp Distributors.) Ingeniero Electricista, Leon.
MECHANICAL SUPPLIES, LTD .
79 Grenfell Street, Adelaide. Norway-A. S. NATIONAL INDUSTRI
(Distributors for South Australia, including Ecuador- GONZÁLEZ RUBIO & Co. Bygdö Allee 1 , Oslo.
Lamps) Apartado 54, Guayaquil.
AUSTRALECTRIC , LTD . Peru- EMILIO F. WAGNER Y CÍA
97 Clarence Street, Sydney. Finland- WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC Edificio Wiese, Esquina Nuñez y Filipinas, Lima
(Lamp Distributors (large and miniature) for INTERNATIONAL COMPANY
N. S. W.)
Belgium- GEO. DE LA ROCHETTE Postboks 736, Oslo, Norway. Phillipine Islands- CATTON- NEILL
47, Montagne aux Herbes Potageres, Bruxelles. ENGINEERING & MACHINERY CO.
Brazil-BYINGTON & COMPANY France- Her colonies and dependen- 25 Santa Cruz Bridge, Manila.
Rua Alvares Penteado, 4. Caixa Postal "P," cies- COMPAGNIE ELECTRO- MECANIQUE ELECTRICAL SUPPLY CO.
São Paulo 12 Rue Portalis, Paris. 109 Plaza Santa Cruz, Manila.
Rua General Camara 65. Caixa Postal 723- (Merchandising only. )
Rio de Janeiro. Guatemala- EMILIO SELLE
Santos Rio Grande do Sul HONOLULU IRON WORKS Co.
Campinas Curityba 10 Calle Oriente, Número 2, Guatemala City. 233 Broadway, New York, U. S. A.
Porte-Alegre Paranaguá
150 Broadway, New York, U. S. A. Haiti- RADIO CORPORATION OF HAITI ACME MOTOR CO.
Chile- R. F. HAMILTON Port-au- Prince. Manila.
Casilla 1897 , Santiago. (Miniature Lamp Distributors. )
China- WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC India-WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC
INTERNATIONAL CO. INTERNATIONAL COMPANY Porto Rico- PORTO RICO RAILWAY,
No. 1 The Bund, Shanghai. P. O. Box 959. LIGHT & POWER COMPANY
HOLYOAK MASSEY CO . 150 Broadway, New York, U. S. A. San Juan.
No. 2 Norfolk Street , Strand, London. 90 West Street, New York, U. S. A.
Hong Kong . P. O. Box 461.
CHINESE ENGINEERING & DEVELOP- ANTILLAS ELEC. CORP.
DODGE & SEYMOUR ( India) LTD . San Juan.
MENT CO. 28-1 Waterloo St. , Calcutta.
12 Via Ermano Carlotto, Tientsin. (Lamp Distributors. )
75 Nau Chi Tzu, Peking. Salvador-WM. C. MCENTEE
Santa Ana.
LIDA CO. Italy- SOCIETÁ ANONIMA ITALIANA ING .
Mukden. NICOLA ROMEO & COMPANY
Colombia- MARTIN DEL CORRAL & Co. Milan, Via Paleocapa , 6. South Africa- SYDNEY THOMPSON
82-88 Wall Street, New York, U. S. A. Rome, Via del Tritone, 125. Central House, Johannesburg.
Naples, Corso Umberto 1°, 179. THE AUTOMOBILE ELECTRIC SUPPLY CO .
Costa Rica- H. T. PURDY Trieste, Via Madonna del Mare, 7.
Altos del Banco de Costa Rica, San José. LTD.
Cape Town, Johannesburg and Durban.
WONHAM, BATES & GOODE TRADING Jamaica- ALLAN D. ROBERTS (Lamp Distributors.)
CORP. 76 Harbour St. , Kingston.
44 Whitehall St. , New York, U. S. A. (Lamp Distributors . ) Spain- WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC
Cuba-WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC Japan- WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC INTERNATIONAL CO.
INTERNATIONAL COMPANY COMPANY OF JAPAN Apartado 908, Barcelona.
Edificio Banco Nacional de Cuba, Habana. No. 2 Nakadori, Marunouchi , Tokio.
Calle José Antonio Saco, baja 11, Santiago. Sweden- WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC
Czecho - Slovakia, Roumania , Yugo- Mexico -CÍA WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC INTERNATIONAL COMPANY
Slavia, Bulgaria and Greece - CESKO- INTERNACIONAL Postboks 736, Oslo, Norway.
MORAVSKA- KOLBEN AKCIOVA SPOLEC- Ave. 16 de Septiembre No. 58, Apartado No. 78-
NOST Bis, Mexico City , D. F. Switzerland-WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC
Prague-Vysocany EDIFICIO LANGSTROTH INTERNATIONAL COMPANY
Branch Offices: - No. 2 Norfolk St., Strand, London, W. C., Eng-
Czecho- Slovakia : Apartado 294, Monterrey, N. L. land.
Mladá Boleslav Pardubice
Trutnov Plzen Netherlands - WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC
Brno (Bruenn) Bratislava United Kingdom and Ireland- METRO-
Mor. Ostrava INTERNATIONAL COMPANY POLITAN-VICKERS ELECTRICAL CO. , LTD.
Ceske Budejovice No. 2 Norfolk St. , Strand, London , W. C. , Eng- 4 Central Buildings, Westminster, S. W.- 1,
Roumania : Hugo Koffler, Eng. Strada Parf- land. London.
umului 20 bis, Bucarest.
Bulgaria : Nicola Angelov, Eng. U1-Debar 23, Newfoundland-WM. HEAP & Co. , LTD. Uruguay SERRATOSA & CASTELLS
Sofia. 18 de Julio 1401, Montevideo.
Jugo Slavia : Stefanovic & Paligoric, Dworska 1, St. John's .
Belgrade. BOWRING BROS. , LTD. Venezuela- HARRY GIBSON
Greece: Patapatious & Lotsopoulos, Corner St. John's. Apartado 239, Caracas.
Tsimiski-Comninon, Saloniki. (Lamp Distributors . ) ALBERTO R. PARRA
Apartado 27, Maracaibo.
Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company
East Pittsburgh, Pa.
WESTINGHOUSE SALES OFFICES
ABILENE, KAS . .109 N. 2nd St. MIAMI, FLA... .406 N. E. Second Ave., 202 Coolidge Bldg.
ALBANY, N. Y. .Journal Bldg. MIDDLESBORO, KY. . (P. O. Box 518).
*ATLANTA, Ga. Westinghouse Elec. Bldg. , 426 Marietta St. MILWAUKEE, WIS.. .First National Bank Bldg., 425 E. Water St.
BAKERSFIELD, CAL . 2224 San Emedio St. *MINNEAPOLIS, MINN . .2303 Kennedy St. , N. E.
*BALTIMORE, MD . West. Elec. Bldg., 121 E. Baltimore St. NEWARK, N. J. .38-40 Clinton St.
BIRMINGHAM , ALA. .1407 Age-Herald Bldg. , 2030 Second Ave. NEW HAVEN, CONN . .Liberty Bldg., 152 Temple St.
BLUEFIELD, W. Va.. .Peery Bldg., Cor. Bland and Federal Sts. *NEW ORLEANS, LA. Maison Blanche Bldg. , 921 Canal St.
*BOSTON, MASS.. Rice Bldg., 10 High St. *NEW YORK, N. Y. 150 Broadway.
BRIDGEPORT, CONN . Bruce and Seymour Sts. NIAGARA FALLS, N. Y. .Gluck Bldg. , 205 Falls St.
*BUFFALO , N. Y.. Ellicott Square Bldg., Ellicott Square. NORFOLK, VA... 300 Main St.
BURLINGTON, IOWA . 315 North Third St. OKLAHOMA CITY, OKLA.. Main and Broadway Sts.
*BUTTE, MONT. Montana Elec. Co. Bldg. , 52 East Broadway. OMAHA, NEB . 1102 Woodman of World Bldg. , 1319 Farnam St.
CANTON, OHIO . (Box 292-Mail and Telegrams). PEORIA, ILL. .417 Peoria Life Bldg. , 214 Cooper St.
CASPER, WYO . .201 Cottman Bldg., 124 West 2nd Ave. *PHILADELPHIA, PA. .30th and Walnut Sts.
CEDAR RAPIDS , IOWA. 1616 Fifth Ave. (Mail P. O. Box 1067) . PHOENIX, ARIZ.. .412 Luhrs Bldg., Central Ave. and Jefferson St.
CHARLESTON, W. VA. Capitol and Virginia Sts. PINE BLUFF, ARK . .1603 West 17th Ave., P. O. Box 753.
*CHARLOTTE, N. C... .210 East Sixth St. *PITTSBURGH, PA.. 7th and Smithfield Sts.
*CHATTANOOGA, TENN.. Cor. Market and Sixth Sts. PORTLAND, MAINE . .61 Woodford St.
*CHICAGO, ILL.. Conway Bldg. , 111 W. Washington St. PORTLAND, ORE. Porter Bldg. , Sixth and Oak Sts.
*CINCINNATI, OHIO . West. Elec. Bldg., Third and Elm Sts. POUGHKEEPSIE, N. Y. Bardavon Bldg., Room 48, 35 Market St.
*CLEVELAND, OHIO . 2209 Ashland Rd. S. E. PROVIDENCE, R. I... .393 Harris Ave.
*COLUMBUS, OHIO. .Interurban Terminal Bldg., 3rd and Rich Sts. PUEBLO, COL. 112 Central Block Bldg.
*DALLAS, TEX . Magnolia Bldg., Akard and Commerce Sts. RALEIGH, N. C. 803 N. Person St.
DAVENPORT, IOWA. Central Office Bldg. RICHMOND, VA .Seventh and Franklin Sts.
DAYTON, OHIO . .Realty Bldg., 132 N. Main St. ROCHESTER, N. Y 119 East Main St.
*DENVER, COLO . . Gas and Electric Bldg., 910 Fifteenth St. ROCKFORD, ILL . .1107 North Ave.
DES MOINES , IOWA. .Equitable Bldg., West 6th and Locust Sts. SACO, MAINE . R. F. D. No. 2.
*DETROIT, MICH . Westinghouse Elec. Bldg, 1535 Sixth St. *ST. LOUIS, Mo. West. Elec. Bldg., 717 South Twelfth St.
DULUTH, MINN . Corner Lake Ave. and Superior St. *SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH . Temple and S. Temple Sts.
ELMIRA, N. Y.. Hulett Bldg., 338-342 East Water St. SAN ANTONIO, TEX.. 1105 Denver Blvd.
*EL PASO, TEX . Mills Bldg., Oregon and Mills Sts. SAN DIEGO, CAL . .2415 El Capitan Ave.
ERIE, PA.. ....1015 State St. *SAN FRANCISCO , CAL. 1 Montgomery St.
EVANSVILLE , IND. P. O. Box 492 *SEATTLE, WASH.. West. Elec . Bldg., 3451 E. Marginal Way.
FAIRMOUNT, W. VA. 613 Maryland Ave. SHREVEPORT, LA.., 432 Robinson Place.
FORT WAYNE, IND.. 1010 Packard Ave. SIOUX CITY, IOWA.. 503 N. Davidson Bldg.
FRESNO, CAL. Griffith-McKenzie Bldg., J and Mariposa Sts. SOUTH BEND, IND . .212 Shirland Bldg.
GRAND RAPIDS , MICH . 422 Kelsey Bldg., Pearl & Ottawa Sts. SPOKANE, WASH. .Riversi de and Stevens Sts.
HAMMOND, IND . Telegrams- 1238 Jackson St. SPRINGFIELD, ILL. .Public Service Bldg., 130 South Sixth St.
HARTFORD, CONN . 36 Pearl St. SPRINGFIELD, MASS . 395 Kimball St.
*HOUSTON, TEX . .Cor. Main St. and Congress Ave. ST. LOUIS, Mo.. .717 S. Twelfth St.
*HUNTINGTON, W. VA. West Bldg., Cor. 2nd Ave. and Ninth SYRACUSE, N. Y.
*INDIANAPOLIS, IND . .West. Elec. Bldg., 820 North Senate Ave. TACOMA, WASH. University Bldg., S. Warren and E. Wash. Sts.
ISHPEMING, MICH .. 507 North Fifth St. TAMPA, FLA.. W. R. Rust Bldg., S. 11th and Commerce Sts.
JACKSON, MICH .. 705 Peoples National Bank Bldg. ....1221 Florida Ave.
TERRE HAUTE, IND .735 Maple Ave.
*JACKSONVILLE, FLA. Cor. East Union and Ionia Sts. TOLEDO, OHIO . Madison Ave. and Superior St.
JOHNSTOWN, PA. .47 Messenger St. TULSA, OKLA.. Fifth and Boston Ave.
*KANSAS CITY, Mo.. 2124 Wyandotte St. *UTICA, N. Y...
KNOXVILLE, TENN . .413 Bankers Trust Bldg. WASHINGTON, D. C.. 408 Pine St.
LITTLE ROCK, ARK . .2311 State St. WATERT OWN, N. Y. Hibbs Bldg., 723 Fifteenth St. , N. W.
LOUISVILLE, KY. Marion E. Taylor Bldg., 312 Fourth Ave. WILKES-BARRE, PA. 254 Woolworth Bldg. , Public Square.
*LOS ANGELES, CAL. West. Elec. Bldg., 420 S. San Pedro St. Market and Franklin Sts.
WORCESTER, MASS . Park Bldg., 507 Main St.
MADISON, WIS.. P. O. Box 222. YOUNGSTOWN , OHIO .
MARSHALL, TEX . 507 N. Bolver St. Hunt- Mirk & Company, Federal and Chestnut Sts.
MEMPHIS, TENN . .Exchange Bldg., 130 Madison Ave. San Francisco, Cal . , 141 Second St.
*Warehouse located in this city. Marine
The Hawaiian Electric Special
Dept.,Co. Pacific Coast Representatives.
, Ltd., .Honolulu, T. H.-Agent .
WESTINGHOUSE AGENT- JOBBERS
ABILENE, KAS.. Union Electric Co. MEMPHIS, TENN .
ALBANY, N. Y.. H. C. Roberts Electric Supply Co. MILWAUKEE , WIS.. The Riechman- Crosby Co.
ATLANTA, GA.. Gilham-Schoen Electric Co. MINNEAPOLIS , MINN.. Julius Andrae & Sons Co.
BALTIMORE, MD . H. C. Roberts Electric Supply Co. NEW HAVEN, CONN.. R. M. Laird Electric Co.
BIRMINGHAM, ALA. Moore-Handley Hardware Co. NEW ORLEANS , LA.. The Hessel & Hoppen Co.
BLUEFIELD, W. VA. .Superior Supply Co. NEW YORK, N. Y.. Electrical Supply Co.
BOSTON, MASS.. Wetmore-Savage Electric Supply Co. OMAHA, NEB .. .Alpha Electric Co.
BUFFALO, N. Y. McCarthy Bros. & Ford. PHILADELPHIA , PA.. The McGraw Co.
BUTTE, MONT.. The Montana Electric Co. PITTSBURGH, PA. H. C. Roberts Electric Supply Co.
CHICAGO, ILL. Illinois Electric Co. Robbins Electric Co.
CHARLOTTE, N. C.. Carolina States Electric Co. PORTLAND, ORE.. Fobes Supply Co.
CLEVELAND, OHIO . RICHMOND , VA. Tower-Binford Electric & Mfg. Co.
The Erner Electric Co. ROCHESTER, N. Y.
COLUMBIA, S. C.. Mann Electric Supply Co., Inc. SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH.. Rochest er Electrica l Supply Co.
DENVER, COLO . The Mine & Smelter Supply Co. SAN FRANCISCO , CAL. . Inter- Mountain Electric Co.
DETROIT, MICH. Commercial Electric Supply Co. .Fobes Supply Co.
DULUTH, MINN . Duluth Electrical Supply Co. , Inc. SCRANTON, PA.. Penn Electrical Engineering Co.
EL PASO, TEXAS . Mine & Smelter Supply Co. SEATTLE, WASH...
ERIE, PA... The SIOUX CITY, IOWA. Fobes Supply Co.
..Star Electrical Co. SPOKANE , WASH. The McGraw Co.
EVANSVILLE, IND . The Varney Electrical Supply Co. The Washington Electric Supply Co.
HOUSTON, TEXAS. Tel-Electric Co. SPRINGFIELD, MASS. Wetmore-Savage Electric Supply Co.
HUNTINGTON, WEST VA Banks -Miller Supply Co. ST. LOUIS, Mo..
INDIANAPOLIS, IND.. PAUL, MINN.. The McGraw Co.
JACKSONVILLE, FLA.. The Varney Electrica l Supply Co. ST. .St. Paul Electric Co.
KANSAS CITY, Mo.. Pierce Electric Co. SYRACUSE , N. Y. H. C. Roberts Electric Supply Co.
LOS ANGELES, CAL. Columbi an Electrica l Co. TAMPA, FLA.. Pierce Electric Co.
LOUISVILLE, KY . Illinois Electric Co. WASHINGTON, D. C.
Tafel Electric Co. WORCESTER, MASS.. .H. C. Roberts Electric Supply Co.
WESTINGHOUSE SERVICE SHOPS Wetmor e- Savage Electrica l Supply Co.
ATLANTA, GA. .426 Marietta Street
BALTIMORE, MD . KANSAS CITY, MO .
501 East Preston Street LOS ANGELES , CAL. .2026 Wyandott Stre
BOSTON, MASS.. 12 Farnsworth Street MINNEAPOLIS, MINN . .420 South San Pedreo Street et
BRIDGEPORT, CONN . Bruce Ave. and Seymour Street YORK .230 3 Kennedy Street, N. E.
BUFFALO, N. Y... .141-157 Milton Street NEW , N. Y.
CHARLOTTE, N. C.. PHILADELPHIA, PA. 467 Tenth Avenue
210 East Sixth Street PITTSBURGH, PA. 30th and Walnut Streets
CHICAGO, ILL.. 2201 West Pershing Road
CINCINNATI , OHIO Third and Elm Streets PROVIDENCE , R. I.. 6905 Susq uehanna Street
CLEVELAND, OHIO . 2209 Ashland Road, S. E. ST. LOUIS , Mo .. .393 Harris Avenue
DENVER, COLO .. 1909-11-13-15 Blake Street SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH . 717 South Twelfth Street
DETROIT, MICH . 1535 Sixth Street SAN FRANCISCO , CAL. 573 W. Second South Street
HUNTINGTON, W. VA Ninth St. and Second Avenue SEATTLE, WASH . 1466 Powell St. , Emeryville, Cal.
INDIANAPOLIS, IND.. .814-820 North Senate Avenue SPRINGFIELD, MASS . 3451 East Marginal Way
JOHNSTOWN, PA. .47 Messenger Street
WESTINGHOUSE MARINE UTICA, N. Y.. .395 Liberty Street
SERVICE PORT ENGINEERS 408 Pine Street
NEW ORLEANS . 1028 South Rampart Street SAN FRA NCI SCO..
NEW YORK.. ..467 Tenth Avenue
PHILADELPHIA.. 30th and Walnut Streets SEATTLE .. 1400 Fourth Street
3451 East Marginal Way
CANADIAN WESTINGHOUSE COMPANY WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC INTERNATIONAL COMPANY
HAMILTON, ONTARIO
150 BROADWAY, NEW YORK , U. S. A.
Printed in Pittsburgh, U.S.A.
William G. Johnston Company
W
WESTINGHOUSE
ELECTRIC
PRINTED IN U. S. A.
S. P. 1666-A.

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SILENT

WESTINGHOLISE ELECTRIC &MAGICO 17775OUNCE CON

Protective Relays for

A-C and D-C Systems

Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company

Newark Works , Newark, New Jersey

ELAYS have been aptly termed " silent

They stand on duty twenty - four hours a

day, every day in the year, and - year in

and year out. They guard thousands of dollars worth

of property and equipment. They prevent service

Automatic control is a reality.

Supervisory control has been introduced .

The inter - connection of systems is no

Service is now reliable and continuous .

All of these are attributes of super - power - a new

era in the electrical industry . And they were made

possible through Westinghouse pioneering in the

most of the present - day relays , but this Company

Westinghouse relays and relay practice have played

an important role in the progress of the electrical

industry. It is the purpose of Westinghouse to main-

exacting requirements of the future.

1. The Functions of Relays .

II. METHODS OF APPLYING RELAYS TO CIRCUIT-BREAKERS . 7

1. Alternating- Current Circuit- Breakers .. 7

(a) Circuit-Opening vs. Circuit-Closing Tripping

III. ALTERNATING - CURRENT SYSTEMS . 11

1. General Theories of Line Troubles .. 11

(a) Solidly-Grounded Systems

2. Methods of Clearing Short Circuits . .18

(a) Radial System

(a) Solidly and Low-Resistance- Grounded Neutral Systems

4. Calculation of Short- Circuit Current . 26

5. Protection of Alternating- Current Apparatus . ..31

(a) Overload Protection

V. AUTOMATIC CONTROL . .36

VII. TYPICAL RELAY APPLICATION 40

VIII . APPLICATION CHART OF WESTINGHOUSE RELAYS . 42

IX . WESTINGHOUSE PROTECTIVE AND CONTROL RELAYS . 46

1. Alternating- Current Relays .. 46

The Functions of Relays

The Development of the Relay Art

1902 THE FIRST INDUCTION-TYPE RELAY

It was not until 1913, however, that the fullest

Recently the CZ impedance (distance) relay was per-

Methods of Applying Relays to

and it is important also to test each circuit occasionally -Fuses

2 - Direct- Current Circuit-Breakers

D.C. ControlBus Multiple Control Circuits- Sometimes it is desir-

Trip Circuit Terminals An audible signal of some kind is usually provided

until the relay is tripped. A type OL relay which can

The objection often arises that this relay scheme

Alternating- Current Systems

1 - General Theories of Line Troubles

SILENT SENTINELS - Protective Relays for A- C and D- C Systems

Two Wire Short Circuit Scales

One Wire Grounded

Two Wires Grounded. Scales

PotentialTrans. Line Power PowerTrans. Potential Trans