Journal of the Korean Physical Society, Vol. 72, No. 7, April 2018, pp.

818∼825

Measurement of Characteristic of X-band RF Cavity for 6 MeV Electron Linac

Seung-wook Shin, Seung-Hyun Lee and Seyoung Oh

Department of Energy Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea

Donghyup Ha, Mitra Ghergherehchi and Jongseo Chai∗

College of Information & Communication Engineering,
Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea

Byung-no Lee and Moonsik Chae

Radiation Equipment Research Division, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute,
Advance Radiation Technology Institute, Jeongeup 34057, Korea

(Received 8 February 2018, in final form 2 March 2018)

A compact 6 MeV electron linear accelerator (linac), intended to be used as an X-ray source for a
dual-head gantry radiotherapy system has been developed. In order to meet the size requirements
of the dual-head gantry machine, an X-band radio frequency (RF) technology is used, which facili-
tates a reduction in the size of the linac, which is nine times smaller than the conventional medical
purpose linac using S-band RF technology. Nevertheless, the X-band RF technology requires much
higher machining precision and higher-quality surface finish owing to the electrical breakdown phe-
nomena resulting from its small size. After the design was completed, the RF cavity was machined
using high-precision machining technology, achieving machining tolerances of ±2 μm, and a sur-
face roughness less than 50 nm. Various RF properties were measured in the fabricated RF cavity
by using a network analyzer, and the distribution of the electric field generated in the RF cavity
was verified by a bead-pull measurement technique. RF conditioning and beam commissioning
experiments were performed, following the fabrication and tuning of the RF cavity.

PACS numbers: 87.56.bd, 29.20.Ej

Keywords: X-band, Electron linac, RF cavity
DOI: 10.3938/jkps.72.818

I. INTRODUCTION guided radiotherapy (IGRT), and respiratory-gated ra-

diotherapy (RGRT) [2].
Radiation therapy is a treatment protocol which uses
The primary methods for treating cancer include sur- ionized particles (protons, heavy ions, electrons) or pho-
gical intervention, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. tons (gamma rays or X-rays) to directly damage and de-
Following the discovery of X-rays by Röntgen in 1895 and stroy cancer cells. The particles used in this protocol are
Radium in 1898 by Pierre and Marie Curie, direct radi- accelerated to high energies using particle accelerators
ation has been widely applied to cancer treatments with such as linear accelerators, synchrotrons, and cyclotron,
much success. In this regard, radiation therapy has con- etc. However, the treatment procedure usually results
tributed considerably to the development of treatment in damage to normal healthy cells, in addition to cancer
protocols in oncology during the 20th century. Cobalt cells. Minimizing unwanted damage to cells is an im-
radiotherapy was developed in 1951 followed by linear portant problem in the treatment of cancer and several
accelerator radiotherapy devices in 1952, as clinical tools strategies have been investigated, including the reduc-
for the effective treatment of deep tumors using high en- tion of radiation exposure.
ergy X-ray. These techniques facilitate the application Sungkyunkwan University has developed a dual head
of radiation therapy to more types of cancer [1]. Re- gantry system since 2012, which is a radiation treatment
cently, a variety of radiation therapy devices have been system that reduces the amount of radiation exposure
developed that can destroy cancer cells without signif- [3]. This system is characterized by the use of two elec-
icant damage to healthy surrounding tissue. These in- tron linear accelerators to reduce the exposure time of
clude intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT), image- patients by reducing the treatment time.
In radiotherapy, electron linear accelerators (linacs)
∗ E-mail: [email protected]

pISSN:0374-4884/eISSN:1976-8524 -818- 2018

c The Korean Physical Society
Measurement of Characteristic of X-band RF Cavity for 6 MeV Electron Linac – Seung-wook Shin et al. -819-

Table 1. Specification of The 6 MeV Electron Linac.

Parameters Value
Operating Frequency 9.3 GHz
Input RF power (pulsed) < 2 MW
Pulse Length 4 us
Duty Factor 0.0018
E-gun Volage 15 kV
Output Beam Current
Fig. 1. (Color online) Structural figure of the Entire Elec- 30 mA
(Pulsed Maximum)
tron Linac.
Average Beam Current 55 uA
Beam Spot Size (FWHM) 2 mm
generally act as X-ray generators and accelerate electrons Output Beam Energy 6 MeV
to several MeV depending on the treatment application. Effective Shunt Impedance
For clinical use, these devices use operating frequencies 90 MΩ/m
per Unit Length
including the S-band (2.856 GHz) [4], C-band (6 GHz)
Operating Mode Standing Wave, Pi/2 mode
[5], and X-band (9.3 GHz) [6,7] depending on the appli-
Structure Type Side-coupled Cavity
cation. The higher the frequency band used, the shorter
the wavelength, which facilitates a smaller footprint and Structure Aperture Radius 4 mm
ease of configuration. Since linac systems are typically Length of the
< 30 cm
bulky and the developmental cost can be high, the sys- Accelerating Structure
tem under consideration exploits a frequency of 9.3 GHz
in the X-band.
Owing to a wide variety of factors such as machining
tolerance, brazing tolerance and surface roughness that should be designed according to the voltage that does not
are critical aspects during the fabrication process of an cause electrical breakdown. In the 1950s, Kilpatric stud-
accelerator, there is always a difference between the de- ied the relationship between electrical breakdown and
sign and the final product. Therefore, it is necessary to resonant frequency when a RF signal was applied to a
measure the characteristics of the radio frequency (RF) metal structure under vacuum conditions. RF cavities
cavity such as the resonance frequency and the electric were designed based on the limit proposed by Kilpatric.
field distribution, prior to tuning. In this paper, we will The Kilpatric limit at an operating frequency 9.3 GHz is
focus on RF cavity testing, tuning, RF conditioning, and 79.37 MV/m. However, the presented RF cavity has a
beam commissioning of a side-coupled standing-wave- significantly improved vacuum state and surface rough-
type RF cavity with a resonance frequency of 9.3 GHz, ness compared to those of the 1950s, so the Kilpatric’s
with 6 MeV accelerated electrons. criterion value is scaled by multiplying the brave factor to
give a value of 1.5 - 2. The peak value of the electric field
of the proposed RF cavity is 86.6 MV/m, which is 1.09
times higher than that of the Kilpatric’s criterion value.
II. SPECIFICATION OF 6 MEV X-BAND
Experimental results of the X-band RF cavity from var-
ELECTRON LINAC
ious institutes show that a peak electric field value of
more than 300 MV/m can be generated [8–10]. There-
The electron linac for the dual-head gantry radiother- fore, an electric field of 86.6 MV/m is in the safe range
apy machine consists of 17 cells in total. The 17 cells taking electrical breakdown into account. In addition, if
consist of 7 bunching cells, 9 accelerating cells, and one the gap between the nose-cones is narrowed, dissipation
power coupler cell. The 1st bunching cell and 17th cell power increases inside the cell, so it is important to find
were modified to connect with the beam pipe. The E-gun an optimal value. The effective shunt impedance value
for electron generation is coupled to the 1st bunching cell designed for effective electron beam acceleration of the
and there is a port for the vacuum pump in between. In accelerating cell is 105 MΩ/m. A preliminary study on
7 bunching cells, cell lengths were determined incident the design of the electron linac for the dual-head gantry
electrons to be bunched efficiently, accelerated efficiently radiotherapy machine can be found in [11]. The detailed
to 1 MeV. The overall structure is shown in Fig. 1. By specification of the electron accelerator is shown in the
reducing a gap between nose-cone, we can achieve incre- Table 1.
ment of the shunt impedance which leads to increment A mechanical design process is required for the fabri-
of an acceleration efficiency in accelerating cell. How- cation of accelerators as actual products. For stable ac-
ever, if the gap between the nose-cones is too narrow, celerator operation, a constant temperature needs to be
the a electric field inside the cell will become too high maintained in the accelerator. For temperature control,
and electrical breakdown may occur. Therefore, cells a cooling line is created, in which water passes through
-820- Journal of the Korean Physical Society, Vol. 72, No. 7, April 2018

(a) normal cell

Fig. 3. (Color online) E0 /H0 rations of normal and side-

coupled cells.

tuned. In this section, the measurement and tuning of

the RF properties of the RF cavity are discussed.

1. Measurement and Tuning of the Resonance

Frequency

In order to measure the resonance frequency of the fab-

(b) side-coupled cell ricated RF cavity, the RF cavity was mounted on a jig
to create the same conditions as those of the simulation.
Fig. 2. (Color online) Assembly of the RF cavity, jig, E- After the RF cavity was assembled with the jig, the gen-
probe, and copper short-bar. erated S11 signal was measured when the electrical probe
was inserted into the RF cavity. The RF cavity mounted
on the jig is shown in Fig. 2. A copper short-bar was used
the accelerator. As manufacturing all parts of the accel- to create a condition without a generated electric field in
erator at once is not possible, individual pieces were man- the cell connected to the cell where the measurement is
ufactured separately and then brazed together. Grooves performed. As the electrical probe penetrates, it gen-
were designed to ensure the flow of the brazing filler. Due erates an additional impedance term in the RF cavity,
to the thermal expansion of the brazing filler, the filler thus the resonance frequency of the RF cavity changes
can flow into the RF cavity, which reduces the volume of according to the penetration depth. The energy gener-
the RF cavity and increases the resonance frequency of ated inside the accelerating tube is affected by the ad-
the entire accelerator. Stainless steel flanges were used ditional perturbed component, where the energy change
to connect the assemblies of the E-gun and the beginning results in a change in the resonant frequency. Therefore
of the tungsten target and end position of the RF cavity. the position where the frequency does not change when
the electrical probe penetrates has to be located, thus
the insertion position of the probe has to be determined.
In the 1950s, Slater [12] described the change in the
III. RF PROPERTIES OF THE RF CAVITY
resonance frequency with the change of the volume of
AND RESULTS OF THE
the RF cavity. The Slater perturbation theorem can be
MEASUREMENT
expressed by the following equations:

It is important to confirm that the high-quality of sur- ω − ω0 [μ|H0 |2 − |E0 |2 ]dτ ΔUm − ΔUe
= Δv 2 2
= (1)
face roughness and tolerances, the operating frequency ω0 v
[μ|H0 | + |E0 | ]dτ U
of the accelerator, and the shape of the electric field dis-
1

tribution in the accelerator are the same as the design with U = 4 (μ0 |H0 |2 + 0 |E0 |2 )dV .
specifications. If the operating frequency and field dis-
tribution in the accelerating tube differ from the design E0 
specifications, they can be reprocessed or mechanically Δω = 0 ⇒ = μ0 /0 = 377 Ω, (2)
H0
Measurement of Characteristic of X-band RF Cavity for 6 MeV Electron Linac – Seung-wook Shin et al. -821-

Fig. 4. (Color online) Change of S11 value according to

depth of probe insertion. (a)Measurement sample.

Table 2. Simulation results of the resonance frequency of

the RF cavity (all units are in GHz).

Normal cell Side-coupled cell

st
1 bunching cell 9.2003 9.8071
2nd bunching cell 9.2624 9.28496
3rd bunching cell 9.2776 9.33462
4th bunching cell 9.27948 9.31614
5th bunching cell 9.27818 9.31008
6th bunching cell 9.27652 9.30826 (b)Deviation of the frequency from the reference value.
7th bunching cell 9.27894 9.30286
Normal accelerating cell 9.2799 9.3058 Fig. 5. (Color online) Measurements of the resonance fre-
quency of the RF cavity
Power coupler cell 9.2839 9.3424
End cell 9.25156 9.28798

ume is the smallest. However, due to the volume of the

electrical probe, the resonance frequency of the RF cav-
where ω is the perturbed frequency, ω0 is the unper- ity changes when the probe is inserted. While the S11
turbed frequency, μ is the relative permeability,  is the value can be confirmed by receiving a proper signal at
relative permittivity of material, H0 is the unperturbed the time of inserting the probe, the change in resonance
magnetic field, E0 is the unperturbed electric field, U is frequency needs to be very small. Figure 4 shows the
the energy stored inside the RF cavity, ΔUm and ΔUe variation in frequency with the insertion depth of the
are time averaged magnetic and electric energies stored probe. The minimum value of the S11 function repre-
inside of the RF cavity, respectively. sents the resonance frequency. The resonance frequency
The position where the change in the resonance fre- is nearly constant until the S11 value is coupled to about
quency is minimized even with the additional perturba- −0.2 dB. However, when the S11 value is more coupled,
tion term can be found by using Eq. (2). The location the range of variation in frequency is large. The coupling
where the ratio of the electric and the magnetic fields can be made weaker to reduce the change in frequency,
generated in the RF cavity is 377 Ω is the position where however, the coupling of −0.2 dB results in a change
the change of the resonance frequency can be minimized of only 0.5 MHz with respect to the reference frequency.
with the added perturbation term. Thus, the minimized For weaker couplings, signal strength is too weak and not
resonance frequency of the RF cavity can be measured suitable for practical experiments. The insertion depth
by inserting the probe at the position determined by the of the E-probe with an S11 value of −0.2 dB is the point
procedure above. The functions for E0 /H0 in normal and where the end of the inner conductor of the E-probe is
side-coupled cells are shown in Fig. 3. The calculated po- 0.1 mm from the jig surface.
sition of E0 /H0 = 377 Ω is located 7.3 mm and 6.17 mm The E-probe consists of an inner and an outer conduc-
from the center of the cell for the normal cell and for the tor made of annealed brass, and the material between
side-coupled cell, respectively. The previously calculated the conductors is Teflon (Epsilon = 2.1), used in several
position represents the point at which the change in vol- wiring and electronic components owing to its low di-
-822- Journal of the Korean Physical Society, Vol. 72, No. 7, April 2018

Fig. 7. (Color online) Electric field distribution in the RF

cavity measured by the bead-pull measurement technique.

Fig. 6. (Color online) Ead-pull measurement system.

electric constant. The diameter of the inner conductor,

outer conductor, and the axial gap distance between con-
ductors are 0.5 mm, 2.5 mm, 0.75 mm, respectively. The
resonance frequency of the RF cavity, assembled with the
jig was simulated by CST Microwave Studio. The res-
onance frequencies of the normal and the side-coupled Fig. 8. (Color online) Converted electric field of the RF
cells exhibit a frequency shift due to the presence of the cavity.
short bar. The simulation results of the normal and side-
coupled cells of the 7 bunching cells, the normal acceler-
ating cell, a power coupler cell, and an end cell are listed change in the resonant frequency while the bead moves
in Table 2. through the RF cavity [14]. However, for an RF cavity
Figure 5 depicts measurement results of the resonance using an X-band range, the size of the RF cavity is small
frequency of the differenct RF cavity cells. The results owing to the high frequency, thus a small-sized bead is re-
show that most of the fabricated RF cavity cells have an quired. If the bead size is small, the change measured in
error of ±1 MHz with respect to the reference frequency, the frequency is very small, which is difficult to measure
and such degree of frequency drift can be compensated because of the high noise and long measurement time.
by frequency tuning. Ma [15] showed that the resonance frequency change can
be represented by the phase change of S21. Therefore,
instead of the direct measurement of the resonance fre-
2. Bead-Pull Measurement quency change, it is possible to measure the electric field
change with less noise by using the phase change. The ex-
A. Fundamental theory of the bead-pull measurement perimental setup for the bead-pull measurement is shown
in Fig. 6.
The frequency change due to the change in the phase
For a resonance condition in an RF cavity, the elec- of S21 can be expressed as follows [16,17]:
tric and magnetic field strengths are equal. However,  
when a small change in volume occurs in the wall of the −1 −Ω(f )
Δang(S21) = tan (4)
RF cavity, or when a new material enters the RF cavity, 1 + β 1 + β2
which changes the magnetic or electric fields, the reso-  
nance frequency of the RF cavity changes. The resonant with Ω(f ) = Q0 ff0 − ff0 , where f is the perturbed
frequency variation of the RF cavity due to the exter-
frequency, f0 is the unperturbed frequency, Q0 is the
nal material can be explained using Eq. (3) of the Slater
unloaded quality factor, and β1 and β2 are coupling co-
perturbation theorem, rewritten by Klein [13] in a more
efficient for each probe.
practical expression as:
The measured electric field distribution in the RF cav-
 
Δω 3ΔV 2 μH02 ity by the bead-pull measurement technique is shown in
=− E0 − . (3) Fig. 7. As the value measured by the bead-pull measure-
ω 4U 2
ment is proportional to the square of the electric field,
The bead-pull measurement system is a device deter- the square root is obtained and converted to a sinusoidal
mining the relative intensity of the electric field gener- form. The electric field converted to a sinusoidal form is
ated inside the RF cavity by measuring the magnitude of shown in Fig. 8. The results, obtained by using the AS-
Measurement of Characteristic of X-band RF Cavity for 6 MeV Electron Linac – Seung-wook Shin et al. -823-

Fig. 10. (Color online) Magnetron signal measured by os-

cilloscope.

the RF modulator. In this study, a modulator manufac-

tured by ScandiNova was used. The power generated by
the magnetron is transmitted through the waveguide to
Fig. 9. (Color online) RF system for the 6 MeV X-band the RF cavity. The type WR-112 waveguide employed
electron linac. in the X-band range was used in this study, which was
able to withstand a peak power of 2 MW. To prevent
arcing in the waveguide, the inside was filled with sulfur
TRA simulation software with actual measured electric hexafluoride (SF6 )gas.
field data, confirmed that, compared to the ideal electric The RF cavity is designed and manufactured to receive
field, a power ∼ 3% higher is required. During the design all the RF power, generated by the magnetron during
process of a 6 MeV electron linac for a dual-head gantry operation without reflection. However, as the maximum
radiotherapy machine, the input power is designed to be power is reflected instantly during the first switch-on, the
20% of the normal input power; therefore, a 3% increase magnetron should be protected by the reflected wave.
in the input power is in a safe range. Reflection of the RF power is further possible due to
changes in the fine frequency and coupling state of the
RF cavity, due to the unstable temperature and humidity
during operation. A circulator was used to protect the
IV. HIGH-POWER TEST AND BEAM
magnetron from the wave reflected from the RF cavity.
MEASUREMENT
The circulator directs the signal traveling toward the
RF cavity direction and the signal coming from the op-
After the RF cavity resonance frequency and electric posite direction to a dummy load. The circulator used
field map tuning were completed, an RF driving test was in the study was chosen to withstand a peak RF power
performed, where a magnetron was used to transmit the of 2 MW and an average RF power of 3 kW. The con-
RF power to the RF cavity. Electrons generated in the struction of the test bench of the 6 MeV X-band electron
cathode inside the magnetron were accelerated by the linac for the dual-head gantry radiotherapy is shown in
electric field, and the accelerated electrons were rotated Fig. 9.
by the magnetic field in the axial direction. The rotat- The high-power test of the electron linac was carried
ing electrons were coupled to the RF cavity placed on out at a temperature of 40 ◦ C. The operating temper-
the outside, and the RF cavity excited by the wake field ature range of the magnetron was 10 - 60 ◦ C, and the
of the electrons emit the RF power to the outside by a operating temperature of the RF modulator was 10 -
power coupler. Therefore, a current source, to heat the 40 ◦ C. If the operating temperature is lower than room
filament of the thermal cathode and a high-voltage power temperature, condensation occurs on the surface of the
supply, to generate the electric field between the cathode accelerator tube. Moreover, if the accelerator is oper-
and the anode to accelerate the electrons, were required ated at too high a temperature, turbulence occurs in the
to drive the magnetron. The device, equipped with a cooling line because the boiling water is used as cooling
control system to operate the magnetron, is known as water, resulting in a rapid drop of the cooling efficiency,
-824- Journal of the Korean Physical Society, Vol. 72, No. 7, April 2018

Fig. 11. (Color online) Results from the integrated current

transformer.

thus high-temperature operation must be avoided. In ad-

dition, the RF cavity needs be operated at a temperature
as low a as possible, because the electrical conductivity Fig. 12. (Color online) Beam profile measurement system
using YAG screen and CCD camera.
decreases with the increasing temperature. The design
and testing of the RF cavity was performed at a 20 ◦ C
room temperature, however the actual operation was at signal waveform represents the reflected RF power sig-
40 ◦ C. As the measured resonance frequency of the RF nal. As can be seen in Fig. 10, it was confirmed that
cavity changes at a rate of −150 kHz/◦ C, it is tuned to the RF power was properly fed without time delay when
9.303 GHz, and to 9.3 GHz for the operation at 40 ◦ C. the applied modulator voltage signal was generated. Fur-
The measured S11 value at 9.303 GHz was −29.811, and thermore, it was confirmed that stable RF operation was
0.1% of the input power will be reflected at the RF cav- achieved by adjusting the reflected wave to be minimal
ity. when the RF output generated was maximal.
Before the RF power was applied to the RF cavity After the high-power was injected into the RF cavity,
for the first time, the RF cavity was baked at 300 ◦ C, the E-gun was powered up and the electron beam was
while the vacuum pump was operated simultaneously to induced to the accelerator. The current of the generated
remove oxygen compounds and impurities remaining on electron beam was measured indirectly through an inte-
the inside copper surface of the RF cavity. After the grated current transformer (ICT). The ICT-signal mea-
baking is finished, an RF conditioning is required to put sured by the oscilloscope, shown in Fig. 11 is represented
the RF power into the RF cavity. The RF power was ap- by the voltage, and the converted maximum beam cur-
plied to the inside of the RF cavity for a long period, with rent value is 16 mA for a duty factor of 0.008.
a power lower than the actual target power, to remove The electron beam profile and the electron beam cur-
the impurities and the unstable parts. After complet- rent can be measured using an yttrium aluminum garnet
ing the RF conditioning operation, the forward power (YAG) screen. The YAG screen is a type of scintillator,
was gradually increased, with simultaneously observing which emits fluorescent light when reacts with an elec-
the reflected power strength during the high-power test. tron beam. The apparatus for measuring the profile of
If electrical breakdown occurs, the reflected power in- the electron beam is shown in Fig. 12. When the YAG
creases sharply, and the vacuum of the RF cavity in- screen is hit by the electron beam, it emits light and
stantaneously deteriorates. its image is captured by a charge-coupled device (CCD)
The forward and reflected power results with incident camera.
RF power are shown in Fig. 10. Using the high volt-
age generated by the modulator, it was confirmed that
the RF output was properly generated when the oper-
ating voltage of the magnetron was reached. In Fig. 10, V. CONCLUSION
the yellow signal waveform represents the magnetron or
modulator high voltage signal, the blue signal waveform In this study, a 6 MeV electron linac for a dual-head
represents the transmitted RF power signal, and the red gantry radiotherapy machine system was fabricated, and
Measurement of Characteristic of X-band RF Cavity for 6 MeV Electron Linac – Seung-wook Shin et al. -825-

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