ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING: MODULE 1

MODULE 1: SOURCES OF ENERGY

ENERGY- Capacity to do work.
• Most of the energy that we use is mainly derived from conventional energy sources.
• Due to the vast demand of energy, the rate of depletion of these resources has reached
alarmingly low levels.
• This situation has directed us to seek alternate energy sources such as solar, wind,
ocean, biomass, Hydel etc.

Energy Sources:
• The energy existing in the earth is known as CAPITAL energy.
• Energy that comes from outer space is called CELESTIAL or INCOME energy.
• The CAPITAL energy sources are mainly, fossil fuels, nuclear fuels and heat traps.
• CELESTIAL ENERGY SOURCES ARE- Electromagnetic, gravitational and particle
energy from stars, planets, moon etc.
• ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY of the earth’s sun is called DIRECT SOLAR
ENERGY. This results in WIND, HYDEL, GEOTHERMAL, BIOFUEL, etc.
• GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY of earth’s moon produces TIDAL ENERGY.

Renewable Sources of Energy:

Energy sources which are continuously produced in nature and are essentially
inexhaustible are called renewable energy sources.
1. Direct solar energy
2. Wind energy
3. Tidal energy
4. Hydel energy
5. Ocean thermal energy
6. Bio energy
7. Geo thermal energy
8. Peat
9. Fuel wood
10. Fuel cells
11. Solid wastes
12. Hydrogen

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Nonrenewable Energy Sources:

Energy sources which have been accumulated over the ages and not quickly
replenishable when they are exhausted.
1. Fossil fuels.
2. Nuclear fuels.
3. Heat traps.

Differences between Renewable and Non Renewable Energy Sources

Factor Renewable Energy Non Renewable Energy
Sources Sources

Exhaustibility/Inexhaustibility Inexhaustible Exhaustible

Availability Abundantly and freely Not abundantly available

available

Replenishment Replenished Naturally Cannot be replenished

Environmental Friendliness Environment friendly Not environment friendly

except in case of biomass

Cost Factor Building Systems cost is Production cost is high

high, running cost is low

Nature of Availability Intermittently available Continuously available

Regional restriction and No regional restriction Available in certain

dependency factor countries

Types of Fuels
The important fuels are as follows-
1) Solid fuels
2) Liquid fuels
3) Gaseous fuels

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1) Solid fuels
➢ Coal is the major fuel used for thermal power plants to generate steam.
➢ Coal occurs in nature, which was formed by the decay of vegetable matters buried
under the earth millions of years ago under pressure and heat.
➢ This phenomenon of transformation of vegetable matter into coal under earth’s crust is
known as Metamorphism.
➢ The type of coal available under the earth’s surface depends upon the period of
metamorphism and the type of vegetable matter buried, also the pressure and
temperature conditions.
➢ The major constituents in coal moisture (5-40%), volatile matter (combustible & or
incombustible substances about 50%) and ash (20-50%).
➢ The chemical substances in the coal are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and
sulphur.
➢ In the metamorphism phenomenon, the vegetable matters undergo the transformation
from peat to anthracite coal, with intermediate forms of lignite and bituminous coal.

2. Liquid Fuels
➢ All types of liquid fuels used are derived from crude petroleum and its by-products.
➢ The petroleum or crude oil consists of 80-85% C, 10-15% hydrogen, and varying
percentages of Sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and compounds of vanadium.
➢ The crude oil is refined by fractional distillation process to obtain fuel oils, for
industrial as well as for domestic purposes.
➢ The fractions from light oil to heavy oil are naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, diesel and
finally heavy fuel oil.
➢ The heavy fuel oil is used for generation of steam.
➢ The use of liquid fuels in thermal power plants has many advantages over the use of
solid fuels.
Some important advantages are as follows:
1. The storage and handling of liquid fuels is much easier than solid and gaseous fuels.
2. Excess air required for the complete combustion of liquid fuels is less, as compared to
the solid fuels.
3. Fire control is easy and hence changes in load can be met easily and quickly.
4. There are no requirements of ash handling and disposal.

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5. The system is very clean, and hence the labour required is relatively less compared to
the operation with solid fuels.

3) Gaseous Fuels
➢ For the generation of steam in gas fired thermal plants, either natural gas or
manufactured gaseous fuels are used.
➢ However, manufactured gases are costlier than the natural gas.
➢ Generally, natural gas is used for power plants as it is available in abundance.
➢ The natural gas is generally obtained from gas wells and petroleum wells.
➢ The major constituent in natural gas is methane, about 60-65%, and also contains
small amounts of other hydrocarbons such as ethane, naphthene and aromatics, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen.
➢ The natural gas is transported from the source to the place of use through pipes,
for distances to several hundred kilometers.
➢ The natural gas is colourless, odourless and non-toxic.
➢ Its calorific value ranges from 25,000 to 50,000 kJ/m3, in accordance with the
percentage of methane in the gas.
➢ The artificial gases are producer gas, water gas coke-oven gas; and the Blast
furnace gas.
➢ Generally, power plants fired with artificial gases are not found.
➢ The gaseous fuels have advantages similar to those of liquid fuels, except for the
storage problems.
➢ The major disadvantage of power plant using natural gas is that it should be setup
near the source; otherwise the transportation losses are too high.

Solar Power Plant

Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear fusion reaction
that creates electromagnetic energy. The spectrum of solar radiation is close to that of a
black body with a temperature of about 5800 K. About half of the radiation is in the visible
short-wave part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Solar Constant:
This is the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit perpendicular to the suns
direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. The surface of the earth receives

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about 1014 kW of solar energy from the sun. One square meter of the land exposed to direct
sun-light receives an energy equivalent of about 1 kW of power. The radiant solar energy
falling on the earth surface is directly converted into thermal energy. The surfaces on which
the solar rays fall are called collectors.
There are two types of collectors:
(a) Flat plate collectors (b) Focusing collectors.

Liquid Flat Plate Collectors:

It has the following components:

(a) Absorbing plate
• Made of Copper, Aluminium or steel.
• It is coated with material to enhance the absorption of solar radiation.
• From the absorbing plates heat is transferred to tubes which carry either water
or air.
(b) Transparent covers
• Sheets of solar radiation transmitting materials placed above the absorbing
plate.
• They allow solar energy to reach the absorbing plate while reducing
convection, conduction and re-radiation heat losses.
(c) Insulation
• It minimizes and protects the absorbing plate from heat losses.

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Working
• Sun’s rays falling on the transparent covers are transmitted to the absorbing plate.
• The absorbing plate usually of Cu, Al or galvanized iron is painted dead black for
maximum absorption.
• The collector (plate) will absorb the sun energy and transfer it to the fluid in the pipe
beneath the collector plate.
• Use of flat mirrors on the sides improves the output.
Solar Pond Technology

• A salinity gradient solar pond is an integral collection and storage device of solar
energy.
• By virtue of having built-in thermal energy storage, it can be used irrespective of time
and season.
• In an ordinary pond or lake, when the sun's rays heat up the water this heated water,
being lighter, rises to the surface and loses its heat to the atmosphere.
• The net result is that the pond water remains at nearly atmospheric temperature.
• The solar pond technology inhibits this phenomenon by dissolving salt into the
bottom layer of this pond, making it too heavy to rise to the surface, even when hot.
• The salt concentration increases with depth, thereby forming a salinity gradient.
• The sunlight which reaches the bottom of the pond remains entrapped there.
• The useful thermal energy is then withdrawn from the solar pond in the form of hot
brine.

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• The pre-requisites for establishing solar ponds are: a large tract of land (it could be
barren), a lot of sun shine, and cheaply available salt (such as Sodium Chloride) or
bittern.
• Generally, there are three main layers. The top layer is cold and has relatively little
salt content.
• The bottom layer is hot -- up to 100°C (212°F) -- and is very salty.
• Separating these two layers is the important gradient zone.

Photovoltaic Cell:
Solar energy can be directly converted to electrical energy by means of photovoltaic
effect. Photovoltaic effect is defined as the generation of an electromotive force (EMF) as a
result of the absorption of ionizing radiation.
Devices which convert sunlight to electricity are known as solar cells or photovoltaic
cells. Solar cells are semiconductors, commonly used are barrier type iron-selenium cells.

• Iron-selenium cells consist of a metal electrode on which a layer of selenium is deposited.

• On the top of this a barrier layer is formed which is coated with a very thin layer of gold.
• The layer of gold serves as a translucent electrode through which light can impinge on the
layer below.
• Under the influence of sunlight, a negative charge will build up on the gold electrode and a
positive charge on the bottom electrode.

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• This difference in charge will produce voltage in proportion to the suns radiant energy
incident on it.

Wind energy:
Wind energy is the energy contained in the force of the winds blowing across the
earth surface. Wind energy is defined as the kinetic energy associated with the movement of
large masses of air over the earth’s surface. The circulation of the air in the atmosphere is
caused by the non-uniform heating of the earth’s surface by the sun. The air immediately
above warm area expands and becomes less dense. It is then forced upwards by a cool denser
air which flows in from the surrounding areas causing wind.
Power in the wind:
Wind possesses kinetic energy by virtue of its motion. Any device capable of slowing
down the mass of moving air, like a sail or propeller, can extract part of this energy and
convert into useful work.
The kinetic energy of one cubic meter of air blowing at a velocity V is given by,
E=

In one second, a volume element of air moves a distance of V m. The total volume crossing a
plane, one square meter in area and oriented normal to the velocity vector in one second is
therefore V m3.
The rate at which the wind energy is transferred, i.e., wind power is given by,
P=EV
P=

No device, however well designed can extract all the wind energy because the wind
would have to be brought to halt and this would block the passage of incoming air through
the rotor. It has been found that for maximum power output the exit velocity is equal to one-
third of the entrance velocity. Thus a maximum of 60% of the available energy in the wind is
converted into mechanical energy.

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Wind energy conversion:

A windmill is the oldest device built to convert the wind energy into mechanical
energy used for grinding, milling and pumping applications. It consists of a rotor fitted with
large sized blades. Now improvement in performance is achieved by applying sound
engineering and aerodynamic principles. Nowadays the wind energy is used to produce
electrical energy. Wind energy is converted into mechanical energy in wind turbines. These
wind turbines are coupled to generators the mechanical energy is converted into electrical
energy.

Hydro Power Plants:

In hydroelectric power plants the potential energy of water due to its high location is
converted into electrical energy. The total power generation capacity of the hydroelectric
power plants depends on the head of water and volume of water flowing towards the water
turbine.
The hydroelectric power plant, also called as dam or hydro power plant, is used for
generation of electricity from water on large scale basis. The dam is built across the large
river that has sufficient quantity of water throughout the river. In certain cases where the river
is very large, more than one dam can built across the river at different locations.

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Working Principle of Hydroelectric Power plant

The water flowing in the river possesses two type of energy:

(1) The kinetic energy due to flow of water and
(2) Potential energy due to the height of water.
The hydroelectric power and potential energy of water is utilized to generate electricity.

Working principle of a nuclear power station

The schematic diagram of nuclear power station is shown in figure. A generating
station in which nuclear energy is converted into electrical energy is known as nuclear power
station. The main components of this station are nuclear reactor, heat exchanger or steam
generator, steam or gas turbine, AC generator and exciter, and condenser.

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The reactor of a nuclear power plant is similar to the furnace in a steam power plant.
The heat liberated in the reactor due to the nuclear fission of the fuel is taken up by the
coolant circulating in the reactor. A hot coolant leaves the reactor at top and then flows
through the tubes of heat exchanger and transfers its heat to the feed water on its way. The
steam produced in the heat exchanger is passed through the turbine and after the work has
done by the expansion of steam in the turbine, steam leaves the turbine and flows to the
condenser. The mechanical or rotating energy developed by the turbine is transferred to the
generator which in turn generates the electrical energy and supplies to the bus through a step-
up transformer, a circuit breaker, and an isolator. Pumps are provided to maintain the flow of
coolant, condensate, and feed water.

Introduction to Bio-fuels
Bio Fuels are liquid fuels which are derived from biomass or bio waste. Bio fuels are
produced from sugar crops, starch crops, oilseed crops and animal fats.
The most common first-generation biofuels are:
• Biodiesel: extraction with or without esterification of vegetable oils from seeds of
plants like soybean, oil palm, oilseed rape and sunflower or residues including animal
fats derived from rendering applied as fuel in diesel engines.
• Bioethanol: fermentation of simple sugars from sugar crops like sugarcane or from
starch crops like maize and wheat applied as fuel in petrol engines
• Bio-oil: thermo-chemical conversion of biomass. A process still in the development
phase
• Biogas: anaerobic fermentation or organic waste, animal manures, crop residues an
energy crops applied as fuel in engines suitable for compressed natural gas.
• Biochemical: modification of the bio-ethanol fermentation process including a
pretreatment procedure
• Thermo chemical: modification of the bio-oil process to produce syngas and
methanol, Fisher-Tropsch diesel or dimethyl ether (DME).
Applications:
• Biogas is cheap and sustainable fuel used in lighting, cooking or generating
electricity.
• Biodiesel finds its use in automotive industry mainly in cars and trucks.
• Small engines are seen in lawn movers and chain saw.

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• The marine industry finds application of biofuel in suitable blend mixtures to be used
in boats and ships.
Problems Associated
Biodiesel is compatible with current engines but with certain issues
The most important of these are:
• Biodiesel exhibits cold weather problems
• Some types of biodiesel have exhibited storage in stability that could lead to engine
problems
• Diesel additives may not provide the same benefits when used with biodiesel.
• Sometimes, vegetable oils create adverse effects on engine components due to their
volatility, molecular structure and high viscosity.
Comparison of Bio Fuels with Petroleum
Factor Bio Fuels Petroleum
Calorific Value Ranges from 30 to 38MJ/Kg Varies between 43 to
48MJ/Kg
Emissions Greenhouse gas emissions Greenhouse gas emissions
are less are more
Biodegradability Biodegradable Non- Biodegradable
Toxicity Non-Toxic Toxic
Renewability Renewable Non-Renewable
Safety Safe to produce Not safe to produce

Global Warming:

Global warming is a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's atmosphere
generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide,
CFCs, and other pollutants.

Causes for Global Warming:

One of the biggest issues facing us right now is global warming. Its effects on animals and on
agriculture are indeed frightening, and the effects on the human population are even scarier.
The facts about global warming are often debated in politics and the media, but,
unfortunately, even if we disagree about the causes, global warming effects are real, global,

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and measurable. The causes are mainly from us, the human race, and the effects on us will be
severe.

• Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel burning power plants

Our ever increasing addiction to electricity from coal burning power plants releases
enormous amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
• Carbon dioxide emissions from burning gasoline for transportation
With our population growing at an alarming rate, the demand for more cars and
consumer goods means that we are increasing the use of fossil fuels for transportation
and manufacturing.
• Methane emissions from animals, agriculture such as rice paddies, and from
Arctic seabeds
Methane is another extremely potent greenhouse gas, ranking right behind CO2.
When organic matter is broken down by bacteria under oxygen-starved conditions
(anaerobic decomposition) as in rice paddies, methane is produced. The process also
takes place in the intestines of herbivorous animals, and with the increase in the
amount of concentrated livestock production, the levels of methane released into the
atmosphere is increasing. Another source of methane is methane clathrate, a
compound containing large amounts of methane trapped in the crystal structure of ice.
As methane escapes from the Arctic seabed, the rate of global warming will increase
significantly.
• Deforestation, especially tropical forests for wood, pulp, and farmland
The use of forests for fuel (both wood and for charcoal) is one cause of deforestation,
but in the first world, our appetite for wood and paper products, our consumption of
livestock grazed on former forest land, and the use of tropical forest lands for
commodities like palm oil plantations contributes to the mass deforestation of our
world. Forests remove and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and this
deforestation releases large amounts of carbon, as well as reducing the amount of
carbon capture on the planet.
• Increase in usage of chemical fertilizers on croplands
In the last half of the 20th century, the use of chemical fertilizers (as opposed to the
historical use of animal manure) has risen dramatically. The high rate of application
of nitrogen-rich fertilizers has effects on the heat storage of cropland (nitrogen oxides
have 300 times more heat-trapping capacity per unit of volume than carbon dioxide)

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and the run-off of excess fertilizers creates ‘dead-zones’ in our oceans. In addition to
these effects, high nitrate levels in groundwater due to over-fertilization are cause for
concern for human health.

Effects for Global Warming:

• Higher temperatures: Every continent has warmed substantially since the 1950s.
There are more hot days and fewer cold days, on average, and the hot days are hotter.
• Heavier storms: The world's atmosphere can hold more moisture as it warms. As a
result, the overall number of heavier storms has likely increased since midcentury,
particularly in North America and Europe (though there's plenty of regional
variation).
• Heat waves: Heat waves have likely become longer and more frequent around the
world over the past 50 years, particularly in Europe, Asia, and Australia.
• Shrinking sea ice: The extent of sea ice in the Arctic has shrunk since 1979, by
between 3.5 percent and 4.1 percent per decade, on average. Summer sea ice has
dwindled even more rapidly:
• Shrinking glaciers: Glaciers around the world have, on average, been losing ice since
the 1970s. In some areas, that is reducing the amount of available freshwater.
• Sea-level rise: Global sea levels rose 25 centimeters (9.8 inches) in the 19th and 20th
centuries, after 2,000 years of relatively little change. The pace of sea-level rise has
continued to increase in recent decades. Sea-level rise is caused by both the thermal
expansion of the oceans — as water warms up, it expands — and the melting of
glaciers and ice sheets.
• Food supply: A hotter climate can be both good for crops (it lengthens the growing
season, and more carbon dioxide can increase photosynthesis) and bad for crops
(excess heat can damage plants). The IPCC found that global warming was currently
benefiting crops in some high-latitude areas, but that negative effects were becoming
increasingly common worldwide.
• Shifting species: Many land and marine species have had to shift their geographic
ranges in response to warmer temperatures. So far, only a few extinctions have been
linked to global warming, such as certain frog species in Central America.

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Greenhouse Effect:
The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms
the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere. If a
planet's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases (i.e., greenhouse gases) they will radiate
energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface, warming it. The
intensity of the downward radiation – that is, the strength of the greenhouse effect – will
depend on the atmosphere's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the
atmosphere contains.
Earth’s natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life. Human activities, mainly the
burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests, have strengthened the greenhouse effect and
caused global warming.

Ozone Layer:
A layer in the earth's stratosphere at an altitude of about 10 km (6.2 miles) containing a high
concentration of ozone, which absorbs most of the ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth
from the sun.
Causes for Ozone Layer Depletion:
The decrease in ozone concentration in the middle layers of the atmosphere – mainly in the
stratosphere – is extremely damaging to life on earth, and is largely caused by emissions of
halogenated hydrocarbons produced by man, CFCs, HCFCs, halons, carbon tetrachloride and
methyl bromide. For this reason, such substances are commonly referred to as Substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer (ODS).
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
They are compounds formed by chlorine, fluorine and carbon. They are often used as
refrigerants, solvents, and for the manufacture of spongy plastics. When the chemicals
reached the earth’s stratosphere, they reacted with Ultraviolet radiation, which caused
them to break down and release Chlorine and Bromine into the earth’s ozone layer.
• Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
Compounds formed by H, Cl, F and C. They are being used as substitutes for CFCs
because many of their properties are similar and are less harmful to ozone by having a
shorter half-life and releasing fewer Cl atoms.

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• Halons
They are compounds formed by Br, F and C. Because of their ability to put out fires
are used in fire extinguishers, although their manufacture and use is prohibited in
many countries because of their ozone-depleting action. Their ability to harm the
ozone layer is very high because they contain Br which is a much more effective atom
destroying ozone than the Cl.
• Methyl bromide (CH3Br)
It is a very effective pesticide that is used to fumigate soils and in many crops.
• Carbon tetra-chloride (CCl4)
It is a compound that has been widely used as a raw material in many industries, for
example, to manufacture CFCs and as a solvent.

Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion:

Skin Cancer
Today, it is estimated that skin cancer rates increased due to the decrease in stratospheric
ozone (ozone layer). The most common type of skin cancer, called non-melanoma, is the
cause of exposures to UV-B radiation for several years.
Effects on aquatic ecosystems
The loss of phytoplankton, the basis of the marine food chain, has been observed as the cause
of the increase in ultraviolet radiation.
Effects on terrestrial ecosystems
Animals
For some species, an increase in UV-B radiation implies the formation of skin cancer. This
has been studied in goats, cows, cats, dogs, sheep and laboratory animals and is probably
pointing out that this is a common feature of several species. Infections in cattle can be
aggravated by an increase in UV-B radiation.
Plants
In many plants UV-B radiation can have the following adverse effects: alter its shape and
damage plant growth; Reduce tree growth; Change flowering times; Make plants more
vulnerable to disease and produce toxic substances. There could even be losses of
biodiversity and species.

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Formation of Steam (At Constant Pressure):

• Consider 1 kg of water at 00 C taken in a cylinder, on which a constant pressure p is

exerted. Point A on the temperature-enthalpy graph.
• When this water is heated its temperature rises till the boiling point is reached. This
temperature is called saturation temperature (Ts). Point B on the graph.
• Further addition of heat, initiates the evaporation of water while the temperature
remains at saturation temperature until all of water is converted into steam. Point C on
the graph.
• On heating the steam further, it increases the temperature of steam above the saturated
temperature to superheated steam.

Saturation temperature (Ts): It is defined as the temperature at which the water begins to
boil at constant pressure.
Sensible heat (hf): It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water
from 00 C to the saturation temperature (boiling point) at constant pressure. It is also known
as enthalpy of the liquid.
Latent heat of evaporation (hfg): It is the amount of heat required to evaporate 1 kg of water
at saturation temperature to 1 kg of dry steam at the same saturation temperature at constant
pressure. Also known as enthalpy of evaporation.

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Enthalpy of superheat: the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of dry steam
from its saturation temperature to any desired higher temperature at constant pressure is
called enthalpy of superheat.

States of Steam: The steam as it is being generated can exist in 3 states as wet steam, dry
saturated steam and superheated steam.
Wet Steam: It is defined as a two-phase mixture of entrained water molecules and steam at
saturation temperature.
Dry Steam (dry saturated steam): As wet steam is heated further, the water molecules in
the steam get converted into vapour. Dry steam is the steam at saturation temperature having
no water molecules in it. Point C.
Superheated Steam: It is defined as the steam which is heated beyond its dry state to
temperatures higher than its saturated temperature at the given pressure.
Dryness fraction of steam: A wet steam has different proportions of water molecules and
dry steam. Hence, the quality of wet steam is specified by the dryness fraction which
indicates the amount of dry steam in the given quantity of wet steam and is denoted by x.
It is defined as the ratio of mass of dry steam in a given quantity of wet steam to the total
mass of wet steam.
Let mg = mass of dry steam
mf = mass of water molecules
Dryness fraction, x = mg/ (mg+mf)
• The dryness fraction of wet steam is less than 1.
• The dryness fraction of dry steam is 1.
Enthalpy (h), kJ/kg: It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of
water from 00 C to the desired form of steam at constant pressure. It is the sum of the internal
energy and work done at constant pressure.

Enthalpy of Dry Saturated Steam (hg): It is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of water from 00 C to 1 kg of dry saturated steam at constant pressure.
= +
Enthalpy of Wet Steam (h): It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg
of water from 00 C to 1 kg of wet steam to the specified dryness fraction, at constant pressure.
h= +

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Enthalpy of Superheated Steam (hsup): It is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of water from 00 C to 1 kg of superheated steam to the stated saturated
steam temperature, at constant pressure. It is the sum of enthalpy of dry steam and the amount
of superheat.
= + ( + )

= + + ( + )

* Where is the specific heat of superheated steam.

Steam Properties:
The important properties of steam are
1. Pressure
2. Temperature
3. Specific volume
4. Enthalpy
5. Internal energy
6. Entropy
Specific Volume (m3/kg): It is the volume occupied by the unit mass of a substance.
Specific Volume of Dry Saturated Steam (vg): It is the volume occupied by 1 kg of dry
saturated steam at a given pressure.
Specific Volume of Wet Steam (v): It is the volume occupied by 1 kg of wet steam to the
specified dryness fraction at a given pressure.
v=x

Internal Energy of Steam: The total heat energy of a dry saturated steam at a constant
pressure is the sum of the sensible heat and latent heat. But in latent heat a portion is used for
external work. Therefore, the actual energy stored in the steam is the sensible heat and the
internal latent heat. This actual energy stored in the steam is called internal energy of steam.
It is defined as the difference between the enthalpy of the steam and the external work of
evaporation

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