HARIN COUNTY FREE LIBR

ine rhstory or the

Greek and Roman
Theater

13

argarete
BELVZRCN FEB 1964

M IIS -

792.o??« Bieber
The history of the jreek
and Roman theater, 2d ed.,
rev, and enl.

Marin County Free Library

1711 fraud Avenue
San CaJtfornia
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2014

https://archive.org/details/historyofgreekOOmarg
 THE HISTORY OF
THE GREEK AND ROMAN THEATER
 THE HISTORY OF
THE GREEK AND ROMAN
THEATER
BY MARGARETE BIEBER

1961

PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY

PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS
 Copyright © 1939, 1961, by Princeton University Press

London: Oxford University Press

Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Library of Congress catalog card No. 60-9367

Publication of this book has been aided by a grant from the

American Council of Learned Societies and by the Ford

Foundation program to support publication, through univer-

sity presses, of works in the humanities and social sciences

Printed in the United States of America

 —

TO MY AMERICAN, GERMAN, AND ITALIAN FRIENDS AND COLLEAGUES

Felix, qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas vergil, Georgica n 490

 CONTENTS
PREFACE yii

A NOTE TO THE READER v jii

CHRONOLOGY ix

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS x [[

I. THE RISE OF THE SATYR PLAY AND OF TRAGEDY 1

II. ATTIC TRAGEDY 18

The Oldest Attic Tragic Poets • Aeschylus • Sophocles • Euripides • Post-Euripidean
Tragedy

III. OLD COMEDY AND MIDDLE COMEDY • ARISTOPHANES 36

IV. THE DIONYSIAC FESTIVALS 51

V. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEATER RUILDING IN THE CLASSICAL PERIOD 54

VI. SCENERY AND MECHANICAL DEVICES 74

VII. THE EVOLUTION OF THE ART OF ACTING 80

VIII. NEW COMEDY • MENANDER 87

IX. THE HELLENISTIC THEATER RUILDING 108

X. ITALIAN POPULAR COMEDY (THE PHLYAKES) 129

XI. THE ROMAN PLAYS AT THE TIME OF THE REPUBLIC 147

The Early Republican Period • The Last Centuries of the Republic (ca. 250-30 b.c. )

Naevius, Plautus, Terrence

XII. THE ART OF ACTING AT ROME 151

XIII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROMAN THEATER BUILDING DURING THE

REPUBLICAN PERIOD 167

XIV. ROMAN THEATER BUILDINGS IN ITALY AND THE PROVINCES DURING THE EMPIRE 190
Purely Roman Theaters -
Graeco-Roman Theaters • Odea • Sculptured Decorations

XV. PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE • SENECA 227

XVI. THE INFLUENCE OF THE ANCIENT THEATER ON THE MODERN THEATER 254

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 272

NOTES TO THE TEXT 273

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES 309

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 325

INDEX 333
 PREFACE
This book an attempt to reconstruct the history
is of the comedies of Menander and others, can be
of the development of the ancient theater, making solved, or at least illuminated, by uniting the liter-
use of all the different available literary, epigraphi- ary, architectural, and figurative sources, using each
cal, architectural, and figurative sources. The com- source for its own period and leaving out all modern
pletely preserved Greek dramas 32 tragedies, 2 — conceptions of stage production. We
must remem-
satyrical plays, 15 comedies —
and the Latin dramas ber how Wilamowitz-Mollendorf tried to stage the
— 10 tragedies and 28 comedies —
as well as the plays of Aeschylus with regard to their contents
fragments of lost plays have been excellently only, as if Aeschylus had had at his disposal the
edited, and their development has been well treated means of the illusionistic stage settings of the nine-
in the best histories of ancient literature. The testi- teenth century. He merely demonstrated the endless
mony of ancient writers, such as Vitruvius, Pollux, possibilities which these earliest tragedies offer,
the various grammarians who wrote scholia on the even to a modern stage manager. On the other hand,
classics,and the many occasional remarks of dif- A. von Gerkan wishes to exclude from the history of
ferent authors have been cited and utilized again the theater the existing plays as if they were purely
and again. The inscriptions relating to the perform- literary monuments. We
must never forget that
ances have been treated by Wilhelm and particu- these plays, including even those of Seneca, were
larly well used by Pickard-Cambridge. Books on written for presentation, not for reading, and that
theater buildings with all details have been ad- the theater buildings were erected for presenting
mirably written by Dorpfeld, Fiechter, von Gerkan, these plays. It is necessary to avoid extreme posi-
and Stillwell. A number of handbooks, such as those tions taken by men who are primarily philologists
by Albert Miiller, Navarre, Flickinger, Allen, and or architects. We must, however, never forget that
Pickard-Cambridge, give a systematic survey of these specialists are the men who, by their research,
theatrical antiquities, including monuments, but have done much to promote our knowledge of the
with the chief emphasis on the philological and ancient theater.
literary side. Wieseler was the first to collect and I treat in this book the archaic, classical, and Hel-
edit systematically, in 1851, the monuments as il- lenistic Greek and the Roman republican
theater,
lustrations of the masks, costumes, and settings. His and imperial theater in chronological sequence,
work was excellent for his time, but the text as well laying emphasis on the origin and the early develop-
as the illustrations are now out of date. I tried to ment of each period. The most important literary
replace his book in 1920 withmy Die Denhnaler zum evidence is best found in Pickard-Cambridge, The
Theaterwesen im Altertum, which is now out of Theatre of Dionysus in Athens (1946) and The
print. In my History of the Greek and Roman Thea- Dramatic Festivals of Athens ( 1953). The 865 illus-
ter, which the Princeton University Press published trations have been collected over a period of more
in 1939 and of which this is a second edition, re- than thirty years. Many have already been used in
vised and enlarged, I attempted to demonstrate how the Denhnaler zum Theaterwesen, but most of them
indispensable are the hitherto neglected figured were taken for me by good photographers during
sources like vases, terracottas, and mural paintings. 1930-31, with the help of the International Fellow-
They and contemporary, in contrast to
are objective ship granted me by the American Association of
the literary sources, which are for the most part University Women. Others have been acquired
subjective opinions of individuals, and often of since 1951 in Italy and in the United States with the
much later writers. My earlier book was built up help of grants from the American Philosophical
systematically and analytically according to the sub- Society and the Princeton University Department of
jects. This book is an attempt to construct the story Art and Archaeology. All museum photographs have
of the rich development of theatrical life in the dif- been taken with the permission of those who were
ferent periods and places of the ancient world, lay- directors of the museums at the time. The negatives
ing stress on the beginnings and the reasons for have been presented by me to the respective mu-
changes. My goal is to build out of the various ele- seums, to the German Archaeological Institutes in
ments a connected whole, a history of the theater Rome and Athens, or to the Department of Fine
of the ancient world. Arts and Archaeology of Columbia University.
It is my belief that important problems, such as This revised edition is intended not only to sup-
the presentation of tragedy in the fifth century, the plant the edition of 1939, but also to supplement it.
exact place of presentation in the Greek theater, the There are 866 instead of the 566 illustrations of the
period and use of the first high stage, the staging original edition. I believe that these illustrations

vii
 :

PREFACE
give in themselves a picture of the development of read Chapter X on Italian popular comedy; and Pro-
the theater for about 1,000 years, from approxi- fessorRandolph Goodman of Brooklyn College, who
mately 600 b.c. to a.d. 400. The text is also enlarged. read Chapter XVI on the influence of the ancient on
The author has embodied her own research and the modern theater and helped me to prepare the
that of many scholars in the United States, Britain, Index.
Italy, France, and Germany since 1939. New ideas It would require too long a list to name all the
are worked in, particularly on the background to the colleagues and friends who, through granting me
development of the theater, so that the text gives at permission or through other aid, have assisted me in
the same time a kind of history of the ancient accomplishing the task which I have set for myself.
civilization. I want to mention among my German friends only
In accordance with the modern interest in the three, now dead: Georg Loeschcke, Walter Ame-
representation of ancient plays, as evidenced by lung, and Gerhard Rodenwaldt; among my Amer-
productions in and universities and by
colleges ican friends, those who have contributed most to
theater managers and movie producers, illustrations enable me to continue my work in my new country:
of modern productions have been included in the William Dinsmoor, the late Albert M. Friend, Hetty
new Chapter XVI, and indications made for the Goldman, Gisela Richter, the late Baldwin Smith,
entries, exits, and groupings of the actors in the Richard Stillwell, Emerson Swift, and Kurt Weitz-
productions of the classical periods. The chapters mann.
on the Roman theater are much enlarged and mostly I owe special gratitude to Herbert S. Bailey, Jr.,
completely rewritten to embody the lower-class en- Director, Benjamin F. Houston, and Helen Van
tertainments, which have many parallels with our Zandt of Princeton University Press for the careful
"shows" and athletic events. editing of this book. Mr. Houston deserves much
I want to express my gratitude to the following praise for the patience and understanding with
colleagues who have obliged me by reading and cor- which he has discussed with me all the problems
recting parts of my manuscript: Dr. Jane Henle of involved. We have decided to change the Greek
the School of General Studies, Columbia University, forms of names (which I prefer for Greek persons
who read the whole manuscript; Professor W. B. and places) to the more usual Latin or English
Dinsmoor of Columbia University, who read Chap- forms as they are found in the Oxford Classical Dic-
ters V and IX on Greek theater buildings; Professor tionary.
Richard who read
Stillwell of Princeton University, M.B.
Chapters XIII and XIV on Roman theater buildings; New York City
Professor A. D. Trendall of Canberra, Australia, who Easter 1957

A NOTE TO THE READER

The transliteration of Greek words used in this book follows the style of The
Oxford Classical Dictionary (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1949), which is in
turn based upon the Journal of Hellenic Studies. With the permission of the
publishers of the OCD, we quote here from the "Note to the Reader" in that
volume (p. xx )

"In the spelling of Greek and Latin words the rules for transliteration adopted
in the Journal of Hellenic Studies have been in general followed; but no attempt
has been made to achieve a pedantic uniformity. Where there is an accepted
form of an ancient name, such as Hecuba, Clytemnestra, Phidias, Pisistratus, that
form has been used. Similarly, such established forms of common nouns as
choregus, didascaliac, palaestra, scolia, strategus have been thus spelt, while the
Greek spelling has been retained for less familiar words such as ephetai, hek-
temoroi, nauarchos. . . . The whole subject is one on which scholars differ, and
it has been found necessary to impose a measure of uniformity in face of some
disagreement."

viii
 CHRONOLOGY
I. GREECE
ca. 600 b.c. Chorus of satyrs (tragoi, goats) in dithyramb 424 Aristophanes, Knights
or tragic chorus at Corinth and Sicyon 423 Aristophanes, Clouds
ca. 550 Thespis introduces the first speaker. Archaic- 422 Aristophanes, Wasps
orchestra in the Agora in Athens. Sacred 421 Aristophanes, Peace
precinct of Dionysus 421-415 Oldest stone skene in Athens, time of Peace
534 Pisistratus introduces drama into the state of Nicias
festivals of Athens 415 Euripides, The Trojan Women
525-456 Aeschylus 415-410 Euripides, Iphigenia in Tauris
510 Introduction of dithyramb into the Dionysiac 414 Aristophanes, Birds
festivals at Athens 413 Euripides, Electra
ca. 500 Drama presentations transferred from the Ago- 411 Aristophanes, Lysistrata and Thesmophoria-
ra to the precinct of Dionysus zousae
496-406 Sophocles 409 Sophocles, Philoctetes
490 Aeschylus fights in the Battle of Marathon 405 Aristophanes, Frogs
1ST 86 Comcdv admitted to the great City Dionysia ca. 400-330 Middle Comedy
484-406 Euripides ca. 392 Aristophanes, Ecclesiazousae
476/75 Phrynichus, Phoenician Women 388 Aristophanes, Plutus
472 Aeschylus, Persians. Comedy by Magnes. Sec- ca. 350-330 Stone skene, stoa, and auditorium in Athens
ond actor finished by Lycurgus
468 Sophocles' first victory over Aeschylus 343/2-292/1 Menander
467 Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes. Satyr drama 335-325 Aristotle, Poetics
The Sphinx 334 Lysicrates erects his monument for the victory
ca. 465 Classical orchestra in Athens with a chorus of boys
45S Aeschylus, Oresteia. Third actor. Ornate back- ca.330 Beginning of New Comedy
ground ca.320 Theophrastus, Characters
455 First presentation of Euripides 316 Menander, Dyskolos
449 Tragic actors chosen by the state and given 316/5 Menander wins his first victory with his Anger
own contest 4th and 3rd
446-442 Odeion erected by Pericles centuries Height of the art of acting
ca. 445 Sophocles' satyr drama The Hunting Dogs 3rd century Guilds of Dionysiac artists are formed
442 Contest for comic actors introduced ca.300 The theater of Priene with proskenion
ca. 442 Sophocles, Antigone 300-279 Theater of Delos built in wood according to
441 First victory of Euripides inscriptions
ca. 440 Euripides' satyr drama The Cyclops 274-250 Stone skene built in Delos
438 Euripides, Alcestis, Sophocles' victory over ca. 270 Theocritus, Mimes
Euripides ca. 250 Theater of Ephesus
431 Euripides, Medea 219 Thyromata stage in Oiniadae
ca.429 Sophocles, Oedipus the King 200-150 Thyromata stage in Oropus
428 Euripides, Hippolytus 180 Thyromata stage in Delos
425-388 Aristophanes active ca. 180-160 Hellenistic proskenion stage in Pergamon
425 Aristophanes, Acharnians ca. 150-80 Hellenistic proskenion stage in Athens

II. ITALY, ROME, AND THE PROVINCES

ca. 500-460 Epicharmus of Syracuse writes travesties of ca. 220-130 Pacuvius
myths and of daily life from 220 Ludi Plebeii at Rome
ca. 460 Democopus builds the theater of Syracuse. before 215 Plautus, The Twin Brothers Menaechmi
Phormio invents the coulisses
4th century Many Greek tragedies and farces performed from 212 Ludi Apollinaris at Rome
in Magna Graecia 206-204 Plautus, Miles Gloriosus
364 Ludi Etrusci in Rome 200 Plautus' Stichus performed at the Ludi Plebeii
ca. 350 Assteas of Paestum and other vase painters de- in the Circus Flaminius
pict scenes from the Italian farce ca. 200 Large theater built at Pompeii
ca. 300 Rhinthon's hilarious tragedies performed in after 194 Plautus, Aidularia and Amphitryon
Magna Graecia 191 Plautus, Pseudolus
ca. 250 Theater of Syracuse rebuilt ca. 190-159 Terence
ca. 250-184 Plautus after 190 Plautus, Bacchides and Casina
240-204 Livius Andronicus translates Greek tragedies 179 First wooden theater at Rome torn down
and comedies into Latin and presents them again
at the Ludi Romani in Rome from 173 Mimes at Rome at the Floralia
235-201 Naevius presents translations of Greek tragedies ca. 170-
and comedies and also Roman historical ca. 90 Accius
plays at Rome 166-160 Presentations of comedies by Terence

ix
 )

CHRONOLOGY
154 First stone theater in Rome torn down again 61/2 Theater of Dionysus at Athens remodelled in
105 Gladiatorial fights at Rome become a national the Roman form and dedicated to Nero
celebration 66 Roman scaenae frons added to the stage in
ca. 100 Theaters at Segesta and Tyndaris are rebuilt Ephesus
1st century Height of the art of acting. Roscius after 68 The Octavia, although attributed to Seneca,
99 Stage building of Claudius Pulcher published after his and Nero's death
ca. 89 The Atellan farce of Novius and Pomponius 69-96 The Flavian emperors build the Colosseum
ca. 75 Small roofed theater in Pompeii 69-79 Vespasian builds the lower part of the Colos-
ca. 70 Amphitheater in Pompeii seum
58 The luxurious theater of Aemilius Scaurus torn 80 Titus dedicates the amphitheater
down again 81-96 Domitian finishes the upper part of the amphi-
55 Theater of Pompey in Rome theater
50 Theater of Corinth rebuilt 117-138 The Emperor Hadrian. Theater in Palmyra
40-30 Frescoes in Boscoreale imitate scene painting built. Merida rebuilt. Circus added to the
31 B.C.- The Emperor Augustus. 70 festival days of theater in Aezani
a.d. 14 which 40 are devoted to plays. The architect 138-192 The Antonine Emperors. Many theaters built
M. Artorius rebuilds the large theater at in North Africa: Timgad, Djemila, Dugga
Pompeii for the Holconii. The architect Nu- 140-144 The orchestra in Ephesus remodelled for gladi-
merius builds the theater in Herculaneum torial shows and animal baiting
ca. 30 Theater in Aries 161-180 The architect Zeno, son of Theodorus, builds
29 L. Varius Rufus, Thyestes the theater in Aspendus
22 Pantomime introduced in Rome ca. 162 Herodes Atticus builds the "odeum" on the
16-13 Vitruvius, De Architectura slope of the Acropolis at Athens
12 B.C. Agrippa died. He built the theater at Ostia 2nd century Julius Pollux, Onomasticon
and perhaps the one at Merida, and the 193-211 Septimius Severus emperor. Theater of Sa-
Odea on the Agora of Athens and in Corinth bratha in Tripolitania
11 B.C. Theater of Marcellus in Rome finished by 211-217 Caracalla emperor. The theater at Corinth
Augustus made into a hunting theater
CA. 30 B.C.- Many wall paintings and reliefs in Pompeii 3rd century Cake moulds in Ostia and sarcophagi testify
A.D. 79 testify to the lively interest in the theater to continuation of theatrical plays. New
A.D. 10-20 Theater of Minturnae theaters in Bosra and Philippopolis in Arabia
39-65 Lucanus writes fabulae salticae for panto- and Es-Suhba in Palestine
mimes ca. 270 The archon Phaedrus remodels the stage of
41 The robber Laureolus is nailed to the cross the theater of Dionysus at Athens
in a mime 354 175 festival days, 101 devoted to theater plays
41-62 The tragedies of Seneca (died a.d. 65) ca. 400 Comedy Querolus
44 Theater of Ephesus remodelled on the Roman 5th-6th Ivory tablets testify to continuation of all types
plan centuries of spectacles at Constantinople (Byzantium)
45-96 Statius writes fabulae salticae for pantomimes 568 End of spectacles at Rome
60-68 The Emperor Nero appears on the stage 692 End of spectacles at Constantinople

III. INFLUENCE OF THE ANCIENT THEATER ON THE MODERN THEATER

Tenth Moral comedies by Roswitha of Ganders- 1585 Teatro Olimpico opened with Sophocles' Oedi-
century heim pus the King
Twelfth 1586 Kyd, Spanish Tragedy
century Vital de Blois, Aulularia and Geta 1591 Shakespeare, Comedy of Errors
1314 Mussaro's Ecerina in Senecan style 1594-1600 Camerata in Florence creates opera in imita-
1470 Printed edition of Terence tion of Greek tragedy
1472 Printed edition of Plautus 1605 Inigo Jones' turning devices based on Vitru-
1484 Printed edition of Vitruvius. Plautus' Aulu- vius
laria presented in Rome, Quirinal 1606-1671 Comeille writes tragedies in Senecan style
1502 Printed edition of Sophocles. Plautus' Me- 1640/41 Furttenbach builds a theater at Ulm based
naechmi presented in the Vatican. Five on Vitruvius
comedies of Plautus presented in Ferrara 1653-1671 Moliere imitates Plautus and Terence
1503 Printed edition of Euripides 18th century Height of acting and opera singing
1518 Printed edition of Aeschylus 1760 The Japanese reconstruct the revolving stage
1536 Aristophanes' Plutus presented in Cambridge after Vitruvius
1555 Hans Sachs, Alcestis 1762 Gluck, Orfeo ed Euridice
from 1560 Seneca's tragedies performed in London 1776-1790 Alfieri, Oreste (1776), Antigone (1783), and
from 1574 Plautus and Terence performed at the Uni- Alceste seconda ( 1790
versities of London and Oxford 1779 and
1576-1599 Theaters in London used by Shakespeare re- 1787 Goethe, Iphigenia in Tauris
semble the "Assteas" stage 1803 Schiller, Bride of Messina
1580-1584 Teatro Ohmpico in Vicenza by Palladio 1816 Shelley, Prometheus Unbound
1581 First English translation of Seneca's tragedies 1872 Nietzsche, Die Geburt der Tragodie

X
 CHRON 0 LOGY
1876 Festival theater for Wagner's operas in Bay- 1936, 1937, Presentations of tragedies of Euripides by
reuth 1942, 1950 Milton Smith at Columbia University
1896 Lautenschlager builds revolving stage in the 1937 Maxwell Anderson, Wingless Victory
Residenz-Theater at Munich 1937-38 |e;m Ciraudoux, Amphitryon 38
20th century Many imitations of Greek tragedies and an 1938 Euripides' Iphigenia in Tauris presented at
ever-growing number of representations of Sabratha
the original Greek tragedies in translations 1940 Aristophanes' Frogs performed at Reed Col-
inEurope and America lege, Oregon
1903 Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Electra 1942 Jean Anouilh, Antigone
Menander's Arbitrants presented in Lauch- 1943 Jean-Paul Sartre, The Flies, based on Aeschy-
stedt, Germany lus' Eumenides
1909 Gabriele d'Annunzio, Hippolyte 1946 Anouilh, Medea. Oedipus the King presented
from 1909 Randolph-Macon College, Virginia, presents on Broadway with Lawrence Olivier
tragedies in the Greek language 1947-49, Anouilh's Medea, translated by Robinson Jef-
1910 Oedipus the King presented by Reinhardt in 1951 fers, presented on Broadway with Judith An-
the Schumann Circus derson
1914 Franz Werfel, Trojan Women 1948 Menander's Arbitrants presented in Berkeley,
from 1914 Presentations of Greek tragedy in the theater California. Euripides' Alcestis presented at
of Syracuse Barnard College and at Riverdale Country
1917 Walter Hasenclever, Antigone Day School
1919 Oedipus the King presented by Max Reinhardt 1949 Gerhart Hauptmann, Die Atriden, Eine Tetra-
in the Grosse Schauspielhaus logie
1920 Euripides' Hippolytus presented in Oxford 1950 Cole Porter, Out of this World
1921 Sophocles' Antigone presented in the Deutsche from 1951 The Greek National Theater presents Greek
Volksbiihne, Berlin, with Mary Dietrich tragedies in New York, Athens and Delphi
1922 Euripides' Hippolytus presented in Giessen 1954-55 Oedipus the King presented in Stratford, On-
from 1927 Presentations of Greek tragedies in Delphi and tario, by Tyrone Guthrie. Menander's The
Girl from Samos presented in New York by
Ostia
from 1928 Presentations of Greek tragedies at Wellesley Ida Ehrlich
from 1955 Presentations of tragedies in Epidaurus
College
1955 Sophocles' Antigone presented at Wheaton
1929 Presentations of Menander's Arbitrants at Bryn
College
Mawr College and Haverford College
1956 Euripides' Trojan Women presented at Whea-
1930 Aeschylus' Persians, Plautus and Terence pre-
ton College. Sophocles' Electra presented
sented in Cassel and Frankfurt a.M.
at Cedar Crest College
1931 Eugene O'Neill, Mourning Becomes Electra 1956-57 Milton Miltiades presents a Theban Trilogy
Euripides' Hippolytus presented at Vassar in New York
College 1957 Wayne Richardson presents a Trojan Trilogy
1934 Aeschylus' Agamemnon presented in Bradford, in New York
England 1959 Oresteia presented on television in New York
1935 Aristophanes' Birds presented in Berlin, Oedipus the King, adapted by Leo Brady,
painted by Heckel performed in Carnegie Hall, New York

Fig. C. Aristophanes' The Birds, performed in Berlin, 1935.

(see Fig. 843a)
 ) )

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Acroterion ( pi. acroteria ) Figures and ornaments on the
: Crater: Vessel for mixing wine and water, with wide open
apex and lower angles of a pediment mouth
Additus Maximus: Main entrance to the orchestra or arena Crepida (pi. crepidae): Buskins, used by the Romans like
Aedicula: A
decorated niche in a wall or a small chapel the Greek cothurnus but with thick block-like soles or stilts;
Agon: Contest same as ocribas (q.v.
Agonist: Contestant Cunei ( Lat. ) : Wedge-shaped sections of the auditorium
Agonothetes: Chairman, president, or judge at contests
Amphitheater: A building with seats all around the arena, Deus ex Machina: The god who flies in on a machine and
for gladiatorial shows often brings the solution of difficulties
Amphora: Large vase with two handles Deuteragonist: The second actor, who played several roles
Anagnorisis: Recognition, identification Diazoma ( Gr. girdle ) : Horizontal passage between the sev-
Analemma (pi. analemmata): Sustaining walls at the side eral rows of seats
of an auditorium Didascalia: List of presentations of dramas with indi-
Architrave: Lowest member of the entablature, a lintel cation of authors, dates, and success
carried from the top of one column to another Distegia ( Gr. double roof ) : Building with two stories
Atellan Farce: Oscan popular plays, taken over by the Dithyramh: The hymn sung inhonor of Dionysus; the name
Romans alludes to the double birth from Semele and from the
Atlantes (Gr. ), telamones (Lat): Male figures forming thigh of Zeus
support of an entablature in place of columns; cf. carya- Doric Order: Simple capitals, developed in Dorian coun-
tids tries; frieze consists of metopes and triglyphs ( q.v.
Attic: The low story above the entablature of the main story
Aulaeum: Stage curtain, dropped at the beginning, lifted Eccleslasterion: Assembly hall
at the end of a performance Eccyclema: A rolling machine or movable platform, used
Auloi: Double pipes, similar to the oboe or recorder but al- to show interior scenes
ways used in pairs Eidolon: Image, ghost of a dead person, phantom
Emhates: Boots for travellers
Balustrade: Row of short pillars with rail or ornamental Emmeleia: Solemn chorus dance in tragedy
parapet Engaged Column: A semi-detached column
Bema: Platform Entablature: The superstructure carried by columns; it

Bouleuterion: Assembly hall for the magistrates or mem- consists of architrave, frieze, and cornice
bers of the council; town hall Ephebus: Young man of or over the age of eighteen
Episkenion: Upper story of the scene building
Capital: The topmost member of the columns which are Episodion: Episode, part which was originally interpolated
the most distinctive members of the architectural orders between two choric songs ( odes ) the portion of dialogue ;

Caryatids: Female figures supporting an entablature in in tragedy

place of columns; cf. atlantes Exarchon, exarchos: Leader of the chorus singing the dithy-
Cavea: The auditorium of a theater, so called because origi- ramb in honor of Dionysus
nally excavated in a hillside Exodos: Exit, departure of players from place of action;
Cella: The enclosed main room of a temple
interior, passage to go out by; final song sung when the chonis
Charonian Steps: A staircase leading up from a subter- is marching out

ranean tunnel to the center or to the edge of the orchestra; Exomis: A narrow tunic covering only one shoulder, worn
used for ghostly apparitions by slaves and artisans
Chiton: The main Greek dress, worn long by women and
short by men Fabula Crepidata: Roman tragedy imitated from the Greek
Chlaina: Loincloth worn by satyrs, made of goatskin and played in the Greek tragic costume
Chlamys: The mantle worn by men, pinned on the right Fabula Palliata: Roman comedy in which the actors wear
shoulder the pallium, a mantle similar to the Greek himation; imi-
Choregi: Rich citizens who provided money for perform- tated from Greek plays
ances Fabula Praetexta: Roman tragedy with subject-matter
Choreutae: Members of a chorus who performed songs and taken from upper-class life; plaved in the toga praetexta
dances Fabula Togata: Play in which the Roman toga is worn,
Chorodidaskalos: The teacher of the chorus with Roman subjects
Cithara: Musical instrument with strings, similar to the
guitar; used in public performances Hemicycle: Semicircular recess
Colonnade: A row of columns supporting a roof Heroon: Sanctuary for a hero, small shrine or chapel
Comedy (Gr. komoidia): Song of the gay parade in honor Hilarotragodia: A play which mixes serious and gay ele-
of Dionysus; comic drama ments, particularly a parody of a mythological subject
Corinthian Order: A capital decorated with acanthus Himation: Greek mantle, freelv draped, for men and women
leaves and volutes, said to have been invented in Corinth Hospitalia: The side doors, sometimes leading to the guest
Cornice: Uppermost member of the entablature rooms of the Roman stage
Coryphaeus koryphaios
( The leader of the chorus
) : Hydbia: A water jar with three handles
Cothurnus: High boot originated by Aeschylus for tragic Hypokrites: An answerer, one who answers the questions
actors of a chorus and becomes the first actor; one who
Coulisse: Movable scenery, screens serving as background represents somebody other than himself
or side decorations Hyposkenion: The room below the platform of the stage

Xll
 )

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Intercolumniation: The space between the columns of a Parachorecema: A supernumerary, often playing a small
colonnade or mute role
Ionic Order: Capital decorated with volutes and continuous Parapet: Low
balustrade; a protective wall
frieze; developed in eastern Greece Parapetasma (Gr. ), siparium (Lat.): A curtain hung be-
Itinera Versurarum: Entrances from the side buildings fore the decorations or openings on the stage
( versurae Pahaskenion (Gr. ), parascenium (Lat.): Side wings of
the theater building
Kalpis: A
hydria with rounded forms Parodos ( pi. paradoi ) : Lateral entrances to the orchestra
Kantharos: The wine cup with two high-curving handles of the theater; songs of the chorus sung while entering
used by Dionysus Pedestal: Base supporting a column or statue
Katablemata: Backdrops thrown over a permanent frame Pediment: Triangular termination of a roof with slanting
Katatome (Gr. cutting): The cutting away of the rock on sides
the slope of the Acropolis above the theater of Dionysus Peplos: Woolen dress with overfold, worn by women only
Kerkis (
pi. kerkides ): Wedge-shaped sections of the thea- Peiuacti: Triangular revolving structures with different
tron, divided by radiating staircases painted scenery attached to their three sides, serving as
Kerykeion: A herald's staff side decorations
Komast: Member of a gay parade (komos, comus), often Perspective: Art of reproducing objects on plane surface so
singing and dancing after a symposium as to give the impression of the real shape, scale, relative
Kordax: Gay dance in Old Comedy position, and distance of the actual objects
Kylix: Flat wine cup or bowl Persona: Player's mask; character in a play
Petasus: A wide-brimmed hat
Lekythos: A slender vase for oil and perfume Phlyax ( Gr. gossip ) : Player in popular farce
Logeion (Gr. speaking place): The podium or platform
: Phortika: Coarse and vulgar jokes of a porter
of the Hellenistic stage Pier: Free-standing rectangular support or short wall hav-
Lyre: Small string instrument for accompanying single voice ing the function of a column or pilaster but mostly of
heavier mass
Maenads: The female followers of Dionysus Pilaster: Rectangular column, free-standing or engaged or
Maenianum: A gallery in the circus and amphitheater: ima, semi-detached in a wall
the lowest; medium, the middle one; summum, the upper- Pillar: Pilaster or column
most Pinax ( pi. pinakes ) Decorated panel filling the intercolum-
:

Metope: Rectangular panel between triglyphs in the Doric niations of the proskenion or the thyromata (q.v.) at the
frieze back of the stage
Mime; Mimus: Play given without masks, imitating real life; Plectron: A rod used to play the strings of a cithara or
the performer in this simple drama lyre
Plinth: Bottom of a column base or podium
Narthex: Tall reed with firm stem, used as sacred wand Podium: Low wall or continuous pedestal for columns or
( thyrsus Dionysus and his followers
) for wall; a raised platform
Nebris: Fur of a deer, used by Dionysus and his followers Porch: Entrance, vestibule
as a scarf Porticus ( Lat. stoa ( Gr. ) A hall with its roof supported
) , :

Nymphaeum: A dedicated place to the nymphs with a by columns, or a colonnaded porch

fountain or running water Postscaenium The rooms behind the scene building
:

Precinctio: The rounded corridor separating the galleries

Ocribas: Buskin with heavy wooden, block-like soles or from each other; corresponds to the Greek diazoma (q.v.)
stilts; same as crepidae (q.v.) Pro agon: Preparation for a contest, assembly of all con-
Odeion (Gr. ), odeum (Lat. ): A roofed music hall testants on the first day of the great city Dionysia
Oinochoe: Wine jug Proscaenium ( Lat. ) : The Romans used the word for the
Onkos: A hairdress with the hair built up high above the whole stage as well as for the front of the stage and of
forehead of masks used in tragedy, imitating an archaic the stage building
hairdress Proskenion ( Gr. ) Building before the skene; the oldest
:

Orchestra ( Gr. dancing place ) Place of action for the : high Hellenistic stage; later the front of the stage
chorus and the actors in the classical period, mostly circu- Protagonist: The first or leading actor
lar Prothyron: A porch in front of the main door
Order: The architectural system composed of the columns Protome: Upper part of human or animal body, a half -figure
and entablature (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian) Psykter: A vase for keeping wine cool
Oscan Plays: Popular farces performed by the Oscans in Pulpitum: Roman stage; podium or platform for the actors
Campania, later also in Rome
Oscans: The inhabitants of Campania, also of Pompeii Regia: The royal door; the central door of the Roman stage,
leading into the palace of the main hero
Paludamentum: The Roman mantle worn over the shoul-
ders, pinned at the right shoulder like the Greek chlamys Satyrs: The male followers of Dionysus, with animal tails
Pantomime: Play given by a single actor who performs all and ears
roles with intense gesticulation and with different masks Scaena Ductilis: Movable screen serving as background
Pallium: Roman mantle: name for the himation taken over Scaena Versilis: Turning prisms, decorated differently on
by the Romans from the Greeks; palla when worn by the three sides, serving as side wings; cf. periacti
women Scaenae Frons: The richly decorated front of the scene
Papposilenus: The old father of the satyrs building
Parabasis: Part of Old Comedy, when the chorus turned to Sikinnis: Dance in satyric drama
the audience and addressed it in the name of the poet Silenus: An old satyr

xiii
 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS
Siparium: A curtain used on the stage Thiasus: The followers of Dionysus, consisting of satyrs
Skene (Gr. ), scaena (Lat. Temporary building, booth for
): and maenads
the players; later the permanent back building of the Thymele: The sacrificial step of the altar; the altar itself;

theater and whole orchestra in which the thymele stood

later the
Skenographia: Stage painting Thyroma ( pi. thyromata ) Great doorway; wide opening
:

Skenotheke: Storeroom for the properties in the skene in the second story of the theater, forming the background
Skyphos: Deep wine cup with two handles and sometimes the rear stage of the Hellenistic theater
Soccus: A shoe worn in Roman comedy Thyrsus: The sacred wand of Dionysus, made from narthex,
Socle: Projecting footing of a wall or pedestal wreathed with ivy and vine leaves, often with pine cone
Somatia: Tights stuffed with pillows, used in comedy on top
Sparsiones: Sprinkling to refresh the audience in the Roman Toga: The official dress of the Roman upper classes; stiff
theater and uniform in contrast to the freely-draped himation
Speira: Rolled arrangement of the hair, used in comedy and pallium (q.v.)
particularly for older slaves instead of the stephane for Toga Praetexta: The ceremonial dress of the Roman em-
more dignified men perors and higher magistrates, decorated with purple
Sphenopogon: Old man with wedge-shaped beard in com- stripes •

edy Tragedy ( Gr. tragodia ) Song of the followers of Dionysus

:

Stasimon: Song of the chorus performed in the orchestra which developed into serious drama in Greece
between the dialogues Trihunalia: The boxes for the magistrates who were in
Stephane: A wreath of hair; a hair roll above the forehead, charge of the games and who often were tribunes; situated
worn in New Comedy instead of the onkos in tragedy above the side entrances
Stoa ( Gr. porticus
) ,
Lat. ) Building with its roof sup-
( : Triglyph: Member of the Doric frieze, with three vertical
ported by rows of columns, parallel to the rear wall grooves alternating with the metopes (q.v.)
Syrma: Dress with long train, worn by tragic actors Trilogy: A set of three tragedies performed consecutively
on the same day
Tarernacle: Niche with a canopy or roof-like projection Tripod: Kettle or cauldron standing on three legs, given as
over it prize in contest and often consecrated to a god, particu-
Technitae: Professional actors and musicians in the guilds larly Apollo or Dionysus
of the Hellenistic period
Tritagonist: The third actor, who was the least regarded;
Telamones (Lat.), atlantes (Gr., q.v.): Male figures used
sometimes designation of a bad actor
as supports
Tunic: The main dress of the Romans, same as the Greek
Telari: Linen decorations fixed on triagonal side wings, in
chiton (q.v.)
imitation of the Greek periacti and the Roman scaena ver-
Tympanon: The triangular interior of a pediment
silis

Telesterion: Hall of initiation for the mysteries of Eleusis

Velum: The canvas roof, used as a sunshade over the audi-
Tetralogy: A set of three tragedies and one satyr play, per-
torium in the Roman theater
formed on the same day
Theatron ( Gr. seeing place ) The auditorium ( Lat. hear-
:
Venationes: Baiting of wild animals in the amphitheater
ing place) of the theater; later used for the whole build- Versurae: The side buildings of the Roman theater, cor-

ing responding to the Greek paraskenia

Theologeion: Speaking place for the gods; a high platform Vestibule: Anteroom next to the outer door of a house
or roof of a building on which the gods and heroes appear Vomitoria: The entrances from the covered passages lead-
Thersilion: Assembly hall in Megalopolis, named from the ing to the different sections of the auditorium, with wide
dedicator openings which "vomit" or spit out the numerous visitors
Thiasote: Members of the sacred herd (thiasus), follow-
ers of Dionysus Xoanon: The primitive image of a deity

xiv
 THE HISTORY OF
THE GREEK AND ROMAN THEATER
Fig. D. Actors celebrating (see Fig. 538)
 CHAPTER I

THE RISE OF THE SATYR PLAY AND OF TRAGEDY

The performance of a Greek tragedy is apt to make via Thrace and Boeotia or, according to other
See Fig. 32
a markedly deep impression on an educated audi- sources, from the east via the Peloponnesus and
ence. It may almost be described as miraculous Attica, where it received definite cult forms not
that the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Eurip- before the sixth century. Thus, not only the epic-
ides, belonging as they do to the very beginning poetry, which gave the subject-matter to drama, but
of the drama in the fifth century B.C., should be also the lyric poetry, which gave it its rhythm, were
works of art so lofty as to retain their heroic great- already mature and could transmit their forms to
ness and eternal life even today. We shall never be the new dramatic poetry. On this base, a new, free,
able to explain this miracle fully, but we can try to and versatile form could develop.
arrive at some understanding of it, first by observing 2. The Dionysus
story of the life of is much more
the elementary conditions which the tragic poets variegated than those of the other gods. His miracu-
found, and then by considering which additional lous birth, his fights, sufferings, struggle for ac-
factors were needed for the creation, from these knowledgment, and other events in his life gave
roots and origins, of Attic tragedy. a much richer content to the Dionysiac songs and
The religion of Dionysus is the only one in an- games than the events in the lives of the other gods.
tiquity in which dramatic plays could have de- Thus his special hymn, the dithyramb, probably
veloped. There were, of course, other cults in which had from the beginning a much more diversified
events from the life of the gods were represented content than the hymns for the other gods. We may
in mimic scenes, as in Egypt, Eleusis, and Delphi. assume that the earliest hymn celebrated the god
The death of Osiris, the rape and return of Perseph- Dionysus, particularly as the name of the hymn
one, the fight of Apollo with the dragon, were means double birth, alluding to the miraculous birth
repeated in definite forms in hymns and rituals. first from Semele, then from the thigh of Zeus. But

There was, however, no development to a living then other subjects were also used. The tyrant
literary form. Cleisthenes transferred to Dionysus the chorus
The differencebetween the religion of Dionysus originally sung for the hero Adrastus (Herodotus,
and any other which anthropologists, his-
religion v 67). Theseus, the Attic national hero, is the subject
torians of religion and of the theater, and some of the Dithyramb xvn of Bacchylides.
philologists have considered as sources of the drama 3. The Dionysiac religion is an ecstatic religion.

is this: All other religions, primitive as well as The wine, the gift of the god, and religious rapture
highly-developed, have rituals or liturgies, repeat- changed the mortal followers of the god in their
ing the same story every year, while only the Greek frenzy into members of the Dionysiac thiasus, the
worshippers of Dionysus developed myths and with sacred herd of the god. They danced originally in
them the material for the highest form of literature, the mountains, particularly near Delphi and near
the drama. Thebes, to the sound of flutes, clappers, and tym-
The Dionvsiac cult took over from the older pana. In their exalted feeling the men believed
The performances were given,
cults several factors. themselves to be satyrs, the followers of the god;
on definite days. They were, like the
like the others, the women believed themselves to be maenads,
others, performed as contests; they were freely called bacchae in Thebes, thyiades in Delphi, and
accessible for all. They were, like the others, con- lenae in Athens. The singer Arion is said to have
nected with sacrifices, processions, and music. Yet given to the singers of the dithyramb which he —
the Dionysiac religion had peculiarities which dis- produced in the beginning of the sixth century at
tinguished it from all the other religions of the the time of the tyrant Periander in Corinth the —
ancient world. There are particularly four facts costume of the satyrs (Herodotus, i 23f; Suidas s.v.
which explain at least partly why dramatic plays Arion). This dress was taken over into the satyr
could develop only in this cult. drama, when the dithyramb became too often alien
to the Dionysiac stories. The original sacred chorus
1. religion of Dionysus entered Greece much
The had to be preserved in another form. The practice
later —
than the cults of the other gods Zeus, Hera, of representing someone other than oneself grew out
—
Athena, Demeter, Apollo which already had roots of the ecstasy and led to the development of the
in the Mycenaean period. It came from the north mimic art of the actors.

1
 /. RISE OF SATYR PLAY AND TRAGEDY
4. The Dionysiac religion was from the beginning comedy developed. In the Peloponnesus the par-
inclined to disguise individual personality in favor ticipants in the Dionysiac cult imitated the demons
of a transformation into a higher being. There is no which they believed to be his followers.
better aid in representing somebody else than to Thus the Dionysiac cult contains all the elements
take his costume. Thus the chorus singing in honor which are necessary for the development of a serious
of the god becomes a satyr chorus. The Greek word drama or a gay comedy by disguised human beings.
tragos means one who dresses up and performs as The drama is the latest of the three most impor-
is a song
a follower of Dionysus. Therefore, tragedy tant literary forms —
epic, lyric, and drama
in honor of Dionysus. At the Attic rural Dionysia created by the Greeks and still fully active today.
the members of the gay parade dressed up as ani- The earliest is the epic, represented for us as it was
mals, and from their song during the gay Komos for the Greeks by Homer. The artist Archelaus of
Priene of the second century B.C. expressed well the
view that from Homer all other forms are derived
(Fig. I). 1 His relief represents in the upper three
registers Zeus, Mnemosyne, and their children, the
nine Muses. Two of them, Melpomene and Clio, the
Muses of Tragedy and History, flank Apollo in a
cave, beside which stands the statue of a victorious
poet. In the lowest register (Fig. 2) Homer is en-
throned in his sanctuary with personifica-
like a god,
tions of his two epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey,
kneeling beside him. Chronos, the God of Time,
and Oikoumene, the personification of the inhabited
world, stand behind him, Chronos with a scroll con-
taining his poems, Oikoumene holding a wreath over
his head. The idea is that the fame of Homer is
unbounded in time and space. Before the poet
stands a boy named Mythos, with a sacrificial bowl
and jug, who functions as an attendant at the altar,
for the stories of the sods and heroes have been
given by Homer a form valid for all ages. Behind
the altar stands the bull to be immolated as a
sacrifice to Homer. History scatters incense on the
altar,for the myths had already become history,
being the stories of the great legendary period,
which were therefore incorporated as the first part
into the history of the later times. Then follow Poie-
sis, lyric poetry; Tragoidia, tragedy; and Komoidia,

Figs. 1, 2. The Muses with Zeus and Apollo; Glorification of Homer. Relief of Archelaus of Priene, British Museum.
(See List of Illustrations and Sources)
Fig. 3. Citharist. Attic vase, Vatican

comedy. The last two are in stage costume. This

sequence corresponds to the historical development.
The final form was given to the Homeric poems in
the eighth century; lyric poetry developed in the
seventh and sixth centuries, its material being bor-
rowed frequently from myth, that is, from prehis-
toric times; tragedy came at the end of the sixth
century; and artistic comedy came last, in the course
of the fifth century. At the end of the lowest register
behind these figures stand the Virtues: Good Mem-
ory, Trustworthiness, Fortitude, and Wisdom, sur-
rounding a small child named Physis, or human
nature, who is educated by Homer in these achieve-
ments.
Drama, then, derives its material from the epic,
that from heroic saga, which remained always,
is,

with few exceptions, the subject-matter of Greek

and Roman tragedy. Its form, however, comes from
the kind of poetry that was second in point of time,
namely, lyric poetry. Lyric means song to the ac-
companiment of the lyre. The Greek poem was
never read or spoken, but intoned. Nietzsche 2 rightly
identifies the ancient lyric poet with the musician;
compared with the Greek, our modern lyric poets
appear as incomplete as the image of a god without
Fig. 4. Citharist and Victory. Attic vase, Athens
a head. Song in the public life of the Greeks was
accompanied by the large, richly-ornamented cith-
ara. It was "invented," as the Greek said, in 675 by or citharoedi, sometimes standing on a platform, a
Terpander of Lesbos. 3 It was, however, already in bema, or the thymele, and rewarded by Nikai bring-
use in the Orient, in Egypt, and in Crete in the third ing fillets and vases, as on a vase of about 430 in
and second millennia. It is shown on the arm of the Vatican and one in Athens (Figs. 3, 4). 4
Apollo in the relief of Archelaus (Fig. 1) and in A smaller, slender lyre was used in private life,
many vases on his arm or on the arm of citharists particularly by poets. Anakreon, on a lekythos from

3
 The auloi or double pipes were used since the
seventh century for accompanying
particularly
sacrifices, processions, chorus singing, and dancing.
This wind instrument is often called a flute. It is,

however, rather to be compared to the modern

recorder or to the oboe, as it is played not from a
blow hole in the side but from one at the upper
end. It has the peculiarity that always two pipes are
connected. The became the favorite instru-
auloi
ment for the followers and worshippers of Dionysus.
Flute and cithara players wore long floating festival
robes (see Figs. 9, 14, 15, 27, 28b). 7

Fig. 5. Anacreon. Drawing from Attic lekythos, Gela

Figs. 6, 7. Alcaeus and Sappho, Attic vase, Munich

Fig. 8. Youth with lyre. Attic vase, Metropolitan Museum

Gela in Syracuse (Fig. 5), and Alcaeus and Sappho

on the Munich vase (Figs. 6, 7) 5 carry their instru-
ments on their left arms and the plectron, the rod
to play the strings, in their right hands. It was of
great importance, not only for lyric poetry but also
for the growth of the drama, that all children were
taught to sing to the lyre. On several vases of the
cycle of Epictetus and other vase painters, belong-
ing to the period when the drama was taking shape,
young men appear (Fig. 8), but also older men and
women with the lyre. 6
 /. RISE OF SATYR PLAT AND TRAGEDY
On the charming school vase of Duris (Figs. 10,
ll), 8 dating from the youth of Sophocles, we see
boys learning to read, to write, and to recite poetry,
but at the same time to sing to the flute and to play
the lyre. We understand then what it means when,
after the battle of Salamis in 480 b.c, Sophocles, ac-
cording to his biography, led the dance of victory,
stepping with his lyre at the head of the chorus of
boys. Poetry and music had become bone of his
bone.

Fig. 9. Fluteplayer. Attic vase, British Museum

Figs. 10, 11. School vase by Duris, Berlin Museum

Fig. 12. Choral dance. Early Attic vase, Athens Fig. 13. Choral dance of girls. Attic vase, Villa Giulia, Rome

The victory of Salamis was celebrated not only by followers of the god, the satyrs with equine ears and
song, but by ordered steps, thatis, by dance. The tails, on so many vase paintings (see
as represented
poem was woven into the music by rhythm. The But the extant examples of the
Figs. 19, 21, 39, 43).
choral dance was a widespread phenomenon of —
dithyramb such as the song to Theseus by Bac-
Greek culture, and a much earlier one than the chylides (No. xvn) and those presented in the
drama. 9 On the geometric and early Attic vases of —
Athenian theater were performed in festive dress
the eighth and the seventh centuries B.C. young men and not in this disguise of horse-like or goat-like
and maidens holding one another by the hand move creatures. ( Each of the ten Attic tribes sent a chorus
in the dance (Fig. 12), as does the chorus of of fifty boys or fifty men
to the festival. ) It was the
maidens on the fifth-century vase by the Villa Guilia form of which developed from
satyr play, the final
master (Fig. 13). 10 Occasionally prizes of victory, the dithyramb at the end of the sixth century, which
particularly tripods, are represented on the vases, retained the satyr chorus and its costume. The
when the chorus singing was performed in the form themes of the later dithyrambs were borrowed, as
of a contest, an agon. This practice, usual in most were those of the satyr drama and of tragedy, not
festive institutions, contributed considerably to the only from the Dionysus saga, but from a large vari-
—
growth of all arts musical, gymnastic, and dra- ety of subject-matter of heroic saga in general, such
matic. A youth always stepped at the head of the as the stories of Heracles, Jason, Prometheus, and
chorus, as the leader or exarchos. Such a one is others ( see below, Figs. 30-32, 39-43 ) . Occasionally,
Theseus in festival dress on the Francois vase (Fig. however, episodes from the life of Dionysus were
14),
11
leading the victory dance in Delos with the used. This is evidenced by the chorus of satyrs on
chorus of Athenian boys and girls whom he had a red-figured kalpis in the Museum of Fine Arts in
rescued from the minotaur in the labyrinth in Crete. Boston, who dance wildly to the tune of a bearded
Tragedy, according to Aristotle, developed from fluteplayer, swinging parts of a couch which they
the exarchontes, the leaders of the dithyramb. The
12 are probably trying to assemble (Fig. 15). 15 A vase
dithyramb was a song of rejoicing and a chorus of about 450 found in Altamura, with the decking of
dance in honor of Dionysus. Such a one the poet Pandora, has four Panes in loincloths and a flute-
Archilochus was said to have produced and led player (Fig. 16 ). 16 The three old satyrs on a vase by
when he was drunk with wine, the gift of the god. 13 Polion in the Metropolitan Museum of Art face a
Arion, the famous citharoedus, was said to be the young fluteplayer with his two flutes in his hands
first to compose a dithyramb, to give it a name, and (Fig. 17). 17 The satyrs hold large concert citharas;
to have these poems performed in Corinth (Herod- one is plucking the strings with his plectron. They
otus i 23f ) . About the same time the tyrant Cleis- thus remind one of the chorus of Arion, but they,
thenes instituted chorus singing in Sicyon in honor like the Panes (Fig. 16), also might be taken from a »

of Dionysus, by transferring to him the choruses comedy like Cratinus' Satyroi, performed in 424 B.C.
formerly sung in honor of the hero Adrastus ( Herod- — that is, about the time when this vase was painted
otus v 67). Arion let men in the guise of satyrs —
by Polion and might be a parody of the Dionysiac
sing his verses (Suidas, s.v. Arion). 14 festivals, like the Frogs of Aristophanes. Certainly

Thus the song in honor of Dionysus was originally the subject of a prize-winning dithyramb is illustrated
performed by men in the disguise of the demonic in the frieze of the monument of Lysicrates, the

Fig. 14. Theseus leading a choral dance at Delos. Detail of the Francois vase, Florence
 —

/. RISE OF SATYR PLAY AND TRAGEDY

Fig. 16. Fluteplayers and Panes; Gods bringing gifts to Pan-

dora (above). Crater, British Museum

Fig. 15. Satyrs with parts of a couch. Attic kalpis, Boston

choregus who had won the victory with a chorus of

bovs in the year 334 B.C. (Fig. 18). He erected the
monument in the form of a small round temple to
support the tripod awarded as prize. 18 The subject
corresponds in some degree to the Homeric Hymn
No. xii to Dionysus. When going over the sea (see
Fig. 59), Dionysus had been taken prisoner by
pirates. These, however, were punished by the
satvrs, beaten and thrown into the sea, where they
were changed into dolphins. The dithyramb, there-
fore, had as its primary subject the doings and
adventures of the god, and as secondary themes
which became more and more frequent tales of —
the heroes taken over from Homer and other sources.
The original form of the dithyramb with cithara or
flute accompaniment was preserved side by side
with the other forms which developed from it, that
is, side by side with the satyr play and tragedy. Fig. 17. Satyrs and fluteplayer. Vase by Polion

Fig. 18. Dionysus, satyrs, and pirates. Frieze from the Monument of Lysicrates, Athens
 /. RISE OF SATYR PLAY AND TRAGEDY

Fig. 20.Maenad in ecstasy. Cup by the

Brygus Painter, Metropolitan Museum

Satyric drama probably developed first from the

singing of men who were disguised as satyrs in a
Fig. 19. Dionysus, maenads, satyrs. Vase by the Methyse chorus in honor of Dionysus introduced by Arion.
Painter, Metropolitan Museum
These demonic followers of the god, with equine
ears and tails —
the models for the satyr chorus in the
—
dithyramb and in the satyr drama are represented
on innumerable vase paintings of the sixth and fifth
centuries b.c. They dance in frenzy around their
lord Dionysus, to the music of the flute, lyre or
cithara, for example on the Brygus cup in Paris. 19
Often they are not alone, but accompanied by mae-
nads (Fig. 19), who as a rule dance much more
wildly than the satyrs (Figs. 20-24). 20 Often, notably
on the Lenaea vases collected by Frickenhaus ( Fig.
21
25a-b), the maenads are alone, reveling in honor
of their lord and dancing sound
in ecstasy to the
of cymbals, flutes, or tympana, waving torches about
the image and altar of the god, on which offerings
of big jars filled with wine (stamnoi) and cakes are
placed. Through all Greek art there moves a proces-
sion of inspired, dancing women (Figs. 20-24 and
45).
22
Literature also bears witness to women as

Figs. 21-24. Maenads. Vase by the Cleophrades Painter, Munich

 Fig. 25a-b. Dance in the sanctuary of Dionysus. Lenaea vase, Naples

special vehicles of the Dionysiac ecstasy. This the personality with which he was endowed by
ecstasy is another of the essential factors in the birth and to feel himself as one who has abandoned
growth of the drama. 23 Although Aristotle speaks of the limitation of his own personality. He must lose
a dithyramb intoned by men when he says that his own identity and become a changed being, a
tragedy was developed from the leaders of the demon, a god, or a hero.
dithvramb, a chorus of women occurs in many The participants in the dithyramb, the satyr
tragedies. In the archaizing Bacchae of Euripides, drama, and the tragedy were always men, for Attic
the chorus consists of maenads, and nowhere is the morality banished women from public life. Thus the
cult of Dionysus so rapturously described as in this parts of the maenads and of other women were
work of the poet's old age. The religion of Dionysus, always played by men. They needed, however, for
studied in its original form and at its fountainhead these parts the comprehension of religious emotion,
in Macedonia, is made to live again for us by the which women experience more deeply than men.
genius of Euripides. The human being becomes, As the first disguise of the singers of the dithy-
through spiritual surrender, the demon, the sacred ramb was that of the satyr, so perhaps the first form
animal of the thiasus, the divine herd of the god. of the drama was the satyr play, although it received
The man represents a satyr, the woman a maenad, its final literary form only
under the influence
later
but they feel as if they are real demons in their of tragedy. The initial step towards mimesis was
ecstasy, and thus can make visible also for others taken when the dancer-singer was changed, through
the ecstasy which they have experienced at the ecstasy and a corresponding disguise, into a mime,
festival of their god. Comprehension of female ec- one who represents someone other than himself.
stasy is essential if we want to understand the Many vases depict the satyr, dressed with a loin-
sincere emotion which underlies the dithyramb and cloth to which a tail is attached, in the presence of
tragedy. Dramatic art requires the actor to lay aside a maenad or a fluteplayer (Figs. 26-29). 24

26
Figs. 26-29. Satyrs wearing loin cloths with tails

28a-c

9
 Fig. 30. Odysseus with companions about to blind Cyclops,
satyrs singing at right. Vase, Richmond

The perfected satyr drama is known to us in

literature from the Hunting Dogs or Trackers
(Ichneutai, 'Ixvevrai) of Sophocles presented about
445 b.c. and the Cyclops of Euripides presented

Figs. 31-33. Satyr play with Dionysus, actors, chorus, poet Demetrius, fluteplayer Pronomos. Vase, Naples

about 440 b.c. and reflected in an early Italian Dionysus an actor is standing, holding the mask of
crater of the Cook Collection at Richmond (Fig. an oriental king. On the other side of the couch an
25
30). The famous vase in Naples, called the satyr actor with the mask and the costume of Heracles is
play vase or the Pronomos vase from the satyr standing. The two actors have elegant boots, the
chorus and its fluteplayer named Pronomos, shows cothurni, and dresses with rich patterns which are
how these dramas were performed in the second also found on the chiton of the woman on the couch
half of the fifth century (Figs. 31-33). 26 Dionysus and on the mantle of Ariadne. The woman holding
and Ariadne on a couch beneath a spreading
recline the mask may be the personification of the plays,
vine, the plant of the god, which grows wherever Paidia (see Fig. 113). The title of the play may have
he rests (see Fig. 59). Next to the divine couple is been Ilcsionc. This is the name of the oriental
a woman seated on the couch holding the mask of princess beloved by Heracles and denied to him by
a maiden with an oriental headdress, toward which her father Laomedon, the king of Troy, despite the
Eros, holding a garland, extends his arms. Near to father's promise to marry her to the hero after he

10
 I. RISE OF SATYR PLAT AND TRAGEDY
had killed a sea monster. Whereupon Heracles came decorated robe, surrounded by tragic actors holding
back with an armv and destroyed Troy for the first their masks, can be seen on fragments of a vase
time. He then gave Hesione in marriage to his similar to the Pronomos vase (Figs. 34, 35). 27 It was
friend Telamon. This could be a good subject for a painted around 400 in Tarentum, was formerly in
satyr drama, in which the chorus of satyrs interfered the possession of Curtius and is now in Wurzburg.
in the action. The chorus on the vase consists of The true and definite form of the satyr play in
twelve members, a number retained in the satyr which the mischievous satyrs take liberties with
drama, after Sophocles had raised the number to venerable figures from Greek mythology is shown
There are ten young men in goat-
fifteen in tragedy. not only in the satyr play vase, but also on the Hel-
—
one probably the leader of the half
skin loincloths,
—
chorus with a short chiton and small mantle of
woven fabric, and one older man in the dress of the
old Papposilenus (cf. Figs. 36-38), made of shaggy
goatskin. He holds the mask of an old man, and a
panther skin is laid over his left shoulder. The young
choristers hold their masks at all possible angles, so
that we can study them from all sides and even from
the inside. Only one has already put the mask over
his head and is practising the dance of the satyr dra-
ma, the sikinnis. He has his right hand on his hip, his
left arm extended horizontally with the hand bent
upward, dancing on the toes of his right foot and

Figs. 34a-b,35. Chorus of tragedy.

Fragments of vase from
Tarentum, Wurzburg

throwing his left leg upward with bent knee. He

dances for the inspection of the poet Demetrius,
who is seated holding a scroll. The two musicians
are in the center of the lower row; Pronomos, seated,
is playing the double flute, in a richly decorated

sleeved robe, and the lyre player, standing, is hold-

ing his lyre, dressed only in a cloak, a chlamys,
fastened around his neck and hanging in the back.
As in tragedy, the fluteplayer had to be in the or-
chestra all the time with the chorus, and therefore
he is dressed similarly to the actors, while the lyre

or cithara player accompanied only single songs of

the actors, and might even stay inside the scene
building. Such a fluteplayer in a sleeved and richly

11
 /. RISE OF SATYR PLAY AND TRAGEDY
lenistic mosaic from the house of the tragic poet in
Pompeii, now in Naples (Fig. 36). 28 The two young
men in goatskin loincloths, one with the mask
"
pushed back on his head, practice the dance move-
ments for a performance of a satyr play. Their lead-
er, the Papposilenus, will be acted by a young man,
who is in the act of drawing a goatskin chiton with
sleeves over his head with the help of an attendant/
The fluteplayer in a richly decorated robe and with
a large wreath on his head stands in front view,
behind him an attendant reads from a scroll. The
poet or teacher of the chorus ( chorodidaskalos ) is
seated holding the mask of a heroine. This female
mask lies on a low footstool before him together
Fig. 37. Silenus and the sphinx. Southern Italian vase
with the mask for the old Papposilenus. Behind him
on a table is the mask of the hero. We thus have a
similar group of personalities —
hero, heroine, and story must have been similar to the one told about
—
old Silenus and the same type of masks as on the a man going to the Apollo of Delphi asking him
Pronomos vase. The poet or teacher may be Aeschy- whether the bird in his hand was dead or alive. If
lus who was both (cf. p. 20). Apollo had said dead, he would have quickly
If the poet on the Naples mosaic is Aeschylus, choked him; if Apollo had said alive, he would let
then the Papposilenus, who appears as father of the him fly away. This story is satirized on a vase, also
satyrs in the plays of Sophocles and Euripides, may by Python, in Mannheim. Silenus holding a bird is
have already been used by Aeschylus. This has in- standing before the seated Apollo. 29 On the Naples
deed been assumed by Crusius and Robert for a vase Papposilenus must have played the role of
satyr play in the Sphinx of Aeschylus produced in Oedipus, but instead of answering the question of
467, because a southern Italian vase in Naples, the Sphinx, he has given her a riddle. We must,
attributed to Python, depicts the old Silenus stand- however, realize that this vase is about a hundred
ing in his shaggy dress before the Sphinx (Fig. 37). years later than Aeschylus' play, and therefore it
He has the Dionysiac soft boots, the thyrsus, and proves nothing as to the original performance but
the nebris. In his right open hand he holds a bird, only as to the dress at the time of the painting of
which does not fly away, thus probably is dead. The the vase.
The question as to how much can be traced back
Fig. 36. Chorus teacher and satyr chorus. Mosaic, Naples to an earlier age —
when we consider the form of the
satyr play as evidenced by Sophocles, Euripides,
—
and the monuments is of the utmost significance
for the origin of tragedy and for the relation of
tragedy to the satyr drama. The greatest problem is
why the word tragedy contains tragos (rpayos),
meaning goat, which has nothing whatever to do
with serious tragedy. Many authors assume that the
tragos is simply the satyr who appears at first only
in the dithyramb and later solely in the satyr play. 30
Why then has the word satyr passed over into that
one of the three kinds of Dionysiac plays which has
nothing whatever to do with serious tragedy, while
on the other hand the word tragos, meaning goat,
came to denote the serious form of the drama?
Frickenhaus 31 tried to solve the puzzle by the
ingenious hypothesis that the tragos was not the
satyr of the chorus but Papposilenus who, in the
perfected satyr play, is the exarchos, the leader of
the satyr chorus. He bases his opinion on that of
Aristotle who stated that the exarchos of the chorus
was the first tragoidos. Frickenhaus cites also the
Ichneutae of Sophocles (v. 358), where Papposi-
Fig. 38. Papposilenus playing flute Fig. 39. Prometheus and satyr chorus. Bell crater, Gotha

lenus addressed as tragos and wears a robe made

is many satyr play vases of the earlier fifth century
of Frickenhaus errs, however, for this
goatskin. (Figs. 40-43), 34 except on the late Naples vase (Fig.
speech by Kyllene is addressed not to the old father 31), can we find Papposilenus in goatskin. Only on
but to one of his sons, a satyr. The nymph expressly such later vases as the one in the Jatta Collection at
calls her interlocutor a young man, whose hair, it Ruvo ( Fig. 38 ) and the one from Tarentum in Am-

Figs. 40, 41. Jason and dragon. Cup by Duris, Vatican; Attic vase, Metropolitan Museum

is true,growing thin on top and who has a goatee,

is

the beard of a goat. The second piece of evidence

brought forward by Frickenhaus from Prometheus
the Fire-Bringer of Aeschylus (Fragment 207):
"Thou goat shalt singe thy beard," is also addressed
to a satyr of the chorus, one who, it is expressly
stated, wished to embrace the fire. 32 The same fact
is proved by a group of vases collected by Beazley,

where satyrs surround Prometheus (Fig. 39). 33

They have lit their torches at the flame in a narthex,
in which the hero has brought down the fire from
heaven to men (cf. Fig. 42).
Neither on these Prometheus vases nor on the
Fig. 42. Jason, played by a satyr, and Dionysus holding a
narthex. Crater, Bologna

13
 /. RISE OF SATYR PLAY AND TRAGEDY
sterdam, formerly in the Arndt Collection (Fig. 44),
or on fourth-century Apulian, Attic, and Boeotian
vases (Fig. 45) and in later statues (Figs. 46, 47) is
old Silenus depicted in his goatskin. 33 On all others,
satyrswith only loincloths or without anv covering
consort directly with the heroes (Figs. 39 and 43).
The stories of the strong man Heracles ( Fig. 43
and of the fight of Jason with the dragon (Figs.
40-42) lend themselves particularly well to satvr
play use. The vase in the Metropolitan Museum
(Fig. 41) depicts Jason as a frightened human
being protected by Athena while he takes the
golden fleece from the fierce dragon. In the fine cup
by Duris the hero hangs helplessly in the jaws of
the dragon (Fig. 40 ). 36 The presence of Athena
assures us that he will be saved. The painter of the
crater in Bologna (Fig. 42) has put a satyr in the
place of Jason, protected by his god Dionvsus. This
lets us understand how the writer of the satvr plav
which the vase painter had seen could turn this
Fig. 43. Heracles as Atlas with satyrs. Vase, South Italy
serious myth into a satyric drama.
Particularly important is the kvlix, a wine-cup. in
the British Museum bv the Brvgus painter (Fig.
4Sa-bV : which goes back to the time of Pratinas,
the older contemporary of Aeschylus. Here the
satvrs caper in an unbridled riot of noise around the
thvmele or low sacrificial platform, near which
stand the altar and the ima^e of Dionvsus. On one
side of the vase thev attack Iris, who has come to

take the sacrifices from the altar, and jump over

thvmele and altar to catch her. She will, however,
escape, for she can flv. On the other side they attack
even Hera, the queen of heaven. She also will es-
cape, for she is not onlv protected bv Hermes, the
male messenger of the gods, who was probably the
exarchos of the chorus, but more efficiently by
Heracles, dressed as an Athenian archer. The situa-
tion is similar to the dancing song of Pratinas:
"What noise, what dances, what riot has come to the
3s
44 thvmele of Dionvsus!"

Figs. 44-47. Papposileni wearing goatskin

 Fig-. 48a-b. Satyrs attacking- Hera and Iris. Kylix by the Brygus Painter, British Museum

Hermes as exarchos of a satyr chorus, with petasos, of such a figure and impersonating him with an
kerykeion, high boots, and a richly-patterned cloak appropriate mask and no longer the satyr mask. A
stands in the middle of a frivolous and wanton satyr third step came when the exarchos as an actor was
chorus also on the well-known psykter, a cooling entirely separated from the satyr chorus. Not until
vase for wine, by Duris, in the British Museum then could old Papposilenus, as an established
(Fig. 49). 39 The satyrs drink in difficult positions. figure, step into the place of the leader as an inter-
Two kneeling on the ground are fed by two mediary between chorus and heroes. Papposilenus
of their companions, each from two different con- thus cannot help us to define the name and the
tainers. Two try to drink standing on their hands origin of tragedy.
from a cup standing on the ground, one of which Another explanation, although coming from an-
is upset by a companion. When we look closely at tiquity — in the Parian chronicle of the third century
the face of the chorus leader, it is not that of b.c. — is likewise fallacious. According to this ac-
the youthful Olympian god, but that of a satyr. We count, tragedy is named from the goat which was
may, therefore, conclude that the first exarchos of the prize of victory and the sacrificial victim of
a satyr chorus was one of the satyrs themselves, but Dionysus. The first prize, however, was never a
in different disguise. Thus a first step toward the goat, but usually a tripod, and if an animal, a bull.
adoption of the heroic saga, and thereby toward In the time of Arion a goat was the third award, the
tragedy, was taken by dressing one of the satyrs second was an amphora full of wine, and the first a
as Hermes, as Heracles, as Perseus, as Prometheus, bull. 40
as Jason, or even as Dionysus, whichever the needs Although none of the former explanations of the
of the individual play demanded. A second step name of tragedy are satisfactory, they all contain a
toward the development of tragedy came when the genn of the truth. The goat is the sacred animal
mask of the leading satyr was replaced by that of of Dionysus. In many primitive religions the be-
a god or hero, the exarchos appearing in the dress liever, by eating the sacred animal or by wearing
/. RISE OF SATYR PLAY AND TRAGEDY
its becomes himself the animal. 41 The wor-
skin, the divine. The mortal men and women became
shipers of Dionysus danced around the sacred goat, members of the holy thiasus of Dionysus, animals
singing the dithyramb. They then sacrificed it, ate of his holy herd (the thiasus), a goat, a tragos: "I
its flesh, part of which they gave to the gods. Then a small goat, into the milk; I, who was a man,
fell,

they made themselves a dress out of its skin, a full became a god"; "Happy and blessed one, thou shalt
dress for Papposilenus (Figs. 36-38, 44-47), 12 a loin- be a god instead of a mortal" so the Orphic- —
cloth for the satyrs (Figs. 26-29, 31-32, 36 ), 43 and a Dionysiac tablets of gold found in South Italy are
chlaina, a small mantle for satyrs (Euripides, C?/-> inscribed. Perhaps such a goat, who had been a
clops, v. 80) and maenads, who threw it around man, is represented on the black-figured lekythos of
their shoulders (Figs. 20, 22, 24-26). Nourished and the early fifth century in Berlin (Fig. 50). A goat
dressed by the sacred animal, they felt themselves to with a human face is surrounded by sileni. One
be goats (tragoi), just as worshipers of Poseidon holds his horn, while the other seated on a rock is
were horses (hippoi), the devotees of Artemis she- holding a writing tablet and a stylus. 46
bears (arktoi), or bees (melissai). The change of Thus everyone who dances for the god, sings,
dress, taking the goatskin as a costume, endowed plays a musical instrument, appears in a satyr
the worshipers of Dionysus with goat nature drama, a tragedy, or a comedy at the festivals for
whether they were old or young, men or women. 44 Dionysus is a thiasote or a tragos. The maenads, the
The shaggy fur of Papposilenus (xopraio? x v ) L ™ satyrs, their —
leader whether Papposilenus or
imitates the natural fur of forest demons. Hermes or Dionvsus himself, or anv one of the other
Parallels from other non-dramatic Greek cults —
heroes or gods all are tragoi. Tragedy, the most
show that all these factors are still insufficient to elevated form of the cult of the god, also presup-
explain the rise of tragedy. In Delphi the story of poses ecstasy and has retained the name for the
the killing of the dragon by Apollo, in Eleusis the followers of the god Dionysus. Tragedy, then, is the
story of the rape of Persephone and her return to song of the holy thiasus in honor of the god. Hence
her mother Demeter as a symbol of death and it was only in the religion of Dionysus that the

resurrection, were repeated in the same form every drama could be fashioned, for only by god-given
year. The same is the case in dramatic performances intoxication could a man be changed into a thiasote,
of provincial tribes in the New Hebrides, as I was
told by Professor Paul Wingert of Columbia Uni-
versity. These are cruder, and the Eleusinian mys-
teries are more refined, than the religion of Diony-
sus. The Dionysiac religion produced also mysteries
which were more efficacious and spread out in much
wider regions than the Eleusinian, for its prophets
went about the land to instruct and convert man-
kind. This is reflected in the stories of the wander-
ings and struggles of the god. The shrines of Diony-
sus were scattered over the mainland of Hellas, the
islands of the Greek sea, the coasts of Asia Minor
and Southern Italy, from which they later reached
"'

Rome. 4
Like all mystery religions the Dionysiac mys-
teries promised purification, teaching, and the vision
of godhead. They differed, however, from all others,
particularly from the Egyptian and Oriental ones
of Isis and Mithras, in that here the purification
from earthly things was not external, but through
spiritual ecstasy; an ecstasy furthered through the
noble gift of the god, wine, by means of which the
disguised human being feels not only an outward,
but an inward change. The teaching came not from
priests, but through revelation. The vision of the
godhead was attained not through the guidance of
any official hierarchy but through direct union with

Fig. 50. Goat with human face. Lekythos, Berlin Museum

 /. RISE OF SATYR PLAY AND TRAGEDY
an actor. Tragedy, then, remains always, in this ramb and the satyr play of the northern Pelopon-
sense, a goat-song (tragic ode, tragodia). But the nesus into great tragedy was the genius of the Attic
satyr drama with its revelling and capering of the poets. The history of the Greek theater in classical
satyr chorus, and even comedy, with its often times is therefore the history of the development
burlesqued and absurd jokes, are not mere expres- of a religious idea into a national, literary, and
sions of pleasure. They always remain grave, sacred, artistic event.
and religious events.
An interesting parallel not only to the dance-
drama in ecstasy, but also to the interplay of jest and
earnest in religious festivals,is found in the plays

performed by the inhabitants of the island of Bali

(Figs. 51-52). 47 These people living in a hot climate
wear very light clothing, but for their dance-drama
they dress fully, from head to foot, and fall into
by means of wine.
ecstasy
The many factors already discussed — epic, lyric,
music, dance, dithyramb, satyr play, ecstasy, and
mimesis (histrionic impersonation) —
require, how-
ever, something more to make the rise of drama
possible. Out of them there could have developed
settled liturgies and mimetic performances, as in the
cults of Delphi, Eleusis, Egypt, the New Hebrides,
and Bali, actions (dromena) with fixed and pre-
scribed text, formulae,and vestments. None of these
has produced a living drama as the Dionysiac
religion has. It was improvised at first, as Aristotle
says, 48 and then brought into artistic and literary
form. The enkindling spark which turned the dithy-

Figs. 51, 52. Dancers on the Island of Bali

17
 CHAPTER II

ATTIC TRAGEDY

See Fig. 121 '•Jr

The Oldest Attic Tragic Poets

behind Icarius appears the dog Maera. This dog
According conception of the religion
to the Attic later went with Erigone in search of her father,
of Dionysus, the most important event in the life of who, when teaching peasants to cultivate the vine,
the god was his visit to Icarius in Icaria, situated was struck down by drunken men and thus became
north of Athens on the slope of Mount Pentelikon, a martyr to the holy cause of Dionysus. The last
This incident, with two others, the miraculous birth two slabs show Dionysus enthroned among the
of Dionysus from the thigh of Zeus and the recep- other gods of Athens in his sanctuary below the
tion of Dionysus among the gods of Athens, is Acropolis, on which the columns of the Parthenon
represented on which, having been trans-
reliefs, appear.
ferred from their position, probably an
original The district, whose eponymous hero Icarius be-
altar, are today on the late bema of Phaedrus in the came, was the birthplace of Thespis, the true
theater of Dionysus Eleuthereus of Athens (Figs. founder of Attic tragedy. 2 It was Thespis who in-
53-55 ). 1 Dionysus has caused the vine to spring up, vented the first actor, that is to say, he put a
and the satyr who follows him snatches greedily at hypokrites ( viroKpir-q*; ) an answer- and response-
,

the grapes. Icarius grasps a branch with his left giver, opposite the exarchos ( Z$dpxuv or £^apx°«) of the
hand as a sign of ownership and with his right leads chorus, both leader and chorus now appearing in
the goat (tragos), which has nibbled the tender the most widely differing costumes. The spoken
shoots and is now to be slaughtered in honor of the dialogue between the actor and exarchos was de-
god. Erigone, the daughter of Icarius, serves at the veloped by interpolations between the songs of the
altar, holding the sacrificial dish. In the background chorus, and therefore is called Epeisodion, an epi-

Figs. 53-55. The life of Dionysus. Reliefs built into the front of the Roman stage, Theater of Dionysus at Athens

Fig. 54. Visit of Dionysus to Icarius Fig. 55. Dionysus enthroned in his sanctuary in Athens
 //. ATTIC TRAGEDY • THE EARLY PLAYS
sode. The subject-matter was taken from the heroic
saga in the form made familiar by epic. The chorus
maintained the lyric form, although its members,
including the exarchos, were changed, according to
the themes of the dialogue parts, into citizens, either
male or female, of the mythical age. This form of
dramatic art was brought by Thespis to Athens,
where in the year 534 b.c. the first performance was
given under Pisistratus. 3 According to a later tradi-
tion Thespis "drove his tragedies on wagons." 4 This
car is perhaps the car in the form of a ship on
which, according to the testimony of black-figured
vases, Dionysus, represented no doubt by his priest,
was driven in company with his flute-playing satyrs
and drawn perhaps by men dressed as satyrs into
his holy precinct at the festival of the great City
Dionysia (Figs. 56-58; see below, Chapter IV, pp.
52-53). 5 It is quite probable that Thespis with his
chorus, a wandering troupe, drove his wagon about
Attica until he found in Athens a permanent habita-
tion. In any case, the ship-car, as carrus navalis, had
a long life. It passed by way of Rome into the
Roman provinces, and makes its appearance as
"floats" in carnivals (carrus navale, reinterpreted as
carne vale by the Italians) at Nice, Cologne, and
New Orleans even today. In New York one can see
on Columbus Day, October 12, a ship on wheels, a
model of the Santa Maria, in which Columbus
landed in America at one of the Bahama Islands in
1492. The origin of all these usages is the ship in
which Dionysus was thought to have come to Attica
every spring, as it is painted on a cup by Exekias
in the time of Thespis (Fig. 59 ), 6 and described in
Homeric Hymn No. vn.
Thespis is said to have first treated the face of his Figs. 56-58. "Thespis car" in procession. Black-figured Attic vases

actors with white lead, then covered it with cin-

nabar or rubbed it with wine lees, and finally in-
troduced masks of unpainted linen. But neither
faces painted vermillion nor the later pure white
linen masks could have other than a grotesque
effect (cf. below, Figs. 66-71). Therefore Choerilus,
the successor of Thespis, made further experiments
with masks, and Phrynichus, the pupil of Thespis,
introduced women's masks. 7 These were probably
uniformly light in contrast to the men's, which were
kept dark, as is true of the women's faces in con-
trast to the men's on vases of the sixth century ( Fig.
14 ) It may also mean that Phrynichus was the first
.

to allow the chorus to appear as women.

Phrynichus made the first attempt to bring his-
toric events into tragedy in his Capture of Miletus,
presented soon after the destruction of Miletus by
the Persians in 494, which led to the Persian in-
vasion of Greece in 490. Phrynichus also dramatized
the defeat of the Persians in the second invasion of
480 79, in his Phoenician Women, performed in

Fig. 59. Dionysus sailing over the sea. Cup by Exekias, Munich

19
 //. ATTIC TRAGEDY • THE EARLY PLATS
476/5 under the archon Adeimantus, with Themis-
tocles as choregus (Plutarch, Life of Themistocles,
114C). In both, as well as in Aeschylus' Persians,
performed four years later, the scene is laid in
Persian territory. Thus remoteness of time in the
legendary tragedies is replaced by remoteness of
place in the contemporaneous plays.
Phrynichus boasted that he had invented more
figures in dancing than there are waves in a stormy
sea (Plutarch, Symp. Quaest., vm,9,3, pp. 732f).
This means that the chorus still played a leading
role, as it does in Aeschylus' Hiketides. The chorus,
therefore, had to be trained very carefully prob- —
—
ably in groups by several fluteplayers. The mem-
bers had not only to memorize the words but also
the music and the dance steps. A late archaic vase
by the Briseis Master in the Metropolitan Museum
of Art in New York City (Figs. 60, 61) 8 shows on
each side a fluteplayer in a long-sleeved robe ac-
companying four young men who are singing. This
may be group of four at the time when the chorus,
a
consisting of twelve members, entered in four files
of three ranks or three files of four ranks. Later
choruses consisting of fifteen members could enter
in five files of three ranks or three files of five ranks.
In the center of the cup ( Fig. 61 ) a chorus teacher,
with a rod in his hand, looks at a contrivance for
twelve oblong tickets, as they were probably handed
out to the members of the chorus to check their
attendance. The rehearsal takes place in a colon-
Figs. 60, 61. Fluteplayer accompanying chorus; Chorus teacher. nade, a rare feature at the time (480-470), when the
Cup by the Briseis Master, Metropolitan Museum
Briseis painter produced this vase. It may be that
the Stoa Basilica is depicted, the first public build-

ing to be erected after the destruction of Athens in

480 by the Persians. It was the seat of the highest
Fig. 62. Chorus teacher and satyr chorus. Detail from Fig. 36
magistrates, the archons eponymos and basileus,
who were in charge of the Dionysiac festivals
(Aristotle, Ath. Pol., 56f). The beautiful vase, there-
fore, might be connected with a victory celebration
of the period of Phrynichus and Aeschylus.

Aesch i/lus
The and dramatic efforts of the earliest
literary
Attic tragedians were completed and perfected by
Aeschylus ( c.525-456 b.c. ) He appeared first in 499-
.

496 at the same time with Choerilus and Pratinas.

The latter, from Phlius near Sicyon, introduced
satyric drama as well as tragedy. He wrote 32 satyr
plays among 50 dramas. 9 Since a later age con-
sidered Aeschylus the principal representative of
satyric drama, it is probably he who appears as
chorus-teacher ( chorodidaskalos, xopo8i8ao-KaAo?) on
the mosaic in Naples (Fig. 62, detail of Fig. 36).
A head in the Capitoline Museum of the same type,
with a pointed beard cut in the old-fashioned
wedge-shape and with a bald pate, is also supposed drama to actor-drama can easily be traced in the
to represent Aeschylus (Fig. 63a-b). 10 A gem in seven plays by Aeschylus which are extant of his
Horns near Leptis Magna represents Aeschylus in original seventy to ninety plays. In the earliest, the
the same way. It is certainly the opposite to the Suppliants (Hiketides) the fifty Danaids are the
portrait of the younger, modern, sophisticated protagonists throughout, and they sustain a most
Euripides (Figs. 106-107), as the two are also de- vivid action. 11 Mrs. Sikelianos has shown this very
scribed in Aristophanes' Frogs. That Aeschylus was successfully in her presentation on the occasion of
bald is testified by the story that an eagle mistook the Delphic Festival in 1930 (see Ch. XVI. Figs.
his bald head for a rock and threw a tortoise on it 847 and 850). Only one player confronts the chorus,
to break the shell. never more. There is no prologue, that is, no spoken
If satyric drama was already introduced by the entrance scene. In the Persians (472) there were
older contemporaries of Aeschylus, it was certainly two actors, but their employment was so awkward
influenced by Attic tragedy. The form known to us
through Sophocles and Euripides goes back to
Pratinas and Aeschylus, and not to a different
earlier form of tragedy. We have, then, the peculiar
sequence that tragedy, the latest form of Dionysiac
poetry, was the first to be adopted (534 b.c. ) in
Athens for the Dionysiac festivals. The next form,
satyric drama, was the second, and the dithyramb,
the earliest form, was the last, for it was introduced
only after the founding of democracy (510). The
earlier forms were not admitted until they had taken
a definite artistic and literary character, acquired
by the imitation of the latest form of tragedy.
Comedy, which in itself consists of the earliest
elements (see Ch. Ill), secured its established
form only at the beginning of the fifth century, and
was correspondingly inserted last in the program
of the Dionysiac festivals.
Aeschylus introduced the second actor, according
to Aristotle (Ars Poet., iv, pp. 1449a, 15f). As a
consequence the dialogue could develop far more
freely than when it existed only between the repre-
sentative of the chorus and one actor. It marked
also the first stage in the withdrawal of the chorus,
whose dwindling importance in the later periods
had the most far-reaching literary and dramatic
consequences. The development from pure chorus-
Fig. 64. Aeschylus. Copy of statue erected by
Lycurirus (?), Vatican

21
//. ATTIC TRAGEDY • AESCHYLUS

and unskilful that Xerxes, the Persian king, and his although they often distorted and exaggerated it.
mother Atossa never meet. In the Seven Against This development is seen most clearly in the mask.
Thebes (467) and in the Prometheus the dialogue Thespis used it unpainted, and hence it must have
becomes more fluent, but is still hampered by being looked grotesque. Such grotesque masks are found
limited to two players. Then Aeschylus takes over still today among the American Indians, on the

the third actor from his younger rival Sophocles. South Pacific islands, among the Negroes of Central
Now a more and more elaborate dialogue develops, Africa, and were used also in archaic times among
which begins at once with an artistic prologue. The the Punic inhabitants of Tunis (Figs. 66-69). 15 In
Oresteia, performed in 458, was played for the first Greece itself there were grotesque masks in sev-
time before a rich background (see Ch. XVI, Fig. eral cults of the early periods, as for instance in
854, performance in Reading, England), whereas Sparta at the shrine of Artemis Orthia in the first
the earlier dramas worked only with movable half of the sixth century, and in Lycosura at the
scenery using the full round of the orchestra. The shrine of Demeter. 16 In Mycenean religion an im-
biographer of Aeschylus says rightly: "Whoever portant part must have been played by animal-
holds the view that Sophocles was the more finished headed demons imitated by masked men; for this
tragic poet, is right. He should, however, consider we have the evidence of Mycenean gems (Fig.
17
that was much more
it after Thespis,
difficult 70), and of a Mycenean fresco (Fig. 71 ), 18 on
Phrynichus, and Choerilus to bring tragedy to so which such demons, often engaged in ritual, are
great a height, than it was, once Aeschylus had represented. These animal-headed and distorted
spoken, to reach the perfection of Sophocles." demons, growing as they did out of the therio-
As to the scenic innovations of Aeschylus, the Vita morphic conceptions as demons in animal form,
informs us that he decorated the theater magnifi- retreat more and more under the clear sky of the
cently, bringing into requisition paintings and me- Olympic religion. The Medusa head becomes a
chanical devices, tombs and altars, trumpets, ghostly terror mask, although the Corfu pediment of about
apparitions and furies. Moreover, he introduced a 590-580 b.c. proves that the Gorgon Medusa was
definite actor's costume. He gave the players sleeves, originally a great goddess. 19
a long robe with train, and he increased their height The only masks to retain a general significance
by means of taller cothurni ( noOopvoi buskins, and ,
in historic times are those of the Dionysiac demons,
by a high hairdress (onkos oy/cos). The ancient his- Figs. 66-69. Punic masks. Musee du Bardo, Carthage
tory of Music (Movctlkt) iaropia) adds that he intro-
duced large and dignified masks. 12 It is supposed,
therefore, that a statue in the Vatican, carrying the
mask of Heracles, incorrectly restored with the head
of Euripides, is a copy of the statue of Aeschylus,
erected together with those of the other two great
tragic poets in the Athenian theater in the time of
Alexander the Great by Lycurgus (Fig, 64), 13 The
head of this type seems to be preserved in a bronze
head (Fig. 65), found together with a head of
Sophocles, now in the Museo Archeologico of
Florence, of which marble copies the best in —
Naples and Copenhagen also exist. 14 —
What Aeschylus did was not so much to introduce
and discover new things as to improve fixed cult
usages and establish them in the theater. The three
essentials of the tragic costume —mask, sleeved robe,
and tall buskins — all originated in the worship of
Dionysus, and therefore remain obligatory, although
with certain formal changes, until the end of an-
tiquity. Greek tragedy was always a sacred cere-
mony in honor of the god, and therefore the mask,
the sleeved robe, and the cothurnus, borrowed from
the Dionysiac religion and its ritual, had to stay
as a symbol of the devotion of his followers to the
god. Even the Romans kept the form of the costume,
 —

Figs. 70, 71. Animal-headed demons.

Gem; fresco, Mycenae

the satyrs, which were worn by young men as early

as about 600 B.C., since they sang the dithyramb of
Ai'ion in satyr's costume. On the satyr play vase
in Naples the satyr masks in the hands of the mem-
bers of the chorus (Figs. 31, 32) are exactly like
those of the satyrs of the Bacchic thiasus on the
other side of the vase (Fig. 33). 20 When the exar-
chos was given a part differing from those of the
satyrs, when the chorus played the role of men and
women of prehistoric times, when the actor con-
fronted the exarchos in the role of a god or a hero
then we have these masks of heroic characters in
use as well as those of the satyrs. Yet the mask never
loses its religious significance. On the satyr play
vase the Muse holds the mask of the heroine. A
number monuments show us the mask in the hand
of
of the god himself, as the female mask probably —
of a maenad —
on a crater in Bari (Fig. 72), 21 and
on a wall painting from Pompeii. 22 Dionysus may
be displaying it to his thiasus or putting it on an
actor. A votive relief with tragic masks has been
found in the theater of Dionysus. Devotees can be
seen consecrating a mask to him, or it may be
shown hanging or deposited in his shrine. On a
wine cup of the Eretria master the mask of Diony-
sus, lying in a winnowing basket decorated with
ivy, is venerated by two women who bring wine and
fruit.
23
On many Lenaean vases a mask on a post
decorated with dresses represents the god himself
(Figs. 73 and 25 above). Hence the thiasote who
dances or plays in honor of Dionysus must at all
times wear the mask. Aeschylus, by giving it a
dignified form, raised the mask as far above the
grotesque of the archaic age as he elevated tragedy Fig. 73. Masks on post. Black-figured lekythos, Athens

Fig. 72. Dionysus holding mask, with thiasus. Crater, Bari above its "satyrlike" origin. The earliest (about
itself
470 b.c.) example of a serious mask in the time of
Aeschylus can be seen on the fragment of a wine-
jug found on the market place of Athens ( Fig. 74 ) 2i .

Fig. 74. Boy holding a mask.

Fragment of vase, Athens

23
 Figs. 75-78. Archaic and archaistic hairdresses

A special way
of dressing the hair about 500 B.C. pinax 28 of the fourth century, or the urns 29 and the
survives in the onkos, the high coiffure of the tragic sarcophagus from Torre Nova 30 of Roman times. It
mask. It is simply an imitation of the archaic hair- was, therefore, not the actors who copied their dress
dressing, which brought forward the ends of the from the Eleusinian priests, but rather the Eleusin-
long twisted tresses and built them up over the ian priests who borrowed this costume from the
brow. Good examples are the terracotta in Olympia
Fig. 80. Dionysus in sleeved robe. Black-figured vase, Bonn
(Fig. 75), the marble archaistic head from Delos
in Athens (Fig. 76), the copies of the Hermes of
Alcamenes from Pergamon in Istanbul, its replica
on the double herm in the stadium of Athens Fig. (

77), and the archaistic head from Pompeii in Naples

(Fig. 78). 25 The pointed beard cut in the form of a
wedge period of the Persian war also survives
in the
in several masks, particularly in comedy (Figs. 135-
140, 143, 147-150 ) Aeschylus, according to his por-
.

(Figs. 62, 63), certainly

traits wore this form of
beard himself.
It is more difficult to prove that the long, floating,
sleeved robe also came from the Dionysiac worship.
We know belonging to the Eleusinian cult,
it as
worn by Iacchus, who is related to Dionysus, by the
priest, and by the dadouchos, the torch-bearing
boy. Hence the former belief, that Aeschvlus, who
was born at Eleusis, borrowed it from the Mys-
26
teries. The monuments which show the hierophant,
Iacchus, or the dadouchos in the sleeved robe, are
all, however, the products of later periods. Good

examples are the Eleusinian vases, one in Leningrad

and another in Lyons (Fig. 79a-b), 27 the Ninnion

Fig. 79a-b. Sleeved robe in Eleusinian cult. Late Attic vase, Lyons
 .

//. ATTIC TRAGEDY • AESCHYLUS

Figs. 81-84. Dionysus in sleeved robe

actors. This fact was already known in antiquity An especially noteworthy fact, on the other hand,
(Athenaeus, I, p. 21c). 31 Pringsheim assumed that is on Greek monuments the sleeved
that frequently
both derived their costume independently of each robe is be worn by Dionysus. The series of
found to
other from the festival robes of the Pisistratid age. 32 Greek monuments which depict Dionysus wearing
This is correct in regard to the elaborately woven-in the sleeved robe begins with a black-figured vase
figure and vegetable patterns of sixth-century dress in Bonn (Fig. 80), 35 dating from the period when
depicted on the Francois vase (Fig. 14) and other was taking form. The later archaistic
Attic tragedy
black-figured vases of the
century.
sixth They 33
monuments which show Dionysus in this type of
were certainly also influencedby oriental dresses at robe, particularly neo-Attic marble vases and bases
the time of the Persian wars. Although they were (Figs. 81, 82) 36 certainly are adaptations of figures
no longer in use in the fifth century, the satyr play of the same early age. A pedestal in the style of
vase (Fig. 32), the Andromeda vase (below, Figs. Praxiteles at Athens, upon which originally a tripod
110-111), and other vases are evidence of the sur- won as a prize of victory for a dithyramb was set,
vival of the rich patterns in the theater of the fifth shows Dionysus with wine cup and thyrsus in the
and the fourth centuries (see Figs. 121-122). The sleeved, long floating robe (Fig. 83). Another base
long-sleeved robe with train (syrma, evp^a), more- in the in Rome has either
Museo Nazionale Romano
over,on Greek monuments occurs only for Iacchus, Dionysus or holding a dish with cake, in
his priest,
who is almost identical with Dionysus ( see Fig. 79 ) this dress (Fig. 84).
37
On a fourth-century vase
The Eleusinian priests wear it only on Roman monu- from Thebes in Athens Dionysus in a short, sleeved
ments. 34 At the Dionysiac festivals the richly-pat- robe is riding a panther (Fig. 85). 38 On the relief
terned dresses reminded one of the heroic age, from with the visit of Dionysus to a mortal in the Louvre,
which the poets took their material. he also wears the short, sleeved dress (Fig. 86). 39

Fig. 85. Dionysus in sleeved robe riding a panther Fig. 86. Dionysus in sleeved robe visits a mortal. Relief, Louvre
 Figs. 87-89. Dionysus in sleeved robe. Wall paintings from Pompeii; mosaic, Naples

In addition, there are wall paintings from Pom- heroes (Fig. 306), and the Furies (Figs. 96-97) put
peii, one showing a bronze-colored statue of Dio- on a short dress with long sleeves.
nysus to whom a woman makes a sacrifice, another The cothurnus, the third feature of the actor's
the god in a green dress covered with grapes before dress, 42 proved by the Frogs of Aristophanes (11.
is

Mount Vesuvius (where a good wine, lacrimae 45ff. )be typical of the effeminate Dionysus, as
to
Christi, is still made), both figures in the sleeved contrasted with the club of Heracles adopted from
robe (Figs. 87, 88). 40 A mosaic which is probably this more masculine god. It was originally a woman's
based on the Lijcurgas of Aeschylus, shows Dio- footwear. On a vase in Boston (Fig. 90), 43 one of the
nysus in this dress behind Ampela, the personifica- two young men who dress for the part of women,
tion of the vine, or Ambrosia, a nymph, whom the probably in a tragedy, wears the female high soft
mad Lycurgus tries to kill (Fig. 89). 41 When, there- buskins and the mask. Holding the mantle rolled
fore, the deeds and adventures of Dionysus were together in his left hand, he recites his part. The
celebrated in the tragedies, the god must have ap- other actor is putting on the buskins, while the
peared in this garment. In the same way in any female mask with the hair bound up with a kerchief
play given in his honor, the other gods and the lies on the ground before him. The fillet around his

heroes were obliged to wear the long floating robe, short hair is to help hold the mask in place without
or at least the sleeves, which were never a part of hurting his skull. The vase belongs to the Periclean
everyday dress of men. The youthful Dionysus period. The cothurnus was so characteristic for
(Figs. 85, 86), Heracles (Fig. 31), other wandering Dionysus that Pausanias (vm, 31, 4) recognized a
statue as that of Dionvsus
J
bv
J
the cothurnus alone.
The Vita expressly states that Aeschylus enlarged
Fig. 90. Actors dressing Fig. 91. Dionysus wearing cothurni the earlier cothurnus and thereby gave additional
height to the actors. 44 That means, he put a sole
under the original cothurnus, which was a soft
buskin. 45 This sole was continually heightened or
added to in the course of centuries, in accordance
with the development of the stage (see below,
Figs. 307, 785, 797-799). The original form of
soft leather without a separate sole is worn by sev-
46
eral figures of Dionysus (Figs. 85-87, 91 ), for like
the mask and the sleeved robe, it was his lasting
characteristic. On a Roman sarcophagus in Rome
with a replica in Princeton, a satyr puts the boots
 //. ATTIC TRAGEDY • AESCHYLUS

Figs. 92, 93. Satyr putting cothurnus on infant Dionysus. Sarcophagi, Capitoline; Princeton

on the child Dionysus (Figs. 92-93). 47 Therefore, costume of Asia Minor and the Orient as well as of
among his followers it is particularly the old Silenus Thrace and North Hellas. The religion of Dionysus
who wears the high buskin together with the chiton entered the Greek mainland bv two routes, over the
of shaggv goatskin (Figs. 38, 47, 94), or even when sea from the east, and through Macedonia and
naked (Fig. 95). 4S The younger satyrs also wear Roeotia from the north. From both directions it
the cothurnus occasionally, and so do the Erinyes on brought with it an outlandish costume which to the
vases inspired by Aeschylus' Eumenides. For these lightly-clad Greeks appeared solemn, and which
Aeschylus had special masks and dresses made 49 ; was soon indissolubly bound up with the sacred
the Vita (59) mentions these expressly and vases plays of Dionysiac worship. Yet this dress may not
of the fourth century give us a vague idea how they be described as barbaric and oriental because of
appeared (Figs. 96-97). 50 They retain the pattern its foreign character, any more than the cult of
of the dresses and the high boots. The fifth-century Dionysus and the Attic tragedy may be. Like all
Erinyes were undoubtedly more terrifying to look other cultural advantages borrowed from abroad,
upon than the fourth-century representations, as is the dress and the plays were perfected as something
proved by the account we have of the horror of the purely and nationally Greek.
spectators. A second reason why this dress should appear as
The actor's costume introduced by Aeschylus ap- peculiarly suitable for the actors is the fact that it

peared strange and absurd to the Romans, 51 and so covered the whole person from head with to foot,
it appears to us in late Roman examples (below, the exception of the hands which were used for
Figs. 797-799, 832). There are two contributory gesticulation. This complete covering made the
causes for its persistence through the whole of an- wearer unrecognizable. The individual actor must
tiquity. The sleeved robe and the high boots are the give up his identity in order to represent the char-

Figs. 94, 95. Silenus and satyr with boots. Figs. 96, 97. Scenes from the Eumenides, Aeschylus.
Vase, Athens; Vase from Ruvo, Naples Southern Italian crater, Louvre; Vase, British Museum

27
 //. ATTIC TRAGEDY • SOPHOCLES
acters of a higher life. It is easy to see how appro-
priate this floating garment is to the spirit of a
redemptive religion and of Aeschylean tragedy. The
solemn robe which completely enfolded the body
must have been a great help to the actor when he
tried to forget his own personality and daily life
and to be absorbed completely in his sacred task. He
must have felt as a priest feels when, garbed in the
vestments of liturgy, he fulfills some holy rite. It
is inconceivable that he should undertake a task

of this kind in the dress of eveiyday life.

A/"

Sophocles
As the Vita of Aeschylus indicates, Sophocles
(496-406), the favorite of his own and of a later
age, was able to build further upon the creations
of Aeschylus. Success came to Sophocles more easily

100 lOla-b

Figs. 98-103. Sophocles. 98, Museo Archeologico, Florence; 99, 100, British Museum;
101, Head of 102 before restoration; 102, Lateran; 103, Bibliotheque Nationale

102 103

than to his predecessor Aeschylus and to his suc-

cessor Euripides. He learned from both and sur-
passed both. He received an excellent education.
When sixteen years of age he was chosen to lead as
an exarchos the victory dance for the defeat of the
Persians at Salamis. We know his portrait from sev-
eral heads showing him as a mature and as an old
man (Figs. 98-100 ).
52
In the celebrated standing
statue in the Lateran (Figs. 101-102) 53 the author
of the Antigone is depicted the perfect man, the
KaAck Kaya^o?, as the Greek artists of the fourth
century and the Attic people saw him. In the
relief statuette in the Cabinet des Medailles of the
Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris (Fig. 103 ) 54 the old
Sophocles, the author of the Oedipus at Colonus, is
conceived as he appeared as the defendant before

28
 //. ATTIC TRAGEDY • SOPHOCLES
the judges of Athens, when he convinced them by Sophocles as characteristic, detached figures, as they
reading his praise of Athens from his last master- appear on contemporary vases. The figures of Soph-
piece that he was unjustly accused of incompetence ocles must have appeared against the skene in
by his son. sharply defined silhouettes, unlike the figures of
Sophocles first produced tragedies in 471, and Aeschylus, which were seen in the round. The en-
by 468 he had gained victory over the older master trances and exits of his actors and chorus also were
and thirty years later, in 438, over the younger. We finely balanced (see p. 59, Fig. 238).
know seven of his 123 dramas, exactly the number Sophocles appeared himself as an actor only in
we know of Aeschvlus. Unlike those of the latter, his youth, taking parts in which his skill as an
however, they show great uniformity of style. ephebos trained in music and gymnastics could
Probablv Sophocles matured early. His introduc- come to the fore. Thus he was brilliant in the role
tion of the third actor is characteristic. Only the of Nausicaa as a skilful ball player, and in that of
earliest preserved play, the Ajax, has an imperfect Thamyras as a lyre player and singer. Perhaps the
dialogue between three persons. In all other plays vase painting showing Thamyras blinded by a Muse
it is fine and smooth, whether for two actors or for (Fig. 104) 50 in the Ashmolean Museum reflects a
three. The single drama is rounded off in a way votive pinax painted for the young genius in honor
that differs widely from the treatment of Aeschylus. of a victory with this early drama. An impression of
It is instructive to compare the Electra of Sophocles placid, serene beauty must have been left by the
with the Oresteia of Aeschylus, who presents the plays of Sophocles, despite the frequent cruelty of
same material in a trilogy. Sophocles, in conse- their subject-matter. A vase fragment in Dresden
quence of his austere dramatic construction, offers (Fig. 105 )
57
may Tereus of Sophocles.
reflect the lost
no less material in a single play than Aeschylus in Tereus, in richly decorated sleeved dress, pursues
his three dramas. Epic narrative and lyric song give Procne and Philomela, the two sisters whom he has
place more and more to the dialogue. The chorus wronged and who as a revenge have slaughtered
sustains the mood of the whole, reflecting it in lovely his sonand given him the flesh of the boy to eat.
songs. The hero carries the action and the ethos. This was the scene before a messenger told how
His attitude in the face of god-determined destiny, all three were changed into birds.
his character in the light of this destiny, is the sub- With Sophocles began the differentiation of the
ject of the action. His Oedipus the King was consid- offices of poet, actor, musician, and chorus leader,
ered by Aristotle as the model drama and Oedipus allof which Aeschylus had combined in his great,
the model hero. 55 many-sided personality. The drama now has a
We are told of Sophocles that he invented skeno- definite construction: prologue, or the exposi-
first
graphia or scene painting. He was thus the first to tion; then parodos or entrance song of the chorus;
put behind the actors a defined background as then first, second, third, fourth epeisodion alternat-
skene. This fact belongs to the innermost essence of ing with first, second, third, fourth stasimon or song
his poetry. He is, with Pericles and Phidias, the (that is, the dialogue parts or histrionic scenes
representative of true classic art, in which the seen alternate with songs of the chorus); last comes the
and unseen blend with one another in peculiar exodos, the final song, the recessional of the chorus.
clarity. Ajax, Antigone, Electra, Oedipus, Philoc- When the chorus was omitted in the later periods,
tetes appear before the mind's eye when we think of this led to the five-act play.

Fig. 104. Thamyras. Attic hydria, Oxford Fig. 105. Tereus. Fragment of vase, Dresden
 Figs. 106a,b-108. Euripides. Head, Mantua; Herm found in Rieti, Copenhagen; Drawing from lost statue

Euripides with preceding events, often in a single speech by

When Euripides (c.484-406) appeared, the exter- a god. The conclusion brings the much decried
nal and internal structure of tragedy had been com-
deus ex machina (0eos a-n-6 /^ov?}?), t ne god on the
pleted. It would, however, never have attained the
machine who appears in order to cut the knot. Both
these changes are the result of Euripides' funda-
significance for the world's history, literature, and
among mental innovations. Educated as a freethinker and
civilization had not this philosopher the I
a sophist, he handled the traditional myths as so
poets entirely altered it once again. 58 He succeeded
only after tremendous struggle and suffering. The
much raw material, to be changed and shaped at
will. He could not, however, do away with certain
marks of his difficulties and disappointments may
be seen on his face in a portrait made in his old age fixed and established features of the heroic saga.
(Figs. 106a-b) and the one (Fig. 107) belonging to
Hence he was obliged, by means of the prologue, to
indicate the alterations to his audience, and at the
the Lycurgean statue now lost (Fig. 108). 59 Eu-
end, by supernatural intervention, to bring into
ripides first studied painting and then philosophy,
before he became a dramatist. He appeared in a
harmony with tradition the action which had run
along different lines. This artificial device was
dramatic contest for the first time in 455, when he
was almost thirty years old, but it was not until adopted by Sophocles in his old age from Euripides.
In the Philoctetes of Sophocles, for instance, the
441, when he was over forty, that he carried off the
first prize. The extant tragedy, Hippolytus, won him hero, owing to the nobility of Neoptolemus, is
his second victory year 428, and the fifth
in the
placed in the position of being able to refuse to
return to Troy with his deadly enemy Odysseus.
did not come until after his death, with the repre-
But, as the myth insisted that Troy was to be over-
sentation of the Bacchae. What his contemporaries
denied him, posterity accorded in full measure. A
thrown by the bow of Philoctetes, the hero must,
relief of about the second century B.C. in Istanbul
at the end of the play, be induced to go to Troy of
depicts him as the representative of tragedy in a
his own free will. This isdone in Sophocles' Philoc-
sanctuary of Dionysus, conversing with the personi- tetes by the intervention of Heracles, in Euripides'
fication of Skene, that is, the stage (Fig. 109). 60
Philoctetes by that of Athena, as vase paintings
Euripides and Skene hold between them the mask prove (Fig. 119). This literary innovation resulted
of Heracles, probably from Euripides' Mad Heracles. Fig. 109. Euripides and Skene. Relief, Istanbul
Behind Skene is a female mask, probably the wife
of Heracles, Megara, and behind Euripides the mask
of an older man, probably the bad king Lycus. Of
the ninety-two dramas of Euripides, seventeen
tragedies and one satyr play are extant, more than
survive of Aeschylus and Sophocles together.
Euripides changed the form of the drama by
altering the beginning and the end. The prologue
no longer gives the opening of the action, but deals

30
//. ATTIC TRAGEDY • EURIPIDES

in scenic changes. Mechanical devices had to be

invented by which the gods could appear and dis-
appear speedily. These devices (see Chapter VI)
were as much the butt of comedy as were the en-
lightened philosophical, religious, and social ideas
of Euripides.
The setting for a tragedy of Euripides may be
studied from the Andromeda crater in Berlin (Figs. Fig. 110. Performance of Andromeda. Crater, Berlin
110-111 ). 61 The painter of this vase must have done him because he has subjected himself to the power
his work when recently impressed by the play, per- of love, and for love's sake has undertaken the
formed in 412 n.c. It was parodied by Aristophanes deadly struggle. Hermes withdraws, after having ac-
as early as 411 in his Thesmophoriazousai (lines companied Perseus on his adventure against Medusa
lllOff. ). In the Frogs (lines 52-54) Dionysus reads and brought him to Ethiopia and Andromeda. The
the Andromeda of Euripides, and thereby conceives country of Ethiopia and its people are indicated by
such a longing for the poet, who had died in the a member of the chorus who
wearing a tight
is

year 406, that he goes down to Hades to bring him jersey and a short, richly patterned chiton, with a
back to the world above. Bethe has reconstructed face of Negro type (Fig. 111a). This must be a
the famous play from the vase (Figs. 110-111) and mask, and the chorus, be it male or female, indi-
the extant fragments. 62 It began with the monologue cated the inhabitants of the country in which the
of Andromeda, who is chained to the rock, and who play was laid. Here it is the foreign race of the
informs us of past events. The maiden has been left Ethiopians, whereas the actors have Greek features.
a victim of the sea monster in atonement for her The chorus serves, so to speak, as a frame, suggest-
mother's crime. The vase shows her in the center, ing the place of action and the people of this place.
with arms outstretched, chained to the rock (Fig. It has become Euripides a sympathetic, but pas-
in
111b). She wears a straight flowing, sleeved robe sive spectator,from being an important part of the
with rich pattern similar to those on the satyr play action in Aeschylus and an intensively feeling com-
vase (Fig. 32). A cloak hangs at her back. She is panion of the hero in Sophocles. In Euripides the
distinguished by the tiara as an Oriental princess, as actors alone sustain the action, but the chorus con-
is the Hesione of the satyr play vase. Her father tinued to exist as sympathizer from Euripides to
Cepheus, sitting at her feet, also wears this head- Seneca and more modern imitators. The role of
dress. Small chests containing marriage gifts lie deus ex machina was played, as the vase testifies,
about the bride of Hades. Perseus comes to her, by Aphrodite, whose chiton also has the rich pat-
attired as a traveler, in his hand the sickle with terns (Fig. 111c). She was obliged to intervene
which he has killed Medusa (Fig. 111c). He offers because the parents of Andromeda did not wish to
to fight with the sea monster on condition that keep their promise to marry their daughter to the
Andromeda go with him as his wife. Having
will rescuer. Only those who fail to consider the monu-
obtained the promise he rushed into the combat with ments can suppose that it was Athena who appeared
a prayer to Eros. On the vase Aphrodite is crowning on the machine. 63

Fig. llla-c. Details of the Andromeda crater

 //. ATTIC TRAGEDY • EURIPIDES
Vase painting does not, of course, give a picture
of any definite moment in the performances. The
Andromeda vase, however, is so strongly under the
influence of the theatrical presentation, that the
very grouping of the figures suggests how the actors
must have appeared in the orchestra where the
tragedy was performed, when seen from the audi-
torium above. 64 Even the altar, which always stood
in the orchestra, is reproduced (Fig. 110). On the
other hand, Cepheus, Perseus, and Hermes would
hardly have appeared in the theater so lightly clad.
Art here retains its freedom to combine the realistic
with the ideal picture. Against this may be set a
Fig. 112. Later version of Andromeda. Vase, British Museum fourth-century painting strongly influenced by a
later performance, with the heroine bound to two
columns of the theater (Fig. 112). 65
The male parts were also played in the long
sleeved robe, as is proved by the relief from the
Piraeus (Fig. 113a). 66 The three actors who come
into the presence of their god Dionysus wear the
long syrma with sleeves. The foremost actor, who is
somewhat shorter than the others, appears to hold
in his hand a youthful mask, either that of a woman
or of the young Dionysus, in the opinion of the
author, while other scholars see the mask of an
old man, perhaps Tiresias (Fig. 113b). Certainly
an elderly bearded mask is in the hand of the middle
actor, while the mask of the third actor is lostwith
his head. The first actor salutes the god, while the
two others carry tympana in their left hands. We
are certainly dealing with a Dionysiac drama, per-
haps with the Bacchae of Euripides, for the relief
belongs to the time when this play was performed.
The deep impression which this late drama of Eu-
ripides made may be gathered also from later repre-
sentations: the painting in the house of the Vettii 67
and the stucco relief in the Subterranean Basilica in
Rome, depicting Agave dancing with the head of
her slain son, whom she has mistaken for a lion,
accompanied by the dance of one sister and the
tympanon playing of the other (Fig. 114). 68
Countless vase paintings from the fourth century
b.c. bear witness to the growing popularity of
Euripides. Scenes from his tragedies, both lost and
Fig. 113a-b. Actors with tragic masks before Dionysus. Relief
from the Piraeus, Athens extant, are represented. 69 They testify how his plays
were performed and repeated endlessly, not only
in Athens but also throughout the educated Greek
world, particularly in Sicily and Southern Italy, the
Fig. 114. Agave with the head of Pentheus, and Bacchae.
so-called Magna Graecia. From here the tragedies
Stucco relief, Subterranean Basilica, Rome
of Euripides reached the Romans, for whom they
were presented both in the original and in transla-
tion. Numerous works of art of the Roman period
illustrate the subjects of Euripides' dramas (see be-
low, Chapter XV).
A theme greatly favored for representation was
 Figs. 115, 116. Orestes and Iphigenia in Tauris, according to Euripides. Southern Italian vases, Louvre; Naples (from Ruvo)

that of Iphigenia in Tauris. Different scenes of this sister of On the oppo-

Antigone, holding an open box.
tragedy, the subject-matter of which Euripides had site side Antigone, her hands bound behind her
freely invented, as he often did, were illustrated. back, is brought in by a young man with spears. Hae-
The scene of the anagnorisis, the recognition be- mon, the son of Creon, stands behind this group in
tween brother and was treated with great
sister, an attitude of deep mourning. At his feet lies a sec-
frequency (Figs. 115, 116, and 774). 70 From the ond open box. Neither this situation nor the figures of
theatrical production only two things were, as a Heracles and of the boy occur in Sophocles' Antigone.
rule, taken: the dress of the heroine, here Iphigenia, Everything, on the other hand, fits in with Euripides'
which is always more ornamented than in daily version. Antigone was to be killed by Haemon, who,
life, and the temple in the background. On many however, falls in love with her, saves her, and hides
fourth-century vases occurs a central building, which her. From their union a son is born. He, when older,
indicates either a temple (Figs. 116, 117) or a palace comes into the town, takes part in the games, and
(Figs. 121 and 122a). The form of this structure is is of course victorious. His grandfather acknowl-

certainly based on a definite conventional design, edges him as a true Spartan, from physical signs.
but we may assume that the type was taken from The contents of the two boxes prove him to be the
a form of temporary building which was in common son of Haemon and Antigone, and thus the grand-
use as a background in the theater of the classical son of Creon. Antigone is imprisoned and is now
times. 71 The vase painters, of course, drew only the once more to die. Then Heracles appears as deus
general scheme of the real buildings. ex machina (see Chapter VI) and causes Creon
The successful comparison of the Iphigenia pic- to recognize the union of his son. Heracles, through

tures with the extant tragedy allows us to recon- his marriage with Megara, is Creon's son-in-law,

structfrom the paintings the lost tragedies of Eu- and like the son of Haemon and Antigone, is ille-
ripidesand those which survive only in fragments. gitimate. Heracles, therefore, is the right person to
The effort has been particularly successful in the give the tragedy a happy ending. Clearly the sub-
case of the Antigone. The name
suggests to us the lime tragedy has been brought down to the level
familiar Sophoclean drama, but in antiquity the of mortals. We see here better than from any of
more pathetic drama of Euripides was preferred. the extant plays how easy it was for the New
One vase painting (Fig. 117) 72
which gives its sub- Comedy of Menander, with its themes taken from
ject-matter agrees with the fragments and with the the life of the Athenian citizens, to grow out of
72nd Fable of Hvginus. Heracles stands in a temple tragedy in this Euripidean form.
-
or heroon, speaking with Creon, who wears the g$
(O
richly ornamented sleeved robe and the large royal
cloak of the theatrical costume. Leaning on his
scepter and bending forward, he listens to the
words of the god. Behind him stands a boy whose
cloak has patterns similar to those of the king's
dress. There follows an old woman, who can only
be the wife of Creon, Eurydice. Above sits Ismene,

Fig. 117. Antigone according to Euripides.

Southern Italian vase, Ruvo

33
 //. ATTIC TRAGEDY • PO ST-EU RI PI D E AN

Figs. 118, 119. Philoctetes according to Sophocles and Euripides. Fig. 120. Death of Dirce, according to
Lekythos, Metropolitan Museum; Vase in Syracuse the Antiope of Euripides. Crater
from Polazzuolo, Berlin

Instead of a temple or a palace, some tragedies Post-Euripidean Tragedy

had a cave as background. Examples are the plavs With Euripides the living growth of Attic Tragedy
Philoctetes of Sophocles as well as that of Euripides. came to an end. It was bound to do so, for Euripides
Vase paintings based upon stage setting for Sopho- had destroyed the religious meaning of tragedy
cles' Philoctetes (Fig. 118) have only a large rock without being able to cast off the fetters of the cult.
and a single tree as a setting, while those for Eu- Post-Euripidean tragedy continued his tradition,
ripides' Philoctetes represent a large cave around Dut became still more pathetic, sometimes indeed
the hero (Fig. 119). 73 The vases testify that Eu- sentimental. This later Greek tragedv is lost to
ripides had a chorus of women and
used Athena literature, except for the insignificant Rhesus, some-
as deus ex machina, instead of Heracles who was times wrongly attributed to Euripides. Hence the
used by Sophocles. The Antiope of Euripides, like Medea vase in Munich is a monument of singular
the Antigone, has been reconstructed from literary importance, both from the literary and the dramatic
fragments and from monuments. 74 Most important points of view (Figs. 121-122). 76 By means of it we
is a painting on a vase in Berlin (Fig. 120 )
75
which come to know a play which is closely connected
represents the concluding scene. Dirce is being with the Medea of Euripides, which drama took onlv
dragged by the bull, while Antiope rushes terrified second place in the contest of 431. But posterity
from the sight. This was certainly not acted in the rated it higher, and Euripides' modern conception
orchestra, but was narrated by a messenger. The of Medea as the murderess of her children belongs
final scene represented dealt rather with the attempt to the literature of the world. He probablv used
of the two sons of Antiope to kill the husband of the flying machine for the first time in this play.
Dirce, the wicked Lvcus. These three men and The Medea as represented on the Munich vase,
Antiope are shown inside a large cave. Lycus wears though post-Euripidean, nevertheless follows closelv
the long chiton with patterned sleeves, decorated the story as told by Euripides. The killing of Jason's
belt and crossbands, a mantle, scepter, and high bride by the poisoned robe and the burning head-
boots (the cothurni). The young men force him dress, the murder of the children, the escape in the
to his knees. The conspicuously large cave is onlv dragon car, all these are repeated. Many of the
to be explained background, since the
as a stage details, however, are altered. Not only the father,
scenery on vase paintings is elsewhere extremely but the brother also perish with the bride, so that
scanty and slight. The panther skin on the upper the roval house of Corinth dies out. As a conse-
edge of the cave indicates the Dionysiac festival quence, only the sons of Medea could become rulers
which brought Dirce to the mountains. It reminds of Corinth, and one of the boys is indeed saved by
us at the same time of the actual festival in honor an attendant (Fig. 122c). It is not Medea herself
of which the play was performed. It ended cer- who drives the serpent car, but Oistros, the per-
tainly with Hermes, holding his herald's staff, ap- sonification of Frenzy. At the edge of the picture
pearing as deus ex machina above the cave. He stands Aeetes, the father of Medea (Fig. 122b). He
commands the brothers to let the king live according appears as an eidolon, a ghost, out of the depths to
to the tradition of the myth, from which Euripides reproach his daughter and to prophesy an evil des-
had tried to deviate. tinv for her evil deeds. The orchestra of the theater

34
 Figs. 121, 122a-c. Medea according to a post-Euripidean tragedy. Southern Italian vase, Munich

is indicated as the scene of action, first by tripods ornamented vertical middle stripe, like Iphigenia
on pillars, ason the satyr play vase (Fig. 31) and (Fig. 116). Externally, then, as internally, this
as they still stand above the theater in the precinct fourth-century tragedy, to which the vase testifies,

of Dionysus (Fig. 251), and second, by an altar, is with the art of Euripides, who
in direct continuity
as on the Andromeda vase (Fig. 110) and as it was the last great poet of the Greek tragic drama.
always stood in the orchestra (see Figs. 228-229, The tragedies of Euripides underlie most Roman-*-
260, 273-274). The palace is the same, but bigger tragedies down to Seneca (see Chs. XI and XV).
and more richly decorated than on Euripidean vases The same is true for French tragedies by Corneille

(Fig. 117). King Creon, Aeetes, and Medea wear and Racine; German tragedies by Schiller and
the tragic dress with differently patterned sleeves. Goethe; and many others down to the~ Broadway
The king has belt and crossbands like Lycus (Fig. production of Medea, played by Judith Anderson,
120). Aeetes and Medea wear the tiara, like other which is a modern free adaptation of Euripides'
kings and princesses (Figs. 32, 111b). Both have an play by Robinson Jeffers (see Ch. XVI, Fig. 842).
 CHAPTER III

OLD COMEDY AND MIDDLE COMEDY

ARISTOPHANES
See Fig. 166
Tears and laughter, solemnity and jest, are closely comedies, produced in the year 425 b.c. Dikaiopolos
interrelated in the childhood of individuals and of is celebrating the Rural Dionysia, the festival at

people. The Greeks of the archaic and of the classical which the komos evolved. He organizes a ritual
period had deep and sincere religious feelings, but procession and sings a licentious song to Phales, the
they also had a good sense of humor. Although companion of Dionysus. The Komos (6 ko^os), also
comedy developed later in literature than the other according to Aristotle, sang derisive songs abusing
dramatic forms, its elements are as old as theirs. unpopular persons in town. Assuming that the vil-
Comedy comes from Komos, as tragedy comes lagers came to town and delivered their mock ora-
from Tragos. Comedy thus means the song of the tions at bedtime, the name comedy has wrongly
komasts, the gay revellers, as tragedy means the been derived from kome, a village ( Kwfx-q ) or from
17
,

song of the goats, the followers of Dionysus. Ac- koma, deep sleep (to /cw/xa). The only correct in-
cording to Aristotle (Poetics, 1449a, 9-11), comedy terpretation is that the revellers, the members of
developed from improvisations, originating from the the Komos, teased and made fools of the spectators.
leaders of the phallic ceremonies and the reciters The komasts, not wishing to be recognized, adopted
of phallic songs. 1 How such a komos looked during masks among which animal masks were especially
the recitation may be gathered from Aristophanes' popular. Such animal masks are used by Aris-
Acharnians (lines 273ff. ), the earliest of his extant tophanes for the chorus of several comedies: the

Figs. 123, 124. Dancers dressed as birds; Men in the masks of cocks. Black-figured vases, British Museum; Berlin Museum
 ))

///. OLD AND MIDDLE COMEDY • ARISTOPHANES

Fig. 125a-b. Warriors riding on dolphins, and on ostriches. Fig. 126. Knights riding on men disguised as horses.
Black-figured vase, Boston Black-figured vase, Berlin Museum

Wasps (422), the Birds (414), and the Frogs (405). picted on a Berlin vase (Fig. 126)/' They are seated
The birds play an important part in the action, with on companions dressed as horses with protomes and
manifold masks for the different kinds of birds This illustrates the adventure related
tails of horses.
which the text mentions. The wasps play only a by the chorus in Aristophanes' Knights ( lines 595ff .

small part. The frogs disappear with Charon alto- and the praise of the horses who behave like soldiers.
gether, after having probably pushed the boat of This can only be understood if one imagines that
the ferryman in and out of the orchestra and after one-half of the choreutai is mounted on the other
having amused the audience with their grotesque half, disguised as horses with masks and tails. This
hops, their "Brekekekex-koax-koax," and their jeers at praise of the horses as well as the reference to
the god of the festival (lines 290ff. ). Aristophanes Magnes are in the parabasis of the Knights. This is
himself tells in the parabasis of the Knights (lines an interlude, named from parabainein ( -n-apafiaivtiv ,

520ff. ), produced in 424 B.C., that his predecessor to step across, to come forward, to turn around to
Magnes had used choruses of birds, stinging wasps, the spectators instead of to the actors, and address
and frogs. Magnes appeared in 472 with a comedy the audience. This has rightly been recognized as
at the same festival at which Aeschylus produced the earliest element of comedy, developed from the
his Persians. 2 original komos. Personal mockery and direct address
We are taken still further back from the fifth, to of the dressed up revellers to the audience develops
the sixth century by black-figured vase paintings in the literary comedy to scurrilous and often politi-
on which there are choruses of men dressed as cal attacks upon contemporary personalities. 6 Similar
animals, dancing and singing to the sound of a flute, revels in animal masks at a religious festival could
played by a musician in everyday dress, a long be seen on the island of Bali, where the masks of
chiton, and a freely draped mantle (Figs. 123-125). parrots (Fig. 127), frogs (Fig. 128), and bulls (Fig.
Thus men move rhythmically dressed as birds with 129) were used. 7
wings and feathers on the head and body on a vase
in the British Museum (Fig. 123) and men wrapped
in mantles but with masks of cocks on a vase in the
Berlin Museum (Fig. 124). 3 A deep drinking cup,
a skyphos, in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, de-
Figs. 127-129. Actors as parrots,
picts on one side six helmeted warriors riding on frogs, and bull. Island of Bali
dolphins (Fig. 125a), perhaps a parody of Arion
who is said to have been rescued by a dolphin; on
the other side six young knights wearing the chlamys
are riding upon ostriches (Fig. 125b). 4 Facing the
ostrich riders with the flute player is a dancing
—
dwarf, like the crabs the sons of Carcinus at the —
end of the Wasps. Another forerunner of Aristoph-
anes had a chorus of knights riding on horses, de-
 /. OLD AND MIDDLE COMEDY • ARISTOPHANES

to make the evolution of comedy possible, dialogue

parts were required in addition to the merry chorus
of the Rural Dionysia in Attica. The first dialogue
parts must be imagined as a series of loose farcical
scenes. 8 Corresponding to these in the comedies of
Aristophanes are the scenes following the parabasis.
Often, as for example in the Acharnians and in the
Birds, the leading hero is brought into contact with
a number of characters, for whom he proves himself
more than a match, like the Merry Andrew in a
puppet play.
These farcical scenes were first developed not in
Attica, but in the Peloponnesus. Aristophanes in the
Wasps ( lines 57 ff. ) calls the stale, hackneyed jests
"Megarian." From Megara then, the nearest neigh-
9

Fig. 131. Corinthian dancers. Kylix, Metropolitan Museum boring Doric state, farce came to Attica. The
appearance of this ancient Doric farce may be
learned from Corinthian vase paintings of the early
sixth century B.C. On one of these in Athens (Fig.
130) 10 Dionysus and his followers are bringing
Hephaestus, drunk and mounted on a mule, to
Olympus. Zeus stretches out his hands in welcome,
• pleased that the wine god has succeeded in leading
the wicked son to Hera, his mother, whom he had
fettered and will now liberate. All the characters
wear a burlesque, indeed an indecent, costume. The
garment is too short and thickly padded, the phallus
is huge. The faces are grotesque, with bulging eyes
and bristling hair and beard. As nobody but Dionysus
may carry the vine branch, his followers must be
the demons, who in the Peloponnesus take the place
of the Ionic sileni and the They appear
Attic satyrs.
on a series of Corinthian vases and some Attic
Fig. 132. Punishment of wine thieves. Corinthian vase, Louvre imitations as gay revellers without their god (Fig.
11
131) .The evolution of Doric farce from these per-
formances may be seen on a vase with the capture
and punishment of wine thieves (Fig. 132). 12 Two
men are carrying a wine jar. Two others, gay and
drunk, are dancing to the flute with burlesque move-
In the remaining comedies of Aristophanes the ments, which may be the source of the kordax used
chorus consists simply of men or women: charcoal in Attic comedy (see below, Figs. 180-181). Punish-
burners in the Acharnians; Athenian citizens and ment draws near in the shape of an overseer with
farmers in the Peace (421); half-choruses of old two sticks. The thieves are put into the stocks by
men and of old women in the Lysistrata (411); the head, so that the one can lie only on his back,
women celebrants of the festival in the Thesmo- the other stand only in a stooping position. The
phororiazousae (410); women citizens of Athens in latter, whose feet are also in the stocks, is reaching
the Ecclesiazousae (about 390). In the Clouds (423) out backward with difficulty toward the dumplings
the chorus consists of women with big noses, meant which a pitying maid brings. The punishment is

to be fantastically adorned personifications of the perceptibly aggravated in that the prison is a wine
Sophistic philosophy, which is compared to the cellar, full of the fragrance of the longed-for but
clouds, as these also often assume fanciful shapes unattainable wine. Sosibius in Athenaeus (xiv, 15,
(lines 340-344). 621) refers to a theme closely akin to this as a
Just as neither satyric drama nor tragedy could subject of Doric comedy, namely, the capture of
evolve from the chorus of satyrs until a real actor fruit thieves. The three characters bear the names
had been added to the exarchon and his chorus, so, Eunous, Omrikos, and Ophelandros, that mean the
 ))

OLD AND MIDDLE COMEDY • ARISTOPHANES

of the earlier comedies numbered only a few hun-

dred, while the comedies of Aristophanes had over
a thousand. This development must have taken
place when comic plays were admitted to the festival
of the great City Dionysia in 486 b.c.
Doric farce brought with it its costumes and
typical characters. They are represented in many
terracotta and some bronze statuettes. The majority
of these belong to the first half of the fourth century,
by finds of Hetty Goldman in Halae,
as testified
David Robinson in Olynthus, Homer and Dorothy
Thompson in the Agora of Athens, and Agnes Still-
well in Corinth. The Periclean age did not like
1 "'

Figs. 133, 134. Angry old man and drunkards of Old Comedy. grotesque forms and extravagant features, and thus
Terracotta statuettes, Berlin
these statuettes begin probably around 400 b.c. But
Aristophanes' later plays certainly belong to the
same period as some of these statuettes, and he, as
Benevolent, the Rainbringer, and the Beneficent, well as his predecessors, used a corresponding cos-
names therefore of kindly vegetable spirits, after tume. Thus in the Lysistrata ( lines 661 f. and 686 f.
whom they are modelled. Besides the names, they it is clear that when the cloak is discarded, bare
have kept, or rather imitated, the appearance of the paunches and buttocks must have appeared, repro-
demonic followers of the wine god. Hence they and duced by flesh-colored tights (somatia). These,
their imitators retained through Old and Middle stuffed out with cushions in front and behind, are in-
comedy the short padded jerkin, the visible phallus,
tended to represent the nude body. The delightful
and the cunning masks. figures of an angry old man (Fig. 133) and of two
These roughly improvised farces were given a drunkards (Fig. 134) 16 show such a padded jerkin,
literary form by Epicharmus of Syracuse (about
the phallus, and the grotesque grinning faces of
530-440). 13 His plays, however, cannot be described the Peloponnesian goblins. They wear over the
as comedies, since they lack the chorus, which tights, stuffed out with pads, a belted tunic, often
originated in the Komos. They were called dramas as an exomis, leaving one shoulder bare. Others
in antiquity. They must have resembled the loose wear only the mantle, as in the Lysistrata, thus a
episodes at the end of Attic comedy. Epicharmus fat old man, crowned with a wreath and a broad
developed the agon, the scene of conflict between fillet, the ends of which hang on the shoulders;
two parties, which is likewise found in Attic comedy. and thin men who have drawn the mantle over the
Epicharmus' themes were, on the one hand, traves- head (Figs. 135-138). 17 They all have the pointed
ties of heroic saga, on the other hand, portrayals of or wedge-shaped archaic beard (the goatee) worn
daily life which he held up to ridicule. In his plays, during the time of the Persian war (see above, Ch.
and in Doric farce in general, the most popular II, p. 20). Some (Fig. 138) have red on hair and
characters are Heracles and Odysseus, 14 who are beard. One of these sphenopogons ( a<prjvoTn'>y w
also depicted in Attic comedy as the gourmand and comes from Megara Hyblaea, now preserved in the
the coward (see Figs. 170-173). A few of the stock collection of the University of Rostock (Fig. 136).
characters of Doric comedy were also established in He places both hands on his hips with a provocative
Attic comedy and lived on through antiquity: the gesture.
parasite, the boastful soldier, and the cook (see
below, Figs. 368-383).
All these elements, then, came to Attica and were
here bound up with the Komos, the gay chorus of
revellers. This union of Doric and Attic elements
was never so close in comedy as the union of the
Peloponnesian chorus with Attic dialogue was in
tragedy. The combination was not an organic one,
but was made externally under the influence of
tragedy. The first part of Aristophanes' comedies,
with prologue, parodos, epeisodia, and stasima, is
indeed nothing other than an imitation of the first
part of tragedy. Hence we understand why the lines

Figs. 135-138. Old Comedy characters wearing mantles

39
 ///. OLD COMEDY AND MIDDLE COMEDY
7* From Sicilian comedy came the figures of the
warriors, with old-fashioned beards, wearing the
pilos, the peaked hat of the traveller, carrying their
luggage, water flask, shield, and sword (Figs. 153-

f 154). 26 The cook

Statuettes are found
also
in
comes from Doric comedy.
Doric Tarentum (Fig. 155)

i and in Megara (Fig. 156).

27
He has a shopping

139 J Id 141 142 143

144 145 146 147 148 149

Figs. 139-168. Statuettes of characters of Old Comedy. (See List of Illustrations and Sources)

As eating and drinking play a great part in basket, with a calf's head or an eel, a delicacy
comedy, baskets with food are carried on the head mentioned in Aristophanes' Adiarnians as bought
(Figs. 139-141) or in the hand (Figs. 142-143). 18 by Dikaiopolis and coveted in vain by Lamachos
Herdsmen with a lamb or a calf over the shoulders (lines 877-886 and 958-970). Good and abundant
19
(Figs. 144-146) have the wreath of the symposion, food, and with it the cooks, are, of course, of para-
thus are looking forward to their part of the banquet. mount importance in comedy. The cooks, therefore,
The wandering pedlar or a slave is heavily burdened are conceited and vainglorious. Their representa-
with a pack on his back and a basket in front (Fig. tions show round red faces, bald pates, and huge
147). He certainly is making the stupid and vulgar
20
openings for the prating, inquisitive, and boastful
jokes of the porter (phortika, (popmcd). When at the mouths. This type is named after a Megarian actor,
beginning of the Frogs Xanthias makes them, com- Maison, and under this name it has passed on into
plaining about the heavy load he has to carry, the New Comedy ( see Figs. 378-383 ) To the cooks .

Dionysus dismisses them as played out, banal, and belong the delightful kitchen slaves, who rejoice in
overdone. Thus this pedlar originates in the Doric copying the pompous bearing of their masters ( Figs.
farce. 157-158). The bronze statuette of such a kitchen
Seated men, often also with the wedge-shaped slave has been found in Olynthus (Fig. 159). 28
beard, may mostly be slaves, who have taken refuge Ancient comedy had, moreover, perfected a series
on an altar to evade punishment. Several are hold- of female characters whose images were considered
ing a hand against an ear, which may have been formerly, on account of their figure, to be caricatures
boxed (Fig. 148). 21 In a fragmentary statuette in of pregnant women (Figs. 160-165). But not only
the Louvre an old man has his hands bound behind
152 his back. He wears the coarse jerkin of the slave 153 154
(Fig. 149). 22 Another holds a purse which he may
have stolen (Fig. 150). 23 Another with a bald pate
reclines with his right hand on the crown of his
head (Fig. 151). 24 His left eye is half closed as if he
is beginning to sleep. A man with a baby in his arms

( 152 ) recalls the motif of the lost and found baby,

popular in New Comedy (Figs. 400, 401, 507). 25

151

1
 i

159

160 161 162 163 164 165

young women are depicted with a fat paunch, like shaped beard (Fig. 167). This may be a wedding
the red-haired laughing girl in Boston (Fig. 160), scene (a gamos) as we find it at the ends of the
the weeping girl in the British Museum (Fig. 161), comedies like Aristophanes' Peace and Birds. 30
and the wailing young woman inAthens (Fig. 162), It is clear that the women of ancient comedy were

but also an old woman with a face as yellow as a obliged to follow the sacred tradition of the padded
quince, and probably a character just as sour, in bodice. There are evidently two reasons for this.
Berlin (Fig. 163), and the old harridan in the The fatpaunch pertained to the Dionysiac demons,
Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (Fig. who were imitated by the comic actors. Just as the
164) who might play the role of the old vixen horsetail was compulsory for the actors in satyric
attacking the young man in the last episode of the drama, who imitated the Attic followers of Dionysus,
Ecclesiazousae. Even an old nurse with a baby on so the fat body was compulsory for the comic
her arm in Bostock has this padded body (Fig. 165). 29 actors. all the parts were played by men
Moreover,
Furthermore, a fat middle-aged woman of this kind who, since the number of actors was limited, were
appears on one base together with a comic actor in often obliged to change their masks. It would hardly
Wurzburg (Figs. 166a-c), sweetly whispering to the have been possible to put on or take off the padded
man who clasps his hands in astonishment; it recalls body every time they changed their sex. 31 That only
the scene when in the same Ecclesiazousae (lines the mask and dress are changed is alluded to in a
606 ff. ) Praxagora explains the advantages of her statuette in Vienna (Fig. 168). 32 An old woman
communistic state to her husband Blepyros. In an- with a grinning mouth holds the laughing mask of
other such pair on a common base in the Louvre a a young man before her padded body. The transfer
fat woman embraces a smaller man with a wedge- of dress from one sex to another is a popular motif

166a-c 167 168

 ///. OLD COMEDY AND MIDDLE COMEDY
terial with edges left open at the side, one drawn
over the other. He is pulling himself up by his hands
and jumping in undisguised terror over some ob-
stacle. He is obviously a coward running away from
an imaginary danger, after a lot of high-flown talk;
just as Dionysus himself in the Frogs ( lines 280 ff.
takes refuge with his priest from the supposed
•
> Empusa. Heracles is represented with his bow and
club (Figs. 170-171), Odysseus with his pilos
Fig. 169a-b. Parody of a tragic hero, from Dodona (Figs. 172-173), Cadmus with his travelling bag
and pail or pitcher, with which he goes to the water-
in comedy. We
need only to think of Charley's ing place where he meets the dragon (Figs. 174-
Aunt. In the Ecclesiazousae the women take the 175, cf. Fig. 207). One hero with a pestle (Fig. 176)
garments of their sleeping husbands. In the Thesmo- looks like Ares in the Peace by Aristophanes, who
phoriazousae the brother-in-law of Euripides dresses is described by Hermes as wanting to pound up all

as one of the women participating in the festival. Greek cities into a huge mortar. The hero in the
This idea was not far-fetched, because all female Louvre ( Fig. 177 ) is a spirited caricature of a tragic
roles were played by men. king in a green mantle and a red crown. All these
Just as the typical characters of daily life were figures appear in Attic statuettes as they do in Attic
taken over from Doric farce, but with endless varia- Old Comedy. 34 There is also Telephus the hero
tions and enrichments, so also were the characters wounded in the thigh by Achilles, who came to
from the heroic saga. The model for these is no Greece to be healed by the spear which had
longer the mythos, as shaped by the epic, but the wounded him; in order to be secure from his
form created by tragedy; for tragic poetry has by fc
enemies, he kidnapped the little Orestes and flew
now supplanted epic as teacher of the people. There with him to an altar, threatening to kill him if the
is a delightful bronze statuette from Dodona in boy's father Agamemnon would not cure him. The
Athens, showing a "tragic hero" in a padded jersey, wretchedness of this hero is well rendered by the
with a genuine goblin face framed humorously by statuette in Munich (Fig. 178). 35 Euripides brought
the high onkos or tragic style of hairdress (Fig. him to the orchestra in rags. Therefore Aristophanes
169). 33 His actual costume, over the jersey which makes fun of this miserable hero in the Acharnians
clings tightly to his body, is a tunic of rough ma- (line 326), where he is parodied by Dicaeopolis
 2& 0 Fig. 181a-d. Comic chorus.
Relief found on the Agora, Athens

with a coal basket instead of a child, and in the

Thcsmophoriazousac (lines 689ff. ), where Mnesilo-
chus, the brother-in-law of Euripides, snatches a
wineskin dressed as a baby.
Cithara and flutes were used in comedy as in
tragedy and satyr play. There were, in addition,
clappers and tympana (Fig. 179). 30 The typical
dance of comedy was the kordax, which is licentious
in contrast to the solemn emmeleia of tragedy and
the gay but less wanton sikinnis of the satyric drama
(see above, Fig. 32). 37 A good description of the
kordax is at the end of Aristophanes' Wasps. A vase
painting in Corneto (Fig. 180 ) 38 depicts the kordax.
Three men with grotesque faces, two with bald
heads, asses' ears, and protruding tongues tilt for-
ward on the tips of their toes, kick their legs to an
exaggerated height, and turn in a whirling dance.
They thereby drag their clothes tightly around their
unwieldy padded bodies. A chorus dancing a kordax
seems to be represented on fragments found on the
Athenian Agora (Fig. 181a-d), 39 perhaps from a
choregic monument or the dedication of an ago-
nothetes. The flute player seems to be a woman. The
men, eight of which are preserved in parts, have
stuffed-out bodies, short tunics, a small round hair
ornament on the apex of their heads; a small mantle
is hanging over the left shoulder and back, and they

are shouldering a long thin staff. They all lift the

right leg, so that the knee is at the height of the
buttock. It looks as if on Fragment c the buttock of
the second is bumping against the knee of the third
—
man unless this man was turned in the other direc- Fig. 182. Chorus with fluteplayer
tion so that the two buttocks clash. Such a move-
ment, the lifting of the thigh into a horizontal to the rhythm of a flute player (Fig. 182). 40 Five of
position, so that the lower leg from knee to foot is on the youths have small heads on the apex of their
a level with the buttock, already represented
is skulls. We thus have here, probably, some popular
on the late black-figured vase in the Museo artistico entertainment.
industriale in Rome, with eight young men dancing If we wish to understand the extant comedies of

43
 1

Fig. 183. Aristophanes. Collection David Robinson, University of Mississippi

Aristophanes which cover the years 425 to 388, 41 we » let the people see the likeness. The tragic poets
must keep all these rollicking figures before our Euripides in the Acharnians, Euripides and Agathon
eyes, remembering that the dialogue scenes came in the Thesmophoriazousae, Aeschylus and Euripides
from the inartistic Dorian farce, and the chorus in the Frogs must have been recognizable to the
scenes from the lighthearted mumming and revelries audience who knew them so well. It can be assumed
of the Rural Dionysia. The origin of the different that the shaping of masks of definite personalities
elements explains the faults of Aristophanes' work: in the theater furthered the development of por-
the uncouth character, the indecency of many of his traiture during the later part of the fifth century.
jokes,and the loose way in which the different parts Aristophanes attacked not only the outstanding
hang together. personalities of publiclife, but he confronted the

Despite these faults, however, the comedy of whole population, described as Demos in the
Aristophanes is one of the greatest gifts which Knights, with its sin. He denounced it as being
Greek culture has bestowed upon us. Despite seams quarrelsome, credulous, and fickle. There are politi-
and fissures in the masonry, the structure rises as a cal, national, literary, and social tendencies in the
uniform whole, with a definite idea running through plays of Aristophanes and his predecessors. Aris-
it, and with gems of poetry in the place of the tophanes was a champion of the Peace Party. When,
inartistic chorus songs of an earlier age. Side by however, peace had finally come, it was too late.
side with the old, rough-and-tumble buffoonery of With the downfall of democracy, Attic comedy also
the farce and the bantering of ordinary individuals lost ground. In the Ecclesiazousae (the Women in
by the ancient komoi, we have parodies and often Council, or the Women's Assembly, ca. 392 or 390
serious attacks upon statesmen, generals, philoso- B.C.), Aristophanes renounced political and personal
phers, and poets, who, in the opinion of Aris- themes, and seized upon the ideas of communism
tophanes, were doing harm to the people. Thus and women's rights, which were taken up soon after-
Pericles, Lamachus, Nicias, and Demosthenes could wards by Plato in his Republic. In the Ecclesiazousae
be seen by the Athenian audience during the fifth the women dress in the garments of their sleeping
century. But Cleon in the Knights was not masked husbands and go to the council meeting on the
because maskmakers and actors refused to portray Areopagus, with the result that the state power is
him. Aristophanes, therefore, took the part himself handed over to them. In this play the chorus still
and daubed his face with red color in the old fashion. takes part in the action, but it has already less im-
Otherwise we must assume that the masks gave portance, and the parabasis, formerly its principal
caricatured likenesses of the heads of the celebrated function, is omitted. In the Plutus, the feeble work
men. We know this of Socrates, who is said to have of Aristophanes' old age, the chorus is entirely lack-
stood up during the presentation of the Clouds, to ing. Only the instruction "chorou" (xopov), the

44
 ///. OLD COMEDY AND MIDDLE COMEDY • ARISTOPHAN ES
chorus part, points to the interpolation of songs and have appeared in a Doric farce. Zeus is depicted
dances. Here comedv approaches its predecessor, with a follower who sits on his luggage, about which
the Doric farce, which had no chorus. Middle he may have made phortika or low, vulgar, tiresome
Comedv avoided individual resemblances. Platonius jokes. There are also represented a grotesque serv-
states that the comedy masks exaggerated the fea- ant, a woman with a mask in her hand, and a flute-
tures of the face so as to resemble nobody. The player, at whose feet another mask is lying. We thus
supposition that the megaphone masks
so-called have five actors and seven characters. Comedy with
with exaggerated wide mouths were invented when its abundance of gay characters had to have a
the theater of Lycurgus with a larger auditorium greater number of players than tragedy and satyr
was erected, is attractive, 42 but, considering the drama.
excellent acoustics of the Greek theaters, unlikely. Seven characters are also found in each of the two
Aristophanes amused his public, but not the lead- groups of statuettes of comic actors in the possession
ing and influential persons, whom he lampooned. of the Metropolitan Museum of Art (Figs. 185-
His type of comedy was early supplanted by new 198). 45 They were all found together in one grave
forms or even by the return to more primitive forms, in Athens. This is very important, for though we
from which he had evolved his masterpieces. The have many single figures of comic actors, this is the
poet, therefore, never received an honorary statue, first instance in which such a large group has been

as did the tragic poets and the poets of New found as a series. The second important fact about
Comedy. We possess no contemporary portrait of these statuettes is that they belong to Middle
Aristophanes. Many scholars including myself be- Comedy, of which we have only scanty fragments
lieve, however, that we have an excellent imaginary in literature. This fact limits the dating. The statu-
portrait of the poet (Fig. 183). 43 It was created in ettes cannot belong to the last third of the fourth
the Hellenistic period, probably as a companion century, for Middle Comedy ended around 330,
piece to the portrait of Menander, with whom some when the New Comedyof Menander, Philemon, and
Roman double herms couple him. Aristophanes is others replaced it and the costume of the too-short
depicted as an older man, whose beginning baldness chiton over the stuffed-out tights was discarded.
is hidden by some strands of hair falling irregularly Several parallels have been found in Olynthus, de-
onto his forehead. He looks coarse and unkempt. stroyed by Philip of Macedonia in 348, 46 while on
The beard has only irregular tufts, brow and cheeks the other hand the types, though similar, do not
are furrowed, the skin of the neck is crumpled and agree with those of Aristophanes. Therefore, the
sacks of flesh hang below the deeply sunk eyes. The right date seems to me to be 380-350, after the
Hellenistic inventor of this portrait knew, however, Ecclesiazousae and Pint us of Aristophanes, which
how to express in these masterly rendered outer belong to the beginning of the fourth century.
forms the intelligence and fiery expression, indi- It is unlikely that all fourteen of the statuettes in
cating the sincere striving of Aristophanes for high the Metropolitan Museum belong to one comedy.
social and political ideals, and the disappointment in Aristophanes has more than fourteen dramatis
his failure to accomplish his goals. personae only in his earlier plays, the Acharnians
An Attic vase painting of the early fourth century and the Birds. In most plays he has fewer, and in all
(Fig. 184 ) 44 shows actors who might just as well plays the number of characters of sufficient im-

Fig. 184. Actors of Middle Comedy. Attic vase, Leningrad

45
 186 187 188 189 190 191
Figs. 185-191. Seven actors of Middle Comedy found together in one tomb. Yellow terracotta statuettes from Athens, Metropolitan Museum

portance to have been copied in art, are never is drawn over his head so that the ears stand out
more than five to seven. The same is true of New at the top and the claws are knotted on his breast.
Comedy, where in no case is a total of fourteen In the New
York statuette there are really two lions'
attained for the dramatis personae. In addition, the skins, or at leasttwo lions' heads. One is made into
series divided into two even halves by the color
is a cap for the hero's head, the other hangs down next
of the clay: seven statuettes (Figs. 185-191) are to the bow and beside a claw on the left side. This is
of yellow and seven (Figs. 192-198) of red clay. We a two-fold Heracles, and may be a parallel to
thus have two groups. The execution in both is good, Dionysus dressed up as Heracles in the Frogs of
but the yellow series is superior. The backs (Figs. Aristophanes. In this comedy Heracles laughs at
187b, 189b, 196b, 197b, 198b) are as finely executed Dionysus 47) because he combines buskins and
(v.
as the fronts. the lion's skin. Later the slave Xanthias has to dress
In each series we have an old woman, a young as Heracles in order to receive Heracles' punish-
woman, and men. In the yellow series, the old
five ment, with which Dionysus is threatened. Here the
woman (Fig. 185) holds a child dressed in swad- joke may be that some braggart soldier has dressed
dling clothes and a pointed cap. The young woman as Heracles. We know that Nicostratus of Argos
( Fig. 186 ) is giggling —
more likely than weeping dressed with club and lion's skin for the battle
behind her himation. Among the men, Heracles is (Diodorus, xvi,44) and that the use of the lion's
easily recognizable (Fig. 187). He wears his lion's skin for a mortal hero was common for Alexander
skin over his head, has a club in his left arm and a and the Diadochi. The braggart soldier and the
bow hanging at his left side from a strap over his mocking of his false bravery is common in both Old
breast. He puts his finger into his mouth. This is Comedy (for example, Lamachus in Acharnians)
not the ordinary type of Heracles found in statuettes and New Comedy. Therefore it is possible in Middle
of old comedy, where he stands with his legs crossed, Comedy, during which Anaxandrides wrote a
leaning on his club as on a walking stick, holding comedy entitled Heracles. The false Heracles (Fig.
his bow in his hand (Figs. 170-171). This lion's skin 187) is not thinking of fighting, but of some good

189b 196b 197b 198b Figs. 199, 200. Replicas of 188, 190
 192 193 194 195 196 197 198

Figs. 192-198. Seven actors of Middle Comedy found together in one tomb. Red terracotta statuettes from Athens, Metropolitan Museum

meal. He
is hungry. That is why he puts his finger a meditative position. He may be a philosopher, like
in hismouth. Heracles is represented as a loose the cynic Crates of Thebes, whose pupil Zeno was
character and a gluttonous gormandizer in many saidby Philemon (Fragment 85) to teach one how
farces and comedies. Hence the young woman ( Fig. tobe hungry. Philemon began in the time of Middle
186) may be his paramour and the baby on the arm Comedy, but belongs, with Menander, to New
of the nurse or grandmother (Fig. 185) their child. Comedy. The fat man is laughingly baring his
It may even be the story of Heracles, Auge and flabby breast and fat belly. The two seated men
49

little Telephus. (Figs. 196-197) also show contrasting moods. The

The weeping man with the traveller's cap (Fig. one holding a full purse (Fig. 196, cf. above, Fig.
188, cf Fig. 199
. from Olynthus ) is probably the one 150) is rightly joyous. He seems to sit on an altar,

who has to pay the expenses of Heracles' greed. The because probably he has stolen the purse and seeks
other two men bring food (Fig. 189) and drink refuge. He may later change to sadness, when he is
(Fig. 190) for the banquet, which Heracles, or the caught. He has contorted eyebrows, giving to the
braggart soldier dressed as Heracles, will enjoy two sides of his face a different expression. Quin-
with his girl. On the head of one was an amphora tilian (xi,3,74) tells us that fathers of families in
or hydria, as in the statuette in Palermo (Fig. 200) 47 comedy wore a mask showing on one side a raised,
from which steam arises, indicating that it contains on the other side a lowered brow. He could thus, by
a hot punch in which probably more wine than showing different sides of his head, appear to the
water is mixed. The other man carries a basket, audience either in a violent or in a mild mood with-
probablv filled with delicacies ( cf. above, Figs. 142- out having to change the mask. Several masks, the
143). The banquet was probably at the end of the most beautiful of which is one in marble from the
play as in Aristophanes' Acharnians and asps. The W Kerameikos in Athens (see below, Ch. VIII, Figs.
slave in a fur or rough woolen jersey (Fig. 191) is 335-337 and Ch. XV, Fig. 810), illustrate this literary
nursing his knee and looking forward to his part of evidence. Perhaps the other seated man, who seems
the banquet. dejected and puts his finger greedily into his mouth
The other series in the Metropolitan Museum, in (Fig. 197) will later get the money. He may be the
red clay (Figs. 192-198), again has an old and a original owner of the purse, which has been stolen.
young woman. The old woman (Fig. 193) seems to He is a traveller, as is evidenced by his cap and
imitate the young one (Fig. 192) in drawing the heavy cloak. The slave, seated in a pensive posture
himation coquettishly to one side; she is probably (Fig. 198), his hand and his elbow on
head on his
the nurse of the young one. She reminds us of the his knee, will probably find a means of taking the
old women in the Ecclesiazousae of Aristophanes, money away by intrigue. He is thus the forerunner
who try to take the lover away from the young of the leading slave in New Comedy.
woman." Besides this contrasting pair of women, The single figures of the two series of statuettes
we have two contrasting pairs of men, one standing in the Metropolitan Museum are already known
(Figs. 194-195) and one seated (Figs. 196-197). from other replicas (Figs. 199-200), 50 with the ex-
Standing are a slim (Fig. 194) and a fat man (Fig. ception of the two seated slaves, one of the yellow
195), probablv mocked in the manner of Middle and one of the red series (Figs. 191 and 198),
Comedy, which ridiculed physical imperfections, though nearly related figures are extant. It may
bad behavior, shamelessness, covetousness, and old be due to accident that exact replicas are missing.
age. The mood of the two is also contrasting. The These statuettes indicate two examples of comedy
slim man is serious, wrapped up in his himation in in the middle period, showing relationships to the

47
 Fig. 202. Actor dancing as Perseus. Oinochoe, Athens

masks of an older and a younger man on a relief

in Lyme Park, found in Athens, must be one of the
Middle Comedy. It might even be Aristophanes, as
its date is ca. 380 b.c. (Fig. 201). 52
Farce, on the other hand, lived on unaltered. For
instance, on a vase in Athens Perseus dances on a
Fig. 201. Poet with two comic masks. Relief, Lyme Park small stage before two spectators (Fig. 202). 53 On
Boeotian vases of the fourth century there are trivial
older and the newer form. They still have the scenes from daily life, such as a fight between cooks
costume of Old Comedy, but already the individual and geese ( Fig. 203 ) 54 On Kabeiric vases travesties
,

characterization of New Comedy has begun. Middle of the saga are represented by fat-paunched heroes
Comedy, as it was already called in antiquity, is (Figs. 204-207). Odysseus in the costume of a
only a feeble reflection of Attic Old Comedy. It still goblin receives the magic drink from Circe on a
ridicules stories told by the poets, 51 just as tragedy vase in the British Museum (Fig. 204), but then he
of the fourth century uses the same stories as that threatens the witch-like Circe on a vase in Oxford
of the fifth, but is also feeble compared with that ( Fig. 205 ) The other side of the same vase depicts
.

of the fifth. At the same time, Middle Comedy is a him sailing over the waves on wine jars, which
forerunner of the Hellenistic Comedy depicting provide him with drink, and using the trident he has
courtesans, old men, and young prodigals. The de- stolen from his enemy Poseidon in order to calm
velopment of Old Comedy ends at the same time the waves and procure fish as food (Fig. 206). 55
as the development of tragedy. A poet with two A vase in Berlin shows Cadmus, who is to fight the

Fig. 203. Cooks attacked by geese. Boeotian vase, Athens

 ///. OLD COMEDY AND MIDDLE COMEDY • ARISTOPHANES
Geese, and the Kabeirion vases (Figs. 202-207)
attest the continuation of the old farce of the archaic
period. Other popular entertainments which lived
through all times are dances. An Attic red-figured
bell crater of the early fourth century in Heidelberg
(Fig. 208 ) 57 shows a youth and a woman dancing
with masks. It can hardly be the kordax, as one actor
has raised his mask. One is dressed as we may sup-
pose the chorus to have been in the Ecclesiazousae.
It was supposed that the scene represented actors at

a rehearsal, as on the mosaic (Fig. 36), where one

of the actors also has pushed up his mask. A more
likelyinterpretation, however, is that of a dance
during a procession ( pompe ) at a Dionysiac festival.
This need not be the great City Dionysia, but could
well be the Anthesteria, when there were no dra-
matic performances, but some gay entertainments.
Fig. 204. Odysseus and Circe. Vase from the Kabeirion,
The same festival has been supposed to be the
British Museum occasion for selling unglazed pots with polychrome
comic figures, five of which have been found on the
dragon, as a coward 56 (Fig. 207, cf. the statuettes, Athenian Agora (Figs. 209-210). 58 Grotesque men
Figs. 174-175). Instead of fighting he falls back- are dancing, one named Dionysus, the god of the
ward, loosing his pail and behaving like Dionysus festival opposite a man named Phor one carry-
. . . ;

in the Frogs (lines 484-493). To us it seems strange ing a staff and an oinochoe, two carrying a large
indeed, that the Thebans should laugh at Cadmus, white object on a spit ( Fig. 209 ) supposed to be a
their greatest hero, just as the Dorians laughed at large loaf of cake baked on a spit, named obelias
Heracles, and the Athenians even at Dionysus, the (o^cAi'as) by Photius and carried in procession in
Lord of the Festival given in his sacred precincts. honor of Dionysus according to Athenaeus (III,
The juxtaposition of solemn tragedy and uncouth 111b) and Pollux (vi,75). A man rowing a fish with
farce, in which the same gods and heroes appear long oars (Fig. 210) may be a caricature of Arion
at the same festival, testifies, however, to the sound rescued by a dolphin, or of Theseus carried by a
vigor and sense of humor of a people who can play dolphin when he visits his father Poseidon on the
with their ideals and yet not lose them. bottom of the sea. I believe that these burlesques
The Perseus vase, the Fight between Cooks and were performed by revellers at the Anthesteria, and

Fig. 207. Cadmus and the dragon. Kabeirion vase, Berlin

Figs. 205, 206. Odysseus and Circe; Odysseus on raft. Vase Fig. 208. Dancing couple. Crater, Heidelberg
from Thebes, Oxford
 Figs. 209, 210. Two men dancing, carrying an object on a spit; Man rowing a fish. Glazed vases, from the Agora of Athens

perhaps at the Rural Dionysia, where such gay the ground and is accompanied by a flutist. Still
parades originated in the archaic period (see Ch. another dances a pyrriche, a war dance, wearing a
IV). helmet and a shield, but otherwise is also nude. Her
Some of these gay scenes may also have been movements are accompanied by clappers shaken
presented at private festivals. This may be true for by a girl musician. Similar feats appear on Italian
the Perseus vase (Fig. 202), where only two spec- vases 6 " (see Ch. XI, Fig. 579) and, according to
tators are present. It certainly is true for the acrobats, Xenophon, they may have been brought to Athens
usually female, such as described by Xenophon from Syracuse. They were certainly not admitted to
( Symposion n and vn). Similar feats are performed the Greek theater of the classical period.
on a table, which serves as a stage, by a man in* Bearded men dressed as women with kerchief, —
oriental dress whose dance is accompanied
lively —
wide chiton, mantle, and umbrella on vases in the
by two women playing the auloi and a tympanon, Robinson Collection at the University of Mississippi
on a vase in Athens (Fig. 211) and by a nude girl and in Cleveland (Figs. 213 and 214) and accom-
on an Attic hydria from Nola in Naples (Fig. 212). 59 panied by a flute-playing girl on an amphora in
The girl is resting on her arms and tries to drink Delos 61 also represent private entertainment, per-
from a kylix which is standing near her feet. An- haps in some cult, but have nothing to do with the
other nude girl dances between swords planted in theater.

Fig. 211. Oriental dancer on table Fig. 212. Nude girl performing on table. Attic hydria, Naples

Figs. 213, 214. Men in women's dresses. Vases, Robinson; Cleveland

Performances of dithyrambs, tragedies, satyr plays, t See Fig. 12

and comedies, were acts of religion. Therefore they s i i

took place at the festivals of Dionysus, within the

holy precincts of the god. In Attica there were four
Dionysiac festivals, celebrated in order from mid-
winter to spring. 1
I. The lesser or Rural Diom/sia took place in the

month of Poseideon, December, and the beginning

of January. At this festival the komoi or revelries
were performed in honor of Dionysus and the
phallic chant was recited. From the leaders of this
revelry, according to Aristotle,
2
comedy was evolved.
Sacrifice and drinking of wine, the gift of the god,
also belonged to it. An idea of the festival is given
by Aristophanes reduced
in his imitation of the
procession in the Acharnians (vv. 237 ff. ). In later
years repetitions were given, in the country, of tragic
and comic plays which had found favor in the city.
Several of these festivals in the larger districts of
Fig. 215. Masks of comedy, and satyr before Dionysus
Attica came have a certain importance. In the
to
Piraeus, the harbor town of Athens, for instance,
plays by Euripides were produced, which attracted vent of Dionysus and the beginning of tragedy, had
Socrates (Aelian, War. Hist., n,13). Plato's Sym- regularly organized dramatic festivals. 4 Aixone, a
positun has as background a feast of Agathon,
its small community in Attica, celebrated during the
the tragic poet, in honor of a victory won in the fourth century the Dionysia with chorus singing and
Piraeus. Sophocles and Aristophanes were per- particularly with comedies. An honorary monument
formed in Eleusis. 3 Icaria, associated with the ad- for two choregi, dated either 340 or 313 according

Fig. 216. Plan of Lenaion

sanctuary and theater, Athens

Fig. 217. Reconstruction of the

Lenaion theater, Athens
IV. THE DIONYSIAC FESTIVALS
to the inscription, has in its upper part a seated the children received little pots as presents, of which
Dionysus and a satyr standing before him, alluding many examples have been found. 10 They are deco-
either to the dithyrambs in honor of Dionysus or rated with pictures of children playing. One (Fig.
perhaps to a satyr drama (Fig. 215). 5 In the entabla- 218) 11 imitates the wedding procession of the archon
ture five masks, probably of the Middle Comedy, are basileus, who
with the attributes of Dionysus, thyr-
represented: an old man, an oldish woman, a slave, sus and cantharus, is seated on the wedding car,

a youth, and a girl. while his wife, the basilinna, is helped into the car.
II. The Lenaea occurred in Gamelion, the mar- Behind them three boys carry the symbol of mar-
riage month, also called Lenaion, January and be- riage, the plough. The newly-wed came to the
ginning of February. The name comes
of the festival sanctuary of Dionysus, where the marriage of the
from Lenai (L?>ai), maenads, and the name of the basileus and the basilinna was the imitation of
month from the common ceremonies which took the marriage of Dionysus and Ariadne, a promise of
place for engaged women, who were initiated into happiness. It is not the Thespis car, as has been
the Dionysiac mysteries in the Lenaion. On the last assumed, but this wedding car, which was used at
day of this month, in the night of the dark moon the Anthesteria. A similar representation of the
between this and the following month and festival, carrying of a bride on a car on a black-figured
is

the marriage was consummated. 0 It was at the Le- lekythos in Giessen (Fig. 219). The bridegroom
naean festival that comedy was first improvised at drives, the bride is seated in the rear. 12 On the last
Athens. After it had acquired literary and artistic day at the feast of pots, Chytroi, food was set out
form, it was produced by the state at the Lenaea Such festivals,
in pots for the souls of the departed.
from the first half of the fifth century on. Tragedy whether dead are not
for brides, children, or for the
appeared about fifty years later, around 442 B.C., suitable for dramatic performances, which have
but the comic plays seem always to have been the been falsely supposed to have taken place at the
more important at this festival. 7 The archon basileus * Anthesteria. Perhaps there was a contest between
had the direction of the performances in the shrine the actors of comedy to be chosen for the City
of Dionysus Lenaeus (Aristotle, Pol. Ath., lviii), Dionysia (Plutarch, Vitae decern Oratorum, 841f.
which has been located in the marshy hollow be- and some gay processions and dancing (see Figs.
tween the Acropolis, Pnyx, and Areopagus, therefore 209-210 in Ch. III).
called Dionysion in Limnais, in the marshes (Figs. IV. The great or City Dionysia, celebrated in
2 16-2 17). 8 The Lenaion plays were transferred to Elaphebolion, the month of stags, March to the
the permanent theater after it had been built in the beginning of April, is the principal festival. It was
precinct of Dionysus Eleuthereus on the southern celebrated not only by the city and the ten counties
slope of the Acropolis. 9 As they took place in winter
when the sea was closed for ancient shipping, their
importance was only local.
Fig. 219. Wedding car. Black-figured lekythos, Giessen Museum
III. The Anthesteria took place in Anthesterion,
the month of flowers, February to the beginning of
March, which corresponds to our spring. This festi-
val consisted of three parts: first, the new wine in
the caskets was broached at the Pithoegia; then the
newly-wed and all citizens celebrated the Choes, or
feast of jugs, in which they drank the new wine; the
last day was the feast of pots, Chytroi. At the Choes

Fig. 218. Wedding of Dionysus and Ariadne.

Children's oinochoe, Metropolitan Museum
 IV. THE DIONYSIAC FESTIVALS
of Attica, but by the members of the Attic federal unseemly which had occurred during the festival
state and by many strangers, as at this time of the was rebuked and punished.
year the sea was navigable. The direction was in the The program at the great City Dionysia in the
hands of the highest state official, the archon epony- time of Pericles must have been as follows:
mos (upx«n' c7rwvuju.os), whose name was written at First day, Elaphebolion 8: Proagon
the head of each theatrical record, the so-called Second day, Elaphebolion 9: Procession, sacrifices,
Didascalia. To him were sent the plays which were ten dithyrambs
to be produced. He made a selection from them and Third day, Elaphebolion 10: Five comedies
gave to each poet a chorus and a choregus, a wealthy Fourth, fifth, and sixth days, Elaphebolion 11-13:
citizen, who had to bear, as a state tax, the costs of Three tetralogies; each day three tragedies and
the presentation, the rehearsals under a chorus- one satyr play
trainer, the costumes and other equipment. 13 The Seventh day, Elaphebolion 14: Assembly
costs were considerable and even higher than for During the Peloponnesian War the third day was
tragedy for the dithyrambs sung by fifty men of five cancelled, and the then third, fourth, and fifth days
tribes, less for comedies and for dithyrambs sung were lengthened by one comedy each in the eve-
by fifty boys of the other five tribes. The ten dithy- ning; as evidenced by Aristophanes' Birds (vv. 786-
rambs were performed on the first day of the festi- 89), people came to see the comedies after dinner.
val. Then followed, beginning 487/6, five comedies In the Hellenistic period, as evidenced by inscrip-
on a day of their own, with five poets competing tions dating from 306-117 B.C., the second day,
with one play each. At the time of the Peloponnesian Elaphebolion 9, was an intermission and a day of
war, however, the number was limited to three, and stated meetings. The assembly may have been post-
the day for comedy was cancelled. One comedy was poned to Elaphebolion 18 and 19, after the feast of
played on each of the following three days after the Pandia, which took place on Elaphebolion 15. 18
each tetralogy, a set of three tragedies (called a The aspect of the festival must have been daz-
trilogy) and followed by a satyr play. 14 The tragic zling. First the festival robes, which were sometimes
performances began at sunrise. This follows from of purple and gold as described by Demosthenes
the fact that several tragedies begin with a scene at (Oration against Meidias, 22). Then the burlesque
dawn, for example the Agamemnon (vv, 4ff. ) of costume of comedy. Then the solemn costume given
Aeschylus and the Andromeda of Euripides (Frag- by Aeschylus to the tragic actors, followed by the
ment 114, ed. Nauck). The comedies, in contrast, gay satyrs. The number of the participants was also
were given in the evening. This follows from the astonishing. The dithyrambs alone needed 500
passage in Aristophanes' Birds (vv. 785ff. ), where choreutai, with at least ten flute players. In each
the advantages of flying are extolled. Among them comedy there were about five actors and 24 choreu-
is the possibility that the spectators would have to tai with their flute players and sometimes citharists.
escape from the long-winded tirades of tragedy, In each tragedy, of which nine were presented, there
flying home to dinner and flying back to the theater were three actors, fifteen chorus members, and prob-
for the comic performances. 15 ably at least two musicians. In each of the three
Since Pericles had erected the odeum, a roofed satyr dramas there were three actors, and twelve
music hall, in 446-442 (see Figs. 237 and 258), 16 a chorus members with their flute player. There must
proagon, an introduction of the whole personnel have been about 700-800 choreutai, 30-50 actors,
active in the contests, was held here. The poets, the 20-40 musicians. If we add the mute characters,
choregi, the actors, the musicians and the chorus choregi, chorus teachers, magistrates, judges, and
members paraded in rich dresses with golden stage hands, the number of active participants must
crowns or wreaths on their heads, but the actors did have been not much less than one thousand. The
not wear their masks or costumes. This was a kind fact that all performances were competitions and
of advance announcement instead of a playbill. On that there was a great variety to be seen, explains the
the first day of the festival proper there was a pro- fact that the Attic audience stayed in the theater for
cession (Pompe, TrofXTrrj) with the Thespis car, a several days from morning until night.
trumpeter at the head, maidens with sacrificial im- In order to explain the little that remains of the
plements and priests leading the bull which was to archaic and classical theater building,the various
all
be sacrificed in the sacred precinct ( see above Figs. purposes for which it was intended must be kept in
56-58). 17 After the plays there was an assembly mind. The development of the theater building to
(ekklesia, tKKX-qala) of the people, at which the meet all these requirements will be shown in the
prizes and awards were distributed and everything following chapter.
 CHAPTER V
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEATER BUILDING
IN THE CLASSICAL PERIOD

The performance of dithyrambs and of tragic, s&-^. half of the fourth centuries also took place in the
tyric, and comic plays took place during the classical Lenaion, thus the Frogs by Aristophanes (see Fig.
period in Athens at the City Dionysia and at the 221). Here, beginning about 442 the contests of
Lenaea in honor of Dionysus and therefore always comic actors took place, and after about 432
in his sacred precincts. During the earliest period, tragedies were also occasionally performed; but no
the time of Pisistratus and his sons, when Thespis permanent theater was ever built. After the com-
had come to Athens in 534 with his troupe on wagons, pletion of the theater of Dionysus Eleuthereus on
the performances were given in an orchestra in the the southern slope of the Acropolis, the Lenaean
Agora, which was probably situated where, later, plays were transferred to this sanctuary.
Agrippa built his odeum (see Ch. XIII, Figs. 617- The sacred precinct on the south slope of the
619). The spectators sat on wooden stands (ikria, Acropolis was probably dedicated to Dionysus about
iKpia) until they broke down in the 70th Olympiad the middle of the sixth century, when the little

(499-496 b.c. Photius s.v. ikria and Suidas s.v. Prati- temple in soft poros stone was erected and deco-
nas). The original primitive wooden form on the rated perhaps with a pediment relief representing
market place may be seen on a vase by Sophilus a bacchic dance of satyrs and maenads (Fig. 222),
(Fig. 220 ). The lively gesticulations and move-
1
which, however, might have decorated a still earlier
ments of the enthusiastic spectators make us un- monument in the sanctuary. 4 There certainly was
derstand why these bleachers collapsed in 498 B.C., also an altar and sacred grove, with an enclosing
and why the seats in the theater were excavated wall. As the oldest form of the Dionysiac service
on a hillside and later executed in stone. was the dancing and singing of a chorus, there must
The smooth surface and the circular shape of the have been from the beginning a chorus (xopo's) or
Greek orchestra have recently been explained from an orchestra (from orcheisthai, opx^dai, to dance),
the form of the threshing floor, which has remained that is, a dancing place for the chorus, named after
the same in Greece since antiquity. 2 It is natural its purpose. We call an orchestra a body of people

that gay dances at religious festivals and particularly playing instruments, and we also apply the term to
at harvest time were performed at the same place the ground floor of the modern theater. These mod-
where the oxen had trodden out the grain (Iliad ern definitions are, however, derived from the term
20,495f. ) or the grapes had been dried. The "ox- describing the nuclear center of the theater build-
driving dithyramb" (Pindar, Olym. 13,25f. ) may ing, the arena,where originally music was produced
have received its name from this usage. and dances performed. The orchestra lay on a ter-
The oldest comedies were given in the Lenaion race above the earliest temple on the slope of the
precinct, which Dorpfeld has located in the Dio- Acropolis. The oldest orchestra was reconstructed
nysion in Limnais, the marshy hollow between the by Dorpfeld (Fig. 223) as a circle with a diameter
west slope of the Acropolis, the Areopagus, and the of about 85 feet ( 27 meters ) while Dinsmoor gives ,

Pnyx (Fig. 216). 3 Most of the state performances it 83/2 feet. Fiechter is of the opinion that the wall
of comedy after 487/6 during the fifth and the first used by Dorpfeld for his reconstruction is only a

Fig. 220. Spectators on temporary stands. From a vase by Fig. 221. Plan for presentation of Aristophanes' Frogs, Bieber
Sophilus, Athens

s T R E

PA RO DOS S K. t IM PARODOS
PA L A Ot OF PLUTO
A es ch y I os EuriplAe. s CHov-US of
D'*>r\y Sos M aid A U k of Initiates
and House of
XanHniiS KERAKIES Frogs
Hostess
on 6 dcmkcu C h «ron
 V . THE CLASSICAL THEATER BUILDING

Fig. 222. Bacchic dance. Poros relief, found in the sanctuary

of Dionysus Eleuthereus at Athens

retaining wall for a road leading up to the orchestra

terrace, and thus the orchestra would have been not
much larger than the later dancing place (Fig.
224). 5 Anti believes that the earliest orchestra was
rectangular, as it certainly was in the Lenaion pre-
cinct (Fig. 217). But this is unlikely, as inmost
theaters it is circular. It suffices in any case for very 0-0 temple PRECINCT
artistic dances given by big choruses. It may well OF L

have been also the goal of the procession, to which DONYSUS ELEUTHEREUS
LATER TEMPLE
the black-figured vases (Ch. II, Figs. 56-58) bear
witness. In the center stood a thymele or a bema \ 4lT^
with the altar on sacrificial steps and close by the
holy image which was borne out of the temple on
festival days, so that the god might enjoy the plays
(see Fig. 48, in Chapter I).

Fig. 223. Plan of the precinct of Dionysus Eleuthereus

by Dbrpfeld
Fig. 224. Oldest period of precinct of Dionysus Eleuthereus. Plan, Fiechter
 V. THE CLASSICAL THEATER BUILDING

The spectators found better accommodations on

the slope of the Acropolis than they had had in the
Agora. The wooden scaffolding or bleachers could
not as easily collapse as on the level market place.
They could, however, not be cut out of the rock, as
was done in Syracuse (Fig. 225), where a perfectly
rounded thcatron, a hollow auditorium, has been
preserved. 0 The name theatron, seeing place or re-
viewing place, is characteristic of the fact that the
Greeks wanted to see as well as hear, while the
Romans, like us moderns, emphasized hearing in
calling their seating place an auditorium. The name
theater (from theasthai, Otdvdai, to see) was only
later extended to the whole building.
The earliest tragediesand satyr plays of Phryni-
chus, Pratinas,and Aeschylus and the few comedies
given in the precinct of Dionysus Eleuthereus after
487/6 did not have a background building. The
actors probably dressed in a small hut or booth
theatron curve to enclose the orchestra. A small

(skene), perhaps hidden in the sacred grove which archaic temple and a small house for dressing and

we must suppose grew stage properties, a skenotheke or hall, were built at

southern part of the
in the
the sides of the orchestra.
precinct. The chorus and the first actor then entered
the orchestra through the main parodos, or ap-
The first drama for which large buildings,
extant

proach, which led up a somewhat steep incline

a temple and were necessary is the Oresteia
a palace
of Aeschylus, produced in the year 458 b.c. It was
from the southwest to the terrace of the dancing
for a long time a matter of controversy whether
place. After Aeschylus had introduced the second
actor, he also entered here. The long chorus songs
this earliest skene, which means a booth or a hut
or a tent, was set up inside a segment of the orches-
in the earlier tragedies, between which the dialogue
tra-circle or outside at the southern edge of the
parts of the actors were but episodes, gave the actors
orchestra (Fig. 232). 10 Both views involved diffi-
plenty of time for a change of costume. The great
culties which seemed to be insoluble, for the dancing
orchestra, the steep approach, and the small temple
were, then, the only buildings in the precinct until
ground could not be obstructed, and the erection
of a temple or a palace at the steep southern slope
about 460 b.c. ( Figs. 226-229 ) 7 .

The simple properties which the earliest works of would have necessitated large unsightly scaffolding,
substructures, and retaining walls.
Aeschylus require, such as altars, rocks, and tombs,
could be set up easily at the edge of the terrace.
The problem may be solved if we assume that
the part of the orchestra which was used for the
Indeed, the fact that this terrace is raised some two
performances was smaller than was formerly be-
meters, or some six and a half feet, above the level
lieved, with a diameter of only some 65 feet (about
on which the temple stands (Fig. 230) 8
earliest
20 meters). This dancing ground was more than
makes it seem probable that ghostly apparitions
large enough for a dithyramb of fifty men and even
like the phantom of Darius in the Persians, or the
for the liveliest movements of a chorus consisting,
descent of Prometheus, could be produced with
for tragedy, of fifteen and, for comedy, of twenty-
greater effect here than later, when a skene or pro-
four performers. There was enough space, about 20
visional playhouse was erected at the edge of the
feet, left at the southern part of the orchestra ter-
orchestra.
race for the erection of any temporary buildings
The tiny provincial theater of Thorikos in Attica
had, like the auditorium in Athens, a boundary wall
following the contour of the ground (Fig. 231 ). 9 It
has kept the flat form of the auditorium and the
steep slope of the orchestra terrace, where a skene
could never have been erected. It gives us, therefore,
the best idea of the way the Athenian theater must
have appeared in an early period. The orchestra
forms a rectangular space with rounded corners,
and the ends of the parallel rows of seats in the Fig. 232. Possible positions of earliest skene, Allen
 233, 236. Plans of the scene buildings, second
and third periods; from Fiechter

ENTRANCE

0L D TEMPLE

Fig. 237. Plan of theater of Nicias and odeum of Pericles; Dinsmoor

1,1 U K R T I: M I 01ONYSOS

58
 r. THE CLASSICAL THEATER BUILDING

of the fifth and in the course of the fourth centuries,

when literature and art also struck a slower tempo
in their unfolding.
Pericles built the odeum, the music hall for con-
certs, in446-442 as a square with the roof supported
by many columns, similar to the teleslcnon in
Kleusis, and the Thersilion in Megalopolis (below,
Fig. 276), arranged like a checkerboard, so that
anybody standing in the center, for example the
musicians and actors who in the proagon presented
themselves to the public, could be seen equally well
from every side. This odeum was erected east of the
theater, and is probably the reason why the theater
axis was shifted westward (Fig. 237). 14 As the con-
struction of the odeum prevented an eastward ex-
pansion, the orchestra was shifted to the north-
northwest, that is, it cut deeper into the slope of the
Acropolis than before. The theatron or auditorium
Figs. 234, 235. Front and rear views of the reconstructed
scene building, Athens; Fiechter became steeper. The ends of the auditorium were
supported on earth and the fill was held in by stone
retaining walls (analemmata). Outside these an-
which could be constructed before the festival
alemmata the parodoi or entrances led from both
began, in elaborate or simple forms, according to the
sides into the orchestra. The eastern approach, com-
expenditures which the choregi were willing to
ing from the odeum, probably sloped more gently
afford. It was probably mostly a simple long build-
upward than the western one. Through both, the
ing, used as a storeroom ( skenotheke ) and as dress-
spectators came morning
to the theater early in the
ing room for the actors, who, in the Oresteia and in
and took their seats on benches that were still
the dramas of Sophocles, were obliged to return to
wooden and straight. The chorus and many actors
the scene of action much more quickly than in the
also came during the festival days through these
earlier days, when the chief part was taken by the
entrances.
chorus. They now could change their costumes in a
Thus in Sophocles' King Oedipus, while the audi-
dressing room close to the scene of performance
ence assembled for this first tragedy of a tetralogy in
(Figs. 233-236). 11
the early morning, the people of Thebes at the same
It was easy to change the scenery by slight altera-
time may have assembled around the altar in the
tions during the intermissions between the four
center of the orchestra, the women and children per-
plays of a tetralogy or during the night between
haps sitting down on the thymele, the sacrificial
two of the festival days. Painting doubtless bore a
steps of the altar. Then Oedipus stepped out of the
part in this, as is proved by the report that Sophocles
palace and talked with the priest in the orchestra.
invented the art of skenographia or scene painting
Creon and later the stranger from Corinth came
and that Agatharchus
(Aristotle, Poetics, 1449a, 18),
through the left or eastern parodos, from outside,
had painted upon which the
a scene for Aeschylus,
while the chorus and Teiresias, living in the city,
philosophers Democritus and Anaxagoras had based
came from the right or western parodos. All came
their doctrine of linear perspective (Vitruvius, vn,
into the orchestra and were there met by Oedipus
praef. II). 12 How far we can infer from the plays
and later Jocasta, who stepped out of the skene,
the appearance of the scenery is a question that
decorated as a palace, to meet them there (see my
remains unanswered. It is a sound rule that the
theatrical scenery cannot have differed in principle
from the actual buildings of the same period. 13 But Fig. 238. Possible entrances for actors in Sophocles' Oedipus, Bieber
if we consider the wealth of development of Greek

art in the fifth century —

its architecture, painting,

sculpture, craftsmanship, decoration and —the

equally extensive development of the drama, we
shall not readily assume that before the last quarter
of the fifth century any definite form of theater
building had been permanently established. Such a
form can only have evolved gradually at the end
 V . THE CLASSICAL THEATER BUILDING

Fig 240. Possible background buildings of the fifth

century, Mahr

Fig. 239. Early classical structure of the scene building;

Dorpfeld

attempt to show the first entrances of the actors for

238 ) The reconstruction by Dorpfeld
this play, Fig. .

(Fig. 239) agrees with this arrangement. 15

One thing is absolutely sure: players and chorus
appeared through the whole of the classical period,
at one and the same place, that is, in the orchestral
area. Almost all extant dramas and all the comedies
contain scenes in which the players and the chorus
act together, sometimes even mingling freely*
coming to close quarters, or returning together. 16
As the importance of the actor's parts increased, the
action centered more and more at the skene, the
temporary scene building, often decorated as a
palace, the abode of the main actor, outside the
dancing ground (Figs. 239-240). In the beginning
this skene was a mere adjunct to the area of action.
But it became more and more important when the
importance of the chorus parts diminished.
The skene, therefore, was transformed in time
from a temporary building, a tent or log cabin, to a
permanent stone building, beginning in the period
of the peace of Nicias (421-415). First a hall was
built, named skenotheke by Fiechter, Saulenhalle
by Dorpfeld (Figs. 233, 236, 250), but rightly
named hall by Pickard-Cambridge and by stoa
Dinsmoor who follows Vitruvius (v,9,l), (see Fig.
237). 17 The stoa was of considerable length, and was
built on a breccia foundation, a material not used
before the later fifth century. On the north and east
sides it cut into the rock of the Acropolis slope. To
the west it impinges upon the old temple. Its north
wall served as background to the plavs while it
faced south toward the precinct. From its interior,
steps ascended north about seven feet to reach the
higher level of the orchestra. They led the main
actors out through a wide door to a platform ( T on
Figs. 233 and 236) which could be decorated as a
movable porch, a temple facade, a stairway, an altar,
or whatever the poets needed for their plays. This
large massive foundation was erected in breccia in
the time of Nicias, but may have had a predecessor.

Figs. 241, 242. Possible background buildings of the fifth

century, Fiechter

60
V. THE CLASSICAL THEATER BUILDING

Figs. 245, 246. Pergamon, terrace and pavement with stone It projects about 10/4 feet before the central door.
sockets for timber
On either side were five vertical slots in the masonry
for a skeleton of upright timbers. In front of them
we must assume several rows of corresponding
stone sockets set in the earth floor to the right and
left ofthe orchestra, so that various combinations,
including side buildings, paraskenia, were possible.
The name skene was kept on, indicating the con-
tinuous custom of erecting a new background
building, leaning against the front of the stoa, every
year during the classical period. Fiechter has shown
some of the possibilities for adjustable structures,
which the incisions in the front wall of the stoa,
combined with the holes to be assumed in the
orchestrasoil, offered to the theater manager ( Figs.
241-242). Another has been attempted by Mahr
(Fig. 240). 18 There are, of course, many more
possibilities. Broneer, for example, believes that the
model for the oldest skene was the tent of Xerxes, a
suitable background for many dramas and probably
resembling Persian palace architecture. 19
Local need was the reason for keeping up this
custom of temporary construction as late as the
Hellenistic period in Pergamon (Figs. 243-247). 20
 V. THE CLASSICAL THEATER BUILDING

but seldom that the full circle, which tends to form

—
pn a level ground as may have been the case in
the sixth century in the Agora —
could be executed
on a slope. Anti believes that the original orchestra
in the sanctuary of Dionysus Eleuthereus was
square or trapezoidal (Figs. 228-229). Dinsmoor
and Caputo believe that it was polygonal, but essen-
tially circular (Fig. 237). 21 The way a half- or
three-quarter circle forms of on a rising hillside
itself
is illustrated in the village communities of Switzer-
Fig. 247. Pergamon, plan of orchestra and stage building
land which assemble in a ring, or in the circle of
spectators around the choral dance of Roumanian
peasants (Fig. 248). This is an old national dance
Beneath the theater, built by Eumenes II ( 197-159 called the "Hora" (Chora, Choros? which is more
b.c. in a steep and shallow hollow, ran a terrace
)
likelv than dance of the seasons or hours). A similar
leading from the market place to the temple of dance, also called Hora, is danced in Israel, where
Dionvsus. It was impossible to build a permanent it might have been brought by immigrant Rou-
stage house here over this terrace. Provision was manian Jews. It is even performed in a Jewish
made, therefore, for erecting temporary buildings orphan asylum in New York. The dance perform-
with wooden timbers, for the insertion of which ance on the island of Bali is watched by spectators
three rows of quadrangular holes were cut into the in a polygonal figure which is tangential to a circle
pavement of the terrace ( Figs. 243, 246 ) They were .
and thus essentially circular (Fig. 249). 22 Dinsmoor
sunk in pieces of light-colored, hard stones, in con- ( Fig. 237 ) has given this form to the auditorium of
trast to the dark pavement of the rest of the terrace.
the time of Nicias. The spectators sat on wooden
The plan (Fig. 247) shows that in the front of the benches which, of course, had to be straight, but
middle portion three wide openings were left for could be arranged as a polygon. The seats of honor
doors. Diagonally arranged holes at the sides indi-
(proedria) were of stone, as slabs with inscriptions
cate side entrances or side decorations, perhaps assigning them to the priests and vertical demarca-
periaktoi (see Ch. VI, p. 75). Although the theatron
tion lines prove. 23 The upper rows were benches of
was much larger, the orchestra itself was not greater movable planks supported by separate stones em-
than that in Athens. bedded in the earth. The single wedge-shaped divi-
The theatron in Athens also developed slowly to sions ( kerkides ) were separated from each other by
a more durable and better form. The spectators
originally stood or sat on the slope of the Acropolis,
as will always happen when there is anvthing to be
seen in an open space overlooked by a height. It is

Fig. 248. Dance "Hora" of Roumanian peasants and spectators Fig. 249. Sacred dance and spectators, Bali

63
V . THE CLASSICAL THEATER BUILDING

Thrasyllus with a choregic monument (Fig. 250). 24

This upper part (Fig. 251) 25 was merely a segment
of a circle.
The southern boundary of the theater of Athens,
facing the actual precinct, was the above-mentioned
hall or stoa (see above, pp. 55ff., Figs. 223, 233, 236,
237, 250). It was impossible to build the hall further
to the south, for even in the present position its
most westerly part is already in contact with the
small archaic temple (see Figs. 226-230), which was
allowed to remain, although another temple was
built simultaneously with the stoa farther south.
Alcamenes, the pupil of Phidias and the leading
sculptor during the Peloponnesian war, worked the
cult statue of Dionysus in gold and ivory for this
later temple. Either this temple or more probably
the long and spacious hall contained wall paintings,
mentioned by Pausanias (i,20,3), between the tem-
ples of the precinct of Dionysus Eleuthereus and the
odeum. Vase paintings of the late fifth century, like
the one on the back of the satyr-play vase in Naples
(Fig. 33) with the wedding of Dionysus and
Ariadne, or the one on a vase in Bologna with Dio-
nysus leading Hephaestus back to Olympus to
liberate his fettered mother Hera (Fig, 252) may
—
have been copied from or at least inspired by
these murals. 26 They prove that the scenes from the
life of Dionysus were huge compositions with many

figures from the thiasus, for which there would

not have been enough room in- the little vestibule
or in the cella of the temple.
The northern wall (H in Figs. 233 and 236) of
Fig. 250. Plan of the sacred precinct of Dionysus Eleuthereus the hall, in the time when most of the preserved
in Athens, fourth century. Dorpfeld plays by Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes
radiating aisles. Thus the majority of the people were performed, was used as the back of the wooden
still sat on wooden benches, the ikria mentioned in skene and as supporting wall of the orchestra ter-
411 by Aristophanes (Thesmophoriazoume v. 395). , race. Here the temporary playhouses were built in
Most of the boundary wall is the only part of the varying forms, and as this is the time of the greatest
Athenian theatron of the fifth century which is interest to the drama student, we have naturally a
built in stone, and for this reason it has survived. great interest in reconstructing these changing
It is determined in some places by the contour of forms (see above, p. 60, Figs. 239-242). We have
the ground, in others by older buildings. At the east three aids for the reconstruction of the wooden
it made a right-angle turn, for here it was in contact playhouses of the fifth century ) inferences from
: ( 1
with the odeum of Pericles (see Figs. 237, 250 extant plays; (2) inferences from vase paintings
and 258). The enclosing wall at the west cut off with scenes from the fifth- and fourth-century plays;
the precinct of Dionysus from that of Asclepius. (3) inferences from the form of the later stone skene.
Toward the north a wide ancient pathway, leading All three sources must be used with caution:
along the south slope of the Acropolis, was probably ( 1 ) The extant plays, with the exception of the
the uppermost boundary of the theatron in the feeble Rhesus and the weak works of Aristophanes'
fifth, century. Later it became a diazoma, girdle or belong to the fifth century. Every drama
late period,
rounded passage separating the third from the sec- can be staged in the most diverse ways. The condi-
ond gallery. The third gallery was probably added tions for the diverse plays are manifold. In many
between this road and the steep cliff above, when cases no background building whatever was needed
this, containing a grotto, was cut back and became as in the earlier dramas of Aeschylus, or in the
the so-called katatome or cutting, later adorned by Oedipus Coloneus, the work of Sophocles' old age,
 V . THE CLASSICAL THEATER BUILDING

Fig. 251. Theater of Dionysus, Athens

when only a sacred grove was to be indicated. Often Athena in Athens. The Iphigenia in Tauris needs
only one building was used, for example, a temple the temple of Artemis and the dwelling of the
in the Ion of Euripides; a palace in the Agamemnon priestess Iphigenia. The Clouds of Aristophanes
and Choephoroe of Aeschylus, in the Antigone
in the needs the houses of Strepsiades and of Socrates.
and in Oedipus the King of Sophocles, and in the Moreover, some plays need three buildings. Thus
Medea and the Antigone of Euripides, as evidenced Aristophanes' Acharnians has the houses of Dicae-
by vase paintings (see above, Ch. II, Figs. 117, 121, opolis, of Euripides, and of Lamachus; his Frogs
122a); a tent in the Ajax of Sophocles and in the needs the house of Heracles, the tavern and the
Trojan Women of Euripides; a cave in both the palace of Pluto (see Fig. 221).
Philoctetes of Sophocles and of Euripides (cf. Fig.
119), and in the Birds of Aristophanes. In all these
cases a simple skene with the prothyron set up
before the central door and on podium T (Figs. 233
and 236) shape of a temple facade (Figs.
in the
240, 241 ) a columned porch, a tent, or a cave would
suffice. Dorpfeld has reconstructed, with the help of
numerous vase paintings, theater palaces of this
kind (Fig. 239).^
The extant tragedies and comedies, however, also
show a series of cases in which two buildings were
necessary. Thus Aeschylus' Eumenides needs the
temple of Apollo in Delphi and the temple of Fig. 252. Return of Hephaestus. Vase, Bologna

65
V . THE CLASSICAL THEATER BUILDING

(2) Many vases show one palace or one temple This vase, however, and many other vases with
or one cave (see Ch. II, Figs. 115-122); a few others undoubted stage buildings, belong to the fourth
have two side buildings, like the Campanian vase century, while most of our plays belong to the fifth
with Iphigenia and Orestes in Tauris, well inter- century. We must, therefore, ask how far the vase
preted by Lehmann-Hartleben (Fig. 253). 2S It rep- paintings may be taken as evidence not only for
resents the scene from Euripides' Iphigenia in their own age, the fourth century, but possibly also
Tauris (w. 936ff. ), in which brother and sister are for an earlier time. We also must remember that
consulting about the theft of the image of Artemis the vases often give only the illustration of the
and their flight. Orestes and Pylades stand on the subject matter of the drama, and in many cases
level of the orchestra, indicated as soil, in front of prefer scenes which are only narrated by a mes-
the dark wall of the skene, which represents a house senger and not played. 29 We
can therefore come to
with a tiled roof. To the left is the temple of a tenable conclusion only when the vases agree not
Artemis, marked by the image of the goddess which —
only lil^e the Iphigenia vase (Fig. 253) —
with the
has been painted as if standing outside; to the right extant plays but also with the stone skene which was
the priestess' dwelling, from which Iphigenia steps. developed from the temporary wooden skene.

Fig. 254. Actual remains of stage building, orchestra, and analemmata. Theater of Dionysus, Athens
 0l-t> TEMPLE

Figs. 255, 256. Plans of theaters of Pericles and of Lycurgus; Fiechter

(3) The earliest stone skene, of which remains became the southern wall of the stone skene (Figs.
have been preserved, is that of the Athenian theater 254-256). 30 The great rectangular base of stone (T),
of Dionysus Eleuthereus. It went, however, through which had been used for front decorations in the
numerous changes and developments. The breccia fifth century was now in the interior of the skene,

foundations for a skene with side wings, paraskenia and may have been used for mechanical devices,
( Tra/oao-KT/wa )
, were built before the wall H, which perhaps the crane of the flying machine (see Ch.
had served as a background for the temporary play- VI, Figs. 281-283). The holes for posts along the
houses and as a northern wall of the stoa. It thus former front wall, now the interior back wall, may
have been used for the occasional erection of an
episkenion, a building on the roof, or of a distegia,
an upper story. 31 Dressing rooms for the actors and
the chorus were attached at the sides, and from
these staircases led to the upper level. The rectangu-
lar rooms, projecting in front on both sides, facing
the corner between the parodos and the passage
around the orchestra, seem to have been correctly
named paraskenia, side buildings of the skene. 32
Fig. 257. Plan of Lycurgean skene; Dorpfeld and Frickenhaus
They are for the first time mentioned by Demos-

Fig. 258. Plan of orchestra and skene, Theater

of Dionysus; Dinsmoor

67
V. THE CLASSICAL THEATER BUILDING
T'
ji
Hill Ml
&> 1 1 . .
z mf B
I I t-n m 1 B EE i \ i.i n i
m$m -
i

Fig. 262. Breccia foundation for the stone skene

the paraskenia were lower than the skene between

them. 36 Their strong substructures, however, suggest
an original height equal to that of the main building.
Therefore, Fiechter reconstructed the skene with
two-storied paraskenia (Fig. 261). 37 This view is
supported by a third-century inscription in Delos,
which mentions lower paraskenia. This indicates
paraskenia having two stories. 38 It seems to me,
however, that as long as the skene was erected in
wood and with the scenery painted on canvas it had
usually only one story, which served as a back-
ground to the plays, as is to be seen on the Iphigenia
vase. This vase corresponds not only to the recogniz-
able outline of the earliest stone skene in Athens
(Fig. 262) but also to the earliest foundations for
the skene buildings in Eretria (Figs. 263-265), 39 in
Syracuse (Fig. 595), 40 in Segesta with very strong
substructures for the paraskenia (below, Ch. XIII,
Figs. 596-598), 41 in Tyndaris and in (Fig. 599), 42
Pompeii ( Figs. 607, A
proved by the
in 608 ) .
43
It is
Figs. 259, 260. Ground plan and structure of the Lycurgean Iphigenia vase in Paris (Fig. 253) that plays were
theater; Mahr
acted in the fourth century not on a proskenion, a
stage between the paraskenia, but in front of the
thenes (Oration against Meidias, xxi,17). Dorpfeld, skene and between the paraskenia on the ground
followed by Dinsmoor and Mahr, assumed that they A stage was not erected in the
floor in the orchestra.
were colonnaded in front and at the sides ( Figs. 257- same place before Hellenistic and Roman times.
259). 33 Fiechter thought first that they were closed The picture of a wooden paraskenion-theater with
at the sides and colonnaded in front (Fig. 256). 34 slender columns, rich entablature, and acroteria is
He, as well as Bulle and Mahr, give interesting re- depicted on a fragment found in Tarentum and now
constructions, but with too heavy side wings (Figs. in Wiirzburg (Figs. 266a-b). 44
260-261 ) Lehmann-Hartleben and Bulle believe
. May we now accept this form of the skene with
that the front and side walls of the paraskenia were side wings and of the plays represented on vases of
closed and perhaps broken only by doors, as they the fourth century for the presentations in the fifth
appear on the Iphigenia vase ( Fig. 253 ) 35 Fricken-
. century? I think we may, at least for the period after
haus and Fiechter in their reconstructions of the 458 when Aeschylus produced the Oresteia. The
scene building of the fourth century assume that drawings of the earlier Athenian stage buildings
made by Fiechter and Mahr without the knowledge
of the vases (Figs. 253, 266), and based on the re-
quirements of the plays, have the projecting para-
skenia (Figs. 255-256, 260-261 ). 4r The requirements '

of a play of the fifth century and those of the fourth

century, when the first stone skene was laid out and
finished under Lycurgus, did not differ from each
other, since the development of tragedy and of Old
Comedy came to a standstill about 400 b.c. We may
suppose that the stone skene was designed and
executed in a form which had repeatedly proved
itself, during the fifth century, practical and useful
Fig. 261. Reconstruction of the paraskenion theater; Fiechter
 Fig. 266. Wooden skene. Vase, Wiirzburg;
reconstruction, Bulle

for a number of performances. The skene of the

classical period thus advanced steadily from south
to north in the direction of the slope of the Acrop-
olis, that is, in the direction of the auditorium.
Even when three buildings were necessary, the
playhouse with two paraskenia and the orchestra
between could fulfill all conditions of the raise en
scene by using the buildings one after the other like
the simultaneous stage of the Middle Ages. In the
precinct of Dionysus Eleuthereus there^was space
for acting in the orchestra of about 20 meters or
65 feet in breadth and depth, extensive enough to
exclude from consciousness for the moment the part
of the skene not in use. Besides, one of the para-
skenia or the middle part of the skene could easily
be hidden temporarily by planks or by curtains. 40
The paraskenia have their origin in the fact that
Euripides and Aristophanes needed more possibili-
ties for entrances than their predecessors.
Even in smaller theaters, like the Lenaean theater
situated in the sanctuary of Dionysus in Limnais
(in the swamps), a similar wooden background
Figs. 263-265. Eretria, oldest stone building,
reconstructed plans and buildings; Fiechter building could be erected. Here the frogs, the
V. THE CLASSICAL THEATER BUILDING

animals which live in the marshes, were one of the great poets of the fifth century near the entrance
two choruses in the comedy by Aristophanes, pro- (see Ch. II, Figs. 64, 101, 102, 107, 108).
duced in 405 b.c. My attempt to show the entrances The auditorium was truly democratically con-
of the actors and the two choruses ( Fig. 221 is ) ceived, with provision for equally good places every-
based on the investigations of Anti. 47 A street leading where; at the same time it was practically arranged
from the market place to the Acropolis separated the for the purpose of easy filling and emptying. The
theater from the sanctuary with temple and altar, public entered through the parodoi between the
(see above Figs. 216-217). Dionysus and Xanthias skene and the retaining wall of the auditorium and
riding on a donkey probably entered at the begin- then entered a passageway behind the water channel
ning of the play from this street through a straight which separates the orchestra from the theatron.
parodos into the square orchestra. They first came This channel and the passageway form a half circle
to the house of Heracles, probably laid into the left with straight continuations opposite the paraskenia
paraskenion, for Dionysus as a foreigner enters from (Figs. 255-256, 258-259). 49 The same U, or horse-
the left. Then Charon and the chorus of frogs enter shoe, form is given to the thirteen wedge-shaped
from the right, as they are at home in the region. I sectors (kerkides, cunei) in which the seats rise
believe that the frogs drew and shoved the boat of stairwise. The lowest gallery is carried out with
Charon, which is a kind of parody on the Thespis absolute regularity. Twelve staircases lead the spec-
car (see above, Figs. 56-58). The assumption that tators to their sections. The seats are delicate in
they sang behind the scene takes the humor out of outline ( Fig. 251 ) Each
. has a hollow which allows
their duet with the god, whom they surround while plenty of room for the feet. The seats are so low
he is rowing in the boat. 48 When Charon has let as to imply the need of cushions. The second gallery
Dionysus out near the palace of Pluto, imaginary was probably separated from the first by a rounded
monsters send the god of the festival fleeing to his passageway (diazoma, girdle). It did not have a
priest, who certainly here, as in the large theater, full and even horseshoe form, as it was narrowed
sat in the center of the front row. The chorus of the in the east by the odeum of Pericles, in the west by
initiates of the mysteries comes from the right. The the sanctuary of Asclepius (Fig. 258). The highest
second paraskenion was probably the tavern out gallery above the ancient path became part of the
of which the hostess steps, to threaten Dionysus theater only in the period of Lycurgus or later.
whom she believes to be Heracles. Then the maid There was room for only a narrow segment between
comes out of one of the side doors of the palace, this road and the cliff, which was cut back, the
represented in the main building, and invites Xan- so-called katatome or cutting, which exposed a
thias, who has been dressed as Heracles, to a meal. grotto with a spring, now dedicated to the Virgin
Then Aeacus comes out of the other side door and Mary under the name of Panagia Spiliotissa. Thrasyl-
beats both, until he takes them into the palace. In lus erected his monument here in 319 B.C., and his
the last scene Pluto, Dionysus, Aeschylus, and Eurip- son Thrasycles added as his victory monument in
ides come out of the main door in the center of the 270 b.c. a statue of Dionysus, now in the British
palace for the celebrated literary contest in the Museum. 50
orchestra. Finally Dionysus goes out with Aeschylus In the front row are the seats of honor for the
through the left parodos, the chorus goes out priestsand officials of the city. Originally benches,
through the right parodos, while Pluto and Eurip- they were later replaced by individual thrones. Ex-
ides re-enter the palace. actly in the center of the middle section there
While the auditorium in the small Lenaean thea- remains today the chair of honor for the priest of
ter consisted only of straight wooden benches, and the Lord of the play, Dionysus Eleuthereus, the
the skene always remained a temporary building, Liberator. Before it stood a footstool. Holes in the
the theatron in the theater of Dionysus Eleuthereus ground prove this seat to have been distinguished
and its skene were finished in stone in 338-326 B.C. by a canopy. On the back of the throne are carved
by the orator Lycurgus. The hall opened now with a satyrs and a vine; on the front Arimaspeans and
colonnade to the south into the sacred precinct. It griffins. At the side, a winged boy, Agon, the per-

became a kind of foyer for the visitors during the sonification of the contest, represented with fight-
is
ri
intermissions and a refuge in case of rain. These ing cocks (Figs. 267-269 ). This throne seems to
colonnades remained a regular extension and orna- date from the first century B.C., but it is imitated
ment to the rear of the Greek and Roman theaters from classical models, perhaps one of them the older
(cf. Ephesus, Ch. IX, Fig. 448; Theater of Pompey Lycurgean throne. We
may assume that a still older
and Marcellus theater, Ch. XIII, Figs. 632, 640; throne was put up here as well as in the Lenaean
Ostia, Ch. XIV, Fig. 647; Merida, Fig. 684; Sabratha, precinct. In front of a similar throne must have been
Fig. 694). Lycurgus probably erected statues of the played the gay scene in the Frogs of Aristophanes
 (
Fig. 270. Greek theater tickets

(vv. 297ff. ), in which Dionysus takes refuge with

his priest from the supposed terrors of the under-

world (see Fig. 221).
It is likely that the central section behind the seat
of the priest of Dionysuswas reserved for guests of
honor, while the five sections on both sides of it
may have been assigned to the ten Attic tribes,
which contested with the ten dithyrambs. The two
outermost sections on each side may have been
reserved for foreigners and late-comers. A woman
in the Fragment (41K) of a comedy by Alexis of
Thurioi complains that she had to sit in the outer-
most wedge like a foreigner, when she wanted to see
the spectacles. A theater ticket has the name of the
tribe Erechtheus/'- These tickets are of bronze or
lead, decorated with heads of Athena and other
symbols, and often have letters according to the
wedge in which the holder of the ticket was to sit
(Fig. 270). 53 There is one letter for the first; there
are two letters, one on each side, for the second; and
two on each side for the third gallery. The latter are
rare, as there were only ten short wedges, while the
second gallery had fourteen full sections plus sev-
eral outside sections curtailed by other structures,
and the first gallery thirteen full-length sections.
The ideal form would be such that each upper gal-
lery would have twice as many wedges as the
lower one.
This is the case in the theater of Epidaurus, which
even in antiquity was considered to be the most
harmonious and beautiful of all (Figs. 271-274). 54

Figs. 267-269. Throne of priest of Dionysus

Fig. 271. Theater of Epidaurus. Plan

71
V. THE CLASSICAL THEATER BUILDING

Fig. 272. Epidaurus, general view

Pausanias (n,27,5) attributes this building to the form the water channel. The two outermost wedges
architect Polycleitus. To his theater belongs the of the auditorium are at the outer half of the pas-
symmetrically-rounded auditorium with twelve sec- sageway and are designed with a somewhat greater
tions and thirteen radiating staircases in the first radius, so that they are not parallel to the curve of
gallery, twenty-two sections with twenty-three stair- the orchestra circle. By this means the rows of
cases in the second gallery. The orchestra is clearly seats in the outermost wedges are removed some-
marked as a complete circle by a limestone threshold what from the edge of the orchestra, and the pas-
laid around it. Its center is designated by a circular —
sage widens out a very important factor for the
stone, probably the setting of a small altar. The rapid emptying of the theater through the parodoi.
passageway between the orchestra and the audi- Yet these outer sections are still turned to the or-
torium is deepened in its inner half TA inches to chestra, not to the skene, since they were con-
structed only for plays acted in the orchestra. The
first row of seats around the orchestra and above the
Fig. 273. Theater of Epidaurus rounded passageway between the two galleries are
the seats of honor. The earliest skene touched only
the tangent of the circle formed by the lowest row
of seats in the first gallery. Thus the early skene of
Polycleitus served as no more than a background
for the play. The foundations for the side rooms, the
paraskenia, were later made into ramps for the Hel-
lenistic proskenion. The fine doorways (Fig. 275)
which loosely connect the corners of the skene with
the retaining walls (the analemmata) of the audi-
torium may also belong to the fourth-century build-
ing.
Fig. 274. Epidaurus, orchestra and auditorium

The theater of Epidaurus shows in every respect The main periods

classical theater thus has four
the perfection of the architectural and dramatic of development. ( In the time of Pisistratus and
1 )

Every seat had an equally

ideas of the classical age. his sons an orchestra was built in the Agora, a
good view of the performance going on in the or- temple and an altar in the sacred precinct of Diony-
chestra. It is a truly democratic theater with equal sus. (2) In the time of Aeschylus and the early
accommodation for every visitor. period of Sophocles an orchestra, wooden seats, and
temporary decorations were erected in this pre-
cinct. Pericles built theodeum and the sustaining
wall around the auditorium. (3) In the time of the
peace of Nicias, during the Peloponnesian war, a
stone hall and provision for a wooden paraskenion
theater were erected. (4) In the laterTourth cen-
tury Lycurgus built the stone theatron and a stone
paraskenion theater in Athens and Polycleitus the
same in Epidaurus. With them the theatron
achieved its final perfection. The scene building, on
the other hand, found its first typical form only in
the late classical period, while its development be-
longs to the Hellenistic period (see Ch. IX). The
three component elements of the Greek theater:
orchestra, skene, and theatron did not form a single
architectural unit.
The most important thing to bear in mind when
reading Greek plays is that in the classical age there
was no such thing as a raised stage.
Fig. 275. Epidaurus, Parodos Gate

73
 CHAPTER VI

SCENERY AND MECHANICAL DEVICES

Detailed literary accounts of stage settings and skeleton framework which was covered with mov-
scenery in the ancient theater are given by Vitruvius able scenery. Such coulisses are said to have been
( De
Architecture!, v,6,8-9 ) and by Pollux ( Onomas- invented by Phormis or Phormus of Syracuse in the
ticon, iv,123-132). The latter writes, in addition, on period of Gelo (485-478). These screens were,
the machinery of the theater. Since Vitruvius lived however, only skins, scraped, dried, and tinted red,
in the time of Julius Caesar and the emperor thus a kind of parchment without pictures. 4 Pinakes,
Augustus and had published his book on architec- panels jor tablets or canvasses in wooden frames,
ture about 16-13 B.C., while Pollux belongs to the painted according to the requirements of the plays,
period of the Emperor Commodus (a.d. 180-192), are first mentioned for Aeschylus. They were
who made him teacher of rhetoric in Athens, there painted by Agatharchus (Vitruvius, vn, praef. 11),
is the question as to how much of each account and the research into perspective by Democritus
refers to its own period and how much goes back and Anaxagoras was based on them. 5 The invention
to the classical Greek period. The early Roman of scene-painting, skenographia, is credited to
theater of the time of Vitruvius differed, of course, Sophocles (see Ch. II, p. 29). We may conceive
from the theater known to Pollux some two hundred of this scenery, on the evidence of the painting and
years later. But both authors use earlier sources, and drawing of the time, as being quite simple and
where both agree, they may refer to the classical showing no more than just the beginning of perspec-
theater. This is particularly true for such devices tive and illusion. Nevertheless, it was of great im-
when referred to also in extant plays of the fifth portance for the development of perspective, for
century, or when their description agrees with clas- skenographia ((TKrjvoypa(pia) became identical with
sical buildings, vase paintings, or some of the scanty perspective. The backdrops or screens are called
remains in the theaters themselves. I, therefore, have katablemata ( KarafiX^aTa
,
throw-overs, wrappers,
less doubt that these accounts may be traced back by Pollux (iv,131). As they could be thrown over
to the classical period than most of the authors who the more permanent frame very quickly, the change
have used Vitruvius and Pollux for the problems of decoration which had to take place in the rela-
regarding the decoration in the classical theater. 1 tively short intermissions between the four plays
Both authors speak of one main and two side on each festival day could be easily accomplished. 6
doors (Pollux, iv,124; Vitruvius, v,6,8). 2 This is the Vitruvius distinguishes among tragic, comic, and
largest number which can be inferred from the satyric settings according to the three forms of
plays (see above, Ch. V, p. 66) and these, when dramatic plays.
the permanent skene had been put up in stone, Sometimes the whole setting may have been
proved to be the most generally useful. The middle painted on one large screen and placed before the
door, representing the most distinguished and im- wall of the skene. This was the scaena ductilis
portant building, was, of course, always richly (Vitruvius, v,6,8), perhaps called proskenion (
decorated. The fact that the Periclean age is the K-qvLov) in the classical period. Antiphon (in Athen-

time of a climax in art leads us to believe that the aeus, xiu,587b) compares the courtesan Nannion
settings in this period must have had artistic value. with a proskenion because she had a lovely face,
Anti may be right when he uses the palace of Larissa much gold and expensive clothing, but when naked
on the Orontes for his reconstruction of the skene she was unusually ugly. In this case only a coulisse
in Syracuse. 3 For a temple, Euripides in his Ion (vv. or movable screen, a scaena ductilis, can be intended,
184-218) gives an excellent description of the temple which, when drawn away, left the bare skeleton
of Apollo at Delphi. It is, of course, always a ques- wall in view. 7 The reconstruction of the palace of
tion whether objects described by a poet were left Larissa may give an idea of such a painted scaena
to the imagination of the audience or also set before ductilis. 8 Several movable painted screens could
their eyes. be put up one behind the other, so that when the
The background decoration was not set up as front one was pulled away, the one immediately
substantial architecture before the time of Lycurgus behind appeared. This simple procedure might
(see above, Ch. V, p. 60). Until then it consisted well go back to an earlier period. It is testified for
of a temporary structure leaning against the front the fourth century in the theater of Megalopolis
wall of the stoa. A wooden structure served as a (Fig. 276). 9 This theater of three tiers of regular
shape, for about 21,000 spectators, is the largest
theater on the Greek mainland. It has tracks coming
out of a storeroom at the side, not only for one
scaena ductilis, but for a whole wooden scene build-
ing which could be rolled out and in on wheels.
The katablemata could also be attached to the
wine settings of the skene. These side scenes were
called periaktoi (-TrtplaKToi) and, like the scaena
"
ductilis, certainly belong to the classical period.
1

Vitruvius (v,6,8), and Pollux (iv,126f, 130f) de-

scribe them as prisms, differently decorated on each
of the three sides. Turning them indicated a change
of scene. To indicate a different locality in the same
town, it became a convention to turn only the right
periaktos; to change the entire scene of the play,
both were turned. The side entrances of the theater,
the parodoi, which were near, either beside or in
front of the periaktoi (see Fig. 281), had the same
sort of symbolical significance. At the right or
western one, the characters entered as if coming
from the city or harbor; from the left or eastern one,
11
as if coming from the country.
No indubitable architectural trace of these per-
iaktoi is actually found until the Hellenistic period.
In the theater of Elis, at each of the points where
we should expect the periaktoi, there is indeed a
stone with a hole in the middle for a beam (Fig.
Fig. 276. Megalopolis; Plan with skenotheke for scaena ductillis
277). 12 In Pergamon, where contrivances for a
wooden scene building were retained during the "
1 jO, r\o
Hellenistic period on account of local conditions
(see Ch. V, pp. 62f., Figs. 243-247), 13 there are a
BilL '^j" oa 1
similar holes for timbers arranged diagonally to the i m ^ m
side. The periaktoi must have revolved around such
beams, which were firmly fixed. Two large stones Fig. 277. Elis, plan of stage building with periaktoi
with a rounded hole for the inserting and turning
of a pole, found in the theater of Dionysus in
Athens, may be contrivances for periaktoi (Figs.
278-279). 14 A mental picture of these periaktoi may
be reconstructed with the help of the Renaissance
Telari stage (Ch. XVI, Fig. 840). 15 If the scenery
of the three consecutive tragedies and of the satyr
play were different, or even if a change of scene was
required during a single drama, these side wings
could be turned conveniently and quickly in the
intervals between, and even during, the plays, since
they were attached to revolving prisms. If more than
three changes were required, as at the time of the
Peloponnesian war, when a comedy also was pro-
duced in the same series, the pictures on the back
face of the periaktoi could be changed without
difficulty before the fourth alteration of the scene
of the action. This seems to me so simple an arrange-
ment and so suitable for an open-air theater, that I
see no difficulty in placing its origin in the classical
period. Figs. 278, 279. Stone sockets for poles

75
VI. SCENERY AND MECHANICAL DEVICES

Evidence for the use of the flying machine in the

fifth century given in the parodies of Aristoph-
b.c. is
anes' Peace (performed 421 b.c), and Thesmo-
phoriazousae (411 b.c.). 18 Trygaios in the Peace
(vv. 174ff. ) flies to heaven on a dung-beetle and
appeals to the scene shifter or mechanician not to
let him fall. Euripides appears on the flying ma-
Fig. 280a-b. Possible forms of the eccyclema; Mahr
chine in the Thesmophoriazonsae (w. 1098ff ) to .

No device is better attested as belonging to the free his father-in-law or brother-in-law, who is held
fifth century than the eccyclema (iKKVK\i]/xa) the , prisoner by the women. The first passage is a parody
rolling machine, or movable platform; and none is of Euripides' Bellerophon, the second of Perseus in
more important for the mise en scene of Euripides' Euripides' Andromeda. Both these heroes are men-
tragedies (Figs. 280a-b). 10 It is described in detail tioned in Pollux (iv,128) as using the flying ma-
by Pollux (iv,128). According to the parodies of it chine, a proof that this and some others of the
in Aristophanes' Achamians (vv. 395ff. ), where mechanical contrivances named by Pollux may ac-
Euripides himself is rolled out of his house, and the tually be ascribed to the fifth century. The extensive
Thcsmophoriazousai (vv. 95f. and 265), where use of the flying machine is testified by the comic
Euripides induces the poet Agathon to be rolled poet Antiphanes (Fragment 191, 13-16 K), who
out, it was a favorite device of Euripides for reveal- says that the tragic poets lift up a machine as
ing an interior scene. It also could be used to show readily as theylift a finger, when they haven't any-

the results of actions in the interior of the house, thing more to say.
when murdered people were wheeled out. It was, Euripides certainly made ample use of the flying
like the turning of the periaktoi, an expedient for the machine for his deus ex machina (fleos a-n-6 /xr;xai'^)
open-air theater. Since, owing to the tiered seats of who often appeared over the scene building at the
the auditorium, a realistic picture of an indoor close of the play. He seems to have used the flying
scene under a roof could not be given, it was neces- machine first in the Medea (produced 431 b.c),
sary to resort to makeshifts. For instance, a throne which gave him an effective exodus for his heroine.
on which a person sat, or a couch on which one lay, Then he used the flying machine for the deus ex
like Phaedra in Euripides' Hippolytus (see Fig. machina probably for the first time in the Hippoly-
281), was pushed or wheeled out on a podium and tus (performed 428 b.c), and here he has even two
then represented the interior of a palace. The plat- appearances, Aphrodite in the beginning and Ar-
form was circular or probably mostly semicircular, temis at the end (Figs. 281-282). 19 I think it pos-
and perhaps sometimes square. It may well have sible that the large base T, used originally for en-
been manipulated by moving on a pivot in some- trance porches (see above, Figs. 238-239), but later
what the same way as the modern revolving stage, inside the wooden scene building (see Figs. 254-
of which the eccyclema is a modest forerunner. In 259), could be used as a base for the crane which
any case, the doors opened as the setting was lifted the goddesses and deposited them on the roof,
wheeled out, and closed as it disappeared again. either of the palace, sometimes called theologeion,
For this purpose flat screens which could be shifted or of their shrines. These shrines were probably the
to the side, in otherwords, the scaena ductilis in paraskenia, the side-buildings, opening up with
combination with the eccyclema, would have been columns, which were lower than the main skene.
particularly useful. 17 The shrine of Artemis must have been to the left, as
Figs. 281, 282. Plan and sections of scenery and machinery for Euripides' Hippolytus, according to Bieber

FLYING MACHINE
Base op cr*n(

PALACE
Pha«d>a^__N urst
outxius E/t CYCL EAl A

PALACE Deus MatKina PA LACE.

SHRINE
of
ARTEMIS
couch or
PRA E DR A

BASE 01 BASE o

tP-ANC,

ON PARASKFNION B. OVER CENTRE OF ROi

Hippolytus coming with his huntsmen from the
country, through the left parodos, offers wreath and
praver to Artemis before going into the palace.
Probably there were painted periaktoi between the
shrines and the entrances of the parodoi, which had
the same significance as these. The left one may
have shown the countryside, in which Hippolytus
has been hunting and of which Phaedra raves; while
the right suggested the city from which the chorus,
living in town, enters. Euripides probably also used
die eccyclema in this play, for Phaedra lies on a
couch when first seen, probably pushed or wheeled
out by the nurse and a maid. The same couch may
have been used at the end of the play to carry the
body of Hippolytus indoors. Perhaps the scaena
ductilis was used at the same time to open the cen-
Fig. 283. Europa's son Sarpedon, carried through the air by
tral door, when the couch was moved through it.
Hypnos and Thanatos. Apulian vase, Metropolitan Museum
Euripides won one of his rare victories with the
Hippolytus, and it may be due partly to these many had already used the subject in his Kares or Europa.
innovations used here for the first time. They cer- The other side of the vase shows Thetis standing
tainly contributed to the new plan of a scene before Hephaestus, who is seated beside Aphrodite
building executed soon afterwards during the peace on a couch inside his workshop. The presence of
with Sparta under Nicias (Fig. 237). 20 Eros alluding to the infidelity of Aphrodite and the
An early Apulian vase in the Metropolitan Mu- pathetic gesture of the woman to the right, again
seum of Art in New York (Fig. 283), 21 may be a bring to mind a Euripidean drama, while the sub-
reminiscence of the impressive use of the flying ject had already been treated by Aeschylus in his
machine for carrying a body through the air. Here Nereids, the second play in his trilogy Myrmidons,
it is the body of Sarpedon whom Sleep (Hypnos) Nereids, and Phryges, also in the Redeeming of
and Death (Thanatos) have lifted from the battle Hector.
field and bring home to his mother Europa. Europa, While the base T might have been used for the
in the long-sleeved tragic robe and oriental cap, crane of the flying machine, tracks for a flying
such as Andromeda and Medea wear (see Figs. machine might have been preserved over the arched
110, 111b, 121, 122a), sits under a porch, surrounded passage in the scene house of Eretria (Figs. 284-
by younger children or servants who, like her, look 288). 22 Unfortunately, however, the marble blocks
up at the apparition. Perhaps this is a recollection containing these tracks have long since disappeared,
of the representation of an Euripidean drama, treat- and the architectural remains belong with the
ing the story of the death of Sarpedon. Aeschylus proskenion (logeion) to the Hellenistic age. In any

Fig. 284. Eretria, view of orchestra with Charonian staircase

 VI. SCENERY AND MECHANICAL DEVICES

situated farther back and on a much higher level,

but it is now destroyed. We, therefore, have no
proof that the arrangement was originally there. 23
We have, however, abundant evidence for phantoms
even in Aeschylus: the ghost of Darius in the
Persians and the ghost of Clytemnestra in the Eu-
menides, as well as the assertion in his Vita (§14)
and in Pollux ( iv,132 ) that he astonished his specta-
tors by magnificent fittings, paintings, mechanical
devices, and ghostly apparitions. 24 For the fourth
century we have the ghost of Aeetes in the post-
Euripidean tragedy Medea, as testified by the
Munich' vase (Fig. 289; cf. Fig. 121). The Charonian
staircase thus certainly goes back to a classical tra-
dition. The earlier ghosts may have appeared not in
the center but at the edge of the classical orchestra,
as seems to be indicated by the Medea vase. The
theater of Corinth had two Charonian staircases at
each end of the front of the Hellenistic proskenion,
with which they are contemporary (Fig. 728a-b). 25
Sometimes only the heads or the upper part of
persons emerged from the ground. 26
During all of the classical period the most diverse
architectural features had to be built of wood ac-
—
cording to the demands of the plays different walls,
turrets, and watch towers (see Figs. 240-242, 261).
The distegia ( oWrcyi'o. ) the upper story, is men-
,

tioned by Pollux (rv,129) as being used in Euripides'

Phoenicians (vv. 90ff. ), whence Antigone looks
down on the army. The houses in Aristophanes'
Ecclesiazousae (v. 698 and v. 961) also had upper
stories, from the windows of which the women look
down. 27

Figs. 285, 286. Eretria, plan of remains, and restoration; Figs. 287, 288. Eretria, plan and section of earlier and later
Fiechter theater; Flickinger

case the position of the grooves, above and in the

center, corresponds to the spot where, at the end of
Euripides' plays, the deus ex machina was bound to
appear. This speaking place for the gods (theolo-
geion, 8eo\oydov) may have been occasionally a high
platform built of wood, as for the Psychostasia, the
"Weighing of Souls" by Aeschylus mentioned by
Pollux (iv,130). The deus ex machina could, how-
ever, also appear over a side building ( see Fig. 282
for the Hippolytus).
An underground passage ending in a staircase
served, according to Pollux (iv,132), as Charonian
steps (Xapwvioi KAi'/xaKes ) a subterranean staircase
,

for ghostly apparitions. Such an arrangement was

discovered well preserved, but belonging with the
proskenion to the Hellenistic period, in the theater
of Eretria ( Figs. 284-288 ) . This passage starts at the
Hellenistic proskenion, continues underground, and
opens up in the center of the orchestra of the same
Hellenistic period. The fourth-century orchestra was

78
 VI. SCENERY AND MECHANICAL DEVICES

In addition to the backgrounds, side decorations,

and mechanical devices, a number of properties
such as tombs, statues of gods, hills, rocks and
altars,
cliffs were needed and were used even before the
erection of the wooden skene. They were sometimes
so large that there was room for the entire chorus on
or about them (Figs. 228-229). This, however, does
not mean, as Wilamowitz and Noack believed, that
there was constructed an Aeschylean permanent
"Chorpodium" or stage for the chorus. 2S The plays
of Aeschylus are so far from being conventionalized
in any way that I cannot conceive of stereotyped
arrangements for his theater. It is also not feasible
to assume typical forms for Sophocles, Euripides,
and Aristophanes. 29
Not until the drama after Euripides had received
an established form did the background and the
equipment with its manipulations become conven-
tional. The evolution of the scenery follows slowly
that of the background building, which itself fol-
lows only gradually the requirements of the plays.

Fig. 289. The Ghost of Aeetes.

From the Medea vase (Fig. 121)

79
 CHAPTER VII

THE EVOLUTION OF THE ART OF ACTING

The function of the actor was differentiated from dividuality of the professional actors in their plays. 3
that of the poet late in the history of the ancient Aeschylus first employed Kleandros and later Myn-
theater. Acting reached its peak among the Greeks niskos. Sophocles preferred Tlepolemos. The choice
in the fourth century B.C. and among the Romans in in the early period lay chiefly in the hands of the
the first century b.c. When Thespis, disguised as a poets. 4 The acting was done with free and expres-
god or a hero according to the role he had to play, sive gesticulations and movements of the whole
stepped forward to answer (vTroKpivta6at) the cho- body 5 (see Figs. 291-294).
rus, he became a hypocrite ( wro/c/omjs ) an an-
, In 449.b.c. the actor became independent of the
swerer, and thus created the first actor simultane- poet, and his choice, like that of the tragedies, de-
ously with the first tragedy around the middle of pended upon the state. The archon selected three
the sixth century. In the oldest cyclic lyrical chorus actors and apportioned them to the three poets.
for Dionysus, the dithyramb, the poet himself was Each of the chief actors or protagonists (7rpwTa-
the leader of the chorus, the exarchos (e$apxos). At ywno-Tat) engaged the two subordinate, supporting
the time of Bacchylides, in the early fifth century, actors under him, who later were called the second
the leader of the chorus, the coryphaeus ( Kopvcpalos ) and third agonists, contestants (
or the
)

still answered the questions of the chorus, for ex- deuteragonists ( Sevrepay wviaral ) and the tritagon-
ample, in the dithyramb concerned with the charac- ists ( lyuTay wtarai' ) In the fifth century each group
.

ter and deeds of the Attic national hero Theseus. 1 of three actors played for one poet; for example, in
Aeschylus, too, was his own chief actor, but he 418 b.c. Callippides acted in all three tragedies of
had to train a second actor, since he replaced the Callistratus, and Lysicrates in all three tragedies of
interchange of question and answer between actor another poet. 6 The three protagonists, however, be-
and chorus with a dialogue between two characters. came independent of the prize-winning tragedies
The old usage of a dialogue between chorus and and competed for their own prizes. This contest of
actor, however, lived on for a long time. In the actors was introduced in addition to the contest of
Suppliants and in the Persians of Aeschylus one poets in the year 449 b.c. at the festival of the great
actor addresses the chorus more frequently than he City Dionysia, and about 432 b.c. at the festival of
does the other actor. When an actor entered through the Lenaea for tragic actors, while it was introduced
the parodos he always met the chorus first, and for comic actors at the Lenaea in 442 b.c. Since the
7

thus, following the old habit, he addressed the allotment of good actors increased the chances of
chorus first. 2 Then the importance of the actor the poet and vice versa, this system was changed
steadily increased, after Sophocles had introduced in the fourth century. Each actor played in one
the third actor whom Aeschylus at once adopted. drama of each poet. Thereby the strength of the
Sophocles appeared in a few roles of his earlier actorwas spared, since it was certainly a great strain
plavs only in his youth, until about 460 b.c. Then a for thesame actor to hold the principal roles in three
complete separation of the activities of the poet and tragedies all on the same day on which he might
of the actor was achieved. The poets, beginning possibly appear in a satyr drama as well. It is not
with Sophocles, strove to have regard for the in- improbable, however, that in this last play he gave

Figs. 290-294. Tragic actors. Terracotta statuettes. 290, Heracles, from Amisus (Samsun), Louvre; 291, 292a-b, Youths in tragedy,
from Myrina, Vienna, and from Asia Minor, Athens; 293, 294; Messengers of tragedy, from Rheneia, Athens, and from (prob-
ably) Pergamon, Berlin
 VII. EVOLUTION OF THE ART OF ACTING

the more difficult roles to his supporting fellows. comedies, just as in the tragedies, the chorus held
The art of acting gained variety through this as- a place of importance, and probably held it for a
signment of the great actors to the several repre- longer time. The members of the chorus, however,
sentations. We know for example, that in the year were not looked upon as actors, cither in the
341, at theLenaean festival, three noted actors comedies or in the tragedies, since they were citizens
played for Astydamas: Thettalus acted in Achilles, supplied by the tribes, costumed according to the
the first tragedy; Neoptolemus in Athamas, the sec- needs of the play. They were paid by the choregus
ond; and Athenodorus in Antigone, the third drama. and coached by the chorus trainer. Not until 486
These same actors had parts in the three plays of the B.C. did the state concern itself with comedy. A
two other dramatists. 8 Neoptolemus was the victor contest between the comic actors at the Lenaea
in 341, Thettalus in 340 b.c. occurred perhaps for the time about 442, and
first

The protagonist probably dealt out the different certainly was in existence after about 422, but at
roles in collaboration with the trainer of the chorus the festival of the great City Dionysia it did not
(chorodidaskalos, x°P°^"LiTKa ^ 0 ) wri ° was
'
; >
m occur until after about 325 b.c. 13 After this time the
earlier times the poet himself. While the number of number of comic actors decreased, though pre-
actors was limited to three, the ever-increasing num- viously their number had usually been greater than
ber of characters must have made the assignments in the tragedies. In the Lysistrata (vv. 78ff), four
of the roles difficult. Sometimes they could not be speaking actors are needed on the scene of action
made satisfactorily, and the state or the choregus at the same time. Since single comedies, and not
had to add at their own expense a fourth actor to the trilogies, were presented, it was easier to find actors
three regularly furnished by the state. This fourth for comedy than for tragedy.
actor was a supernumerary ( parachoregema, irapa- The religious, impersonal costume enveloping the
xopr'jyrjixa).
9
Sometimes the latter had a speaking entire figure was a hindrance to the unfolding of
part, sometimes he sang, but more often he played the personality in tragedy even more than in com-
only a mute role. Children were also sometimes edy. Facial expression, especially, was hidden by
necessary, as for example in Euripides, Astyanax in the mask. Since the representational art of the fifth
The Trojan Women and the children of Alcestis, the century, however, with few exceptions the pedi- —
daughters of Oedipus the King in Sophocles, and ment figures from the temple of Zeus in Olympia,
the children of Trygaios in Aristophanes' Peace. 10 the wall paintings by Polygnotus, and the vase by
Animals were also sometimes necessary, such as the —
Pistoxenus did not express feelings and passions
horses drawing the car which brings in Agamemnon by the play of the features, but rather through the
in Aeschylus'Agamemnon or the donkey on which posture and movements of the whole body, we may
Xanthias rides in Aristophanes' Frogs. Often the conclude that the art of acting in the fifth and in
same role had to be enacted by several actors. In the following centuries also laid the greatest em-
such cases the costume, enveloping the whole phasis on these methods. In addition, the actor had
figure, was of great assistance in concealing the not only to master the art of speaking, but he had
change of actor. 11 to be able to declaim and sing to music. Singing and
Since comedy was played at first voluntarily by reciting were accompanied by the flute. The lyre was
number of actors in the
nonprofessional actors, the reserved for special odes or solos, as when Sophocles
beginning was in no way limited. Here, too, the sang the role of Thamyras (see above, Fig. 104).
dramatist was at the same time an actor; for ex- Aeschylus and Euripides in the Frogs of Aristoph-
ample, the comedian Crates, when a young man, anes also sang to the lyre. Clearness of voice and
played in a production of Cratinus. 12 In the older correct enunciation were more important than a

Figs. 295-299. Comic Actors. Terracotta statuettes (295, bronze). 296, excited; 297, running; 298, angry; 299, running
 VII. EVOLUTION OF THE ART OF ACTING

Fig. 300a-b. Actors of tragedy, studying their masks. Wall painting, Naples; Marble relief, Vienna

strong voice, as the splendid acoustics in the Greek Naples (Fig. 300a), in the relief from Athens in
theater let spoken word and song reach the upper- Lyme Park, Stockport, dated ca. 380 b.c. (Fig. 201),
most rows. Usually each actor had to play more and in reliefs in Vienna (Fig. 300b) and Naples. 17
than one part, especially if he was a second or third The mask (Fig. 301), 17a being the most important
actor, since all plays had a largernumber of drama- part of the actor's costume, was dedicated in sanctu-
18
tis personae than the number of actors available. aries of Dionysus (Fig. 302). The onlooker of the
The actor, therefore, had to adapt and change to fifth century B.C. certainly saw only the images cre-
the personality and mood of the different characters ated by the dramatists, the personalities of the heroes,
which he represented, not only his mask, costume and not the tragic actors presenting their roles. A
and movements, but also his voice, to suit the dif- good example of a tragic mask copied probably
ferent male and female roles. Occasionally he had from the fifth-century type is the mask of a bearded
even to dance or rave in ecstasy or madness, for ex- hero in the hand of a muse at Mantua, which is
ample, Agave in Euripides' Bacchae and Heracles copied from a late fifth-century type (Figs. 303-
in his Madness of Heracles (Figs. 114 and 479). 304). 19 The tragic masks remained dignified in the
Voice and gesture had to fit the size of the theater. fourth century and even in the Hellenistic times, as
One can expect strong and simple motions in can be seen from the mask of Heracles held by the
tragedy (Figs. 290-294) 14 and lively exaggerated muse Melpomene in the Vatican (Fig. 305).
20
The
motions in comedy (Figs. 295-299). 15 Running and
violent gesticulation with the arm are the rule. 16 Fig. 302. Actor of tragedy. Wall painting, Naples
The mask facilitated the submergence of the in-
dividual personality of the actor in that of the
character represented. The actors are sometimes
represented studying the mask, which had to ex-
press the outstanding features of the personality
represented. This may be seen in a wall painting in

Fig. 301. Colossal tragic mask,

found in the Piraeus.
Bronze, Hellenistic, found
in a warehouse probably
burnt during Sulla's
attack of 86 B.C.

82
 VII. EVOLUTION OF THE ART OF ACTING
actors appeared even through the mask. Famed
actors were held in the highest honor. They were
granted privileges and were even selected for diplo-
matic embassies. They received the help and pro-
tection of sovereigns and leading personalities of
states, just as the poets in other periods received
them. Aristodemus, for example, was invited to the
court of Philip of Macedon, and Thettalus to the
court of Alexander the Great; and they were sent on
important political missions. 24
Of course, only highly distinguished actors of the
first rank were treated with such honor. The medi-

ocre actor, such as the rhetor Aeschines had been in

his youth, was a laughing stock and, as was common
in all ages, his morals were under suspicion ( Demos-
thenes, De Corona, 262). 25 Only a few attained real
fame and received high salaries, after they had won
in one of the prize contests, which are recorded on
inscriptions along with the victories of the poets. It
was probably through the influence of prominent
Figs. 303, 305. Muse of Tragedy. Mantua; Vatican

im
Fig. 304. Mask of 303 Fig. 306a-b. Actor holding tragic mask. Vase fragment from Tarentum, Wiirzburg

mask on the fragment of a crater found in Tarentum leading actors that performances of the old tragedies
and now in Wiirzburg, held by an actor garbed in of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, which
a short chiton, is that of a strong and handsome offered opportunities for effective characterization,
hero in the prime of life, with blond hair and beard took a definite place beside the new tragedies in the
(Fig. 306a-b). 21 The mask in the hand of an actor annual program of the festival of the great City
on a relief in Copenhagen is that of a young and Dionysia. Euripides was particularly popular. 26
serious woman. 22 Neoptolemus revived and acted in the Iphigenia in
In the fourth century the high level of dramatic Tauris of Euripides in 341, and in the Orestes of the
writing was slowly lowered to be succeeded by the same poet in 340 b.c. 27 Polus played the role of
elevation of the art of acting. Aristotle (Ars Rhe- Electra in the tragedy of Sophocles just after the
torica, m,l,4, p. 1403b33, cf. De Arte Poetica death and cremation of his son. During the scene in
xix,1456b) states that in his time the actor counts which Electra bewails the supposed death of her
for more in the contests than the dramatist. 23 This brother Orestes (Electra, vv. 1126ff. ), Polus carried
is due to the development of interest in the individ- the urn containing the ashes of his son in his arms
ual which characterized the fourth century, in con- and played the scene with such a depth of feeling
trast to the fifth, when the emphasis was laid on the
that his audience was deeply stirred (Plutarch,
general and the typical. In this period for the first Demosthenes, 28,p.848B; Gellius, Noctes atticae, vi-
time the personality of the dramatists and their vn,5). His rendering of Oedipus the King and of

83
VII. EVOLUTION OF THE ART OF ACTING
Oedipus at Colonus is also praised as impressive Dresden, which is dated in the later Hellenistic
( Plutarch, De Amicitia, vn ) . Polus played in 306 for period (Fig. 307). 32 He wears the nebris, the skin
Demetrius Poliorcetes after his victory at Salamis. 28 of a doe, and has a wreath of ivy, the sacred plant
The great actors began to modify the plays of the of the god. His soles have four layers, as the
classical dramatists in order to create more effective cothurnus was continuously added to during the
and striking roles. The statesman Lycurgus, who had Hellenistic and Roman periods. An old drawing
finished the theater in marble and set up the statues shows still more clearly a curtain, rocky soil, a pillar,
of the three great tragic poets, put an end to this altar, and
cult-statue indicating that this actor-
abuse by depositing in the archives state copies of priest seated in a closed sacred precinct. He is
is

the classical tragedies. Failure to conform with these enthroned on an elegant chair, such as were set up
was punished by severe penalties. It is said that in the theater of Lycurgus (see above, Figs. 267-
Alexander the Great himself paid the fine for the 269). He looks up to a woman whose movement
actor Lycon (Plutarch, Alexander, 29,3). 29 cannot be explained, as her upper part is lost. On
Beginning with the early third century B.C., the the other side stands a small flute-playing boy.
actors were organized into guilds, called the union To the union belonged the actors of tragedy,
of the Dionysiac artists (oi irepl tov Aiovvaov reyyiraL comedy, and satyr play as well as dramatic, epic,
o-i'i'oSos or kolvov). 30 A protagonist, a leading actor, or and lyric poets, teachers (didascali, SiSao-KoAoi ) of
a musician, often a flutist who was at the same time actors and of the chorus, stage managers, costumers,
a priest of Dionysus, was at their head. Such a leader trumpeters, heralds, members of the chorus, dancers,
of the troupe is probably the one on the wall paint- and musicians of every kind: soloists and accom-
ing found in Herculaneum, now in Naples (Fig. panists, such as singers, rhapsodes, citharodes, cith-
302), who dedicates his mask inside a folding frame, arists,and flute-players. The troupe of performers
while a kneeling woman is writing, probably a presented plays which had been tried out in the
dedicatory inscription, on the pillar carrying the great Athenian festivals of Dionysus. They produced
dedication. 31 This protagonist must have played epic, dramatic, and lyric plays, old as well as new
some young hero in a white-sleeved robe with a tragedies and comedies, and even purely musical
broad golden belt, a purple mantle, and white shoes presentations and declamations to music. An inscrip-
with red laces. He
has double soles instead of the tion dated 254 b.c, found in the market place of
single sole given to his actors, and thus
by Aeschylus Athens, shows that the actors competed in a contest
the original votive tablet, from which this wall paint- of old plays, old tragedy, old comedy, and old satyr
ing is copied, must belong to the Hellenistic period. play. The continuation of satyr play even in the later
The onkos on the mask is also higher than it used to Hellenistic period is evidenced by literary sources
be in the classical period (Figs. 32, 34, 74, 90, 304, and by a relief of which six copies exist. Two satyrs
306). Long brown locks fall from the onkos onto are led by a leader, while a muse seated under a tree
the forehead and the shoulders. The complexion is in a sacred precinct holds on her knees a mask of
light brown. One can see distinctly that the mask a serious character (Fig. 308). 33
comprises also the rear part of a head. The actor The guilds were called to the residences of the
must have just taken it off, for his own hair is Hellenistic rulers and to the great sanctuaries, par-
disheveled. Another such leader of a guild who ticularly Delphi, but Pythian and Olympian festivals
wears the costume of Dionysus is on a relief in were introduced in many places.However versatile
they were, the guilds always remained religious
Fig. 307. A leader of an actor's guild in sacred precinct.
organizations, and as such were respected and pro-
Marble relief, Dresden
tected even in times of war. The actors were exempt
from military service and from taxes. 34 As they were
allowed to emigrate to all parts, they took the clas-
sical masterpieces of Athens to the entire ancient
world. They thus contributed much toward the cir-
culation and preservation of classical drama in the
east as well as in Italy. The most important guilds
were those of Athens, of Thebes, the Isthmian and
Nemean guild, the Ionian guild whose center was
at Teos, and the guild of artists of Egypt, at Ptole-
mais in Egypt. 35
In Hellenistic times the art of acting took on ever
more lifelike and human forms, paralleling the de-
 .

VII. EVOLUTION OF THE ART OF ACTING

(Fig. 293) represents a travellerand in distress

exasperation. Another statuette from Pergamon
(Fig. 294) with a large tragic onkos, lifts his head
and gesticulates with tensely outstretched arm. He
may be a messenger bringing some important and
exciting news. The gesticulations of the Old as well
as of New Hellenistic comedy arc even more lively
and unrestrained than in tragedy (Figs. 295-299)."
The two literary forms of comedy and tragedy were
thus sharply separated from each other also by the
modes of acting. 3
''
different
The tragic masks in the Hellenistic period have a
more lively expression than those of the classical
period (Figs. 32, 34, 74, 90, 113b, 304-306).
Thus the terracotta mask in Berlin ( Fig. 309 ) of an
old bald man with wrinkled forehead, heavy eye-
brows, and bent nose shows vigor and intense think-
ing, while that of King Priam, said to have been
found in Thebes, now also in Berlin, with a bluish
Phrygian cap, reddish brown hair and beard, and
blue iris, exhibits in his raised eyebrows and emaci-
ated cheeks excruciating torment and terror (Fig.
310). 40 On a marble frieze found in Pergamon
masks of tragedy and comedy are inserted in a
dionysiac ivy garland (Figs. 311-313, cf. Ch. VIII,
Fig. 380). 41 The mask of Heracles (Fig. 311) with
many curls and savage expression is contrasted to
that of an old woman with similar curls, but with a
Fig. 308. Muse and satyr chorus in a sacred precinct. Marble wrinkled face, crumpled skin, and meagre cheeks,
relief, Naples from which the cheekbones stand out (Fig. 312).
She looks fearful and terrorized. A young woman
velopment of literature, in which New Comedy
with slightly waved, parted hair ending in twisted
became most important. Characteristic is the story
locks looks astonished and apprehensive ( Fig. 313 )
of the actor Apollogenes, who in the third century The over-life-size mask in the Piraeus ( Frontispiece
B.C. impersonated Heracles, Achilles, Antaeus, and
and Fig. 301 ) has the grandiose style of the Perga-
Alexander in tragedy, but won, in addition, a box-
mon frieze.
ing victory in Alexandria. We can, therefore, under-
stand why he preferred roles in which he could dis-
play his bodily strength and perfect physical
training. 30 The
contest for actors furthered the per-
fection of professional skill and virtuosity. Terracotta
statuettes from the Hellenistic period of tragic actors
wearing masks depict the lively gesticulations of the
actors. 37 The bearded actor with the mask and club
of Heracles, a high Hellenistic belt, and high soles
(Fig. 290) has restrained motion. The statuettes of
the youth in tragedy, from Asia Minor (Figs. 291-
292), represent him as inclining his head to the side
as if in the greatest consternation and grief. The way
his hand grasps the folds of the mantle from the
inside depicts emotional turmoil. He also has
high soles below his sandals. A statuette from Delos Figs. 309, 310. Tragic masks of old man, Priam. Terracotta
VII. EVOLUTION OF THE ART OF ACTING
The lively expression of the masks in the Hellenis- The interest in the mask was displaced by the in-
tic period is a parallel to the evolution of realistic terest in the individual actor. Therefore the players
portraiture, which arose in the fourth century and probably appeared at the end of the performance
created psychological masterpieces in the Hellenis- without masks as we see in the Wurzburg frag-
tic age.This can be seen in the features of the faces ment. The chorus of the dithyramb was always sung
of the actors (Figs. 290, 300, 302, 306-307) which without masks. It was no longer a tribal contest of
are very expressive, although during the play they amateurs, but was taken over in the Hellenistic
were hidden under the mask and the movements period by professional technitae {rexvlrai). The
alone transmitted the emotions. Particularly the tendency to show the actual features and not a mask
graying actor on the fragment in Wurzburg (Fig. found a desired field of activity in a new Hellenistic
306b) is in contrast to the mask which he holds, a type of drama, the mime, which was played with-
fine psychological study of an older man with out masks and this made facial expression possible. 42
disheveled hair and closely-cropped beard, gazing In the mime women for the first time were allowed
intensively on the mask of the handsome hero he to appear upon the stage. Their mimetic art is usu-
has to personify. ally especially expressive.
 CHAPTER VIII r -

NEW COMEDY MENANDER •

New Comedy replaced Middle Comedy about 330

1
conditions existing among the higher, wealthy bour-
b.c, that approximately at the time of Alexander
is, geoisie, with delicate shades and nuances in the
the Great. Middle Comedy had already shown an character sketches.
increasing tendency to turn from political themes to The most important poet of New Comedy is
those of daily life. The courtesan, especially, seems Menander ( 343/2-292/ l). s The tradition of Mid-
to have played an important role, just as she did dle Comedy was handed down to him by his uncle
in life. The chorus declined more and more in im- Alexis. He had enjoyed the benefit of an excellent
portance 2 as testified by the Plutus, a late, work of education. He
attended the lectures of Theophras-
Aristophanes which belongs to Middle Comedy. tus, whose book of Characters with its sharply
The chorus developed to an interlude, sung and etched presentations of human types probably ap-
danced by a group of men without a written chorus peared about 320 B.C. and undoubtedly influenced
song, announced only by "chorou" (xopov), part of the psychological observations, and
descriptions,
the chorus. All these traits are found in New Menander and other writers
analyses of character by
Comedy with added force. The cause of these of New Comedy. Menander put in his required year
changes was the greatly altered political situation. of military service as an ephebus (that is, a citizen
Athens was no longer an independent democracy, between eighteen and twenty years of age) with his
but was a province under the domination of Mace- friend Epicurus, who was of the same age
donia. Accordingly, the freedom of speech, of which ( dw£(f>t](3o<; )
. The new philosophy founded by Epi-
Aristophanes had availed himself so liberally, no curus left deep marks on the comedies of Menander.
longer existed. Athens had become a small univer- It common with the later interpreta-
has nothing in
sity town. In comparison with the large new capitals merely deriving all possible pleasure from
tion of
of the successors of Alexander, it was of no political life; instead it preached an ideal of freedom from
importance whatever. It remained to the end of pain and imperturbable serenity and tranquility in
antiquity the center of art, science, philosophy, and suffering. Menander in his later years may have
rhetoric, but became comfortable, commonplace,
life known Zeno, the founder of the philosophy of the
and even Philistine. The sorrows, joys, manners, and Stoa. From him he learned to bear calamities and
peculiarities of individual citizens took the fore- difficulties courageously. Menander became also a
ground. As more attention was paid to personal friend of another pupil of Theophrastus, Demetrius
character in life, it therefore played a more promi- of Phaleron, who became the ruler of Athens.
later
nent role in comedy also. The mode of living was, This friendship became a source of danger to Me-
however, also influenced by the new Stoic and nander after the fall of Demetrius. Ptolemy I tried to
Epicurean philosophies, and they, too, influenced draw Menander to his court in Alexandria, but the
the poets of New Comedy. poet refused to leave Athens, and he is said to
It is hardly surprising that tragedy developed no have declined also an invitation to Macedonia. He
further but continued in its old course. The works lived all his life in Athens and died while bathing
of the famous poets of the fifth century had become in the sea at the Piraeus.
classics, which, it was supposed, could not be im- Menander wrote more than one hundred comedies
proved upon. They were chosen by great actors to over a period of about thirty-three years. His first work
be played in Athens and in many other places at was the Self-Tormentor ('Eavrov Tip.wpovp.evos) which ,

festivals, where the actors gained praise for their he wrote around 322 b.c, at about the age of twenty.
revivals (see Ch. VII, Figs. 306-307). The many His first victory, so the Parian marble chronicle in-
tragedies which were still written and presented forms us, was won with the Anger ('Opy-q) in 316/5.
each year were not permitted to vary from the ac- Only eight victories are said to have been won by
customed pattern. Old Comedy, on the other hand, Menander in his lifetime. The recently discovered
had waned and died together with political free- The Sullen Man ( Dyskolos, AvVkoAo? ) was presented
dom, and was never resuscitated. In its stead a new in 316. The best of the plays partially preserved today
comedy was created which was just as characteristic is the Arhitrants (Epitrepontes, 'EirLTpl-rrovTes:), which

of the Hellenistic period as tragedy had been of the shows unusually refined character portrayal. The
fifth century. It represents in endless variety the fate of the person is depicted as depending, both

87
VIII. NEW COMEDY • MEN AN DER

theoretically and practically, upon his character different attitudes in different situations. He shows
(see lines 880-887). Other surviving scenes come tolerance for feminine guilt as well as for weakness
from the Girl from Samos (Samia, 2a/xta), the Girl and ridiculous habits of men. He likes people as they
Who Gets her Hair Cut ( Perikeiromene, IlepiKtipo- are with all their faults and stupidities.
/xei>7] ) and the Hero ( "Hpojs ) We may add to these,
. This human attitude and the refinement of his art
not only small and meager fragments of some sixty hampered the success Menander during his life-
of
comedies by Menander and numerous fragments time. Later, however, he was highly estimated. The
from Menander's contemporaries and followers, such grammarian Aristophanes placed him second only
as Philemon, Diphilus, Posidippus, and Apollodorus, to Homer, as reported in the epigram on a herm in
but also the translations and adaptations of Greek Turin (Fig. 314): "Not without reason have I
New Comedy for which we are indebted to Latin placed you, dear Menander, alongside and opposite
writers (see Ch. XI, pp. 148-156). We have twenty- the gaze of the head of Homer, inasmuch as the wise
one comedies by Plautus, who began to write some grammarian Aristophanes, excellent judge of your
fifty years after Menander's death (Plautus died in writings, gave you second place immediately after
184 b.c. ) He was, however, strongly influenced also
. that great genius." 4 Plutarch preferred him to Aris-
by local Italian farces. Terence (died 159) ap- tophanes ("Comparison of Aristophanes and Me-
proximates more nearly the original Greek Comedy, nander," in Moralia, 853A-854D). In the imperial
and, in fact, he is called a "half Menander" by period, however, interest in his work was confined
Caesar ("O dimidiate Menander," Suetonius, Vita mostly to his clever philosophical sayings, which
Terenti, v). Of the six surviving comedies of Ter- were collected in anthologies as gnomai, sentences.
ence, performed 166-160 b.c, four are based on In later Roman times Aristophanes was preferred to
Menander. These are: the Lady of Andros (Andria, Menander, because of his purer and more classical
'AvSpla) combined with Girl of Perinthos (Perinthia, Attic. Among the Latin imitations of Menander
Ilepivdia); the Self -Tormentor (Heauton Timorou- there is unfortunately no play whose Greek model
menos, 'Eavrov n^wpox'/xevos) the Eunuch from the
; has come down to us. Nevertheless it is possible,
Eunuch ( 'Ewouxos ) combined with the Flatterer from the remains of the plays of Menander, to see
(the Kolax, KdAa|) of Menander; and the Brothers how much more refined Menander is than Plautus
(Adelphi, 'AStA^ot')- The remaining two plays of and how much more powerful than Terence. The
Terence are copied from plays by Apollodorus of best point of comparison lies in the characters of
Carystus: Phormio from the Plaintiff (Epidikazo- Menander's soldiers, courtesans, and
parasites,
menos, 'E7nSiKa£o'/m<o<; ) and the Mother-in-Law slaves, all of whom
have much better characters
from Hecyra ('Eicvpd). and are more amiable than those of his Latin fol-
The works of Menander show the influence of lowers.
Euripides in their dramatic action, the substance of While Menander and his colleagues wrote mostly
which this tragic poet had humanized and brought plays dealing with the life of Athenian citizens, they
down to earth. Menander presented for the first time also composed some travesties of the heroic saga.
real individuals in ordinary situations taken from Thus Diphilus wrote Philemon wrote two
four,
life as he observed them in the contemporary life parodies of tragedy; one, named
the Myrmidons,
of the rich middle class of Athens. One main motif certainly dealt with Achilles whose Thracian sub-
is the love of the rich youth for a poor girl, who in jects were called by this name. The same hero prob-
many cases has been abandoned as a baby, has ably played the main role in the Achaeans by
been reared in modest circumstances, has remained Menander. This play is known only through the
a decent girl, and is at the end reunited with her emblema of a mosaic found at Ulpia Oescus in
long lost parents, and in a happy ending is married Thrace, now Bulgaria (Fig. 315). 5 Above the
to her lover. This situation is not quite as strange as
it seems to us today, for in Athens abandonment of

unwanted children was allowed. Yet the plots are by

no means monotonous. They are varied according to
the qualities of the persons involved. The characters
are differentiated with vivid individual traits.
Whereas Aristophanes often changes the character
of an individual arbitrarily, Menander sticks to the
pattern he has created for each of his characters.
He never paints them black or white but with fine MENANAPC^E
ixrtcoaxrrHSAi iTMrnTi^ iXnJffMUiANAW
nuances, and he recognizes their right to assume nrmzflNCUMl XomtTOTOAeiOY
A HAOlAEltxJPLONAIZje EC N On/IOTWAINVN
i HXMontK* « ATLaruooTTKA HA J n^IAIl

Fig. 314. Epigram on Menander by the 4AlATONIXAlM]remT01Q£uxlIPHNA8ZA7&Uf

TONAZMZNANAragAIlxFASLSyKAxaMZirOB
grammarian Aristophanes. Herm, Turin oTNUAbUTOuywYxiAArairocati * l&iaaia
HATNZIKHNHN^BWUZinAniAMaX

oipsfxmLmrzAx/at^aiOJiaaitBi/mAit
THXAmWBFnHX^KZKTZMOIKtyUKZ.
*XXAMAgTTtnmTrailfl+oa >J lMllnrmrrT»nM
'

rrjuuTiicoxxAuioinroxwiArixro^umz
 VIII. NEW COMEDY • M EN AN DER

heads of four masked men the inscription menan- the Museum of the Lateran (Figs. 316-3 17 )." They
drou achaioi appears. At the left Agamemnon, hold- show Menander sitting at a table. He is surrounded
ing a scepter, and at the right Achilles, accompanied by the three characteristic masks of his comedies: in
by his friend Patroklos, are separated by a seated his hand he holds the mask of a youth, on the table
gray-haired man, who could be the wise Nestor or lie the masks of a young woman and the mask of

Phoenix, the old tutor of Achilles. The subject must a man, evidently the father of the youth. Perhaps
have been the quarrel of the Achaian heroes over these reliefs are based on a votive relief for the
the girl Chryseis, whom Achilles claimed as a bootv victory with the Girl from Samos, for the youth
and Agamemnon took away from him, as described could be Moschion, the woman Chrysis, and the
in the first book of the
Perhaps this story was
Iliad. older man Demeas, the father of Moschion, who
treated in a lost tragedy by Euripides and gave a considers Chrysis as his common-law wife. The
welcome subject for a caricature. Sophocles also standing woman on the Lateran relief is either
wrote an Assembly of the Achaeans ('A^atwy cn'AAoyos) Menander's beloved Glycera or, as in the relief of
which contained speeches by Achilles and Odys- Euripides (Fig. 109), the personification of Skene.
seus. This may have been a satyr play. The mask The Princeton relief (Fig. 316) does not have this
1 ''

of Patroklos has a closed mouth, and one of the jokes

may have been that Patroklos never opened his
mouth. In tragedy there often were mutes because
only three speaking actors were allowed. A door to
the left and an altar to the right indicate the scene
The trapeze below the feet of the actors
of action.
may be an indication of the stage. The dresses are
the long chiton and the chlamys of the warrior
heroes. It conceivable that this play by Menander
is

remained alive in the homeland of Achilles. Menan-

der was still presented in the time of Plutarch ( De
Iside et Osiride 70).
Menander is described by Phaedrus (Fables,
Fabulae Aesopiae, v,12) as "approaching in wide
garment with delicate and languid step" (cf. Athe-
naeus, 248d and 364d). Pausanias (i,21,l) mentions
a statue of Menander in the theater of Dionysus at
Athens. This was a seated figure, the base of which
has been preserved with the inscriptions of the
names of the poet and of the artists, Cephisodotus
and Timarchus, the sons of Praxiteles. 7 This statue
is probably used in the Plellenistic reliefs in Prince-

ton, formerly Collection Stroganoff in Rome, and in Figs. 316, 317a. Menander and masks of New Comedy.
Marble reliefs, Princeton; Lateran

Fig. 315. Menander, Achaioi. Mosaic, Bulgaria

 Figs. 318, 319. Menander. Boston; Collection Robinson

Fig. 317b-c. Head from 317a, Lateran

Fig. 320. Theater ticket with head of Menander. Alexandria

figure. It is, therefore, probably an addition of the der. The connection with Glycera, already found on
Augustan age, when the Lateran copy was made. the relief in the Lateran (Fig. 317) has now be-
Glycera was the model for the decent and amiable come of major interest. She occupies the center of
courtesans in the plays of Menander. Alciphron the picture, probably standing behind the couch on
(iv,9,5) tells how Glycera prepared the masks for which Menander reclines. The personification of
Menander. Comedy is standing at the end of the couch. The
The head of the Lateran relief (Fig. 317b-c) courtesan and the personified Comedy are on equal
agrees with a type of portrait of which over forty footing. Beside the couch stands a banquet table.
copies are known. The best are in Boston, (Fig. The poet enjoys life and love like an Epicurean or
318), in the collection of David Robinson, Univer- a young man out of his comedies.
sity of Mississippi, (Figs. 319a-b), Corcyra (Corfu), The wreath appears also on another pictorial
Ince Blundel Hall (with restored nose), and Copen- representation of Menander showing him seated on
hagen, where an excellent reconstruction of the a finely-curved Attic chair, in the House of Menan-
bronze original head has been made. 9 The features
show traces of physical suffering patiently borne
and of a nervous constitution coupled with sensi-
tivity and refinement. Menander appears to be be-
tween forty and fifty years of age. The same head is
sometimes, as in Bonn and in the Museo Nazionale
Romano, combined with a bearded head, which has
a thick fillet, probably a sign that the older man
was deceased. This head has been named Hesiod
or Homer, but I believe that it is meant to be an
imaginary portrait of Aristophanes (Fig. 183a-c). 10
The henns thus combine the greatest representatives
of Old and New Comedy.
There probably was a second portrait of Menan-
der, which gave him a wreath and drapery over the
shoulder. The wreath appears on a replica of the
head in Oxford; 11 on theater tickets from Pergamon
and Alexandria (Fig. 320), 12 on which the poet
holds a mask, while his name is inscribed on the
reverse; on the mosaic of Monnus in Trier and on a
mosaic found in Daphne, the harbor of Antioch-
on-the-Orontes, now in Princeton ( This
Fig. 321 ) ,
13

latter reflects the late Roman conception of Menan-

Fig. 321. Muse of Comedy and Glycera with Menander.
Mosaic from Antioch-on-the-Orontes, Princeton

90
 VIII. NEW COMEDY • MEN ANDER

Fig. 323. Menander. Bust, Venice

der in Pompeii (Figs. 322a-c). 14 It belongs to the

period of Nero, but may be copied from a painted
portrait which Craterus executed for the Pompeium
in Athens (Pliny, xxxv,140). The name is twice in-
scribed, and on the scroll in his left hand part of
the title reads: "Menander was the first to write
New Comedy in four books" (Menander. Hie
primus [novam?] ) Comediam scripsit Lib.
. . .

quattuor (Fig. 322c).

Perhaps there was a second sculptured portrait
of Menander in Athens, which was draped. Chiton
and mantle are on busts in Venice (Fig. 323),
Verona, and Kenya 15 and on a medallion at Marbury
Hall, with a scroll in the background and the name
on the lower part of the frame, agreeing in general
features with a lost medallion designed in 1578 by
Galle ( named Theodorus Gallaeus ) formerly in the
,

possession of Orsini. 16 It may have been a con-

temporary portrait by the sons of Praxiteles, who
after the death of the poet were commissioned to
represent him for the theater with nude upper body.
Without iconographic value, but of great interest
is the fact that Menander, together with Sophocles,

Euripides, Epicurus, and Zeno, was among the out-

standing personalities whose likenesses were chosen
to adorn the skeleton goblets of Boscoreale. 17
Menander is holding a torch and the mask of a
courtesan. He is accompanied by a skeleton flute
player and by the poet Archilochus of Myrina,
playing the lyre Next to Menander are the inscrip-
Fig. 322a-c, Menander.
Wall painting, Pompeii tions: "Menandros of Athens" and "live," conveying
as early as the Augustan period the conception
which Aristophanes of Byzantium has expressed in
his lines: "Menander! Life! I wonder which of you
has copied which?"
Since the New Comedy had stripped off all fan-
tastic and improper elements and had become a
moral drama and a mirror of the daily life of the
rich bourgeoisie, it also discarded the indecent

91
 VIII. NEW COMEDY • M EN AN DER

costume borrowed from the Dionysiac goblins, and

in essential features assumed the garb of every day.
Only the tights with sleeves and long trousers
were preserved under the main dress. The stuffing
of the body and grotesque masks were preserved
for some lower-class characters like some of the
slaves, cooks, soldiers, and parasites characters—
which had been taken over from Old and Middle
Comedy.
As the same characters continued in Latin com-
edy, it often is difficult to decide whether the reliefs,
wall paintings, mosaics, statuettes, and masks in
marble, bronze, and terracotta illustrate the Greek
originals or the Latin imitations. As a general prin-
ciple it may be right to consider the more grotesque
figures as Roman, the more refined and variegated
ones as Greek, just as the personalities in the Greek Fig. 324. Scene from N*w Comedy. Marble relief, Naples
the personalities in Plautus. Terence is nearer to the
originals are more refined and more variegated than Reside these, however, some masks are reminiscent
Greeks than Plautus but, being less popular, has of tragedy, which corresponds to the fact that the
been illustrated only in the late Roman period. As tragedy of Euripides had a strong influence on New
the cultivated Romans beginning in the second cen- Comedy. Stronger still is the grotesque element
tury B.C. read and spoke Greek, many Greek plays taken over from Old Comedy and Doric farce. Just
were performed in Rome, and certainly they were as in Roman translations and contaminations of
performed in Magna Graecia. I, therefore, feel justi- comedies so also in the later Roman comedy masks
fied in having included in this chapter most of the the coarser elements are preferred and even in-
comedy illustrations preserved since the Hellenistic creased.
period. The comedy scene on a relief in Naples (Fig.
The costume does not help to distinguish Greek 324) 19 shows masks and costumes which might
and Latin figures, as it was taken over with the have been worn in Menander's comedies, although
subject matter from the Greek originals. This is the subject matter is quite different. An enraged
particularly true for the himation, called a pallium father hurries out of his mansion, indicated by a
for men and palla for women. As the most charac- richly decorated door, swinging his cane as if to
teristic part of the costume for comedy it has given beat his son, who comes home drunk, swinging a
its to the fabula palliata (see below, Ch. XI,
name hypothymis, the fillet worn at banquets. Another
p. 154). The masks can be grouped with the help man restrains the furious father, holding his right
of the list of sets, described in the catalogue of hand and arm. A flute girl and a slave accompany
Pollux (Onomasticon, iv,143-154), which, like his list the youth, the latter supporting his young master,
for tragic masks (iv,133-142), probably is based on but seemingly also trying to hide behind him. All
18
a Hellenistic source. It seems to me, however, wear tights. The two men and the youth wear a
certain that this source described the wardrobe and chiton and a large, carefully draped mantle. The
usual stock of masks possessed by a traveling guild father, who carries a staff with a bent handle in his
of actors, and thus does not apply to the original left hand, wears a mantle which is fringed, a sign of
plays of Menander and other writers of Greek New elegant dress in Hellenistic times. The slave has only
Comedy. The masks of the early Hellenistic period a short chiton and a scanty cloak hanging from his
certainly were much more individual and varie- right shoulder. The little flute dressed in
player is

gated, just as the personalities were. There are very a chiton reaching to her feet, with a mantle knotted
few repetitions in those monuments which by in- in front so that her hands are free to play the flute.
scriptions or finding places are Greek.
certainly The costumes of the old men could be given to
One can, indeed, stage all of the preserved New Smicrines in the Arbitrants, to Demeas and Nicera-
Comedies with Pollux' assortment of masks and with tus in the Samia; that of the youth to Chaerestratus
the preserved masks. The majority of the masks and Charisius in the Arbitrants, to Moschion in the
suit the bourgeois types created by New Comedy, Samia; that of the flute girl to Habrotonon; and that
and they reveal the same refined variety and dif- of the slave to Onesimus in the Arbitrants, and to
ferentiation as the types of comedy themselves. Parmenon in the Samia.

92
 VIII . NEW COMEDY • MENANDER
The masks would also fit the characters of Menan-
der. The two men offer excellent contrasting masks
of bourgeois men: a choleric and a phlegmatic, an
irritable and a conciliatory type. Two large terra-
cotta statuettes, formerly in the Collection Janze
and now in the Bibliotheque nationale at Paris,
repeat the two tvpes of the two old men on the
20
comedy relief (Figs. 325-326). The one with the
long curled beard seems to plead, the other to argue
with his right hand made into a fist, his left gestic-
ulating excitedly.A wall painting from the Casa
dei Dioscuri in Pompeii, now in the Akademische
Kunstmuseum in Bonn (Fig. 327 21 represents an- ,

other enraged old man who

speaking to a woman.
is

He wears the same fringed mantle and carries a

similar crooked staff as the father in the Naples
relief. The situation seems to be similar if not identi-

cal to the last scene preserved of the Arbitrants:

Figs. 325, 326. Fathers of New Comedy. Terracotta, Paris

Fig. 327. Old man and woman, last scene of Menander's

Arbitrants (?) Wall painting, from Pompeii, Bonn

the grandfather Smicrines scolds the old nurse, but

is mocked by her and the slave, who appears in the Fig. 328. Old man spying on slave and fluteplayer. Wall
painting, Naples
background. A similar old man in the same costume,
leaning on a staff,on a slave and a fluteplayer
spies
Fig. 329. Masks of girl fluteplayer and slave. Mosaic, Rome
in a wall painting from Herculaneum in Naples
(Fig. 328). 22 He seems to have a pointed beard, a
j
wedge-shaped goatee, and thus is a sphenopogon
( o-^voTTOjyojv ) wearing one of the masks inherited
,

from Old Comedy, for this is an archaic fashion ( see

above, Ch. Ill, p. 39). The scene represented may
be a famous one, for the two masks of slave and
flute girl reappear on a mosaic in the Capitoline Mu-
seum (Fig. 329). 23 The flute girls on the comedy
relief, the wall-painting, and the mosaic (Figs. 324
and 328-329) are certainly what Pollux (iv,153)
calls the little courtesan (eTaipi&Lov) who wears only
a simple ribbon in her hair.
 332 334

330, 331 333, 335 336, 337

Figs. 330-337. Masks of fathers from New Comedy (See List of Illustrations and Sources)

Among the single masks for the father there are last part of the Dyskolos of Menander, and Demea
many variations. A marble mask in Dresden (Fig. in the last part of Adelphoi) than in Plautus, and
330) 24 has the same hair roll over the forehead therefore they certainly go back to New Comedy.
(stephane) as the actors on the comedv relief and The possibility of turning a mild and an angry face
the same beard with carefully rolled corkscrew alternately to the public was a substitute for the
strands reminiscent of a tragic hero as the concilia- missing facial expression. A relief with the mask of a
tory father there. Another in Athens (Fig. 331) 25 of man in Mantua shows well this peculiarity (Fig.
terracotta, probably from Myrina, has a bald fore- 335). 28 The two sides of the face are certainly quite
head and a rather ironic expression, reminding one different from each other. The right half is cheerful,
somewhat of Socrates. Similar is the mask worn by the other looks angry. The two different eyebrows
an old man comfortably wrapped in a himation in are connected by a sharp curve. Five marble masks
Vienna (Fig. 332). 26 A small mask from Pergamon, on a red-stuccoed ground from the Stoa of Attalus
formerly in the possession of the author, has in con- in Athens have the brows sharply divided (Figs.
trast an angry expression (Fig. 333) 27 like the en- 336-337). 29 The right one is strongly lifted, the left
raged father on the comedy relief. Both eyebrows one is less attenuated. These seem to be fathers, but
are drawn up in the outer part This type of mask, the contrivance is transferred also to the servant,
being the most characteristic one, is held by Thalia, who has in Latin comedy more reason for change
the Muse of Comedy (Fig. 334). Pollux mentions from joy to fear and anger than in the Greek comedy
several times that the eyebrows are drawn up, but where, as Menander and the comedy relief show, he
several times he says also that only one eyebrow has only secondary roles.
was drawn upward (iv, 144-45). The reason for this The young men play the largest roles in New
differentiation is given by Quintilian ( xi,3,74 ) Comedy. They can be divided roughly into the
"pater interim concitatus interim lenis est, altero serious and the gay type. The one is represented in
erecto altero composito est supercilio, atque id Menander by Charisius, the young husband in the
ostendere maxime latus actoribus moris est, quod Arbitrants, the other by Moschiori in the Samia and
iis —
quas agunt partibus cogniat. The father is some- the Perikeiromene. The first is represented in a terra-
times angry, sometimes mild. One of his eyebrows cotta in Athens, probably from Myrina ( Fig. 338 ) .
30

is drawn up, the other is smooth. The actors used to

show that side which agrees with the role they have Figs. 341, 342. Youth playing the cithara;
to play." Such changes are more frequent in Greek Musician playing the cymbala

comedy and in Terence ( for example, Cnemon in the

Figs. 338-340. Serious youths of New Comedy i
 VIII. NEW COMEDY • MEN ANDER

onkos (Fig. 340). 32 Its counterpart is the girl with

mitra or sphendone (Fig. 363).
While these masks have a stephane without any
adornment, the gay youths often have a fillet wound
around a metal ring, showing that they are coming
home from a banquet. The young man on the
comedy relief in Naples (Fig. 324) has this fillet
(hypothymis) in his hand. A statuette of a young
man from Myrina, in Berlin, originally playing a
cithara, has the ring with the fillet hanging deeply
over his forehead ( Fig. 341 ) :i3 His hair seems to be
.

fluttering to both sides. He corresponds to the de-

scription of the second youth with blowy hair
(Pollux, iv, 147, tVurao-i-os ) As the cithara player
.

needs both hands for the instrument and the plec-

trum, with which he touches the strings, his mantle
Figs. 343a-b-345. Masks of gay youths of New Comedy is knotted in front. The same arrangement of the

mantle and the metal ring with a fillet, which hangs

He corresponds closely to the youth of serious down on the shoulders, reappears in another statu-
tragedy (above, Figs. 291-292), and to the oldest, ette of a musician in Athens (Fig. 342). 34 He is a
most excellent youth of Pollux (iv,146). He is tightly cymbalist, who is bending forward in the act of
wrapped in his mantle, the himation, his right hand striking together the two concave bronze plates in
laid on the folds before his chest, his left grasping his two hands. The metal ring with a broad fillet
the folds hanging at the side. His mask, like all the wound around it is also laid deep into the forehead
masks of young people, has well-modulated and of a youthful mask in Munich, found in Samsun
realistic features, but with a slight frown and some (Amisus) (Fig. 343). 35 Another mask from the
wrinkles on his forehead. The same is true of a mask same place, now in the Louvre, has a thick wreath
from Agrigentum in the collection of Dr. Vollrner instead of the ring (Fig. 344). 36 The same is true
in New York (Fig. 339). 31 A youth with an onkos of a fine mask of a young man with a slender face
of corkscrew locks arranged radially and hanging from Myrina Boston (Fig. 345), and a marble
in
down at each side, on a terracotta disk found in mask in the British Museum, corresponding to the
Selembria, northern Greece, is certainly a serious delicate youth of Pollux (iv,147, dTmAo's). 37
youth of New Comedy who is imitating the tragic Music did not play the same important role in

Figs. 346, 347. Musicians and women in scenes of New Comedy. Mosaics by Dioscurides, Naples

ii \ imm^ssm®®&sim»,. ....
348 349 350 351 352
Figs. 348-352. Old women of New Comedy (See List of Illustrations and Sources)

New Comedy as it did in Old Comedy and tragedy covered with an elegant rug and cushion, seems to
where the musician had to remain in the orchestra wring her hands as if in fear and despair. The old
to accompany the chorus. Since Middle Comedy the witch has fortified herself with a drink of wine
regular chorus was replaced by an improvised dance from the silver cup in her right hand, while with the
indicated by "chorou" ( X opov), part of the chorus. left hand she seems to emphasize some point in her
While they perform, the actors retire to their advice. Behind her is a servant girl standing in
houses, as is shown in the Arbitrants, vv. 33-35: modest attitude. The four women correspond to the
"Let's go, for, see, there is coming here a mob of four categories into which Pollux (iv,150-154) has
young bloods and it seems to me not the time to divided his seventeen women: three old women, five
interfere with them." Such musicians, similar to the bourgeois women, seven courtesans, and two young
statuettes (Figs. 341 and 342), are depicted on one maid servants. In Menander's Arbitrants we have
of the two mosaics copied from paintings by Dios- the old Sophrona, the bourgeois woman Pamphila
curides of Samos, found in the so-called Villa of and the young courtesan Habrotonon; in his Perikei-
Cicero in Pompeii and now in Naples. 38 They are of romene Doris is a maid of Glycera. The women of
particularly fine technique with many differently the Dioscurides mosaic could therefore be used to
colored stones, which imitate a finely shaded tem- visualize the appearance of the women in Menander
pera painting. The scene with the musicians appears and his successors. If, on the other hand, we want
to be a chorus interlude ofNew Comedy (Fig. 346). to compare them with the list of Pollux, the old
A woman, followed by a miserable dwarf, accom- witch may be the wolfish old woman, the woman
panies on her flute the clumsy dancing of two men, to the left a false maiden, the one in the center a
both adorned with wreath and fillets, wearing tights full-grown courtesan, and the little girl standing, the
with long sleeves, a chiton, and a white mantle delicate little servant with bobbed hair. There are,
knotted loosely in front. The cymbalist agrees almost however, other possibilities, and it is more important
perfectly with the statuette (Fig. 342), while the to compare here and elsewhere the original plays
other beats a tympanon instead of playing a cithara than the much later catalogue of the lexicographer.
(cf. Fig. 341). That this is the copy of some cele- There are many variations in the four groups of
brated painting is testified by a painted copy found masks in the preserved monuments as well as in the
in Stabiae, now also in Naples. 39 The figures are the preserved Latin plays. It seems that the masks of
same, only the execution is much coarser, and the the old women could be used for free women as
dwarf is separated from the fluteplayer. well as for slaves. The oldest thin, wolfish woman
The companion piece of the mosaic with an in- with squinting eyes, whose face is covered by many
terlude by Dioscurides, the one with four women fine wrinkles, is worn not only by the old sorceress
(Fig. 347), 40 also brings something new in comedy: on the mosaic of Dioscurides, but is also rendered
an interior scene. One old and two young women in a terracotta mask in Berlin (Fig. 348). 41 The
are seated around a table, on which an incense stand wreath indicates that she loves wine and banquets.
and a laurel wreath may indicate that a love charm Her opposite is the fat old woman with thick
is being prepared. The two young women seem to wrinkles, certainly often a procuress and perhaps
consult the old woman in some affair of the heart. sometimes the friend and mother of false virgins
The woman in the center is talking with lively and courtesans. A terracotta statuette in Munich
gesticulation. The one to the left, seated on a chair seems to represent such an old procuress. She has

96
Vlll. NEW COMEDY • MEN AN DER
a fat and short figure and is dressed in a chiton
that is much too long (Fig. 349). 42 For this reason
a pouch, which is also much too long, bulging from
the lower belt at the waist, adds greatly to her
grotesque appearance, which may be borrowed
from Attic Old Comedy. Her right hand is protrud-
ing and she seems to offer four small elongated
objects, which may be cakes or small fishes. She
seems to talk and offer some food to a person larger
than herself. Her broad face is framed by a large
stephane around which is laid a band decorated
Figs. 353-355. Bourgeois women
with rosettes. Pollux (iv,151) mentions that the
procuress and mother of courtesans wore such a
fillet ( raivlBiov T(i<> T/Dt^as TT(.pi\afx.f3avov ) . A similar ( i//£i'8o*op; ) in Pollux, who has her hair bound up on
mask of a fat woman (Fig. 350). As a
is in Bonn the upper head and looks like a newly-wed bride.
third type, Pollux mentions the homely little old Similar is the girl in pitiable attitude on a mural
48
woman with a snub nose and only two teeth re- painting from the Casa del Centenario, and a
maining in each jaw (ev iKarepa tji aiayon dvu 8vo mask, slightly over life size, from Pompeii in Naples,
also with parted hair and a bow made out of her
«X« yoiA<f>lovs). This mask surely belongs to the old 49
nurse of the unknown, freeborn daughter of a worthy hair above the front part of her skull (Fig. 356).
citizen, who has been mistaken for a courtesan, and There are more representations of courtesans than
therefore is living in a humble condition until an of bourgeois women, quite understandably, because
old nurse of this type reveals her true birth. A they play a much greater role in New Comedy than
terracotta relief in Florence (Fig. 351) 43
and a small the respectable women. Some, however, rose to be-
mask in Berlin (Fig. 352) 44 with its wrinkled skin come concubines or common law wives. A statuette
and toothless (or almost toothless) mouth cor- in Munich seems to represent such a woman, who
respond to the description offered by Pollux. is seated comfortably on a housewife's chair (Fig.

The terracotta statuette of an elderly lady in 357) 50 from which she directs the members of the
Berlin (Fig. 353) 45 found in Capua, has the mantle household. She lifts her right hand, has her head
drawn over her head like the old witch on the Dios- inclined to her left and turned slightly to the right

curides mosaic. She has her head bent to the side and upward, as if gaily talking to some standing
and both arms wrapped in the mantle, with only figure. Her face is surrounded by a huge frame of

her hands free, which were probably gesticulating curly locks. She thus corresponds to the concubine
accompanying a lively speech. Thus we may sup- of Pollux ( iv, 153, TraAAaKT/ TrepiKo/ios). She is an
. . .

pose appeared Myrrhina, the rich Corinthian matron older woman. Still older seems to be the courtesan
in the Perikeiromene of Menander. In the list of represented in a mask from Corneto in Berlin ( Fig.
Pollux, she would be the garrulous woman 358) 51 She has a wrinkled face and probably grey-
.

(\€ktlkti) with smooth hair, straight eyebrows, and ing hair, which she tries to conceal by a bonnet.
white complexion, the sheltered bourgeois woman. She thus may represent Pollux' oldest courtesan with
Another old woman in a terracotta in the British
Museum (Fig. 354) 46
is clenching her fists inside

her himation and seems to be in a furious mood.

Aterracotta statuette in Berlin (Fig. 355) 47 repre-
sents a young bourgeois woman, who has both
shoulders and arms,
including hands, tightly
wrapped her himation. Her right hand is laid on
in
her breast. She may be a young freeborn daughter
of citizens, who has become involved in affairs of
the heart, like the ones on the mosaic of women by
Dioscurides. She lifts her head as if complaining.
Her hair is parted and bound up to a bow on the
crown of her head. Her body looks padded, and
this device of farce and Old Comedy may here have
been used to indicate that the young lady is preg-
nant. This would be suitable for the false virgin

Fig. 356. False virgin Fig. 357. Concubine.

Fig. 358. Courtesan Terracotta, Munich

97
 Figs. 359, 360. Young courtesans Figs. 361-364. Courtesans

grey hair scattered through her dark hair, who is hair is yellow, thus blond. The mitra is violet with

described as garrulous ( o-7ra/3T07ro'Aio<> Ae/cn*?/). A white borders. Her face shows a shy smile. Most
younger courtesan is represented in a statuette in courtesans love to array themselves with ornaments.
Munich (Fig. 359).'- She is wrapped from head to A marble mask from Tivoli, now in the Vatican
feet in a large himation, tinted violet with broad (Fig. 365a-b) 58 has a broad fillet and thick cords
white borders. She has her hands inside the mantle, between the forehead and the hairband, all of which
the right hand before the breast, the left placed seem to be of gold. This may be the golden courte-
upon the hip. She wears red shoes, and her right san of Pollux (iv,153), whose hair was adorned
foot is placed on a small footstool. The white border with much gold ( Stdxpwos ) A female mask from
.

of the mantle effectively frames her fiery red face. Amisus in the Louvre (Fig. 366), 59 found together
Her slightiy waved hair is parted and she is smirking with a youth ( above, Fig. 344 ) has the ends of her
,

impudently. She probably is the type of impertinent, hair gathered in a bunch which stands up on the
shameless, and greedy courtesan, one of the thor- crown of her head like a flame. She has very youth-
oughly artful little hussies who plunder their lovers. ful features and a rather frightened expression. In
She corresponds to the perfect little courtesan of the list of Pollux (iv,154), she would be the little
Pollux ( iv, 153) with red complexion and hair laid lamp or torch ( Aa/x7raoW ) who is the last of the
over the ears (reXtiov IraipiKov). A still younger and courtesans enumerated, and therefore the youngest,
less disagreeable courtesan is represented in a as Pollux arranges his lists according to age.
statuette in Athens (Fig. 360) that probably was Still younger than the young courtesans are the

found in Myrina. 53 She wears a peplos, the dress worn slave girls, like Doris, the maid of Glycera in the
in the Hellenistic period by quite young girls only. Perikeiromene. Such a one in modest attitude and
The same peplos with long overfold is worn by the with bobbed hair is represented on the mosaic with
girl embraced by a youth (Fig. 368). The left hand women by Dioscurides (Fig. 347). Two masks from
is lightly placed upon the hip, the right hand is pro- Apulia in Munich (Fig. 367a-b) 60 have childish
truded in a lively gesticulation. Her head is inclined features, pert little noses (aifiol) and parted hair.
to her left shoulder. She seems to talk to somebody Pollux distinguishes between the delicate slave girl
who stands at her right side. In the list of Pollux employed in a citizen's home (df3pa TrepiVoiyjos ) and
she might be the courtesan with a broad fillet, a the coarse pug-nosed little who
belongs to a
servant
mitra (iv,154), Sia/^Tpos ) who has a colored hair- courtesan. The little ladv's maid of the citizen's house
band around her head. The mitra is here combined is clothed in white and has bobbed hair evenly ar-

with a hair bow. A bow tied on the fillet is worn ranged around her face. As short hair is the sign
on a marble mask of a girl in Naples (Fig. 361), 54 of slavery, it is the greatest offense for Glycera to
who has a rather innocent expression. The same is get her hair cut like a slave girl. The little slave of
true of another mask in Naples which combines the the courtesan has her haii parted and laid smoothly
bow with a kerchief, laid deeply into the forehead to the sides (irapdiprjaTov) and she has a snub nose
(Fig. 362)." The folded cloth looks almost like a curving upward ( vTr6mp.ov ) She wears scarlet robes.
.

turban. Both these masks have stiffly twisted cork- Lower-class bourgeois types which already belong
screw locks hanging at the sides. The mask on a to the older comedy, but have found their develop-
terracotta disk from Selembria in Berlin has a mitra ment only in New Comedy, are the soldier, the
or sphendone over her parted hair (Fig. 363). She parasite, and the cook. The soldier is well charac-
is the counterpart to the youth (Fig. 340).
56
A broad terized in Menander's Perikeiromene. Polemon is
fillet alone confines the parted hair of a mask found blustering and impulsive, but is repentant. He tries
in Myrina, in the Boston Museum (Fig. 364). 57 Her to reconcile his beloved Glycera and earnestly seeks

98
 Fig. 365. Mask of "Golden Courtesan." Marble; Vatican
Pcrikeiromene, where Polemon sees Glycera kiss a
Fig. 366. Lampadion man, who is her brother, but whom he suspects to
be her lover. The youth is wrapped in his mantle,
the girl is characterized as very young by the peplos
(see above, Fig. 360). The soldier wears a short
chiton and a chlamys, the dress of soldiers and
travelers. He carries his sword inside the sheath on
the right (that is, the wrong) side. He sadly leans
his head toward his right shoulder. An older bearded
soldier in a corselet (Fig. 369) found in the Agora
of Athens seems to be boasting with outstretched
arms. 0 - Long locks fall on his shoulders. Another
statuette in the British Museum is wearing a chlamys
pinned before the breast and a plate-like flat cap
(Fig. 370). 63 The soldier with a lance in the lost
wall painting found in the Casa della grande Fon-
tana in Pompeii (Fig. 371) 64 also wears a flat cap,
her forgiveness for having cut her hair. She comes
a short chiton, and a chlamys which, with the pinned
back to him and is given to him in marriage by her part originally on the right shoulder, is shifted to
father. Such a soldier is represented in a statuette
the left shoulder. His right hand grasping a lance, his
in Munich, found together with a pair of lovers left proudly placed upon his hip, a flat cap on his
with their arms around each other (Fig. 368). 61 This
head, his hair falling over his ears, he looks grim and
results in a situation similar to the one in the
stupid. He conforms to Pollux' (iv,147) long-haired
braggart soldier ( eVi'o-tioTo? o-TpaTi<'>TT?<> a\a£d>v). Be-
hind him is a smaller man also with a chlamys, thus
probably one of his hired soldiers. His parasite ap-
proaching with wide stride looks up to the great
man like a devoted dog. He probably repeats the
stories of the great feats of his bread-giver with
exaggerations. Behind him are two other smaller
men, perhaps also hired soldiers or servants, for the
officers in the time of the Diadochi became rich and
could afford luxurious domestic establishments. The
lost Kolax, the Flatterer, by Menander may have

Fig. 371. Soldier and parasite

Fig. 368. Soldier and pair of lovers

369a-b. Soldier. Bronze statuette Fig. 370. Soldier with flat cap
VIII. NEW COMEDY • MENANDER

373a-b 375a-b 377

had a similar scene. The two seated men in the fore- his waistwith a roll and an overfall. He stands in a
ground probably have nothing to do with the clumsy position, holding the folds of his mantle
comedy. They seem to be portrait statues of Aeschy- loosely with both hands, has drawn his head be-
lus and Sophocles. A more refined flatterer appears tween his shoulders and is looking down. His mask
in a statuette from Myrina in Athens (Fig. 372)
65
has stupid and coarse features. A variation in Ber-
and in a mask in Berlin (Fig. 373). 66 Both have lin
69
emphasizes the fat paunch through the folded
serious expressions, a high, bald smooth forehead hands. A mask, formerly in Rome, seen in 1926 at the
like fawning dogs, and a hooked nose ( tVi-ypu?™? ) gallery of the dealer Jandolo, has a bald forehead,
this, according to Pseudo-Aristotle (Physiognomica, eyebrows drawn upward, and a very marked squint
811a,n,61), signifies impertinence and is compared (Fig. 375). 70 A statuette in Lebanon (Fig. 376) has
to the beaks of greedy ravens. Some parasites are a similar head on a lean body. The hands are folded
of good extraction, but have become poor by laziness and the parasite seems to look up imploringly to his
and thus have from the good will of more
to live bread-giver. A mask in Tarentum has the bald fore-
fortunate They try to make themselves
friends. head and large ears of the coarse parasite and an
agreeable by flatteries and jokes, indulge the whims enormous crooked nose knocked out of shape (Fig.
of their benefactors and patiently run errands for 377). 71 Thus there are three types of the parasite,
them. They cannot afford servants, and therefore the which we also find in later literature: the polished
statuette (Fig. 372) carries an oil flask and strigil, flatterer with the hooked nose, the common parasite
attributes of the parasite mentioned by Pollux in the company of the braggart self-asserting offi-
(iv,120), which as a rule are carried by slaves for cer, and the particularly coarse Sicilian parasite
their masters. The left hand sustains the right elbow (Pollux, iv,148). In Latin comedy the coarse type,
and the right hand is lifted in lively gesticulation. originating in the comedies of Epicharmus of Sicily,

He seems to be angry and seriously scolding for was favored as we see him in the parasite Peniculus
some small mistake, in order to make the praise of in Plautus' Menaechmi. The great Roman actor Ros-
more important things more effective. Much coarser first century B.C. played the role of the
cius in the
is a statuette from Capua in Berlin (Fig. 374a-b),
67
parasitewithout a mask because he squinted,
of which there are replicas in Munich, the Louvre, and he may have resembled the mask (Fig. 375).
and elsewhere. 68 This low-class flatterer emphasizes The most grotesque lower-class free men are the
his fat belly by draping his himation tightly around cooks, who are public caterers and are called in
 VIII. NEW COMEDY • MEN AN DER

378 379 :>H2

Fig. 383. Lady and cook. Wall painting, Palermo

the center of the high forehead. While the relief

mask has wavy one has tufts
strands, the terracotta
of short hair at the sides. This seems to be the
loquacious Tettix, a cook from a foreign land, for-
380 ever chattering and perhaps jumping like a cicada
Figs. 378-382. Cooks 381 (t€ttl$). He also has a small number of solitary
curls forming a beard on his chin.The description
when there is a banquet or a wedding feast to be
of the Maison and the Tettix in Pollux (iv,150)
prepared. In the Girl from Samos Parmenon brings
agrees with the two main types of these cooks.
the cook and his assistantshome from the market,
The bald-headed cook represented in a terracotta
so that he may prepare the dinner on the occasion
statuette in Munich carries a large basket (Fig.
of the wedding of Moschion and Plangon. He is de-
382). A wall painting in Palermo, copied from a
scribed as curious and as such a chatterer that his
framed picture (Fig. 383), 75 seems to represent a
tongue could make hash without knives. His type
cook holding a similar shopping basket. He is speak-
and mask are derived from the Doric farce and are
ing with a tall lady, who might be a bourgeois
used in Old and Middle Comedy (see Ch. Ill,
woman, or possibly a courtesan. She is accompanied
Figs. 155-156 and 200). The Maison type is said
by a little maid, wrapped in her himation, similar
to have been invented by a man of this name in
to the maid on the mosaic of Dioscurides ( Fig. 347),
Megara, a fact which calls to mind the Megarian
but she has drawn the mantle over her head. The
farce. From the old type is derived the wedge-
scene reminds one of Plautus's Menaechmi (i,4, w.
shaped beard of the statuette in Tarentum of a bald
219-25). Erotium tells her cook Cylindrus to shop
cook ( Fig. 378 ) He carries a huge fish in his right
.

for a dinner for three, of which she herself, Me-

hand, while his left hand rests on his hip under
naechmus, and his parasite will partake. The cook
his cloak. A statuette found in Myrina, now in Berlin
protests because the parasite will eat enough for
(Fig. 379 ), 7 - seems to be preparing some dish. He
eight.
has a kind of long apron tied around him, of the
Other low-class, but freeborn men are the peas-
kind still worn today by chefs. He has put the
ants, as described in Menander's Farmer (Georgos,
wreath of the symposion on his head. He probably
"
Ay poiKos, Fragment 97K): "I am a country boor,
has a sweet-tooth and thus likes to enjoy his own
even I will not deny it. ..." A mask found in Kyme
creations. His grinning face expresses conceit and 76
( Fig. 384 ) ,
in the Collection Lecuyer, depicts such
noisy cheerfulness. The wreath may hide baldness,
a farmer with badly shaven cheeks, a broad mouth
as it appears on two masks: one (Fig. 380) 73 with
showing his strong and healthy teeth, and a stupid
a face similar to that of the statuette in Berlin comes
expression. Another such mask of a stupid rustic
from the marble frieze found in the gymnasium of
with short cropped hair is in Leipzig (Fig. 385). 77
Pergamon, together with tragic masks set into an
ivy garland ( see above, Figs. 311-313); the other, of Figs. 384, 385. Masks of peasants. Terracotta

terracotta, said to have been found also in Perga-

74
mon, now in Berlin is much more
(Fig. 381 ) ,

individualand grotesque, his enormously broad

mouth showing his teeth. Both have a tuft of hair in

0
 VIII . NEW COMEDY • MENANDER
The expressions in these masks are much diversi-
fied, from great seriousness to gay laughter, just as
the role of the servants is much diversified in New
Comedy. In Menander the slaves are human individ-
uals with fine gradations of character just like the
free persons. In the Hero the slave Davus is in love
and his companion Geta is a helpful fellow. In the
Perikeiromene the slaves are much devoted to their
masters, Sosias to the soldier Polemon and Davus
Figs. 386, 387. Procurers to the young Moschion. The slaves are not, how-
ever, the leaders of the intrigue and not clowns as
Another low-class citizen is the slave-dealer, the leno sometimes Comedy. Onesimus in the Arbi-
in Latin
or pornoboskos ( 7ropvo(3o<jKo<; ) with whom the young trants is officious and philosophically inclined, but
men and their slaves are always fighting, because he unimportant; his plot is superseded by the much
sells the courtesans to the highest bidder. A terra- better one of the harp player Habrotonon. The
cotta statuette from Myrina in the Louvre and an goatherd Davus and the charcoal burner Syriscus
impressive mask found in Priene, now in Berlin in the same play certainly had peculiar masks and
(Figs. 386 and 387), 78 probably represent this pro- dresses adapted to their professions. The servants
curer. He has contracted brows, and a disagreeable are neither as impudent nor as important as in the
grin, his baldness hidden by a ring around which a Latin Comedies.
broad fillet is wound, the ends of it hanging on his This agrees with the scenes in which slaves ap-
shoulders. He seems to greet some rich customer pear in the company of bourgeois characters in
with outstretched hands. He appeared in Menan- monuments. On the marble relief with a Comedy
der's Kolax and is described in Pollux (iv,145) as scene ( Fig. 324 ) the slave sustains his young master
being bald and similar to the Lykomedeios, who and tries to hide behind him. In the wallpainting
has a long beard. in Naples, his master finds the slave carousing with
Coarsest of all, naturally, are the masks of the a flute player (Fig. 328), just as Onesimus in the
slaves, which were borrowed from' Old Comedy and Arbitrants is a friend of the music girl. His and her
therefore often display a hairdress of the early fifth mask together appear again in the mosaic (Fig.
century, the rolled arrangement of the hair which 329). In both cases he has a red face and exag-
is known Examples are a terra-
as speira (a-n-dpa). gerated lifted brows, which, according to Pseudo-
cotta disk from Myrina in Boston (Fig. 388), 79 a Aristotle (Physiognomica, 67, 811b and 812a), signi-
masked small head found in Pergamon, in the Col- fies impertinence because red hair and a red com-
lection Humann, and a mask from the island of plexion signify a foxy rascal. In this case the
Melos, both in Berlin (Figs. 389 and 390), 80 a terra- scoundrel dares to celebrate a banquet with the
cotta mask from Naples, formerly in the possession slave girl who was hired for the master, not for the
of the author (Fig. 391), 81 one formerly in the Col- servant. The wreath worn by both these
festival
lection Vogell, last seen in Kassel (Fig. 392), and slaves is also found in a good mask in Berlin (Fig.
the marble mask in Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano 394). 83 In the scene where "Smikrines" scolds
delle Terme, found on the Via Salaria near the Porta "Sophrona" (Fig. 327) the slave stands in the
Salaria in the tomb of the Calpurnii (Fig. 393). 82 background. In the picture with the braggart soldier
They all have distorted eyebrows and broad, flat the servants stand modestly behind the captain and
noses with wide nostrils; the mouth is surrounded the parasite ( Fig. 371 ) The stupidity of some slaves
.

by a kind of megaphone, on which the hairs of a is well expressed in the mask formerly in the Col-
short beard are indicated. This trumpet-like arrange- lection Vogell (Fig. 392).
ment may have helped when the voice of the actors The slave probably rose in time to a more im-
had to fill the large Hellenistic and Roman theaters, portant position. In a mural painting from Her-
but considering the excellent acoustics of the audi- culaneum in Naples and a replica in the Atrium of
toria this seems hardly necessary. the Casa di Casca Longo, where it is set into a fine

388
Figs. 388-394. Masks for the leading slave of New Comedy
389 390 391 392 393 394
 VIII. NEW COMEDY • M EN AN DER

in the outer part. He wears a cushion to pad his

body, held by two belts above and below, similar
to the actor tearing his side hair strands in the
bronze statuette at Florence (above, Fig. 295). Over
his chiton he wears a chlamys pinned at the right
shoulder. According to Pollux he would be the slave
with hair on the lower part only (kutcj Tpix^), who
is bald and has his eyebrows lifted ( eVr/p/wVos tu?

6(f>pv<s). Such a one is also shown in the statuette of

a slave carrying a traveling bedsack on his back

from Megara in Berlin (Fig. 398). 88 He is wearing
a chlamys so that it covers his front also, although
it hangs longer in the back. This traveling cloak

indicates that these slaves are sent on errands and

have to accompany their masters on trips. They
certainly will not fail to complain about the too
much running and too heavy burdens imposed on
Fig. 395. Leading slave and pair of lovers. Wall painting, them, that is, they will make phortika, the jokes
Pompeii of the porter, as in Old Comedy. They are derived
like the cook — from the Maison of Old Comedy. In
wall decoration of the third style (Fig. 395), the 84 a statuette in Athens, probably from Myrina (Fig.
399 ), s such a servant dressed in a chlamys seems
''

slave mocks a young couple by making the gesture

to have fulfilled successfully his mission or journey,
of horns (corna) which today in Italy means
still
tor he has put on the wreath and broad fillets of the
an attempt to avert evil. The young woman and her
lover seem dismayed, he puts his arm protectingly
symposium and is dancing a jig. He spreads out both
arms, lifting his left arm and his head to his left.
over her shoulder. The slave has grey hair and wears
a wide mantle draped in the same manner as it is worn
His hair is curled at the sides of his pate. He thus
by bourgeois older men, decorated with fringes, a conforms to the curly-haired slave of Pollux (iv,149,
sign of luxury. He therefore is probably a freed ouAos). The Greek slaves were allowed to celebrate

man. In the list of Pollux (iv,149) he would be banquets in contrast to the Boman slaves, as ex-
the Pappos, the only slave with grey hair. As the plained in Plautus (Stichus, vv. 446ff. ). Another
two pictures have been painted in the two cities slave, whose mission may have failed, is in another

destroyed by Vesuvius, they must be copies of a statuette at Athens; in contrast, he is very angry and

celebrated Greek painting. There is also a similar clenches his fists, grasping the small mantle laid on
figure of a Pappos, moving with a and
wide stride his left shoulder (Fig. 298). 90

lively gesturesand wearing a white speira and As the child who is exposed and later found and
fringed mantle, represented in a terracotta from recognized is a main subject in New Comedy, it is
Myrina in Athens (Fig. 396). 85 to be expected that the servants would be found in
Other slaves, one with a wineskin from Myrina in association with babies. Thus the charcoal burner
Boston and one from Smyrna in Vienna, seem to be Syriscus in Menander's Arbitrants asks his wife to
running at high speed (Figs. 297 and 299). 86 Both hand him the foundling (vv. 85f. ). A statuette from
have the speira. A
running slave in Athens, formerly Tarentum, found together with the cook fFig. 378),
in the Collection Misthos, probably from Smyrna holds a child in swaddling clothes in his left arm
(Fig. 397), 87 has, on the contrary, a bald pate, with and lays his right hand on his breast as if pleading
only a few straight hairstrands at the sides. His (Fig. 400). 91 In the list of Pollux he would be the
eyebrows are drawn together and swing high out leading servant (^ytpv Oepd-n-wv). On a mosaic, for-

Figs. 396, 397. Slaves running; 398, Slave with bedsack; 399a-b, Slave dancing; 400, Slave with baby
 VIII. NEW COMEDY • MEN AN DER

Florence 97 also supports his head with his right

hand, which is supported by the elbow on his right
thigh; his left hand is laid on the seat and his legs
are crossed above the knees. A terracotta statuette
in the Louvre shows the leader much excited (Fig.
407). Both his hands in the Louvre statuette, and
his left hand in the one in Vienna, grasp the little
mantle hanging from his left shoulder. His left
shoulder is drawn up higher than his ear and his
head is bent down. He obviously is emotionally
upset. He and the following five figurines have the
legs crossed like Figs. 406 and 407. A quieter and
more dignified man represented in a statuette found
in Vulci, now in Berlin (Fig. 408), 98 is wrapped in
a large himation with both hands inside the mantle,
in a manner above (Fig.
similar to the older youth
338). He thus might be a bourgeois, but could also
be a Pappos, as his mask is too grotesque for a
dignified man. He wears a wreath with a long fillet
for a banquet, as does the mask of the curly-haired
Fig. 401. Slave discovering a baby. Mosaic, Naples
slave above (Fig. 394). A wreath is also shown on
merly in the Collection Sant'Angelo, now in the the seated slave in a terracotta in the Louvre (Fig.
92
National Museum of Naples (Fig. 401), the same 409). 99 He has laid his clasped hands between his
leading servant seems to have found a baby in a knees. The bronze statuette of a slave in Princeton
basket from which he is lifting the covering. A found in Egypt (Fig. 410) 100 grasps his left wrist
figure to his right, lost for the most part, lifts his with his right hand like the standing bronze figurine
lefthand as if boy looks on
in astonishment, while a in Milan (Fig. 403). He wears a mantle over both
at the other side. As the leader of an intrigue, he is shoulders, a ring around his lower neck, perhaps to
standing in a pensive posture with his hands folded. mark him as a fugitive slave, and stretches his big
His himation is drawn tightly around his body, and head forward as if looking fearfully for an aggressor.
he lifts his head proudly in a statuette in Munich A bronze statuette in the British Museum also seems
(Fig. 402). 93 His eyebrows are particularly dis- to represent a fearful slave who has taken refuge
torted, giving an expression of sharp deliberation on an altar. He wears a wreath with a long fillet
and a feeling of superiority. A bronze statuette in the (Fig. 411). 101 Much more at ease is the curly seated
Museo alia Scala in Milano (Fig. 403) 94 grasps his slave in chlamys represented in a statuette from the
left wrist with his right hand and has deep furrows Collection Misthos, thus probably from Myrina, in
on his forehead as a result of deep reflections. The Athens. 102 He gesticulates gaily with his right arm,
same gesture is shown in a statuette in the posses- leaning his head, which is adorned with a wreath
sion of Professor Seyrig in Beirut (Fig. 404) and in and fillet, on his right shoulder. He is seated on a
95
one from Myrina in the Louvre (Fig. 405). small rounded bench, while others (Figs. 407 and
This leader and other slaves often appear seated. 409) are seated on a simple square seat and still
Thus a leader is represented in a bronze statuette in others (Figs. 406, 410-412) are probably seated on
the British Museum with crossed feet, his lifted an altar. A round altar is certainly used as refuge
head sustained by his right hand and his left hand by the bronze actor in Hartford, Connecticut (Fig.
supporting the elbow of his right arm ( Fig. 406 ) .
96
412). 103 He
has thrown himself backward on a round
A small bronze in the Museo archeologico in altar decorated with garlands and masks, turning

Figs. 402-405. Slaves with folded hands

402 403 404a-c 405
Figs. 406, 407. Seated slaves
 VIII. NEW COMEDY • MEN AN DER

his head to his right, waving his right arm with a ment with the tendency to standardize typical
fist against his persecutors, and dangling his legs masks. For earlier works it is more important to
with crossed knees in the air. Wemight restore a explain the masks from the valuable remains of,

similar altar to the much corroded bronze figurine Menander and other Greek comic writers than from
from Egypt in Berlin (Fig. 413). 104 This actor also Pollux.""''
has his knees crossed with his feet hanging free, The figurative monuments together with the texts
both arms spread out in lively gesticulation, the right teach us much not only of the numerous situations
forward, the left to the side, the head turned to the and amusing individuals of the New Comedy, but
right. This motif of a flight to an altar is frequent also of the livelv. refined, and varied gestures (see
in Latin Comedy and Roman marble statuettes and Ch. VII, p. 81, Figs. 295-299 and this chapter,
reliefs (see Ch. XI, Figs. 556-558; Ch. XII, Fig. 587). Figs. 395-413). The fathers are much more self-
The often mentioned catalogue of Pollux's Ono- controlled than their light-headed sons, and if a
masticon (rv, 143-154) includes 44 comic masks, 9 father sometimes becomes violent, a prudent friend
being those of old matured men, 11 those of youths, restrains him, as on the comedy relief in Naples
7 those of slaves, and 17 those of women. In each (Fig. 324; cf. Figs. 325-328). The servants, on the
division the arrangement is essentially according to contrary, are often uncontrolled and unduly lively.
age. In addition, the coiffure, the color of the hair, the This is the case with the slave on the comedv relief
manner of wearing the beard, the complexion, the who tries to hide behind his young master while
shape of the eyebrows, and, in fewer instances, the supporting him. Other examples are the old freed-
characteristics of other parts of the face or the facial man on the mural paintings in Naples (Fig. 395)
expression are taken into consideration in the classifi- who stands with his legs wide apart and mocks the
cation. C. Robert has shown that one can actually lovers. The slaves in the statuettes are shown run-
stage all Latin comedies, which are mostly based on ning, dancing, or alertlv poised on an altar (Figs.
Greek New Comedy, with this assortment of masks. 396-413; cf/Ch. VII, Figs. 297-299). Their pose
This author and O. Navarre, A.K.H. Simon, T.B.L. often expresses deep thought, or in other cases mis-
Webster, Pickard-Cambridge, Gisela Krien, and trust and a readiness to jump up and run away upon
occasionally other scholars, have partly accepted, the advent of danger. interesting to compare
It is
partly rejected, partly supplemented the attributions the statuette of a seated bourgeois or freedman, who
of Robert. 105 Pickard-Cambridge, instead of assign- is talking and yet keeps his hands inside his large
ing the right masks out of Pollux's list to each mantle (Fig. 408) with that of a seated younger
character in the scanty remains of Greek New slave, both of whose hands are outside his chlamys
Comedy, tries to illustrate the catalogue given by and who talks with lively gesticulation (Fig. 413).
Pollux with the figurative representations of scenes, Among the women we find all varieties of poses
statuettes, and masks. This author, on the other depicting everything from the deepest emotion to
hand, has realized that Pollux wrote almost half a the greatest joy: a sad girl (Fig. 355; cf. Figs. 161-
millennium later than Menander. Even if his cata- 162); an excited chattering courtesan (Fig. 360);
logue is based on Aristophanes of Byzantium (ca. obstrusive, indiscreet garrulity in the statuette of a
257-180 b.c), and more likely on the wardrobe of stout matchmaker (Fig. 349); cunning laughter of
Hellenistic actors' guilds, he certainly reflects more the courtesan, mocked by the old freedman on the
the usage at his own
time than the earlier periods. wall painting (Fig. 395) and in the statuette of an
There are more shades of forms and expressions in impudent lassie (Fig. 359); and boisterous laughter
the Hellenistic monuments than are listed in Pollux, in the seated concubine (Fig. 357). The three
and the masks in the time of Menander were not of women on the mosaic of Dioscurides (Fig. 347)
normal or standardized types. They were probably form an expressive group: the old one reckons aloud,
only a little more standardized in Terence, while the young woman in the center, probably a cour-
Plautus may have been on the way to definite types tesan, demonstrates with her hand, while the other
(see Ch. XI). Pollux is at the end of this develop-
Figs. 410-413. Slaves taking refuge on altars

410 411 412 413

408, 409. Seated man and slave
VIII. NEW COMEDY • MENANDER

young woman, probably a bourgeoise, listens fear-

fully with lowered head. The clumsy dance move-
ment of the two musicians on the other mosaic of
Dioscurides (Fig. 346); the abandon evident in the
music of the flute player (Fig. 328) and of the
merry cithara player ( Fig. 341 ) the eager prepara- ;

tion of a dish by the gossiping and curiously spying

cook (Fig. 379), who is adorned with the floral
wreath of the symposium; the coarseness of the
parasite (Figs. 372-377); the sad pose of the officer
punished for his bragging words (Fig. 368);
the. false friendliness of the procurer (Figs. 386-
387) —
all these let us guess how these plays of

Attic New Comedy, coupled with the highly de-

veloped art of staging and acting during the Hel-
most subtle,
lenistic period, attained their highest,
and most inspiring presentations, which were in
perfect accord with the content and meaning of the
plays.
We must, of course, always take into consideration
that Greek art, despite the tendency to truth to
nature in the Hellenistic period, never copied ex-
actly from nature, and from theatrical
still less so
performances. The and marble
terracotta, bronze, Fig. 414. Tuna fisherman and customer. Southern Italian
vase from Lipari
masks certainly differed considerably from the
original masks, most of which were probably made
of linen covered with stucco and painted in individ- subjects were the needlewoman and the sorceress.
ual manners. Cork or wood might also have occa- This is related to the subject of the mosaic of Dios-
sionally been used. The interest in portraiture might curides showing women (above Fig. 347).
have induced the artists to give more facial expres- The Sicilian mime came to Athens in the early
sion to the imitated masks than the originals had. fourth century. Plato liked Sophron and is said to
This same interest led to the development of the have imitated the form of the mime for his dia-
mime, the last form of performance which invaded logues. Xenophonin his Symposion, n and vn, por-
the Greek theater in the late Hellenistic period. It trays a wandering troupe from Syracuse, in which
developed in Syracuse, from which it later came to a boy and girl accompanied by a flute player pre-
Greece as well as to Rome (see Ch. XI, p. 160). sent, at the house of the wealthy Callias, dances
It was given in rustic and religious festivals. and acrobatic feats, such as somersaults in which
Sophron composed the first literary mimes in the girl tumbles in and out of a circle of knives
prose. 107 Costumes and characters were taken from stuck point upward in the floor. Similar tricks are
daily life of the middle and lower classes. There pictured on vase paintings from Southern Italy (see
were monologues, dialogues, little scenes, and Ch. XI, Fig. 579). In conclusion, the boy and the
dances. girl give a ballet, the theme of which is the love of
The mimes were sometimes serious, but mostly Dionysus and Ariadne. The banquet depicted is
jocular (fxl/jioi airovSaloi and yeXoloi). They were assumed to have been given in the year 421 b.c.
played by men and women without masks, and were Not much later than this ballet is an Attic vase
also divided into male and female scenes (/tt/xot painting in the Collection Vlastos at Athens. It de-
avSptloLand yiTaiKttoi ) Subjects among the male
. picts the dance of a mime who makes a caricature
mimes were the peasant and the tuna fishers. This of the hero Perseus (Fig. 202). 109 The dance is acted
might be illustrated by a southern Italian vase on a small such as the popular entertainers
stage,
found in Lipari, now in the Collection Mandralisca carried with for the farce (see Ch. X). The
them
at Cefalu, showing a fish vendor selling half a tuna patron is probably a wealthy Athenian represented
fish, which he has cut with a big knife, to a seated on an elegant Attic chair together with a
customer with a large head and bald forehead on a handsome young man.
meager body ( Fig. 414 ) 10S Among the female mimes
. In the Hellenistic period the mime was given a
 V III . NEW COMEDY • MEN AN DER

poetic form by Theocritus, whose Adoniazusae or represent a youth and an older citizen quarreling
Women at the Adonis Festival (No. 15) is con- with a slave dealer or panderer ( pornoboskos,
sidered to be the best ancient mime. The Fhornui- TropvofjoaKos
) a situation similar to Herondas, Mime
,

112
ccutriae (No. 2) are related in subject to the Dios- No. 2.Both of them walk away apparently in
curides mosaic (Fig. 346). Herondas is coarser but violent discussion, and they look back upon the
probably more effective for recitation. The frag- man in the center while they leave. The mime may
ment of a mime with the lament of a forsaken girl be responsible for the popular jokes at the expense
before the door of her lover has been found in of mothers-in-law. Terence in his Hecyra certainly
Egypt. 110 A late Hellenistic lamp in Athens (Fig. treats her very respectfully. None of the mime play-
415) 111 gives us the three actors (mimologoi, ers wears a mask. In addition to the normal types
fxi/jioXoyoi) of such a literary mimus and the name like the youth, abnormally ugly and even deformed
of the plot ( hypothesis, {ir66eai<; )
: The Mother-in- persons performed in the mime. This form of enter-
Law (Hekyra, 'Exvpa). In the center is a bald, tainment had great popularity in Rome (cf. Ch. XI,
stupid-looking man with enormous ears, broad nose, p. 160; and Ch. XV, Figs. 775, 786, 825-829).
and a fat bellv. He is flanked by an older man and The mimes probably did not enter the Greek theater
a youth, probably the husband and the son-in-law before the Roman period but were played in private
of the principal character. They could, however, also houses.

Fig. 415. Actors of the mime Hekyra. Terracotta lamp, Athens

 CHAPTER IX

THE HELLENISTIC THEATER BUILDING

In the clever preface to his play Great Catherine, tragedians, an effective framing of the scene of per-
Shaw says: "No sane and skilled author writes plays formance by means of the paraskenia did not take
that present impossibilities to the actor or to the place before the last part of the fifth century.
stage engineer. If, he asks
as occasionally happens, Furthermore, the stone skene at the edge of the
them to do things that they have never done before orchestra was not planned in a durable and prac-
and cannot conceive as presentable or possible (as tical form before the time of Pericles; it was begun
Wagner and Thomas Hardy have done, for ex- for the first time during the peace of Nicias (421-
ample), it is always found that the difficulties are 415) (Fig. 237) and was not finished before the age
not really insuperable, the author having foreseen of Alexander the Great ( Figs. 257-260 ) The newly-
.

unsuspected possibilities both in the actor and in the constructed building had not long been in use when
audience, whose will-to-make-believe can perform new ideas in staging arose. The high development
the quaintest miracles. Thus may authors advance of the art of acting in the fourth century (see Ch.
the art of acting and of staging plays. But the actor VII) demanded, for the most esteemed artists, as
also may enlarge the scope of the drama by display- distinguished a place as possible. The chorus, on
ing powers not previously discovered by the the other hand, was neglected to such an extent in
author." 1 Not only Hardy, and not only Wagner, tragedy as well as in comedy that the classical or-
whose wishes in regard to stage settings were first chestra became too large for it in the dramatic
carried out fifty years after his death by his son, 2 plays, although at the same time, of course, the
but all the great dramatists were ahead of their day lyrical choruses in all periods required this space.
in this respect.Succeeding generations are the ones The favorite drama of the Hellenistic audience,
who, with conscientious investigation and admira- however, was no longer tragedy but New Comedy
tion for the greatness of creative geniuses, have ex- (see Ch. VIII). In this the aim of the poet was
hausted the possibilities of staging and setting con- not, as in Old Comedy, the ridiculous and grotesque
tained in the plays of the masters. The best example situation but the portrayal and clear delineation of
of this is the history of the production of Shake- the individual characters. It was, therefore, of prime
spearean drama, from its simplest to its most com- importance to make these individual figures visible
plicated forms, with the eventual return to the to the audience with relief-like precision. This led
original form of presentation. to a raised stage for the first time in Greece.
It is consequently explicable that, for the great The theater of Priene 3 (Figs. 416-425) is the

Fig. 416. Priene

417, 418. Theater of Priene. Plan of actual remains;
Plan of earlier theater reconstructed; von Gerkan

earliest and, since it is well preserved (Figs. 416-

417) although small, it is for us the most important
among the new theaters which were erected in Hel-
lenistic times. Only in such a new building, and not
in older remodelled ones, could new ideas find
clear and unquestionable expression. In his careful
and constructive researches A. von Gerkan has
worked out in a reliable way the oldest form of this
theater (Figs. 418-419), and also the later remodel-
ling (Figs. 420-421) with their dates. The theater
was included in the general building plan of the
whole city, and the auditorium was probably laid
out at once about 340 b.c, as were all the other
public buildings. It was designed in the classic form
of a horseshoe, and built by digging out the earth
at the slope of the hill and erecting supporting walls
 IX. THE HELLENISTIC THEATER BUILDING

421

Figs. 419-421. Theater of Priene. Earlier and later scene

buildings, reconstructed

(Figs. 416, 425). In about 300 b.c. the seats of honor

were already granted. The erection of the stone
skene, however, did not come until the beginning
of the third century. Its form is perfectly clear: a
two-story structure with a one-story forebuilding
facing the orchestra (Figs. 420-421). The flat roof
of this lower building was made of wooden planks
set between stone beams (Figs. 416 and 419). The
front wall consisted of engaged half-columns of
stone set against rectangular stone pillars (Fig.
422a-b). Since there were holes for bolts on the
sides of the pillars, wooden panels must have been
fastened to them by bolts. Wethus have the pillars
as a stone framework and a permanent support
(Fig. 422b), 4 the attached stone columns as a per-
manent decoration (Fig. 422a),and interchange-
able painted decorations on wooden panels between
the supporting posts (Figs. 419 and 421). Accord-
ing to von Gerkan, 5 the top story, above the flat
roof, was at first completely closed except for one
door (Figs. 419 and 423). Bulle, 6 on the contrary,
is of the opinion that it had from the beginning

three doors facing the orchestra, corresponding to

the doors of the lower story. For the later period
there is no doubt that in Priene, as in most of the

other theaters, narrow piers were constructed so as

to form three wide openings (Figs. 420-421, 424-
425).
The names for the different parts of this Hel-
given in the inscriptions
lenistic stage building are
from Delos, which begin in 305 B.C. and describe
7

the progress of the work on a wooden theater con-

sisting of a skene and a proskenion, mentioned in

110
Fig. 422a-b. Priene, pilasters of proskenion

an inscription of 280 b.c. Stone construction of the

auditorium began in 297, of the skene in 274. There
can be no doubt that the skene is the two-story
main building. The proskenion is the porch, ve-
randa, or colonnade which is laid before it at the
same height as the lower story. Its roof is at the
same level as the floor of theupper story. The in-
scriptions of282/81 and 280/79 b.c. mention the
pinakes, which are, of course, the panels fastened
between the pillars; the inscriptions furnish the ad-
ditional information that these panels were painted.
When, in 279 b.c, a wooden beam eleven cubits
long was needed for the logeion, the speaking-place
or platform, only the flat roof or terrace of the
proskenion can be meant. 8 When in the same year
the roof of the skene was painted, the building
must have been completed. When the skene was
rebuilt in stone beginning 274 B.C., at the same time
stone foundations for the side wings (paraskenia)
were laid.These side wings must have been two
stories high, for they are specifically called upper
and lower paraskenia, to correspond with the upper
and lower skene. The upper story (episkenion)
was at that time still made of wood. Some of the
pinakes were constructed anew, others were re-
paired and used again. 9 From 269 to 250 b.c. the
whole skene was gradually transformed into stone,
and the tiers of seats in the auditorium (theatron)
were still being erected as late as 246 b.c. 10 In the Figs. 423-425. Priene, earlier and later scene buildings, with pinakes
year 180 b.c. a commission was given for wooden
pinakes above the logeion. 11 Consequently, the large
openings above the logeion, such as were found in
the later theater of Priene (Figs. 421, 424-425),
probably date from that time. According to an in-
scription of Oropus (Figs. 426-429), 12 these large
openings were called thyromata (dvpio/xara, large
openings for pinakes or backdrops) and belonged
to the upper skene, the episcenium (episkenion),
just as the small pinakes belonged to the columns
of the proskenion. Since the theater at Oropus is
well preserved, it confirms the names for the parts
of the Hellenistic theater derived from the associa-
Fig. 426. Theater of Oropus, thyromata

111
 Figs. 430-431. Terracotta altars in the shape of houses.
Vorderasiatischen Museum, Berlin

little terracotta altars belonging to the Vorder-

asiatischen Museum in Berlin 430-431), 14
(Figs.
taken from the cult room of the archaic temple of
Ishtar in Assur, which was destroyed about 2700
b.c, have the form of a two-story house. Each has a
projecting lower story, with a flat terrace at the level
of the floor of the second story extending the width
of the entire building. At the front of the forebuild-
ing of the one house (Fig. 430) is a wide door, and
at its side there are triangular windows, while the
back wing has a square window on the upper floor.
Two doors open out on the terrace. The other house
(Fig. 431) has four doors in the forebuilding and
four triangular windows in front.Above the terrace
are four doors and above them four windows. On
the side there is a door below, a large window
above, and two small ones on the second floor. It is
a light structure, a kind of arbor for the hot season.
It is built with the help of a scaffolding of vertical
wooden posts and horizontal beams. It is thus a real
Figs. 427-429. Theater of Oropus, reconstructions "skene," a temporary building.
This type of broad house with a colonnade in
front of the main room, often framed by two side
tion of inscriptions from Delos with the marble wings in the form of paraskenia, is frequent in Asia
building at Priene. Minor in all periods for temples (Fig. 432b, c, d) as
As Priene was only a small, though an educated well as for palaces (Fig. 432e, f, g). 15 Often there is
and highly cultivated city, we can not conclude that an open terrace on the roof of the portico between
this type of Hellenistic proskenion theater originated the side buildings, with a door leading out from the
in Priene itself. Bulle, indeed, has presumed that the upper floor to the terrace. The fact that this form is

new form originated in Alexandria. 13 One must also used for temples as well as for palaces makes it

consider the other capitals of the East, to which the useful for stage performances, since the scene in the
cultural leadership of the Greek world had now been —
tragedies which continued in the classical form and
transferred. This presumption is supported by the with the classical mythical material is almost al- —
scheme of design of the proskenion theater: a house ways either the one or the other. This type of house
16
with a forebuilding equal in height to the first story is still used today in Iran and Iraq.
occurs in Asia Minor as well as in Egypt, as a very In Egypt the so-called soul houses, dating from
old form which was probably always popular. Two the Eleventh to the Twelfth Dynasties, have a fore-

112
 Fig-. 432a-g. Plans of tombs (a), temples (b-d), and palaces (eg)
WM mm • • Mm
(c)

(b)

(d)

•••••••
• • • • • • •

building resembling the proskenion in front of the

two-story house. It has a terrace roof over the (f)
portico, to which two or three large openings lead
(g)
from the upper story. There are some 150 models
preserved (Figs. 433-434). 17 Similar porticos are
found in the rock tombs from the Fifth to the
Twelfth Dynasties (Fig. 432a). 18
Several examples of this form of flat-roofed por-
tico, attached as a porch to a higher main building,

are known in Greece also, dating from the fourth

century b.c. on. The earliest example is the Leoni-
daeum in Olympia, 19 in which a one-story peristyle
was erected around the two-story building, so that
the terrace on the portico could serve to connect
the single guest rooms and the stairs leading up Figs. 433, 434. Egyptian soul houses. Terracotta; Boston;
from below. The southeast building of Olympia 20 Metropolitan Museum
also has a portico surrounding it as a porch on three
sides.
In Hellenized Southern Italy, the first exterior
portico, as far as I can see, is that in the Villa of
Mysteries at Pompeii. The first building, dated by
Maiuri in the third century B.C., was surrounded on
three sides by a portico. 21 Later this colonnade
was transformed into a roofed corridor with win-
dows, but, in front of the room with the famed
mystery frescoes, the columns were allowed to stand
unaltered (Fig. 435). Above them a terrace for the
newly-built upper story was constructed; thus this
part of the building conforms entirely to the type
of the Hellenistic proskenion. From the first century
b.c. on, such terraces above the rows of columns
of a portico, attached in front or running around the
building, were commonin villas. The terrace before Fig. 435. Villa of Mysteries. Pompeii
Diomedes built on a higher
the part of the Villa of
level and the promenade above the colonnade
around the garden situated on a lower level are Fig. 436. Villa of Diomedes, section
|

113
 IX. THE HELLENISTIC THEATER BUILDING

a stage terrace (logeion) in the form of a platform

above the columns. The place of performance was
upon this platform, at first in front of a solid wall
with doors, and, beginning with the second century
B.C., in front of wide openings (thyromata) into

which backdrops and other decorations were set, or

which, whenleft open, served to exhibit interior
scenes. Chief advocates of this view are Bethe,
Fiechter, Bulle, Dinsmoor, and this author. 26
Dorpfeld founded his opinion chiefly on the fact
that the tragedies in Hellenistic times had not
changed; and, this being the case, it would not be
necessary to change the scene of the performance.
Only rarely did an actor appear on the roof of the
house or on the theologeion identified with it by
Dorpfeld. The wall of the proskenion could be
characterized with the help of the painted pinakes
as three different buildings, corresponding to its
three doors. According to Dorpfeld, the row of
columns of the proskenion is only a decoration serv-
ing as background to the actors in the orchestra,
parts ofwhich could be transformed to represent a
Fig. 437. Roman villa surrounded by porticos. Wall painting temple, a palace, or a citizen's house by placing
from Stabiae, Naples
gables upon the colonnade. Dorpfeld consequent-
ly considers the forewall as the most important
good examples ( Fig. 436 ) . We
find them also in the part of the proskenion. —
The platform that is, the
reproductions of such Roman villas on the wall roof supported —
by the columns was rarely used,
paintings. 22 In one case even people are depicted only occasionally in the plays and once in a while
walking on the roof of the lower portico (Fig. for a single speaker appearing before assemblies of
437). 23 I am convinced that the Roman villas had the people.
such open terraces level with the upper story much Von Gerkan accepts this theory of Dorpfeld for
more often than the ruins and their modern recon- the early Hellenistic period, because in his opinion
structions allow us to realize. They are also fre- the proskenion of Priene, thoroughly investigated
quently found in American colonial houses. by him, actually had only one possible entrance
These parallels show that the Hellenistic pros- from which the individual actor could make his
kenion building was meant to reproduce a house appearance, from the central door of the upper
i.e.,

and its forebuilding with a terraced roof. The fore- story of the skene. The gods appeared upon the
building has the form of a colonnade attached as roof of the main building by means of an elevator
a porch or veranda to the main building. It often which was discovered by von Gerkan ( Figs. 419-421,
has paraskenia, which are connected with each 425). The theater at NewPleuron (Figs. 438-439),
other by the colonnade. The question is, how this according to this author, also had only one door
Hellenistic type of theater was used. Three main leading out to the platform above the proskenion.
views concerning the scene of performance in the The pinakes at the front of the proskenion carried
Hellenistic theater are held: the scenery, before which the actors appeared in the
1) The skene and proskenion always served orchestra. The platform was transformed for the
merely as a decorative background for the plays in first time into a stage not before the middle of the

the Hellenistic as in the classical era. The chief second century in Priene, and at about the same
24
champion of this view is Dorpfeld. time or only a short time before this in Oropus
2) The proskenion was first built to serve as a (Figs. 426-429) and other theaters. Side entrances
decorative background, but in the second century and parapets were added, the rear wall ( that is, the
B.C. the scene of performance was transferred to the front wall of the second story) was opened into
roof of the colonnade which was now used as a broad thyromata (Figs. 424-429), in which decora-
platform for the actors (logeion). The chief advo- tions were placed and in which scenes of interiors
cate here isA. von Gerkan. 25 could be represented. Because of the raised stage
3) The proskenion from the beginning possessed a new proedria —that is, a section for seats of honor

114
J
 /X. THE HELLENISTIC THEATER BUILDING

believe that already in the fourth century Middle

Comedy was presented on a raised logeion and that
the oldest temporary wooden logeion in Athens was
erected, at the very latest, at the time when Menan-
der flourished. The architectural decoration of the
front of the proskenion was necessary for non-scenic
middle of the
uses. Bulle further believes that in the
fourth century the new ideas for constructing the
stage were tried out with temporary buildings. As
an example of a Middle Comedy needing the new
form of logeion construction, he gives the Amphit-
ruo of Plautus (see Ch. XI, p. 151). He therefore
holds the opinion that Lycurgus had erected a
stage of the new type in Athens about 330 B.C., and
that this example was followed in Epidaurus at the
end of the fourth century.
I myself think that the development of the logeion

followed slowly upon the new literary ideas. The

theater of Lycurgus was certainly the realization of
a purely classical tradition, and the new type took
shape not in Athens, but in the East about 300 B.C.
I consider the combination of the skene with a
proskenion, equal in height to the first story, to be
a compromise which met the needs of the lyrical
choruses and the old classical tragedies with a rich
background building, as well as the needs of New
Figs. 438-439. New Pleuron, theater. Plan and reconstruction Comedy with the raised stage. For the thymelic
artists the row of columns in the proskenion was

—was constructed at the same level as the stage the background, comparable to the colonnades in
in Priene. the Hellenistic market places. For the scenic artists
The breaking up of the front wall of the upper the forewall was changed by the pinakes from a
storvbehind the podium order to form large
in colonnade into a panelled front wall or a basement
—
openings between piers three of them in Priene for the stage without special significance. Above
(Figs. 424-425), five of them in Oropus (Figs. 426- these the actors appeared before a solid housewall,
429) and seven in Ephesus (Figs. 443-447) was — pierced by three doors, paralleling in all respects the
first recognized by Fiechter as an attempt to in- closed fronts of most Greek private houses. For a
crease the space on the podium; in other words, background the standard height of the proskenion
these thyromata formed a rear stage, thereby prov- hall was a little too low; for a stage it was somewhat
ing that the platform was the actual stage. Here too high. However, it made it possible, on the one
palaces, landscapes, and houses could be much more hand, for the actors on it to be well seen, and, on
effectively represented than upon the small pinakes the other, for the musicians to pass in the customary
between the columns of the front porch wall (cf. manner from the lower story of the skene, through
Figs. 421-425). Fiechter does not doubt that the the hyposkenion, into the orchestra. The combina-
proskenion was built to serve as a stage from the tion of wood and stone in terrace and forewall of the
very beginning. The New Comedy and the decline proskenion gave excellent acoustics for both kinds of
of the chorus necessarily demanded a high stage as presentations. 27
the scene of performance. The long proskenion Iagree with Dorpfeld that in Athens at the time
sufficed for all stagingdemands. of Lycurgus, when the stone skene was being com-
Fiechter's theories were carried farther by Bulle. pleted, a change in the place of action would be
New Comedy, consisting only of dialogue, de- unthinkable, considering the strong classical tradi-
manded a new kind of stage and therefore produced tion. That the proskenion was not yet used as a
one. The type of play depicting the rich bourgeoisie, stage at the time of Middle Comedy is proved by
with few characters, required a narrow space in the joke of the comic poet Antiphanes. 28 The courte-
which to concentrate the actors so as to produce the san Nannion is compared with a proskenion because
effect of a relief (Fig. 346). Bulle and Dinsmoor she had a lovely face, much gold, and expensive

115
 Fig. 440. Assos, theater, plan

clothes, but when naked

she was unusually ugly. In
this case only a coulisse or movable screen, a scaena
ductilis, can be intended, which, when drawn away,
left the bare skeleton wall in view. If a proskenion
of a later type had been meant, only the brightly
painted pinakes could have been removed, but a
row of columns would have remained. Plautus, who
is sometimes quoted as needing a two-story stage

for his Amphitruo, did not play upon a Hellenis-

tic, but upon a South Italian stage (see Ch. X, Figs.

479-484 and Ch. XI, p. 151).

I further agree with von Gerkan that the first

proskenion in Priene was poorly equipped for pres-

entations. A single door (Figs. 419 and 423) 29 was
totally inadequate, because the actors of New
Comedy were often required to enter many times
from different directions.
The Hellenistic proskenion, however, was created
neither in Athens nor in Priene. With the Pelopon-
nesian War, Athens lost not only the political but
also gradually the cultural leadership and it must be
remembered that the Lycurgean theater marks the
end of the classical period and not the beginning of
the Hellenistic era. Priene, in turn, may have been
an educated and cultivated city, but, because of its
small size, modified the creations of the large cities
to suit its needs. Even if we had the good fortune
to possess early Hellenistic theaters from Alexan-
dria, Antioch, orone of the other residences of the
Diadochi, we should probably find them inadequate
in regard to stage equipment. The long narrow
ITTTl 4i 7°
scene of performance was probably the same every-
where. We must, however, remember that we have
at Priene the oldest instance of a stage on Greek
soil. It is certainly not as practical as the stage of
the phlyakes, which appeared somewhat earlier in
Southern Italy (see Ch. X); but, recompense, it
in
is more beautiful and more monumental with its
decorative wall in front.
Figs. 441-444. Theater in Ephesus. Actual remains; Hell
istic theater and stage; Upper story; Elevation of the stage

116
 IX. THE HELLENISTIC THEATER BUILDING

agreement with von Gerkan, Bulle makes the asser-

tion for Priene (Figs. 416-421) that probably from
the very beginning the long narrow stage had three
doors leading onto it. With the passing of time,
however, additional entrances were created in
Priene and Assos. At both these theaters, where
from the very beginning the proskenion extended
on both sides beyond the skene, extensions were now
added at both ends of the skene. On the west side
the extension reached as far as a door leading to the
upper story; on the east side it led to a flight of
stairs, the first step of which was at the rear corner
of the stage building. 33 An actor could thus reach
the podium from below from the
as well as directly
upper story without using the upper door from the
inside, so that there were three possibilities of en-
trance even if was only one central door. The
there
edges of the terraces were protected by parapets. In
Delos the terrace seems to have extended around the
whole building (Figs. 449-451). 34 In this case it is
like the stage buildingwith a colonnade in front
the imitation of a house surrounded by a covered

m Bl
1
f * [

Figs. 445-448. Ephesus. Reconstructions of Hellenistic thea-

ter, Fiechter; Bulle; Model in Stuttgart, Fiechter

The new Hellenistic ideas, developing in com-

bination with native forms, and already realized
nmn
in the large eastern residences, came to Delos and
Priene, as well as to Assos (Fig. 440), 30
Ephesus
(Figs. 441-448), 31 and elsewhere in Asia Minor in
not yet perfected form. This form has been desig-
nated by Bulle as "the type of the flat wall." 32 All
four theaters mentioned above were probably com-
pleted in the first half of the third century, and the
theater of Assos ( Fig. 440 ) is closely related to that
of Priene (cf. Fig. 418). The theater in Ephesus
must have been planned about 274, at the time of
the foundation of the whole Hellenistic city. In dis-
Figs. 449, 450. Theater of Delos.
Plan; reconstruction, Dorpfeld
 Fig. 451. Theater of Delos. View of the ruins

colonnade on all sides. Such a one is the Leonidaeum, with paraskenia, was probably extended forward in
named for its builder, in Olympia. It is a hotel for the middle of the third century and, together with
distinguished visitors. The
formed by the
terraces the orchestra, sunk below the natural surface of the
roofs permit communication between all rooms in ground (see Figs. 284-288). The logeion was on the
the upper story. The luxurious symposium tent of older level, while the columns of the proskenion
Ptolemy II and the villa on a ship of Ptolemy IV stood on the new lower level of the orchestra. The
had such an outer peristasis. 35 ramps are slightly inclined, for they run parallel to
This eastern type with a long and narrow stage the slanting analemmata, the supporting walls of the
invaded the Greek mainland during the third and auditorium.
second centuries B.C. Instead of the stairways lead- In most cases the ramps ascended along the
ing up to the proskenion most theaters have, how- parodoi to the floor of the logeion, the stage on the
ever, ramps. These are sometimes laid out horizon- height of the proskenion. In the theater of Sicyon,
tally, as in Eretria (Figs. 452-454). 36 The reason built in the first half of the third century, these
here is that the scene building which had been sloping paths are cut out of the living rock, which
erected in the fourth century on a higher level and also fills a great part of the lower story (Fig. 455). 37

Figs. 452-454a-b. Theater of Eretria. Plan of actual remains; Reconstruction of the third scene building;
Section and reconstruction of the Hellenistic building
Fig. 455. Theater of Sicyon. Elevation and sections of scene
building-

Fig. 456. Theater of Epidaurus. Reconstruction of stage

building, Puchstein

As a consequence, the ramps are well preserved, and

together with the unusable lower story testify that
the terrace of the proskenion was used quite early
as a stage. A proskenion with ascending ramps as
side entrances was built at Epidauros in the second
century, replacing the paraskenia of the fourth cen-
tury. The ramps begin at the outer and smaller
opening of the entrance porches. They end on the
top of the former paraskenia, which now form only
flat decorative projections of the proskenion (see

above, Figs. 271-274 and Fig. 456). The reconstruc-

tion by Puchstein in Fig. 456 38 shows Medea pre-
paring the murder of her children and a messenger
coming up on one ramp. Puchstein has wrongly
added a Roman stage roof supported by walls which
open with doors to the stage. The rim of limestone Figs. 457-459. Theater of Oeniadae. Plan and elevation of
enclosing the orchestra circle (see above, Fig. 274) stage building, Fiechter; stage building and orchestra, Bulle
was probably laid at the same time when the pros-
kenion and the ramp were built. The stone circle between the old paraskenia and the new proskenion.
marked off definitely the place where the lyric In the interior there is a row of pillars which may
chorus performed, in contrast to the stage for the have taken the place of the old front wall of the
scenic plays. classical skene, for this row of pillars touches the
The same is true for Oeniadae in Acarnania. A ground circle of the lower seats, while the new re-
stone circle was laid around the orchestra at the duced orchestra, enclosed by the lightly-colored,
same time that a proskenion was set before a round limestone threshold, almost touches upon the
simple rustic paraskenion theater of the fourth cen- proskenion, being only as far distant from it as the
tury, at the instigation of Philip V of Macedonia paraskenia project. The orchestra, no longer needed
about 219 b.c. (Figs. 457-459). 39 The old and new for tragedies with big choruses, thus diminished
portions of the paraskenion- and the proskenion- continually, while the stagewas continually being
theater were connected by pillars set in the corners made more practical through the opening of the

119
/X. THE HELLENISTIC THEATER BUILDING

thyromata upper story. Oeniadae seems to be

in the as rear stage to increase the depth of the logeion;
the first theater on the mainland in which the upper or the wide openings could be hidden or closed
wall was opened by five thyromata, designed as a temporarily by curtains or screens or movable
background, with painted backdrops to be inserted painted scenery; or they could be decorated as the
for the plays. This late form thus came very early interior of a room. By these means numerous pos-
from the East to Macedonia. In Oeniadae there are sibilities for entrances and scenes were gained. The

no ramps, but, in agreement with the Eastern form? side entrances by stairs, ramps, side corridors,
as in Priene (Figs. 416-421), the proskenion was and paraskenia had now become superfluous, since
broader than the main skene, so that the actors they could be replaced by entrances from the outer
could enter through side doors from the upper floor. thyromata. Smaller theaters, like Priene with only
The prosperity of Oeniadae was short, for in 167 three thyromata (Figs. 420-421, 424-425) or Oenia-
B.C. it fell under Roman rule, and the theater was dae with five (Figs. 457-459), retained the outer
later remodelled in the Roman form. side entrances; but large theaters, like Ephesus
In most theaters, however, there are ramps rising (Figs. 443-447) with seven thyromata, used the
upward as side entrances from the parodos en- outermost openings as side entrances. Sometimes
trances, as in Oropus, Sicyon, Epidaurus (above, the central opening seems to have been wider than
40
Figs. 428-429, 455-456), and in Corinth (Fig. 460). those on the sides, thus creating a rhythmical sym-
metry with the emphasis on the center, which was
much better suited for a background than the regu-
lar row of half-columns at the front wall of the
proskenion. In Oeniadae the cornice above the pil-
lars ends with corbels above the central opening. A
comparison of the upper and lower facades shows
Fig. 460. Hellenistic theater of Corinth
clearly the character of the colonnade of the pros-
The transformation of the paraskenia into walks kenion as merely serving to support the platform
leading upward was more practical than the re- (see below and Figs. 421 and 424). The lesser use
tention of the paraskenia, which in classical times of the orchestra in Oropus as well as in Priene is
often were of only one story; and if they had a testified by the five marble thrones for guests of
second story, they probably had no openings at all honor on the circumference.
on the upper floor, or at best only windows, since as In the theater of Pergamon the Hellenistic pros-
yet no high stage lay between them. The rising kenion, built under Eumenes II (197-159 b.c. ), cuts
ramps of the mainland and the corresponding ter- deeply into the orchestra, because it had to be
races, platforms, and staircases in the eastern cities erected on the narrow terrace which leads from the
plainly show that the shifting of the scene of per- market place to the temple of Dionysus and which
formance in the majority of the theaters actually took could not be fully used. To keep this street open
place in the third century B.C. only temporary structures with a skeleton of upright
The typical form of the late Hellenistic Greek timbers could be built, as had been done in the
stage thus was the thyromata stage with wide open- classical period at Athens. The timbers are arranged
ings separated by rectangular piers. The idea of in three rows, so as to allow a proskenion in front
this building design is most clearly seen in the small and three thyromata in the middle row (Figs. 461-
theater in the sanctuary of Amphiaraus at Oropus 462; cf. Ch. V, Figs. 243-247). 42
(Figs. 426-429). 41 The proskenion, together with its Theaters having paraskenia were seldom built
pinakes, was dedicated, according to an inscription, new in the Hellenistic period, and then only for
by a stage manager about 200 B.C. The upper story special reasons. The theater in Babylon, which
of the main building, however, was constructed out probably goes back to the one erected in honor of
of stone, probably not before about 150 B.C., accord- Alexander the Great, is built of unbaked clay bricks.
ing to another inscription, dedicated by a priest. This This poor and inept material explains the retaining
inscription gives the name thyromata, big doors, for of the strong and solid side buildings. 43 In the small
the wide openings in the front of the upper skene theater in New Pleuron in western Greece, erected
building. This wall rises above the logeion that — soon after the construction of the city wall in 234
behind the platform of the proskenion with five
is, — B.C., the building of the paraskenia was necessary to

wide openings separated by rectangular piers or afford side entrances to the stage, for the only
broad pillars. Behind this front with the piers lies other entrance was through a door from the tower
a second wall, which forms, on the inside of the of the city wall (Figs. 438-439). 44 The latest theater
skene, a corridor-like space. This space could serve having paraskenia is the theater at the Piraeus, the
 IX. THE HELLENISTIC THEATER BUILDING

At Sparta a similar rolling stage was erected in

the Augustan period. Heretofore, only non-scenic
plays were presented at the Gymnopaidia and
Hyakinthia in honor of the Spartan heroes, with
choruses, parades of horsemen, ball games, and so
on, and therefore no stage was needed. The main
building moved on rollers and the proskenion on
wheels in three rows of stone sills, and it was stored
in a skenotheke at the right parodos. Sparta re-
ceived a permanent Roman scaenae frons not before
a.d. 78 in the time of the Emperor Vespasian, when
a fire had destroyed the movable scene building.
Fig. 463. Plan of theater in the Piraeus
But even then only a temporary stage was erected. 47
harbor town of Athens (Fig. 463). 45 It is dated Tragedies, comedies, and dithyrambs were given
about 150 b.c. and was probably erected under the regularly, the latter at least until a.d. 100. The
influence of Athens, but with the difference, that a dithyrambs outside Athens were, however, not given
proskenion was included from the beginning. by tribes but by the guilds ( see Ch. VII )
Wooden constructions may often have preceded The wide deep thyromata sheltered by the roof
the stone buildings. This was certainly the case in of the back stage give proof of the baroque taste
—
Megalopolis and Sparta. Megalopolis the largest of the late Hellenistic era, which aimed at strange
theater on the Greek mainland, with a capacity of effects. This was the cause of one last change in the
—
about 21,000 spectators in three tiers is connected Hellenistic theater, namely the transformation of
with the assembly room for the ten thousand Ar- the pillared proskenion, which had half columns
cadians, which was named Thersilion after its and painted pinakes set between them, into a por-
dedicator (Fig. 276). 46 Between the theatron and tico composed of completely circular columns with-
the assembly hall a permanent stone skene could out panels. The deeply-overshadowed hall under
not be erected. Therefore a large wooden scene the podium corresponds now to the deeply-receding
building with a proskenion was constructed in the thyromata over the podium. It is the same taste
third century. It ran on wheels and was stored in the which also created the high Ionic colonnade at the
skenotheke, a shed erected in the left parodos. It rear facade of the theater in Ephesus (Fig. 448).
was replaced by a stone proskenion after the de- Also at Priene the pinakes disappeared in the later
struction of the Thersilion in 222 b.c. period somewhere around 150 b.c. 48 Good examples

Fig. 464. Theater of Dionysus, Athens. Hellenistic plan according to Fiechter

0L <> T£MP LE
122
 ;_-;~« ?~ j 't.i >

JTA&l

PROJK

CROSS SECTION or
H tLL E N I 5 T o
I SKENE.

Figs. 468, 469. Plans and section for Menander's The Arbi-
trates; Athenian style of 300 B.C., Asiatic style 200 B.C., Bieber

Figs. 465-467. Theater of Dionysus. Hellenistic plan, stages; forms. The dramas of the writers of New Comedy
Fiechter
were certainly played in Athens in the orchestra,
while in the East they were performed on the high
are the theaters in Thasos 49 and in the Piraeus ( Fig. stage. This is certainly true for Menander, the
463). 50 founder of this new drama (Figs. 468-469).
53

I it was this latest form of the

do not doubt that Thus the painted decorations of the stage build-
which came to Athens not earlier
Hellenistic theater ing moved upward during the Hellenistic period.
than the second century B.C. and perhaps only after It is hard to say what the small pinakes below, and

the destruction of Athens by Sulla in 86 B.C. A later the large screens above, looked like, but in any
marble proskenion with 14 columns was set in case they must always have been related to the con-
between the Lycurgean paraskenia which were temporary monumental paintings. We may assume
levelled and remodelled, but kept a front with six that the earlier pinakes below were plainer and
columns (Figs. 464-467). 51 The proedria with the more soberly painted than the later panels between
beautiful seats of honor in the first row were exe- the thyromata. The Roman pinax in Priene, built
cuted in the style of the fourth century (above of cement and painted to represent the woodwork
Figs. 267-269)." Athens, the center of classical of a door, 54 serves as such a suitable filling for the
culture, although it had become at this time only supporting wall to justify the conclusion that
a Roman province, stuck obstinately to its conserva- similar simple paintings on pinakes were often used.
tive cult system, religious organization, and art We hear, however, also about figures painted on the

123
 IX. THE HELLENISTIC THEATER BUILDING

wall paintings. The name thyroma, big door, leads

to the supposition that these openings could be
closed with a monumental door. This is indeed the
case in the comedy relief from Naples (Fig. 324),
where this entrance portal probably indicates the
mansion of the rich bourgeois whose son comes
home intoxicated. In the other half of the relief is

a city view, indicating the place from which the

youth returns. It is partly hidden by a curtain,
56
parapetasma ( ). Before the thvromata
Fig. 470. Stage setting inside a thyroma, after Bulle
were opened, a wall with only one large door could
be in the background. This is the case in the mosaic
of Dioscurides with musicians performing on the
proskenion. Thus the figure of Demetrius carried by narrow stage (Fig. 346). The other mosaic of Dios-
Oikoumene on the proskenion of Athens is described curides with four women depicts an interior scene
by Athenaeus (xn,536a) who quotes from Duris. within the frame of a thyroma (Fig. 347). An in-
As this must have occurred during the time of teresting sketch showing an attempt at the setting
Demetrius (306-295), we must assume that a of this women's scene inside a thyroma has been
wooden stage was erected occasionally in Athens, made by Bulle 57 and has been redrawn by Elisabeth
or that Athenaeus uses proskenion in the sense of Wadhams (Fig. 470). The scene with the braggart
scaenae frons. It is too bad that we possess none of soldier and his parasite (Fig. 371) on a wall paint-
the tablets painted on wood or canvas from the ing, known only in a drawing, is also set in an interi-
Hellenistic times. We can only conclude that the or between two piers, as the attempt of Bulle (Fig.
decorations inside the thyromata were more realis- 459) shows. The two dignified men seated against
tically and more artistically executed than the small these piers seem to be statues of Aeschylus and
pinakes below. The painting of two tablets in Delos Sophocles.
in the year 282 b.c. was paid drachmas,
for with 200 The wall paintings of the second style, that is, of
which means that they must have been covered with the first century B.C., contain many Hellenistic motifs
valuable real paintings. 55 with many theatrical features. 58 The most important
A certain suggestion about these painted decora- ones are those now in the Metropolitan Museum
tions is given by contemporary reliefs, mosaics, and of New York (Figs. 471-474). 59 They are in the
Figs. 471, 472. Scenery for tragedy. Wall pai tings from Boscoreale, Metropolitan Museum
cubiculum of the villa from Boscoreale, dated about the size, they depicted the facades of scenes in the
40-30b.c. and decorated in the second style. They tragic, comic, or satyric styles.")""
are not exact copies of the theatrical backdrops, but These three kinds of scenery mentioned by
eclectic combinations in the Roman taste' of the Vitruvius could never be combined in one set, as
essence of decoration used for tragic (Figs. 471- they are in Boscoreale and in the reconstruction of
472), comic (Fig. 473), and satyric (Fig. 474) set- Ephesus by Bulle (Fig. 446), who has set all three
tings. The same three kinds of scenery are men- decorations incorrectly side by side in the frames
tioned by Vitruvius, Dc architectura, v,6,9: "genera between the piers. 61 It would be better if variations
autem sunt scaenarum tria: unum quod dicitur tragi- of a single style were set in, either of the tragic
cum, alterum comicum, tertium satyricum. horum au- (royal palaces, temples, shrines with columns, pedi-
tem ornatus sunt inter se dissimili disparique ratione, ments, and statues), or of the comic (private build-
quod tragicae deformantur columnis et fastigiis et ings, houses with balconies and windows, views of
signis reliquisque regalibus rebus; comicae autem a city), or of satyric (landscape settings, a country
aedificiorum privatorum et maenianorum habent district with trees, caves, gardens, mountains, or a
speciem prospectusque fenestris dispositos imita- seashore). The piers likewise had to be adorned.
tione,communium aedificiorum rationibus; satyricae That the Boscoreale frescoes are inspired by theatri-
vero ornantur arboribus speluncis montibus reliqui- cal settings is clear from the fact that many of their
sque agrestibus rebus in topiarii speciem deformati"; motifs agree with those mentioned by Vitruvius.
autem locis uti exhedris propter
vn, 5, 2: "patentibus The fact that no human beings are represented also
amplitudines parietum scaenarum frontes tragico makes it likely that actors were to supply this human
more aut comico seu satyrico designarent." ("There element. The monumental doors dominating the
are three kinds of scenes, one, called tragic; second, foreground of four panels (Fig. 473) are too large
the comic; third, the satyric. Their decorations are in comparison with the window in the wall and the
different and unlike each other in scheme. Tragic high buildings behind it. They are thyromata agree-
scenes are delineated with columns, pediments, ing with the elegant door on the relief with a com-
statues, and other objects suited to kings; comic edy scene in Naples (Fig. 324), while the buildings
scenes exhibit private dwellings, with balconies and behind have their nearest parallel in the city view
views representing rows of windows, after the man- of the same relief. The masks are not theatrical
ner of ordinary dwellings; satyric scenes are deco- masks, although some remind one of comic masks
rated with trees, caverns, mountains, and other of an old father or a leading servant, (Fig. 472),
rustic objects delineated in landscape style." "In but whether theatrical or purely dionysiac, like
their open rooms, such as exedrae, on account of satyrs or Pans (Fig. 473), they were and still are

Figs. 473, 474. Scenery for comedy and satyr play. Wall paintings from Boscoreale, Metropolitan Museum
IX. THE HELLENISTIC THEATER BUILDING

characteristic decorations of the theater, because the The forms of the late Roman Hellenistic theaters
plays were sacred performances in honor of Diony- are indeed in full agreement with the rules for the
sus. The spatial composition in the Boscoreale plan given by Vitruvius, v,7,l: "In Graecorum thea-
frescoes testifies to a high development of illusion- tris . . . primum in ima circinatione quadratorum
. . .

isticbackdrops in the late Hellenistic theater. trium anguli circinationis lineam tangunt, et cuius
The proskenion is, then, the stage of the Hel- quadrati latus est proximum scaenae praeciditque
lenistic period, which with the passing of time curvaturam circinationis, ea regione designatur
became more and more practically and richly finitio proscaenii. Et ab ea regione ad extremam
equipped. As formerly, the musicians that is, the — circinationem curvaturae parallelos linea designatur
old lyrical choruses singing the dithyrambs, as well in qua constituitur frons scaenae. Per centrumque
as the now numerous popular soloists, rhapsodes, orchestrae proscaenii regioni parallelos linea de-
and later even magicians
cithara players, citharodes, scribitur et qua secat circinationis lineas dextra ac
— appeared and performed in the orchestra before sinistra incornibus hemicyclii centra signantur; et
the two-story building. The dithyramb, sung in the circino conlocato in dextra ab intervallo sinistro cir-
Athenian theater by the tribes, was also executed cumagitur circinatio ad proscaenii sinistram partem;
by choruses of boys and men every year at the item ... ad proscaenii dextram partem." ("In the
Dionysiac festivals by the Arcadians, who sang the theaters of the Greeks first in the circle at the
. . .

compositions of Philoxenus and Timotheus (Poly- bottom the Greeks have three squares with their
. . .

bius, iv,20). 62 In other places the professional angles touching the line of circumference. The
technitae replaced the tribes in the performance of square whose side is nearest to the scaena and cuts
the dithyrambs, as they did for the scenic plays. As, off a segment of the circle, determines by this line
therefore, the orchestra continued to be used, the the limits of the proscaenium. Parallel to this line
proskenion was always built partially of wood, to and tangent to the outer circumference of the seg-
afford better acoustics. The few actors of the new ment, a line is drawn which fixes the front of the
tragedy without a chorus, of New Comedy, and of scaena. Through the center of the orchestra and
the mime —entered the theater
if it —made their parallel to the direction of the proscaenium a line is

appearance upon the stage. laid off,and centers are marked where it cuts the
The differentiation in use between the logeion circumference to the right and left at the ends of
and orchestra is also given by Vitruvius (De archi- the half circle. Then, with the compasses fixed at
tectura, v,7,2) for his time, that the is, 16-13 B.C., the right, an arc is described from the horizontal
time of the appearance of his books on architecture, distance at the left to the left hand side of the
thus for the late Hellenistic theater: "ampliorem proscaenium; again ... to the right hand side of
habent orchestram Graeci et scaenam recessiorum the proscaenium.") The Eastern type of the pros-
minoreque latitudine pulpitum, quod AoyctW kenion comes especially close to the rules of Vi-
(logeion) appellant, ideo quod apud eos tragici et truvius, as we know it in Priene, Ephesus, and Delos
comici actores in scaena peragunt, reliqui autem (Figs. 475-476). 65 In the ground circle, which cor-
artifices suas per orchestram praestant actiones; responds to the line of the lowermost circle of seats,
itaque ex eo scaenici et thymelici graece separatim a square is inscribed; the side of this square which
nominantur." ( "The Greeks have a roomier orchestra is nearest to the place of the skene and opposite

and a scaena set further back, as well as a stage of the middle of the auditorium is the front line of
less depth. They call this \oydov [logeion], for the the proskenion. The front line of the skene, being
reason that there the tragic and comic actors per- the rear boundary wall of the proskenion, is formed
form on the stage, while other artists give their by a line drawn parallel to the first at the extremity
performances in the entire orchestra; hence, from of the circle, that is, a tangent to the orchestral
this fact they are given in Greek the distinct names circle. The proskenion, therefore, intrudes upon the
"Scenic" and "Thymelic." 63 Pollux (iv,123), on the basic orchestra circle by the full amount of its pro-
basis of older sources, also differentiates between jection before the main scene-building.
scenic and thymelic artists, that is, stage players and The pulpitum, the stage, being at the height of
cllOrilS: rj fiev aKrfvrj to>v viroKpirwv iSiov, r) 8'
opx T (JT oa the upper story of the main building, should be from
) |

tow x°P 0 ^' * v V Kal V Ovfjie\r)." ("The Skene belongs to ten to twelve feet high, that is, 2.95 to 3.53 m. The
the actors, the orchestra in which the thymele theaters of Assos (Fig. 440), Sicyon (Fig. 455),
stands, to the chorus.") 04 The division of the two Eretria (Figs. 452-454), and Epidaurus (Figs. 271-
classes of presentation in these theaters thus cor- 274 in Ch. V, and Fig. 456) have these measure-
responds to the division of the scene of performance ments. The theaters of New Pleuron (Figs. 438-439),
in the Hellenistic theaters into two parts. Oeniadai (Figs. 457-459), Oropus (Figs. 426-429),
 —
1!

C
— -i tai

Figs. 475, 476a-c. The Greek theater, after Vitruvius, com-

pared with Priene, Ephesus, and Delos

this from three different centers is described by

_/K£NEN WAND Vitruvius, v,7,l (see above and Fig. 475). The
inner half naturally forms an exact semicircle. The
outermost sections may
continue the circular arc
more and bend inwards. This results in
for a little
a horseshoe plan for the orchestra, as in Ephesus
and Priene (Figs. 416-425) are under this size; and Delos (Fig. 476b-c). In most cases, how-
Athens (Figs. 464-468) and the Zea theater in the ever, the lower rows of seats are constructed with
Piraeus (Fig. 463) exceed it somewhat. The reason double their radius, using as centers the opposite
for these differences is that the former theaters are end of the median diameter of the orchestra, at the
very small and the latter very large. Naturally, with points where this line touches the circumference
the greater distance of the tiers of seats, the height of of the circle on the right and left. This results in a
the stage increases proportionally. The depth of the straight prolongation of the semicircle, which looks
stage also depends on the ground circle, since it stilted and gives a U-shape plan to the orchestra.
must occupy about three-tenths of the radius of the Vitruvius (v,3,7) praises the advantageous plan
orchestra. This is the case in Priene (Fig. 476a) and perfect construction of the classical auditorium,
and in Delos ( Fig. 476c ) The individual parts of the
. whose rising tiers of seats bring out to their fullest
Greek proskenion-theater are organically and har- effect the harmonious sounds of the human voice
moniously correlated in their proportions. Since, as well as of the music: "veteres architecti naturae
however, even in its latest forms the high shallow vestigia persecuti indagationibus vocis scandentis
stage was not very practical, it was replaced even theatrorum perfecerunt gradationes, et quaesierunt
on Greek soil at the time of the Roman emperors per canonicam mathematicorum et musicam ra-
by the low and deep Italo-Roman stage (see Chs. tionem, ut, quaecumque vox esset in scaena, clarior
XIII and XIV). et suavior ad spectatorum pervenerit aures thea- . . .

In its last form the Greek theater consists of three trorum per harmonicen ad augendam vocem ratioci-
parts, each one of which originated in a different nationes ab antiquis sunt constitutae." (". the an- . .

period. The orchestra is a creation of the archaic, cient architects, following in the footsteps of nature,
the auditorium of the classical, and the stage of the perfected the ascending rows of seats in the theaters
Hellenistic period. The preserved ruins and the de- from their investigations of the ascending voice and,
scription of Vitruvius show that these three parts by means of the canonical theory of the mathema-
had not really fused in the Hellenistic era, but were ticians and that of the musicians, endeavored to
only loosely held together by the laws of rhythm make every voice uttered on the stage come with
and harmony. With the passing of time the orchestra greater clearness and sweetness to the ears of the
continually decreased in size and the stage building audience the ancients devised methods of in-
. . .

advanced in the direction of the auditorium. In the creasing the power of the voice in theaters through
end the lyrical chorus no longer occupied the place the application of harmonics.") See also Vitruvius
defined by the circle of the lowest row of seats, but (v,8) on acoustics of the site of a theater.
only the circle defined by the inner side of the According to Vitruvius (v,7,l-2) the stairs divid-
lowest gangway and the water channel, where, at ing the auditorium into sections must lead up from
the edge of the orchestra, in Oropos (Figs. 428-429) the angles of the three inscribed squares at the points
and Priene (Figs. 416-418; 424-425) the seats of where they touch the circumference of the circle.
honor were placed. The stage now cuts into the The number of stairways is doubled in each upper
larger circle while it touches upon the smaller tier: "gradationes scalarum inter cuneos et sedes
circle as a tangent, just as formerly the stageless contra quadratorum angulos dirigantur ad primam
skene touched on the large circle. praecinctionem, a praecinctione inter eas iterum
The auditorium forms a horseshoe or a U-shape mediae dirigantur, et ad summam quotiens prae-
at the level of its lowest tiers. The construction of cinguntur, altero tanto semper amplificantur." ( "Let

127
IX. THE HELLENISTIC THEATER BUILDING

be laid out in the middle between the first; and at

the top, as often as there is a new cross aisle, the
number of flights of steps is always increased to
the same extent.") Accordingly, the lowest tier in
each theater ought to have eight flights of stairs,
which applies to Delos ( Fig. 476c ) smaller theaters,
;

such as that in Priene (Figs. 417-418, 476a) have

only six, and larger ones, such as those in Sparta
and Ephesus (Fig. 475b) have ten and twelve re-
spectively. 66
Vitruvius, as he himself states, does not lay down
any but only makes suggestions for the
set rules,
best method of designing and erecting theaters with
the greatest perfection. He says (v,8,2): "his prae-
scriptionibus qui voluerit uti, emandatas efficiet
theatrorum perfectiones." ("Whoever is willing to
follow these directions, will be able to construct
perfectly correct theaters.") The rules for the stage
—
house that is, the part which in Vitruvius' time
—
was still in the process of evolution are not given as
stableand binding, but are meant as fluid and
dynamic guides to the best form which would co-
ordinate the different parts according to the laws
of harmonic proportions and good rhythm. The
rules of Vitruvius for the Greek theaters were
applied only rarely after his time, since theaters of
purely Greek type were built seldom thereafter.
The Hellenistic theaters were rebuilt on a Roman
Fig. 477. The auditorium at Delphi plan (see Figs. 441 and below 717-736) or new
Roman buildings were erected (see Chs. XIII and
the ascending flights of steps between the wedges XIV). In these theaters of the Roman period, how-
of seats, as far up as the first curved cross-aisle ever, entirely different and more practical rules and
[see auditorium of theater in Delphi, Fig. 477], be laws were employed. It is the stage and not the
laid out on lines directly opposite to the angles of orchestra which gives to the Roman theater a unity
the squares. Above the cross-aisle, let other flights more complete than the Greek theater ever attained.
 CHAPTER X
ITALIAN POPULAR COMEDY
(THE PHLYAKES)

See Figs.
The theater played a great role in the Greek settle- know this farce partly from scanty fragments of the 522, 513
ments of Southern Italy during the classical period. plays/' partly — —
and much better from a great num-
Tragedy was introduced from Attica. Under Hieron ber of vase paintings. 0 From these pictures we learn
I ( 478-467 ) The Women of Aetna by Aeschylus was to know not only the contents and the plot of
presented in the theater of Syracuse ( Vita Aeschyli, numerous plays, but also the costumes and the way
^9). The theater was known as the oldest and most in which they were acted. The dates given to these
x

beautiful in Sicily. It was built by Damocopus and vases vary from the end of the fifth to the last
dedicated in about 460 B.C. There for the first time decades of the fourth centuries. The date for the

— —
movable colored walls, the coulisses perhaps an best vases of Assteas from Paestum seems to be
invention of Phormis or Phormos were used ( Aris- between 350 and 330 b.c. Therefore, all these vases
totle, Eth. Nic., iv,1123a,21, cum scholion; Athe- are older than the literary farce of Rhinthon. On the
naeus, xiv,652a; Themistion, Oratio 27,337b; Suidas, other hand, they are contemporary with the Athe-
s.v. $o/j/xos Si'/aaKovVios).
2
Euripides was especially nian Middle Comedy. Their value is augmented by
popular, so that Greek captives after the unlucky the fact that they throw light on a period of which
Sicilian expedition could win their freedom by we have so few literary remains. We
can see how
reciting parts from his dramas. The vases of Southern many motifs have wandered from the Greek main-
Italy dating from the fourth century give proof of a land to Southern Italy. Stock characters like Odys-
growing preference for Euripidean and post-Eu- seus, Heracles, the bustling slave, the thief, old men,
ripidean tragedies (see Ch. II, Figs. 110-112, 115- and old women are found here and there.
122 ) 3 The production of tragedy was the same as in
. Thus an early Italian crater shows a parody of
Athens, that is, in the orchestra before a central the story of Dolon caught in a tragi-comical manner
hall which in most dramas could represent a palace by Odysseus and Diomedes between theatrical trees
or a temple, and often between or before two para- (Fig. 478). There is no such hilarotragodia men-
7

skenia, which could represent different buildings tioned in literature, but other pictures agree in sub-
(see Ch. V, Figs. 253-266). 4 ject matter with the titles attested for Rhinthon.
Comedy in Italy, however, differed greatly from Among them was a Heracles. This Doric hero was
that of Athens. The merry dramas of Syracuse, presented several times also by Epicharmus.
8

Tarentum, and other cities of Magna Graecia (as

the southern part of Italy settled by the Greeks
was named), had no komos, no chorus, and there-
fore one ought not use the name comedy for them.
They were mimes, first given literary form in the
fifth century by Epicharmus. They used the same
main themes which the old Doric comedy in the
Peloponnesus had dealt with in the sixth century
B.C.: travesty of mythology in some plays and trav-

esty of daily life in others (see Ch. Ill, pp. 38f. ).

Gradually, however, they evolved to the point where
the subject of mythological burlesque was no longer
the myths themselves, but rather the form of the
mythical material which had been established by
the well-known and popular tragedies.
The parody of tragedy was given its literary form
in Magna Graecia by Rhinthon of Syracuse about
300 b.c. It was called hilarious tragedy (hilaro-
tragodia). The actors of this informal farce were
called phlyakes ( c/>Ai'aKe<> ) or gossips, and were
,

compared with the mimes and the deikelists of the

Doric farce (Sosibius in Athenaeus, xiv,621 f). We

Fig. 478. Dolon caught by Odysseus and Diomedes.

Early South Italian crater, British Museum

129
 X. ITALIAN POPULAR COMEDY (PHLTAKES)

crest.") The same impression of tragicomoedia was

given by an Italian representation of Verdi's Trova-
tore in the Lewisohn Stadium in New York in 1936.
In this open-air performance, sung in a foreign
language, the hero wore a costume similar to that
of Heracles on the Assteas vase, with enormous
plumes on his helmet. Gay tragedy is also indicated
when Heracles throws his child into a burning
funeral pyre, which is composed in part of unburn-
able metal articles and all sorts of household uten-
sils, such as the wool basket of the housewife, all

thrown together in a disorderly heap. The gesture

of Iolaus, depicting idle astonishment, that of
Mania, who beats her breast, and the wrinkled
features of the mother Alcmene —
all suggest the

same These three last-named figures

interpretation.
appear in a sort of loggia or open gallery, while the
wife, Megara, tearing her hair and beating her
breast, flees through a door instead of snatching the
child away from the father.
The scene building is covered by a roof, resting
upon two tall Ionic columns, while the loggia in the
background is supported by Doric columns.
Whether this setting represents a stage or the inside
of a house is a matter of dispute. I believe that it

is a stage building, for a terracotta relief in Naples,

dated in the late fourth or early third century, has
the same open gallery, columns in the background
Fig. 479a. The Madness of Heracles. Vase by Assteas, Madrid and slender turrets at the sides instead of the tall
Ionic columns (Fig. 480). 10 Three doors between
The famous vase of the Paestum painter Assteas the background columns lead to the low pulpitum
in Madrid, dated soon after 350 B.C., represents the in front, where the marks for their
actors stood; the
murder of the children of Heracles by the mad hero figures are still visible. The which Shakespeare
stage
in a manner which might correspond to the Heracles used was also similar. 11 It is a form of stage building
by Rhinthon or one of his forerunners, since the peculiar to Southern Italy. 12 The mosaic found in
style can best be interpreted as hilarious tragedy Pompeii depicting the rehearsal of a satyr chorus
(Figs. 479a-b). 9 The appearance of the hero with shows a similar style of architecture, certainly bor-
enormous plumes attached to his helmet may have rowed from the theater (see Ch. I, Fig. 36 ). 13 The
been similar to the one of Lamachus as he must form was developed in a monumental way in
have appeared in Aristophanes' Acharnians (see
Fig. 480. Model of a stage. Terracotta, Naples
lines 1103, "Bring me the plumes for my helmet";
1105, "How white and beautiful are these ostrich
feathers"; 1109, "Bring me the case for my plumes";
1111, "Alas! the moths have eaten the hair of my

Fig. 479b.
 X. ITALIAN POPULAR COMEDY (PHLYAKES)

Segesta (see Ch. XIII, Figs. 596-598, 600-601). but could have occurred also in some other city in
it

Python, the younger contemporary of Assteas, shows Campania or in Paestum in Lucania, the native city
sometimes a similar arrangement of figures looking of Assteas.
down from above, for example, in the picture of This Assteas stage, is, however, not the predomi-
Alcmene on the funeral pile. 14 Although he does not nant form of stage in Southern Italy, for most of the
indicate a gallery, he may have received the inspira- other vases representing farces, including those of
tion from the hilarotragodia. The whole structure Assteas, show a much simpler form. These farces
on the Assteas vase in Madrid is apparently built represented on the vases have a wealth of humorous
of wood, not of stone; it thus is a form of provisional and ridiculous situations. The plots were taken
theater set up for the farce or hilarious tragedy, partly from mythology, partly from daily life, as
wherever the plays were given. In Syracuse and they were in the old Doric farce (Ch. Ill, Figs.
Corinth provision for the footings of such a provi- 130-132). Gods and heroes on the one side, popular
sional theater has been discovered (Figs. 595, 726- subjects on the other side, are found in about even
728). 15 proportions in the Southern Italian farce, while in
This pretty and practical form seems to have been —
the developed comedies of Plautus as formerly in
used by Plautus also. In the Amphitruo (v. 863) —
the comedies of Aristophanes the subject matter
Jupiter says that he lives here in the upper story ( in taken from actual life prevails.
superiore cenaculo). From inscriptions in Pompeii 16 Heracles is a favorite hero of the phlyakes, as he
we know that such cenacula were rented separately. is in the plays of Rhinthon and in every other farce.

The new excavations haveshown that these upper A vase in Leningrad (Fig. 481) 20 gives a parody of
stories opened not only upon the atrium with a the story of how he came to Delphi to be purified
gallery,which seems to have been the older style, 17 after he had killed his teacher Linos. As Apollo
but also upon the street. 18 The "Assteas stage," like refused to absolve him, he stole the tripod, and
the eastern Greek Hellenistic proskenion theater, Athena had to reconcile him with the god. The vase
thus imitates the actual construction of a house. based on the farce depicts him as having jumped on
This explains the differing opinions as to whether a the holy tripod, holding his club, with which he has
stage or a form of architecture taken from daily life threatened Apollo. The god has fled to the roof of
is depicted on the vase in Madrid. It represents an his temple, holding the bow with which he kills evil-
actual house form copied for theatrical purposes. doers and the laurel with which he purifies repentant
The framing at the sides with columns on the vase, sinners. Heracles tries to bring him down by tempt-
and with slightly projecting turrets on the terracotta ing him with a basket full of fruit and cake. He
relief, reminds one of the paraskenion theater in the holds the club in his right hand, ready to strike as
Hellenistic form, such as we have in New Pleuron soon as Apollo reaches for the gifts. The god, realiz-
and the Piraeus (Ch. IX, Figs. 438-439, 463). The ing the ruse, moves more and more to the edge of
theaters in Segesta and Tyndaris, as reconstructed the roof and holds his attributes away from Heracles,
by Bulle 19 may be a special late Hellenistic type while he looks greedily at the offerings. In the next
evolved from the paraskenion theater on Italian moment he will reach for them, the club will whiz
soil. Perhaps this took place in Tarentum in Apulia, down on his hand, and he will fall down from the
roof to the edge of which he has moved. He will
Fig. 481. Heracles angers Apollo. Phlyakes vase, Leningrad not fall to the ground but into the basin containing
the holy water, to take a cold bath in it and to lose
his bow to Iolaus, who is standing ready to snatch
it. This involuntary bath certainly gave great pleas-

ure to the public of the farce. On the wall is a

wreath and the mask of a stupid-looking old man.
The four masks are excellently drawn and finely
They are the forerunners
differentiated. of the four
main masks which the Oscan Atellan farce later
transmitted to the Roman farce: Maccus, the greedy
blockhead, here Apollo; Dossenus, the clever hunch-
back, here Heracles, who indeed has a high back;
Bucco, the braggart, here Iolaus, who will certainly
boast that he has captured the bow of Apollo; and
Pappos, the stupid old man. These are types which
can be used in any doltish farce. They were revived
in the Italian Commedia dell'Arte. 21
 Fig. 482. Heracles angers Zeus. Phlyakes vase from Ruvo, Leningrad Fig. 483a-b. Visitors to Zeus Ammon. Phlyakes vase, Bari

Heracles and Iolaus also visit a sanctuary of Zeus, so that he can see where he has to place the ladder
the highest god, in order to offer a sacrifice, on a which he is carrying over his shoulders with his
vase from Ruvo in Leningrad (Fig. 482). 22 While head between two rungs. He wears a too-small
Iolaus, or some old man, prays piously and pours a crown, while Alcmene has an elaborate hairdress
libation of wine from a jug on the altar, Heracles, and much jewelry. Hermes can be recognized by his
supposed to offer a dish with offerings to be laid herald's staff, the kerykeion, and his wide-brimmed
on the altar, turns around and eats the food. He is hat. In the Amphitruo of Plautus, Mercury, the
just stuffing the last tidbit into hismouth, under the Roman Hermes, also helps Zeus in his love affair
very nose of Zeus. The highest god, seated on a with Alcmene (v. 993: amanti subparasitor. ) He
throne too high for him, tries to kick the greedy takes there, however, the form of the slave Sosias,
—
hero his son as a result of the love affair with and Zeus that of the husband of Alcmene, Amphi-
—
Alcmene and he threatens in vain to send down truo. Here, on the contrary, they appear as gods,
his thunderbolt. His sacred bird, the eagle, has and Alcmene is not the modest wife who can be
become a small decoration of his scepter. seduced only when she believes that the visitor is
The visit of travellers to Zeus Ammon in the her own husband. Perhaps the vase agrees with the
Libyan oasis, on a vase in Bari (Fig. 483a-b), 23 is Amphitruo of Rhinthon, which play may also have
also anticipated with fear by the god. The Libyan influenced Plautus, for he names his play a tragi-
Zeus sits beside a palm tree indicating the place of comoedia (see Ch. XI, p. 151, Plautus, Amphitruo,
the event, holding his eagle around the neck, and v.63).
he fearfully observes the visitors. One ascends the Fig. 484. Zeus visits Alcmene (Amphitryon) . Phlyakes vase, Vatic-
stage for the purpose of consulting the oracle. The
other, certainly the servant of the first, heavily
loaded with bedsack and provision basket, makes
eyes at the sacrificial gifts in the basket, entrusted
to his care. This may be meant as a parody of the
visit of a Greek, similar to the one of Alexander the
Great to Zeus Ammon, who acknowledged him as
his son. As this took place in 330 B.C., the vase, dated
in the first half of the fourth century, is earlier than
this event.
Heracles is the son of Zeus and Alcmene. On a
vase in the Vatican, bought in Naples by Raphael
Mengs, probably painted by Assteas, Zeus steals to a
Alcmene by Winckelmann (Fig.
mistress identified as
The loved one looks down from a window.
484). 24
Hermes holds a lighted lamp for his father Zeus,

132
 X. ITALIAN POPULAR COMEDY (PHLYAKES)

treated by Epicharmus in his comedy The Comasts

and Hephaestus. Hera had thrown her ugly son out
of Olympus as a child so that he became lame from
the fall. In revenge he sent her a throne, from
which she could not rise again. Zeus promised to
give Aphrodite in marriage to whoever would re-
lease her from the fetters. A vase in the British
Museum (Fig. 485) 25 shows Ares, who loves Aph-
rodite, and Hephaestus fighting before Hera, a pic-
ture of misfortune, seated on her son's fatal gift.
Ares has a helmet with full plumes like those of
Lamachus in the Acharnians of Aristophanes and of
Heracles on the Assteas vase (Fig. 479). Hephaes-
tus, in contrast, wears a kind of night cap with a
tassel. He will certainly be the victor, for Ares is
Fig. 485. Ares and Hephaestus fight before Hera.
Phlyakes vase, British Museum already -retreating. Hephaestus will not be com-
pelled by force to give way and will not release
The Queen of heaven, the wife of Zeus, was his mother until he has received Aphrodite as his
equally mocked. The amusing story of the revenge
bride. Her later love affair with Ares may have been
of Hephaestus on his mother Hera was certainly alluded to in the farce.
very popular. It appears in the Doric farce (see One of the twelve deeds of Heracles is alluded to
above Fig. 130), on the Francois vase, and was in the picture from Camarina, in the Museo Civico
of Catania, in which the hero walks in to Eurystheus,
his employer, using his club as a walking stick ( Fig.
486). 2,3 The lion skin is reduced to a head cap. He
brings the captured ape-like Kerkopes in reed
cages, attached to the ends of his bow, which he
like the slaves in Attic comedy (see above Fig.
147) —
carries over his shoulder. The king, wearing
a small crown and holding a scepter in his arm,
greets the hero with outstretched arm. The altar
between the two shows that the performance was not
only an entertainment but also a sacred play.
Comedies with the title "Kerkopes" were written by
Hermippus, Eubulus, and Plato. On a crater for-
merly in the Hope Collection, the feasting Heracles
is served by two phlyakes. 27
Heracles uses his club to knock at a door, on a
vase in Berlin (Fig. 487). 28 He is holding a bow
in his left hand, and the lion skin hung over his left
arm flutters out behind him. The servant, seated on a
mule, looks on with interest, as the gate is probably
about to give way. He carries an enormous bundle on
a dung-fork (see the agricultural implement behind
the farmer in Fig. 514 below). He is probably mak-
ing phortika, porters' jokes, like Xanthias in Aris-
tophanes' Frogs. As the entrance scene in this com-
edy is similar to the vase in Berlin, it was formerly
used as an illustration of Aristophanes. But here the
real Heracles, not Dionysus disguised as Heracles,
knocks at the door of a palace or a shrine, in which
we may imagine a god or hero dwelling; or he
tries to force his entrance into Hades or Olympus.
There is again a sacred altar between the two
figures.

Figs. 486-487. Heracles bringing monkeys to Eurystheus;

Heracles knocking at a door
Fig. 488a-b. Heracles abducts a woman
from a shrine. Phlyakes vase, Lentini

Two vases found in Sicily depict Heracles as a father Aleus — looks

on smirkingly. On the other
libertine. On one, in Lentini (Figs. 488a-b) 29 he has vase, from Centuripein Milan (Fig. 489), 30 Hermes
forced his way into a shrine and tries to abduct a has led his brother to a woman. The latter, however,
woman praying before an altar. Behind the altar unveiling herself, illustrates the adage: "Behind the
a small statuette is set upon a high pillar. The Lyceum, in front the Museum." As a consequence,
woman is perhaps Auge, later the mother of Tele- the hero is so frightened that the club falls out of

phus, the founder of Pergamon. An old match- hishand; Hermes also seems to lose his herald's staff
—
making pair or perhaps the old nurse and the from his outstretched right hand. A less likely inter-
pretation is the story of Alcestis brought back from
Fig. 489. Heracles pursues a woman, guided by Hermes.
Phlyakes vase from Centuripe Hades by Heracles.
The famous deed of Antigone, who, contrary to
the command of Creon, buried her brother Poly-
nices, is ridiculed in a picture in which a man has
disguised himself in women's clothes (Fig. 490), 31
like the brother- or father-in-law of Euripides in the
Ecclesiazousae of Aristophanes. As the watchman
leads the supposed Antigone before Creon (Soph-
ocles, Antigone, w. 376ff ), he takes off the woman's
mask and reveals himself as a bearded, baldheaded
man. The hydria in his arm may allude to the fact
that he has already buried Polynices and has
brought his ashes in the urn, for which this form
of vase was occasionally used. Thus it may be that
this vase painting is based on another version of the

Fig. 490. Parody of Antigone

X. ITALIAN POPULAR COMEDY (PHLYAKES)

Antigone saga than the one employed by Sophocles.

The Trojan saga was popular in the Italian farce,
as it was later in Latin literature. Achilles as a
student of the wise Cheiron is depicted on a vase,
found in Apulia, now in the British Museum (Fig.
491) 32 He is a modest and gentle youth wrapped
.

in himation, as he follows his old tutor who

his
journeys to a watering place seeking a cure among
the nymphs for his gout or arthritis. The old man is
hampered by his disease and clambers painfully up
the small flights of steps to the stage. A servant
named Xanthias him onto the stage by the
pulls
head, while another servant pushes him forcibly
from behind. This servant and Cheiron assume the
form of a centaur, as two actors in a Disney movie
assume the form of a moose, and two actors in Bali
the form of a bull (see above, Ch. Ill, Fig. 129).
The nymphs looking on from above are ugly old
ladies in lively conversation. Cheiron is said to have
taken a cure with the nymphs of Anigrus in Elis
(Pausanias, v,5,10). Epicharmus in Heracles et
Pholus described a knee ailment of Cheiron. Cra-
tinos and Pherecrates wrote comedies with the title
Cheiron. The cure may have been laughed at as the
cures in the sanctuaries of Asclepius in Aristophanes'
Phitus.
The —
Helen later the cause
birth of the beautiful
which Achilles and many other
of the Trojan war, in
—
heroes died is depicted on a vase in Bari (Fig.
492) 33 Zeus had approached Leda, the wife of
.

Tyndareus of Sparta, as a swan. As a consequence

Leda has laid an egg and has hidden it in her wool
basket. When the right time for the birth is near,
—
Zeus sends Hephaestus who has once before
cleaved the head of the god so that Athena could
—
be born to cleave the egg for the birth of his
daughter Helen. But before he can strike his axe
down Helen rises out of the egg and greets her
mother, who spies through the door, while the step-
father Tyndareus throws up his arm in astonish-
ment. Helen, like the young hero Achilles, is repre-
sented as a heroine of normal beauty. Leda and
Tyndareus are in contrast all the uglier.
The death of the aged king Priam of Troy who
was killed by Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, is
the subject of a vase in Berlin (Fig. 493). 34 The
king, wearing a caricature of a royal oriental head-
dress, has fled to an altar, and lifts his left hand
imploringly to his murderer. He apparently delivers
a tragic oration in a parody of such speeches in
tragedy. Neoptolemus has his sword drawn to kill
him, but has first to let him finish his stirring and
endless tirade. The young hero wears a caricatured
traveller'shat and chlamys.
Another scene which took place after the taking
of Troy is on the vase painted by Assteas, found at

helping Cheiron up steps; Birth of

Figs. 491-493. Servants
Helen; Priam and Neoptolemus. Phlyakes vases

135
 Fig. 494. Ajax and
Cassandra in sanctuary
of Athena. Rome

Fig. 497. Warriors and dog. Naples

guise of a poor modest traveller appears before the

king and queen, both decked with their white
crowns. Arete is the active one of the couple. She
lifts her hand and rushes forward to greet the dis-

tinguished guest, who may perhaps be a suitor for

their daughter Nausicaa. The king Alcinous stands
with bowed head, his left hand on his hip, his right
on a large staff, and waits patiently for his turn.
He is thin in contrast to the stout and pompous
queen. The shipwreck of Odysseus was also treated
by Epicharmus ( Athenaeus, xiv,619b; Pollux, x,134).
A local story gave the subject for a lost vase in
which a figure appears fearfully balancing on a
Fig. 495. Odysseus with Queen and King of the Phaiakes tuna fish (Fig. 496). 37 This favorite food in Southern
Italy takes the place of the dolphin in the legend of
Buccino (ancient Volcei in the Basilicata of Lu- Taras, who rode a dolphin according to coins from
cania), now in the Museo di Villa Guilia at Rome Tarentum. Arion, the master of musical art, was
(Fig. 494). 35 Ajax has threatened to rape the saved by a dolphin when thrown into the sea. It
prophetess Cassandra, the daughter of Priam. He is, however, more likely a representation of Taras,
has followed her into the sanctuary of Athena, the founder of Tarentum. Rhinthon and the Phlyakes
whose cult statue stands in the center of the picture. farce were connected with this rich commercial
But the two change roles in the farce, and the
maiden in turn threatens the great hero, who des- Fig. 498. Sappho and Alcaeus. Bari
perately clings to the idol. The energetic princess
grasps his high helmet and pushes her knee into
the nape of his neck and her foot into his back. The
old priestess with a much too large temple-key
recoils in horror. This picture is one of the funniest
and cleverest of the popular farce.
From the Odyssey comes the story of the arrival
of the shipwrecked Odysseus at the court of the
king and queen of the Phaeacians. On a Campanian
vase in the Louvre (Fig. 495) 36 Odysseus in the
Fig. 496. Phlyax riding a tuna fish
X. ITALIAN POPULAR COMEDY (PHLYAKES)

city. The theater was so popular that Pyrrhus closed

it in order to obtain hired soldiers from this im-
portant city (Zonaras, vm, Ch. 2, p. 370). When the
Romans entered the port of Tarentum in 282 B.C.
the people did not fight against the fleet, because
everybody was in the theater enjoying the hilaro-
tragodia (Cassius Dio, Fragm. 39,5; Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, xix,4). 38
The vases and certainly the plays which they
illustrate thus make fun of a whole series of heroic
characters. Many more Southern Italian vases, how-
ever, depict scenes from that type of farce which
takes its motifs from the daily life of the people.
Some military adventure seems to be mocked at
on a vase in Naples (Fig. 497). 39 An older man
holding a shield and a bow is seated on rocky
ground. Opposite him a soldier with a lance and a
helmet seems to receive instruction. Between them
a man standing with his foot on a rocky elevation
and holding his left arm with his right hand points
to a dog who must play a role in this unexplained
story.
The motif of love and other relations between the
sexes played an ever larger part in farce, as it did
in comedy. A proposal of marriage
is meant
certainly
on the vase in Bari (Fig. 498). 40 The woman is
seated with a cithara in her arm. The man ap- Fig. 499a-b. "Love in the Balance." Syracuse

proaches with a full purse in his left hand, greeting be jumping up and down, for she touches the board
her with his right. Between them is a thymiaterium. only with her toes. She has made such a violent
These are probably the lyric poets Sappho and movement that the man on the other end of the
Alcaeus, the same as on the fine vase in Munich board has been thrown into the air. He makes a
(Figs. 6-7). There Alcaeus seems to have proposed gesture of dismay with both hands. The woman is
to Sappho, but she turns away from him and he certainly the winner in the game. A merry-go-round
hangs his head in distress over her refusal. The with a seated phlyax playing the flute and two
comic actor with his well-filled purse will certainly phlyakes standing face to face are on a vase found
be more fortunate. near Tarentum, 42 now in the University of Syracuse
Love in the balance may be the subject of a vase Museum.
in Syracuse (Fig. 499a-b). 41 A man and a woman A lover whispers to a woman hiding behind an
play on a seesaw, the woman standing and the man ornate door on a vase in the British Museum (Fig.
kneeling. An old Silenus stands in the center on the 500). 43 She seems to lend a willing ear. Also willing,
support for the long board. The woman, holding a like Alcmene (Fig. 484), is the woman, richly
tympanon, wearing a peplos and a mantle which is dressed, who looks out of a window (Fig. 501). 44
wrapped around her head and shoulders, seems to Fig. 501. A lover climbing a ladder. British Museum

Fig. 500. Lovers at a door. British Museum

137
 Fig. 505. Two slaves leading a girl. Moscow
Fig. 502a-b. Old lover bringing apples to a young woman.
Gnathia vase, Boston Apples are the present which an older man has
gathered in the pouch of his mantle for the lovely
young woman who expects him on the other side
45
of a crater in Boston (Fig. 502a-b). In his eager-
ness he runs so quickly that most of the apples will
have fallen out of his cloak before he has reached
his beloved. An old bald man and a comely young
girl are embracing, she leaning her head against his
cheek, in a fragmentary terracotta group in Taren-
tum ( Fig. 503 ) 46 The jovial old man has a wedge-
.

shaped beard and his brows are unevenly drawn, as

if his mood is going to change (see Figs. 196-198,

335-337, 810). The woman wearing a headband is

Fig. 503. Heads of lovers. Terracotta fragment, Tarentum
probably a fickle courtesan, who caters to whoever
brings her presents, like one of the sisters in the last
scene of the Bacchides of Plautus.
Generally, however, it is the young man who wins
in love. When age and youth, probably even father
and son, fight over a woman, as on a crater in Ruvo
(Fig. 504), 47 the woman will naturally fall to the
young man. Both men, wielding swords in their right
hands, have grasped the woman with their left
hands. The youth, however, has a firm grip on her
wrist and also has put his foot on her foot. The old
man has only her shawl in his hand. Thus, in the
next moment the youth will pull up the woman and
run off with her while the father will be left stand-
ing with the empty mantle. Fights over a woman
occur also in Plautus in the Casina, the Mercator,
and in the Asinaria, but these are fights with words,
not with swords. The love theme took on much
Fig. 504. Father and son fight over a woman. Ruvo coarser forms in the popular farces than in the
literary comedy.
The lover is a step ahead of Zeus on the other vase. A crater in the Moscow Museum (Fig. 505) 48
He is already climbing up the ladder to his beloved, depicts two slaves, who instead of quarreling over
while Zeus is still carrying the ladder around his a woman with one
as the masters do, are satisfied
neck. The man offers her apples, which means a big girl for the two of them. They lead her along
declaration of love, and he holds as a second present carrying big bolsters in richly-ornamented covers
a fillet serving as a headband or belt. A slave pro- of the kind used for the couches at banquets. The
vides light with a torch and also carrys a pail of Stichus of Plautus closes with a similar scene, and
wine. He serves his master in his love affair as does the departure for a gay banquet is a popular and
Hermes in the adventure of Zeus. fitting conclusion for any comedy or farce.

138
 X. ITALIAN POPULAR COMEDY (PHLYAKES)

an attempt of the man to vomit, may only give part

of the story.
A young couple on a crater in Naples seems to be
concerned with a baby (Fig. 507). 01 At least it
seems that a child in swaddling clothes is the object
which the young man passes to a woman standing
before a richly-decorated door. An old slave looks
back fearfully at the scene. Certainly the child be-
longs to the young pair and was, as in the Arbitrants
(Epitrepontes) of Menander, deserted and found
again. Other less likely explanations are: Hermes
Fig. 506. Woman feeding a man from a bottle. Gottingen
and Apollo giving Ion to the Pythia, or Lichas re-
ceiving the raiment of Heracles from Deianeira.
Theft, such as that of fruit and wine, had already
been a theme in the old Doric Peloponnesian farce
(see Ch. Ill, Fig. 132). Money, cake, wine, and
meat are stolen in the Italian farce. The most de-
lightful and realistic scene is presented to us by
the crater of Assteas, probably found in Nola, in
Berlin 508). 52 The old man Charinus has
(Fig.
thrown himself upon his money chest, a strongbox
of a form which can be seen even today in many
Pompeian houses. 53 Two thieves try to tear him
away. The one, named Cosilus, has taken hold of
his left arm and the mantle on which the old miser
is lying. The other, named Eumnestus, pulls with

both hands at his left foot and thigh. Between them

Fig. 507. Slave and young couple with baby. Crater, Naples
they will roll him off the chest and get the money.
The servant named Carion stands with trembling
When married couples are shown, the wife is de- knees, his hands stretched forward with a fearful
picted as domineering, as in the rulers of the gesture, but he does not even try to help his master.
Phaeacians (Fig. 495). On a vase in Vienna, 49 an The theme is related to the Anlularia (the Comedy
old long-snouted shrew is talking in a lively and of Pots by Plautus, who knew and made use of the
)

domineering manner to a man who leans on his cane native farce (see Ch. XI, p. 150f. ). In the comedy by
as he listens, astonished and overawed. Contrast of Plautus the gold was hidden in a pot; here it is in
husband and wife is a favorite subject of farce and the strongbox. But in both cases the miser by his
comedy. It is probably a wife who forces a man to fear betrays the place where the treasure is hidden.
drink from a milk bottle on a vase in Gottingen ( Fig. Petty thieving and nibbling of dainties on the sly
506). 50 He may have enjoyed too much wine. She are represented on other vases. On a vase from
pulls his head down, and while he grasps her wrist Ruvo in a private collection in Southern Italy (Fig.
and lifts his right hand in anxiety she pushes the 509) 54 the couple Honorable ( Philotimides ) and
feeding bottle into his mouth. The explanation, as Grace ( Charis ) hold between them a dish of mixed
delicate foods which they have taken from a
Fig. 508. Old miser Charinus with thieves and slave. Vase by small dining table. He lifts a string of figs, while
Assteas, Berlin she is about to push a big cake into her large mouth.

Fig. 509. Pilfering of dainties. From Ruvo, Milan

 X. ITALIAN POPULAR COMEDY (PHLYAKES)

As they are so engrossed in their enjoyment of the

food, they overlook the fact that their slave, Xan-
thias, is sliding into the pouch of his garment the
best piece — a large cake shape of a heart. He
in the
is just about to leave. Another slave has stolen a

whole jug of wine and a cake, from which he

has already taken a bite, from an old woman, on a
55
vase in Berlin, also from Ruvo (Fig. 510). The old
woman pursues him with outstretched arms and
wide stride. Her carefully bound up hair is in
ridiculous contrast to her witch-like face with pro-
56
truding chin. On a vase in Leningrad (Fig. 511)
two merry slaves carry off a pail of wine and a roast,
while dancing to the tunes of a little flute player
Fig. 512. Policeman, thief, and old woman
preceding them. The meat and drink were certainly
pilfered, and the flute player was surely not origi-
nally engaged for the banquet of the slaves. In the
last scene of the Stichus of Plautus the fact that
slaves can also have festivals is explained as a Greek
custom.

Fig. 513. Thrashing of a slave. Berlin

When thieves are caught they are harshly pun-

ished. On a vase in New York (Fig. 512), 57 dated
about 400 B.C., a thief is forced to throw both arms
Fig. 510. Thief with wine jar pursued by old woman. Berlin up —
because he has his hands bound together above
Fig. 511. Two slaves with pail of wine and roast on spit, led by fluteplayer his head —
so that he can be beaten without hin-
drance. He complains: "He has tied both my hands
aloft" (KaTeSrja' avw na x eL P € ) • An overseer or police-
man him with a stick. He is a bar-
stands behind
barian, for he murmurs incomprehensible words,
perhaps meaning: "I shall give you enough blows"
(vopaperTeftXo) . An old market woman stands on the
stage before a richly-ornamented door and scolds
him, threatening to provide more blows or to hand
him over: "I shall grant" or "provide" (eyw irapl£u>).
Thus the poor man will probably receive one beat-
ing from the overseer or policeman, and a second
from his wife or whoever is the owner of the loot
recovered, which consists of a goose, a basket with
a small animal in it, and a mantle. To the left stands

a young man on higher ground called tragedian

( rpayotSo's ),and before him hangs the mask of a
 X. ITALIAN POPULAR COMEDY (PHLYAKES)

digs with the stylus, the writing pencil, at her teeth.

The farmer is not prepared for the mass of knowledge
exhibited by the learned lady and her steward. He
will certainly be snubbed and outwitted. Another bad
bargain awaits the man who tries to sell a bird in
a cage to a shrewd-faced and pompously gesticulat-
ing man on a vase in the Louvre (Fig. 515). 60
Boxing was a popular sport in Italy, beginning in
the sixth century in Etruria, from where it was prob-
ably introduced into Campania when the Etruscans
occupied this province. On a Campanian hydria in
the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, of excellent execu-
tion and preservation, blows are exchanged between
Fig. 514. Farmer, clerk, learned lady. Leningrad two "nude" men (Fig. 516). 61 The costume simulates
a nude body with the breasts painted on the tights.
bearded comedian. We thus certainly have here a Buttons are used for the nave), the one of the left
tragicomoedia in the manner of Rhinthon. fighter is hung loosely from a thread. The masks
A harsh thrashing is meted out to a slave on a have a ring at the apex so that they can be hung
vase in Berlin (Fig. 513). 58 The overseer, with a on a wall when not used. A boxing match is imitated
stick bent in a sharp zigzag, holds the end of a rope and parodied. Both champions balance on their
which is wound around the neck of the culprit, who left feet and extend their right feet forward, at the
bends knees deeply and lays his hands on his
his same time drawing backward, away from each other.
knees, to make himself as small as possible. Another The man on the right has both hands made into
slave mocks him from above by thumbing his nose. fists, as if he were about to strike; the other boxer

Blows are of course very popular in coarse farce, as holds his right hand ready but extends his left hand
they are in Attic Comedy and later in the comedies beseechingly. Both seem to be afraid of each other's
of Plautus. In the parabasis of Aristophanes' Pax blows and may run away to different sides at the
(w. 734ff) the chorus praises the poet because, end. Perhaps a parody on the fight of Amykos and
among other things, he no longer permitted slaves Pollux is meant, a subject treated in a play by
to be beaten and mocked at by their comrades as Epicharmus.
the other comic poets did. Yet in the Frogs (vv. Contrasts of two related characters are popular
616ff) Dionysus, the god himself, and his slave themes and have created delightful types. Old age
Xanthias are beaten alternately by Aiakos. and youth are contrasted in the fight for a woman
Deceiving and snubbing of an ignorant farmer (Fig. 504), as well as in the nocturnal scene where
seems to be the subject of a vase from Ruvo in a white-haired father leads his drunken son home
Leningrad (Fig. 514). 59 The countryman has put from a banquet, indicated by the pail of wine in his
his luggage on a pitchfork and leans forward on his hand, on a crater found at Capua, now in the British
cane. He seems to plead with the haughty overseer Museum (Fig. 517). 62 He prevents the son from
who has written out a bill for him on a large writ- falling down on a goose. A wise and sanguine old
ing tablet. A seated lady holding another tablet man is engaged in discussion with a blackhaired,

Fig. 515. Seller of birds. Louvre Fig. 516. Caricature of two boxers. Fig. 517. Father leading his drunken
Campanian hydria, Boston son. British Museum
 X. ITALIAN POPULAR COMEDY (PHLYAKES)
himation listens placidly, while the other gesticulates
vividly, telling the latest gossip.
Single figures also appear, painting many different
and individual characters of the farce: the jovial
but timid old man (Fig. 521), 66 an ancient Milque-
toast, found in Lecce, now in Vienna; a white-
haired father of comedy, leaning against a column,
from Tarentum, in Wiirzburg (Fig. 522 67 the ;

caricature of an augur, with the curved staff, big

horns from which fillets hang, behind him a bird
who seems just to have laid an egg, from Paestum
in Naples (Fig. 523 G8 a fat glutton and carouser,
;

wearing a small crown, carrying a torch in his arm

Fig. 518. Old man and Fig. 520. Two women
excited friend. Fragment gossiping. Phlyakes for some nocturnal festival (Fig. 524), 69 in Taren-
from Tarentum, Heidelberg' vase, Heidelberg tum. Then there are the running slaves: one on a
calyx crater, with a torch and a large purple-red
—
mantle hanging over his left arm formerly in the
Collection Matsch in Vienna, now in the Metro-
politan Museum of Art in New York City (Fig.
—
525) 70 has a wreath with some kind of horns, as if
imitating an augur. Another on a jug in Boston seems
to be a thief who runs with his left leg high in the
air, while he tries to hide something in his exomis

(Fig. 526). 71 Another slave, on a vase from Egnazia

in the British Museum dated around 350 B.C., is
running, carrying a little table on which a high
pyramidical cake seems to indicate a religious
festival (Fig. 527). 72 Such a cake appears also in
the large basket which a slave on a vase in the
Louvre (Fig. 528) 73 carries on his head. The other
offerings which he brings to an altar are fruits,
round cakes, and nuts. As he carries a torch, it seems
to be a nocturnal festival. The little duck probably
Fig. 519. Master and slave. Phlyakes vase, Bari
played her part as the goose in Fig. 517. Many of
excited friend on a fragment from Tarentum in these figures appear on the so-called Gnathia vases
Heidelberg (Fig. 518). 63 A placid old man is walk- — that is, mostly Apulian Vases, the best from
ing with his crooked cane, while his slave, leaning —
Tarentum dated from the middle of the fourth
on a rough stick and heavily laden with travelling to the early third centuries, on which we can also
bag and provision basket, follows him and calls him find many single masks. 74
to turn around, making the gesture of horns (corni) Single figures in terracotta are rarer than on vases.
to avert some imaginary evil, on a vase in Bari ( Fig. The best come from Syracuse (Figs. 529-530), 75 the
519). 04 Two women are contrasted on a vase in home city of Epicharmus and Rhinthon. Fragments
65
Heidelberg ( Fig. 520 ) . One wrapped in her large of similar figures have been found in Tarentum. The
three slaves (Fig. 530) come from the workshop of
a Syracusan potter on the island of Ortygia. They
form a series in dress as well as in movement: nude,
exomis, full tunic.
Figs. 523-525. Augur, Naples; Fat torchbearer, Tarentum;
Augur, Metropolitan Museum

Figs. 521, 522. Old men.

Gnathia vase, from Lecce, Vienna;
Fragment from
Tarentum, Wiirzburg
 Fig. 527. Slave carrying a table with cakes. Fig. 528. Slave carrying a basket
Gnathia vase, British Museum to an altar

Fig. 526. Running slave

Jug, Boston

Figs. 529, 530. Female and male phlyakes; Three slaves of farce. Fig. 531. Phlyax lighting fire on an altar

The costume of these phlyakes of Southern Italy farces were still a part of the Dionysiac cult. The
is still the old costume of the farce, which had also proof of this is furnished by the vases on which
been adopted in the Attic comedy and was still used phlyakes bring offerings to an altar (see Fig. 528),
by Aristophanes and by Middle Comedy of the or appear in company with Dionysus and his thi-
fourth century. 76 All characters wore tights, stuffed asus. On a vase in the Vatican a phlyax dances near
out in front and behind, covering body, arms, and an altar. 77 On a vase in the Kestner Museum of
legs. The men exhibit the phallus and too-short Hanover a phlyax holds a lamp for Dionysus,
vest, the slaves and lower classes at times an exomis, while a woman looks out of a window, as does
leaving one shoulder bare. Some are depicted as Alcmene on the vase in the Vatican (Fig. 484). A
naked with the breast and the navel painted on the female mask lies on an altar. On a crater in Prince-
tights, or the navel is indicated by a button ( see the ton a phlyax lights the fire on an altar in the pres-
boxers, Fig. 516). Everything is more grotesque ence of a flute player in the long-sleeved theatrical
and more realistic in this low-class Italian popular dress (Fig. 531). 78
The single companion^ of Diony-
farce than in Attic comedy. The tights often fit sus on Paestum vases is in many cases the old
badly, with creases and seams evident. The chlamys Papposilenus, as on vases in Los Angeles and in the
or, generally, a small himation serves as a mantle Louvre (Fig. 532a-b). 79 On many others, how-
for the men. The women wear the chiton and usually ever, a phlyax takes this part. On a crater in the
a large cloak. Vatican he precedes Dionysus, blowing the pipes
The reason for retaining this costume, and, above (Fig. 533); on a vase in Madrid he carries a wine-
all, the masks is that the phlyakes, like all actors, cup and a wreath and in Liverpool (Fig. 534) he
were the servants of Dionysus. Even these late holds a wreath and receives a gift from the god. 80

Fig. 532a-b. Silenus and Dionysus. Paestan vases Figs. 533, 534. Phlyax and Dionysus. Paestan vases
 Fig. 535. Dionysus and phlyakes watching a female tumbler. Paestan vase attributed to Assteas, Lipari

The excellent crater in the Museo Eoliano of seum dances before Dionysus with a large basket on
Lipari ( Fig. 535 80a
shows the seated Dionysus and hishead (Fig. 536). 81 On a vase from Tarentum a
two phlyakes watching a female acrobat performing phlyax dances between Dionysus and a maenad; on
on a table. Above are two windows from which two an askos in Ruvo he dances between a satyr and a
women look down. The scene is laid on a low stage, maenad (Fig. 537). 82 On some vases there is a
supported by columns and decorated with drapery. Dionysiac scene on one side and a phlyakes scene
The style is that of the Paestan painter Assteas, on the other. 83 These players of the popular farce
and the vase is dated about 350 B.C. thus are certainly members of the thiasus of Dio-
The phlyax on a Paestan vase in the British Mu- nysus.
 X. ITALIAN POPULAR COMEDY (PHLYAKES)

On the crater by Python in the Vatican (Fig.

538) 84 three young men are characterized as actors
of the farce by the masks above them, one mask of
a black-haired man
with grotesque features, one
of a woman, and one of an old man. The youths
play a game of cottabus, in which the dregs of their
wine cups are thrown on a metal disk above a
candelabrum. They may be celebrating a victory
at a Dionysiac they are being served
festival, for
wine by a young satyr, while Papposilenus is lying
in a drunken sleep on the floor, and on the reverse
Dionysus is seated in the midst of his thiasus. An-
other such scene in a simpler form is on a Cam-
panian crater in Cambridge. 85 These vases may
already have been inspired by the Atellan, the
Fig. 536. Phlyax dancing before Dionysus. Paestan vase, Campanian equivalent of the phlyakes farce. 86 The
British Museum gifted Oscans adapted the Southern Italian farce
and conventionalized the four main types of the
farce: Bucco, Maccus, Dossenus, and Pappus. The
last they named in their language Casnar (Varro,
Lingua Latina, vn,20). The plays were named
Atellana from Atella, a town in Campania. In this
Oscan form the Atellan farce came to Rome.
Certainly the Oscan, no longer the Greek form, is
illustrated on a wine jug in the British Museum
(Fig. 539), 87 for its inscription has the Oscan form
Santia instead of the Greek name Xanthias. The
bald actor with pointed beard, who is a freedman
to judge from his fringed mantle, stands beside a
statuette of Heracles. He probably claims to be as
great a hero as the popular Heracles, a boast which
the great bowl beside him confirms. His feat will,
however, only be in drinking. He could be a Bucco,
the big-mouthed, voracious, and boisterous brag-
gart. On the vase with the symposion, the white-
haired mask could be the Pappos-Casnar, the comi-
cal old man, and the black-haired mask that of
Maccus, the glutton or buffoon, from which Plautus
later took his middle name. The types were origi-

Fig. 539. Actor as Santia. Oscan vase, British Museum

nally individual and varied, as they are in Attic
comedy. But when the farce wandered from the
south towards the north, from Syracuse, the home Fig. 540. Plan and reconstructed section of a phlyakes stage
of Epicharmus, to Tarentum, where Rhinthon lived
and the hero Taras was mocked (Fig. 496); then to
Lucania, where, in Paestum, Assteas painted; and The rear wall sometimes has other columns beside
then to Campania, where the highly cultured Oscans the ones set at the corners (479, 522), often doors
— who were also the inhabitants of Pompeii lived, — (Figs. 479, 487, 491, 492, 500, 507, 509, 512), and in
and who may have played the Atellana in their several cases windows, indicating an upper story
theaters; then the types developed which finally (Figs. 484, 492, 501, 535). The door is often a richly-
came to Rome. 88 If we can trust the vase with the ornamented porch. It has a sloping or gable roof
Santia inscription, the Oscans discarded the phallus. supported by beams and cross-struts or corbels. In
With the Atellana not only the types and jokes the triangle between the horizontal and ascending
but also their temporary stage buildings came to parts, which is probably meant to be half a tympa-
Rome. We can reconstruct the form of the Southern non, there are tendrils, and on the corners of the
Italian stage very well from the vase scenes, as gables acroteria (Figs. 480, 491, 507, 512). This
about one-quarter include their setting. The stage richly-ornamented porch is the vestibulum, often
has three main forms 89 which, however, overlap: mentioned by Plautus, for instance in Mostellaria
Primitive low stage, rough platform with (v. 817).
1 )

wooden floor upon three or four rectangular Among the settings, trees are rather common
(Figs. 488, 489, 493, 506, 520, 527), including the
posts (Figs. 489, 491, 504, 514, 515, 519).
palm tree for Zeus Ammon
( Fig. 483 ) In addition,
2) Stage supported by fairly low posts, covered
.

there are used: altars (Figs. 482, 486-488, 493, 528,

by drapery (Figs. 483, 492, 498, 507, 511, 518,
531), chairs and thrones (Figs. 482, 483, 485, 498,
535) or tablets (Figs. 485, 488). Sometimes
535), a dining table (Figs. 509, 527, 538), a money
steps lead up to the platform and a door is in-
chest ( Fig. 508 ) , a wool basket ( Fig. 492 ) a ladder
,
dicated.
(Figs. 484, 501), a basin for holy water, and the
3) A higher stage supported by columns without
tripod of Apollo (Fig. 481) and a thymiaterium
steps but mostly with a back wall (Figs. 508,
(Fig. 498).
509, 517).
The description shows that the requisites of the
The stages often have a short flight of five to seven popular farce were really of the simplest sort, so
steps in the center, leading up to thepodium ( Figs. that they could be carried easily by the troupe when
483, 485, 488, 489, 491, 507, 518). The forewall is it wandered around. The stage was set up on the

adorned with drapery, and is often decorated with market place or in any available place in the smaller
fillets (Fig. 517), wool strands (Fig. 488), wreaths cities. In larger cities the wandering actors may
(Fig. 485), branches (Fig. 517), and candelabra or have played in the Greek theaters, where they could
incense stands ( Fig. 498 ) The narrow high posts at
. conveniently erect their little podium in the large
the front corners (Fig. 508), which in one case orchestra. This was probably the case in Syracuse,
(Fig. 517) carry a garland between them, cor- where provisions have been made in the rocky
respond to the thin columns supporting the roof on ground for the footings of such a temporary stage
the vase with the mad Heracles by Assteas in with a backwall (Fig. 540). 90 A similar temporary
Madrid Such columns are more often
(Fig. 479). stage seems to have been installed in the theater of
found at the back corners, where they frame the Corinth, which the Romans conquered in 146 B.C.,
rear wall (Fig. 489). This background wall is usu- and rehabilitated not long after 54 b.c. 91
ally distinguished only by the objects hung upon This simple stage had a world-wide historical
them. These include masks (Figs. 481, 508, 512, significance. 92 It migrated together with the farce
538), bucrania (Figs. 485, 486, 498, 507, 522), bowls now become the Oscan Atellana —
Rome. Here it
to
Figs. 485, 489, 539), jugs (Fig. 509), fillets (Figs. became the stage of Plautus, and combined in the
it

483, 504, 510, 519 ) and wreaths ( Figs. 481, 584, 520 )
, first century b.c. with the Greek theatron to produce
In one case a tympanon hangs near Zeus Ammon the Roman theater structure which, in the main, is

(Fig. 483). still the form of our theater today.

 CHAPTER XI

THE ROMAN PLAYS AT THE TIME OF THE REPUBLIC 1

I. The Early Republican Period

While Greek Southern Italy enjoyed tragedy, and chariot —

races from representations on Etruscan
comedy in the form of the farce, Rome, as yet un- wall paintings (Fig. 541) and on funeral urns. 3 The
'

civilized, remained content in the first centuries of dancer was called ister from which the Latin
the Republic with very primitive plays. These were Among the dancers is found
histrio, actor, is derived.
called versus Fescennini, after Fescennium in the a masked harlequin, in the Tomba degli Auguri See Figs.
548 552
(tomb of the Augurs) and in the Tomba del Pul-
,
territory of the Falisci between Latium and Etruria
(Horace, Epist., n,l, vv. 145ff). 2 Coarse improvised cinella (tomb of the buffoon), with the pointed
jokes and personal satire were popular at the harvest headdress later used for clowns, and a short dress
festivals inhonor of Silvanus and Tellus. The often composed of multicolored pieces like the one
pleasantries gradually became so overdone and later used for harlequins (Figs. 542 and 543). 4 His
immoral that these plays had to be kept in bounds name is Phersu, which became the Roman persona,

by law. All later Roman plays were taken over from meaning mask. Another Etruscan figure is Charun,
foreign peoples and adapted to the Roman taste. a demon with hammer and grotesque features,
In Etruria music and dance flourished from the found in the Tomba del Oreo (the netherworld) in
sLxth to the fourth centuries b.c. They were used at Tarquinii (Fig. 544) and the Tomba Francois in
funerals and at the festivals of the gods. We know Vulci; he is also represented in terracotta heads
of these dances — which evidently alternated with (Fig. 545). 5 He became
the model for the servants
athletic contests such as boxing, wrestling, and who burned the defeated gladiators with a hot iron
 Fig. 546. Spectators on temporary stands. Wall painting, Corneto

to make sure that they were dead and who removed Roman citizens, and they persisted until the time
the dead gladiators in the Roman amphitheater. of Cicero (Cicero, Epistle ad Fam., vn,l,3), of
Charun later also became the model for the medieval Augustus ( Strabo, v, 233 ) and even into the Empire
,

devil. Etruscan dancers and flute players first came ( Tacitus, Annates, rv, 14 ) . They were later rewritten
to Rome in 364 B.C., when they were invited on the in the Latin p. 247) and re-
language (see below,
occasion of a ceremony of expiation to ward off a placed the old Roman satura and the Greek satyr
pestilence. From then on dance and flute playing play as a concluding piece. They were perhaps,
were part of the public life in Rome. The Etruscan therefore, later called fabulae satyricae.
mimetic dancers (histriones) accompanied by the
II.The Last Centuries of the
double pipes ( tibia ) were blended with the Fescen-
Republic (ca. 250-30 B.C.)
nine verses to form the Satura or Fabulae Saturae
(Livy, vn,2), a medley of dance and crude scenes. 6 The crude forms of entertainment were replaced
The Satura is, of course, not equivalent to the Greek in the second half of the third century B.C. by trans-
satyric drama, but as the name implies, consists of lations and adaptations of Greek tragedies and
a mixture of various elements out of which little comedies. From
wealthy and theater-loving
the
dramatic sketches without continuity of content Greek city of Tarentum, which was taken by the
were composed. Romans in 272 B.C., Livius Andronicus came as a
For these primitive presentations straight tribunes child to Rome. He became a slave and later a
were erected for the spectators, below which the freedman and tutor in the house of a certain Livius.
slaves lay (Fig. 546). 7 These crude entertainments Having command of both Greek and Latin, he
did not need a stage (pulpitum). Such a one, how- became the first translator in the world's literature.
ever, came to Rome with the popular farces of From 240 to 207 b.c. he translated into Latin the
Southern Italy, which we know as phlyakes in their tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides as well as
Greek form. These farces came to Rome as Fabulae Greek New Comedies. The first presentation of a
Atellanae, 8 that is, in the form which the Oscans tragedy and a comedy was instituted by Livius
in Campania had given them. The name is taken Andronicus in the year 240 b.c. on the occasion of
from Atella, near Capua, the Campanian "Abdera," the Ludi Romani. Among the titles of his tragedies,
"Gotham," or "Schildburg," the city of queerness, which alone are preserved, are: Achilles, Ajax,
where the people were supposed to do inept and Aegisthus, Andromeda, Danae, Tereus, and The
absurd things. Some of the so-called phlyakes vases —
Trojan Horse all well-known legendary subjects
represent this younger third-century form. This is from the Trojan and other heroic cycles. Titles of
certainly the case in the vase which gives the slave three comedies are Gladiolus, Ludius, and Verpus.
beside the statue of Heracles not the Greek name These titles sound more like the farce of southern
Xanthias, but its Oscan form: Santia (Fig. 539. 9 Italy than like Attic New Comedy. Certainly the
The Greek Pappos became the Oscan Casnar farce had from the beginning a great influence on
(Varro, Lingua Latina, vn, 29), and later the Latin the development of Latin comedy. The Verpus, that
Senex, the old man or the grandfather (cf. Figs. is the male counterpart to a virgo, may be repre-

488, 517-519, 521, 538). Also taken over were the sented in the terracotta statuette of a seated old
Bucco, the stupidus, the dunce or braggart; Maccus, slave at Berlin (Fig. 547). 11 He has his legs and
the greedy glutton; and Dossenus, the sly and mis- hands crossed and miserably anticipates dressing up
chievous hunchback, often acting as schoolmaster, as a young maiden whose mask is beside him on the
learned man, or doctor. All these types can already seat. The influence of the popular farce on Latin
10
be found in the phlyakes farce, and have their comedy was however combined with that of Attic
origin in the old Doric farce (see Ch. III). These Comedy. This was certainly true in the case of
Oscan plays (ludi Osci) were first given by Cam- Naevius, the younger contemporary of Livius An-
panian citizens in the Oscan language, then by dronicus. Naevius was born in Campania, the home

148
 X/. ROMAN PLAYS OF THE REPUBLIC • LAST CENTURIES

of the Atellana. He was a Roman citizen and gave

his first presentation at Rome in the year 235 B.C.
and flourished until 204 b.c. During this time he
w rote nine tragedies, probably all of which were
taken from Euripides. Among the titles are Danae,
The Trojan Horse, Hector, Hcsione, and Iphigenia.
The tragedies of Naevius were still played in Rome
in the time of Cicero. His comedies were also partly
translated from Greek New Comedy, as, for ex-
ample, the Colax, the Flatterer, from Menander. But
beside the comedies from Attic citizen life, Naevius Fig. 549. Mask of youth
also used Italian motifs and blended them with the
Greek models. For instance, the heroine of his
comedy Tarcntilla must have been a courtesan Fig. 547. Verpus

from the gay city of Tarentum. A large statuette,

found together with that of a youth in a large
mantle in the Oscan Pompeii (Figs. 548a-b), may
represent such a person. 12 She has red hair and red
lips and wears a chiton, colored light blue, in the
Hellenistic form, and a palla, a mantle, colored light
rose-violet,with fringes, a sign of elegance. The
pallium for men, the palla for women are the Latin
names for the Greek himation, which was taken over
with the subject matter from Greek New Comedy.
The Greek type of drama therefore was named
Fabula Palliata, after this mantle. The mask of a
gay youth with broad fillet and heavy garland of
flowers and leaves, from Tarentum (Fig. 549), is
representative of the palliata.
Naevius, however, used also native Roman sub- Fig. 548a-b. Youth and courtesan Fig. 550. Roman in toga
jects for tragedy as well as for comedy. He is the statuettes from Southern Italy (Figs. 551-553). 14

creator of the Roman national drama, named Fabula They all wear short tunics and above them they
Praetexta after the toga of the patricians, which was have oddly draped mantles. The one with a vase
ornamented with purple stripes (Fig. 550). 13 This and a ham in his hand, who may be a potter, wears
form of tragedy had native Roman subjects, taken the Roman mantle called sagula; the one with the
either from older history or legend, like Romulus, money bag, who may be a moneylender or a dealer,
dealing with the founding of Rome, or contempo- wears the Roman paenula; and the stupid looking
rary events, like Clastidium, in which the victory man with the hanging arms, who may be an out-
of Claudius Marcellus over the Gauls in 222 b.c. is witted politician, wears the early form of the Roman
described. Perhaps these patriotic plays were given toga. 15 They thus are all wearing Roman cloaks.
without masks and were composed for such special These comedies with Italian plots were called
occasions as triumphs and funeral games. Since at togatae in contrast to the palliatae because they
these events scenic plays took place, the result was were played in the Roman toga or other local forms
a constantly increased demand for the new dramas of the mantle in contrast to the Greek himation
with a regular plot, which had been unknown in (pallium). Naevius was a many-sided man, and he
earlier Rome.
Figs. 551-553. Potter;Moneylender; Politician (?) of Italian
Naevius used motifs from native farce and the comedy. Terracotta statuettes, British Museum
life of the lower classes in Italy for many of his

comedies. The titles Agitatoria (the politician),

Ariolus (the seer or soothsayer), Carbonaria (the
charcoal-burner), Corollaria (the dealer in flowers),
Tunicularia (the man in the small tunic), and
Figulus potter) describe everyday life in
(the
Italian towns.Such types as may have appeared in
these native comedies are portrayed in terracotta
XI. ROMAN PLAYS OF THE REPUBLIC

was considered the third greatest writer of comedy

after the later poets Plautus and Caecilius. 16
The importance of the Oscan farce becomes
evident from the fact that Plautus named himself
Maccius after one of his figures. 17 In the prologue
of the Asinaria (The Comedy of Asses, or the
Donkey Play, v. as Maccus has
11) he says that he
translated thisplay into the barbaric language
(Maccus vortit barbare). The word barbaric shows
that he rightly considered his native language un-
Fig. 554a-b. Slave; Father of comedy. Fig. 555. Slave
polished, and he indeed contributed much to refin-
ing it for literary use. Born around 254 B.C. in Sar-
sina in Umbria, he is the first poet to come to Rome
from Northern Italy. His comedies were written in
the late third and the early second centuries. From
his one hundred and thirty comedies Varro chose
twenty-one, all of which, twenty complete and one
fragment (the Vidularia), have been preserved.
The Twin Brothers Menaechmi can be dated before
215 b.c. and probably belongs to his earlier plays.
The Miles Gloriosus (The Braggart Warrior) ap-
peared about 206 B.C.; the Cistellaria (The Casket
Comedy) about 202 b.c. The Stichns was presented
in 200 b.c. at the Ludi Plebeii in the Circus Flam-
inius. The date of the Pseudolus is given as 191 B.C.
The Bacchides, the Truculentus, and the Casina are
probably among his latest pieces presented after Figs. 556-558. Slaves seeking refuge on altars
190 b.c. Plautus died in 184 b.c.
We must distinguish three elements in the com- Slaves fearing punishment flee to an altar when
edies of Plautus: New Comedy, Italian Farce, and their intrigue has misfired, as does Syrus in the
his own contribution. His plots and his characters Heauton Timoronmenos Terence (v,975). Marble
of
are taken from the Attic New Comedy of Menander, statuettes in the Vatican (Figs. 556-557) and in the
Philemon, and Diphilus (see above, Ch. VIII, pp. British Museum (Fig. 558) represent slaves with
87ff). The influence of these models is seen in his the wreath of a banquet, which they may have cele-
chief theme: the love of an extravagant or gentle brated too early, and they are now fearfully clutch-
youth for a courtesan or for a freeborn, but not yet ing the edge of their seats. 19 Tranio in the Mostel-
recognized, daughter of a citizen and the tricks and laria (The Haunted House, v. 1064ff) is seated on
deceptions of the slave used to help him. His chief the altar to evade punishment, after his intrigue has
personages are the enamoured, lighthearted, and been found out by his old master (cf. below, Fig.
reckless young man, the courtesan, the worthy 587). The Pseudolus glorifies the lying slave. Other
mother, and the impudent, lying, and scheming characters from New Comedy are the brutal and
slave. Masks and found in Italy illustrate
figurines stingy pimp, slave dealer and moneylender, the
these characters. gay young man from
The mask of a parasite, the cook, and the bragging soldier, who in
Tarentum (Fig. 549) and statuettes of the youth the Miles Gloriosus is ridiculed as boasting, vain-
and the courtesan found in Pompeii (Fig. 548) glorious, and mercenary. In the comedies of Plautus
represent the lovers. The father of comedy wrapped as in the statuettes everything is much coarser and
in his large pallium (Fig. 554b) and the slave in more farcical than in the Greek models. (Cf. the
his coarse tunic and small mantle, his right hand Greek statuettes Ch. VIII, Figs. 396-413, with the
laid on his back (Fig. 554a) are represented in Roman ones in Ch. XII, Figs. 580-585).
bronze statuettes found in Rome, now in the Metro- The reason for this is that Plautus was strongly
politan Museum of Art. Another bronze statuette under the influence of the native farce and re-
of a slave in pensive attitude, as if preparing an modelled the Greek motifs in its direction. He used
intrigue,is in the Museum of Cassel, and another the stock characters of the Atellana. He may have
in the Walters Art Gallery in Baltimore seems to played the greedy glutton Maccus when he was an
expect, or has received, a beating (Fig. 555). 18 actor before becoming a writer, and therefore
 XI. ROMAN PLAYS OF THE REPUBLIC • LAST CENTURIES

named himself Maccius. He seems to have used the are similar to those in the popular farce dealing
elever Dossenus for his parasites, such as Saturio in with everyday life, only one play, the Amphitruo,
the Pcrsa (the Persian), who sells his daughter to a is influenced by the hilarious tragedy (hilaro-
procurer knowing that he can claim her again be- tragodia) of Rhinthon, as reflected in the vase in
cause she is freeborn. Horace (Epist. u, 1, 170-174 Fig. S 1t Plautus himseli calls it a tragicomoedia
. 1

says that Plautus was a Dossenus among the vora- (v. 63). It is, of course, on a higher level than the
cious parasites ( adspice Plautus . . . quantus sit farce. While Jupiter in the farce visits Alcmene in
Dossenus edacibus Manducus, who in
in parasitis). his own
form, in Plautus he has to take the likeness
the Latin farce was developed from the big-mouthed of her husband Amphitryon, in order to win the
Bueco, is mentioned in Rudens (vv. 535-536): the noble and faithful woman, whose innocent affection
procurer Labrax when rescued from the sea after belongs to her husband.
a shipwreck thinks of offering himself as a candidate Plautus thus is by no means just a translator of
Manducus, because he is chattering
for the role of a Greek New Comedy. He has more effective wit and
aloud with his teeth. This mask with the enormous rollicking humor, suitable for stage use, than the
teeth lived on in the imperial time (see Ch. XV, more refined Greek comic writers. In addition to
Figs. 821-822). The senex, developed from the their subject matter and to the motifs of the farce,
Oscan Casnar as a stupid old man, can be found in he has entirely unique themes, sentimental and
several comedies of Plautus. Thus Nicobulus is romantic situations, which distinguish his pieces
easily deceived by his own slave in the Bacchides, from all other ancient comedies. 22 The Aulularia
who makes him pay a sum of money for which the (The Hidden Pot of Gold) and the Trinummus (The
son can redeem his mistress. Periphanes in the Threepenny Piece) have a psychological interest
Epidicus is even twice persuaded to give large sums in spite of the motifs borrowed from farces. An
of money extracted under false pretenses. Theopro- unusually emotional and noble play is the Captivi
pides in the Mostelhria believes the unlikely story (The Captives or Prisoners of War). It has popular
of his slave Tranio, who pretends that his house is magnanimity, reward for virtue after hard trials,
haunted and that, therefore, his son has sold it and and punishment of wickedness. Part of the popularity
purchased a new house. In the Casina the old of the comedies by Plautus is due to the role that
Lvsidamus is deceived by the stratagem of his wife music plays in them. There was no chorus, but many
when he get possession of Casina, the be-
tries to songs, cantica, and many integral parts of the action
loved of his son. The old man and the young man were declaimed or chanted to the accompaniment of
fight for the favor of the girl. Father and son both the flute or double pipe ( tibia ) with a great variety
wish to marry her to their own slaves, for they of musical meters, indicating the changing melodies.
believe her to be a slave. The father wants to give This is a peculiarly Italian feature. The importance
her to his old overseer, the son to his own personal of the music is shown in the fact that the musician
attendant. Each hopes that in this way he will be who was in charge of the musical accompaniment,
able to enjoy her favor. The father is, of course, and who may have also composed the music, is
cheated: an old bearded slave Chalinus, dressed as sometimes named in the prefatory note, as is Mar-
a girl, takes the place of the bride ( see the statuette cipor, the slave of Oppius —
together with the actor
in Fig. 547). The father and the overseer are Pellio —
in the Stichns. In this play when the slaves
soundly beaten by the attendant, and Casina is hold a drinking party they give a drink to the
finally given in marriage to the son. In the Mercator musician (vv. 762-768). In the Pseudolus, the
( the Merchant ) the father also falls in love with the slave from which the comedy takes its name,
sweetheart of his son, without suspecting that the when he has promises entertain-
to leave the stage,
boy loves her. The two engage in a battle for the ment by the fluteplayer. In the Casina the musician
possession of the beloved (vv. 380ff) and each, in is asked to play the wedding song, the Hymenaeus.

order to be able to enjoy her, pretends that he wants Thus music was used not only in some parts, as in
to sell her to a friend. The stupid old man makes the the chorus of the Greek plays, but a musical element
mistake of entrusting the girl to a neighbor, and it seems to have pervaded the whole presentation. 23
is of course the son who will get her, as it is in the This interweaving of music is an old inheritance
farce (see Fig. 504). 20 But in Plautus it is a battle from the Ludi Etrusci and thus genuinely Italian.
of words instead of swords as in the farce. In the Many other Italian elements, flavor, and local color
Asinaria and the Bacchides father and son share the are found in Plautus in his introduction of Italian
favor of a courtesan in a friendly fashion, instead of topics and descriptions of Roman places, as, for
fighting over her. example, the Forum Romanum in Curculio, vv. 467-
While most plays of Plautus have themes which 482. The prologues preserved in twelve of the
XI. ROMAN PLAYS OF THE REPUBLIC • LAST CENTURIES

comedies of Plautus are also unique. They are Roman circles such as the families of the Scipios, of
spoken by an actor, by the personified Prologus, or Aemilius Paullus, and of Titus Quinctius Flamininus,
by a god, such as Mercury in Amphitruo, the Lar who were the victors over the Greeks. The dramatic
familiaris in Aulularia, the star Aucturus in Rudens, plays spread along with Greek culture and religion.
Luxuria and Inopia in Trinummus. The end is often Under the Greek influence the Roman republican
a j*ay parade, similar to the Komos in Old Comedy. literature reached its greatest period during the
Plautus is always original and amusing. He has second century, with its comic poets Caecilius and
true theatrical instinct and wit. It not to be
is Terence, and its tragic poets Ennius, Pacuvius, and
wondered at that he was popular in antiquity and Accius.
remains beloved today. His popularity certainly
still Caecilius Statius (ca. 219-168) wrote forty-two
contributed to the fact that scenic plays were more comedies of which we know the titles and about
and more added to festivals, which at first had only 300 verses. The titles are related to Attic New
athletic events, races, and gladiatorial fights. These Comedy, especially to Menander, such as Andria,
games had come originally from Etruria, then from Synephebi, the Substituted Child and the Money-
Campania, earlier than the Oscan farce and the Lender. His Hellenistic style stands midway be-
Greek scenic plays and always remained more popu- tween Plautus and Terence.
lar than the latter. Terence (P. Terentius Afer) was born in Africa
The number of ludi, that is official holidays on about 190-185 b.c. He came to Rome as the slave of
which plays were presented, increased steadily. All Terentius Lucanus, who set him free. He frequented
festivals were associated with the state religion and the house of Scipio Africanus and composed for his
were given in honor of the gods, under the super- highly-cultured circle imitations of Greek New
vision of the state, with magistrates —mostly aediles Comedies, particularly those of Menander. He is
—presiding. The presentation of the plays was in so similar to the Attic poets that he really belongs
the hands of a theater director (dominus gregis). and has
in the history of the Hellenistic literature,
The and most important festivals, the Ludi
oldest always been treated therein (see Ch. VIII, p. 88).
Romani, in honor of Jupiter, were celebrated in the He, like Naevius, Plautus, and Ennius before him,
Circus Maximus, the oldest building for games in sometimes combined plots and characters taken
Rome, where Livius Andronicus presented his trag- from several Greek originals (see Prologue to
edies beginning in 240. From 220 on the Ludi Plebeii Andria, vv. 9ff). His six plays, which are all pre-
or popular games were also given in honor of served, belong to the period 166-160 B.C.: Andria
Jupiter, but in the Circus Flaminius on the Campus (The Woman of Andros) to 166; Heauton Timoru-
Martius. From 212 on the Ludi Apollinares were menos (The Self-tormentor) to 163; Eunuchus and
given in honor of Apollo, and from 194 on the Ludi Phormio to 161; Adelphi (The Brothers) to 160 b.c.
Megalenses or the Megalesian festival in honor of the Hecyra ( The Mother-in-Law had two unsuccessful
)

Magna Mater or Cybele. A pulpitum, a platform or performances in 165 and 160, before it became a
temporary stage, which had come with the Southern success in the fall of the latter year. The first Hecyra
Italian farces to Rome, was erected for these plays and the first three comedies named were presented
on public ground before the temples or in the build- at the Ludi Megalenses; the second Hecyra and the
ings destined for athletic events. From 214 on Adelphi at the funeral games (Ludi Funerales) of
theatrical representations of four days' duration took Aemilius Paullus, the victor over Greece; and the
place at the Ludi Romani before the circus races third Hecyra as well as the Phormio were performed
and gladiatorial fights began (Livy, xxix,43). In at theLudi Romani. Terence died in 159 in Greece,
about 200 b.c. Rome had only eleven to seventeen, in where he had gone to find more original material
the Augustan period forty to forty-eight days for of- for his plays.
ficial scenic representations. To these must be added Terence was not, like Plautus, a strong and jocose
the scenic Ludi Funebres or funeral games and the humorist but a refined, subtle, cultured, and morally
Ludi Votivi, plays presented at dedications and tri- eminent poet. With the exception of Phormio —
umphs. which is modelled after Apollodorus of Carystus'
In the second century B.C. Greek-Hellenistic in- —
Epidicazomenos (the Claimant) the plays of Me-
fluence on Rome was at its height (cf. Livy, nander are imitated in style and character in the
xxxix,22, and Polybius, xxx,13). Tragedy and Com- other five comedies of Terence. In Adelphi a play
edy were Hellenized more and more and were pre- by Menander is enriched with a scene from
sented even in their original form in the Greek the Synapothnescontes (Linked in Death) by
language. 24 This was, of course, only possible for Diphilus. This play, with its opposing theories of
the highly cultivated and educated aristocratic education of two fathers, one indulgent and one
 X/. ROMAN PLAYS OF THE REPUBLIC • LAST CENTURIES

tainly contributed much to the education of the

undeveloped taste of the Roman public. 25
Through Plautus and Terence, the New Comedy,
the last artistic and literary form of ancient drama
with purely human content, endured in its Roman
form until the end of antiquity. The imperial Roman
period, the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance were
especially interested in Terence. We, therefore,
have illustrated Terence manuscripts, originating
probably in the fourth or fifth century a.d., winch
were copied again and again. 20 On the title pages
of Heauton Timor oumenos and Hecyra the speaker
of the prologue, probably meant to be Ambivius
Turpio, appears in the pallium, the Greek mantle
from which the Roman Comedy takes its name ( Fig.
559 ).- 7 At the beginning of each play there is
painted an aedicula with the masks of all characters
in the order in which they will appear on the stage
(Fig. 560). Then a picture of the action of each

Fig. 559. Speaker of Prologue toHecyra (Ambivius Turpio).

Miniature from a manuscript of Terence, Vatican

stern, and the counterbalance of the different

principles of education, conceived in an absolutely
is

Greek spirit. His Hecyra shows a deep understand-

ing of psychology. An emotional play by Plautus
such as the Captivi looks like a farce in contrast;
and indeed we saw that Plautus was influenced by
the farce, while Terence was not. Terence did not
hold his public as spellbound as Plautus. The audi-
ence twice walked out of the performances of the
Hecyra, the first time to see rope dancers and the
second time to watch a gladiatorial game (Pro-
logues to Hecyra, i, vv. Iff, n, vv. 27ff). Terence
uses his prologues not as other playwrights do to
explain the plot, but to plead, or let his theater
director plead, with the public to give him a fair
hearing and not to believe malignant rumors and
which said that he was assisted by
unfair criticism
men of high rank in his writings, and that he spoiled
his Greek plays by combining two into one (Pro-
logues to Andria and Heauton Timor oumenos) In .

the prologue to this last named play (vv. 36ff),

Terence enumerates as the typical figures, which
he has taken over from Greek New Comedy, the
running slave, the angry man, the greedy
parasite, the impertinent informer, and the covetous
panderer. He concedes he has sometimes
that
changed from a single to a double plot (ibid., vv.
16ff). The speaker of the prologues is the theater
director Ambivius Turpio, who produced the plays Fig. 560. Shrine with masks. Miniature from a manuscript of
of Caecilius as well as those of Terence and cer- Terence, Vatican

153
 AHCHINUS r\KMEKC SIP.UUS

XI. ROMAN PLAYS OF THE REPUBLIC

This is which is folded in two, covers both

a mantle
shoulders, and pinned on the right shoulder, so
is

that the right arm is left free (Figs. 399 and 561b).
When Charinus in Mercator plans to go travelling
in order to find his beloved girl, he wears a chlamys,
but changes back to a pallium when he hears that
she is in Athens; but when he is not admitted to her
directly, he again puts on the chlamys in order to
start on his journey (Plautus, Mercator, vv. 851ff,
910ff, 921ff). The chlamys can be thrown back over
the shoulders and then hangs only in the back; see
Tffcnrpu tr" $ Y. A. mAne-'rruvie- ipfirJJcrrfrraT- vpoi eft trr dioflfAL uuf ncbifdeof qua.efo ur fie?-'
bilk SOSIRAlAjg^ ElDiM CANIHA.3
SIR.UU5
am /

Fig. 561a-c. Scenes from Terence's Adelphi. Scenes n,l; n,4; m,2. Miniatures from a manuscript of Terence, Vatican

scene follows (Figs. 561a-c). Our examples illus- the relief in Verona
( Ch. XII, Fig. 586 ) On this same
.

trate Adelphi (vv. 155ff, Costumes,

260ff, 288ff). relief thedrunken slave is supported by a second
masks, and gestures correspond remarkably to the slave who wears the exomis, the narrow tunic which
older monuments (cf. Figs. 547-548 and 554-558), covers only one shoulder (cf. Fig. 555). The Greek
and show the continuation of a living tradition until chiton as well as the Roman tunic cover, as a rule,
the very end of antiquity. For example: Ergasilus both shoulders and sometimes form a small sleeve
in Plautus' Captivi says: "I will throw my cloak over over the upper arm (Figs. 548 and 561). The tights
my shoulder just as slaves in comedies usually do." with long sleeves and leggings of Greek comedy are
This agrees with the slaves in the Terence minia- often retained, while the padded body is seen only
tures who grasp a small mantle hanging from their in lower-class people like slaves (Figs. 554a, 561).
left shoulder with their left hands. (Compare also The women wear the long tunic, which is also some-
Epidicus 194f and Phormio 844f. times given to older, more dignified men (Figs.
The costume in Roman Comedy was, as the name 561a-c).
palliata tells us, based on the Greek. 28 The pallium The footwear in comedy is the soccus, a slipper.
worn by men and the palla worn by women is the Periphanes in Plautus' Epidicus promises to his
Greek himation, draped freely and in the most slave soccus, tunica, and pallium. Travellers wear
diverse way. Beginning at the left shoulder, it is the wide-brimmed petasos. The different classes
wrapped around the back and the right side and were distinguished by attributes: the soldier by the
finally brought back can leave the
to the left side. It sword, the slave dealer by a money bag and straight
right arm free (Figs. 548 and 556-558), but it can staff, the master of the house by a curved staff, the
also cover both arms and shoulders as we see it on cook by a spoon or a receptacle with provisions.
the bronze statuette of a father (Fig. 554b) and on It was formerly believed that the players did not
the man, probably Ambivius Turpio, who speaks wear masks in the earlier period at Rome, that they
the prologue for Terence's Hecyra (Fig. 559). The wore only wigs, and that for this reason, in contrast
slaves wear a small scarf-like mantle (pallium col- to the Greek masked drama, the number of actors
lectum) which they gather up when they walk or was unlimited. But it is more likely that the wigs
run (see Captivi, 778f, and Figs. 554a and 561b). white for old men, black for young men, and red
The chlamys is worn by young men, soldiers, travel- for slaves —
were attached to the masks, which in
lers, and also by slaves when they are sent on errands. Italian as in Greek representations covered the

154
XI. ROMAN PLATS OF THE REPUBLIC

whole head (see The

Figs. 339b, 547, 551-553).
29

introduction of the mask by Minucius Prothrymus

and Cincius Faliscus in tragedy and comedy (Dio-
medes, De Arte Grammatica, m, 9,7; Donatus in
Pracfatio to Adclphoc, i, 6 and Eunuchus, i, 6),
which has been dated between 130 and 91 B.C.,
could have occurred much earlier, as we know
nothing else about them. Naevius' Personata was
certainly presented by masked actors. Early masks
are testified by Festus (p. 238 l). How could a
comedy of errors like The Twin Brothers Menaechmi
be presented without masks and without a stereo-
typed costume which was the same for the same
age group and the same for each member of a
definite social class? How could it otherwise be
explained that, when Menaechmus of Syracuse
comes for the time to Epidamnus, wife, girl-
first

friend, parasite, servant, maid, father-in-law, and

physician all mistake him for his twin brother living
in Epidamnus, since they had been separated as
small boys?
The execution of masks and costumes is much
coarser in the Latin than in the Greek representa-
tions, just as the Latin plays themselves are coarser
than their Greek originals.^7 High reliefs from
Pompeii, in Naples, and another relief in the Vati-
can, which probably came from Ostia, show groups
of masks as they were used in the Latin as well as
in the Greek New Comedy (Figs. 562-564). 30 On a
up on a pillar in the garden-peristyle of the
relief set
Casa degli Amorini Dorati at Pompeii the mask of
the slave opposite to those of a stern old
lies
father and a Slave and father have the speira;
girl.

the slave also has a fillet and wreath for a banquet.

The father has a long beard. The girl has long
strands of hair falling to her shoulder; the hair is

parted in the center and covered with a mitra. The

masks are set against a drapery which is attached
to thin columns, a forerunner of the aediculae in the
Terence manuscripts (Fig. 560). Father and son
reappear in the two reliefs from Pompeii in Naples
(Figs. 562-563) as well as in the one in Rome
(Fig. 564). In two of the reliefs (Figs. 562, 564)
father and slave both have thick wreaths around
which fillets are wound. Next to the father is a
delicate young son with his hair laid over a speira.
In one (Fig. 562) these two masks are laid on a
drapery. Beside them and above the slave is a
temple. On the reverse are two tragic masks. On the
other relief from Pompeii (Fig. 563) there is a
rocky background. The father is lying below, the
slave above. Opposite the slave is a youth, and
below them is a drapery. Beside the son is the mask
of a satyr, indicating that satyr plays were still per-
formed. On the reverse of this plaque are the masks

Figs. 562-564. Groups of masks. Marble reliefs from Pompeii and Ostia

155
 XI. ROMAN PLAYS OF THE REPUBLIC
Naples the mask of a bald man with a long floating
beard is grouped with the mask of a man with a
short beard, below whom is a lyre (Fig. 566). 34 He
thus may be On
the reverse are a Pan
a musician.
and a maenad, again pointing to the bacchic origin
of the masks.
We know much less about tragedy- in the Re-
publican period than of comedy, because not one
Fig. 565. Mask of girl. Mosaic from Pompeii whole tragedy has been preserved for us.
Ennius (239-169), a Messapian from the region
of an old Silenus and a young satyr in low relief. On east of Tarentum, spoke Greek, Oscan, and Latin.
the relief in the Vatican (Fig. 564) the mask of
Of his twenty tragedies we know only the titles and
another young man is added. The one next to the
about 400 lines. The subjects are mostly borrowed
father, who like the slave wears a wreath with
from Euripides and the Iliad: Achilles, Ajax, Alex-
fillets, is that of a delicate, gentle, and serene look- ander, Andromache Aichmalotis, Hectoris Lijtra,
ing youth. The other on the ground opposite the
Hecuba, Iphigenia, Medea exul, Thyestes. The frag-
slave has a serious and angry expression. The hair ments show a decided tendency to rhetorical effects.
is in short curls, except for some rather long twisted
Ennius wrote also two Roman historical plays:
strands behind the ear. To the right seems to be a Sabinae (The Sabine Women) and Ambracia.
stele on two steps. The left corner which contains a
Pacuvius (ca. 220- ca. 130 b.c. ) was a nephew of
similar stepped object is a modern restoration.
Ennius, born in Brundisium, and he spoke Oscan. He
These may be the masks for a double plot with con- wrote some twelve tragedies, most of them again
trasting characters, as Terence liked to present
modelled after Euripides, such as Dulorestes
them. In the Andria, for example, Charinus is prob- ( Orestes as Slave ) and Antiope. Again we have only

ably added from the Lady of Perinthos by Menan- some 400 lines preserved. Pacuvius also wrote a
der to make a counterpart to Pamphilus, who be- Fabula Praetexta, Paullus, probably in honor of L.
longs to the Lady of Andros by the same Greek Aemilius Paullus after his victory at Pydna ( 168
poet. On the back
31
of the relief in the Vatican are B.C.).
a male and a female tragic mask near a rustic altar. Accius (170- ca. 86 b.c.) was fifty years younger
A relief in Cassel shows the masks of an older than Pacuvius, but a contest between the two is
man and a girl next to each other on some rocks. 32 recorded for the year 140 b.c. He is considered the
Below the girl is a torch, below the man a curved most important among the Roman writers of trag-
staff. He has his hair laid over a speira and over that, edy, and his plays were still performed in the time
hanging deeply over the forehead, a wreath with a of the Empire. Besides Euripides, whom he imitated
fillet around it. He is similar to the father on the in the Medea, Aeschylus and Sophocles also served
reliefs in Naples (Fig. 562) and in the Vatican as authoritative models. Thus his first drama Atreus
(Fig. 564). The girl with a broad fillet (mitra) was probably inspired by Aeschylus and his Ajax by
bound in a bow over her forehead is similar to the Sophocles. The titles of over forty tragedies and of
mask in the garland from the border of the mosaic of two Fabulae Praetextae with about 700 lines are
the "genius of autumn riding on a lion" in Naples preserved. In the Brutus, Tarquinius Superbus ap-
(Fig. 565). 33
These masks are frequent types taken peared on the stage. Accius is a forerunner of Seneca
from Latin comedy. in using horrific and melodramatic themes, majestic
On a round marble medallion from Pompeii in rhetoric, and flamboyant character portrayal.
In the early Augustan age L. Varius Rufus pre-
Fig. 566. Two masks of men. Relief on marble medallion
sented a tragedy, Thyestes, in 29 b.c. on the occa-
sion of the triumph of Augustus, for the victory at
Actium in 31 B.C. Quintilian (Inst. Or., X, 1,98)
praised it as equal to any Greek drama (Vari Thy-
estes cuilibet Graecarum comparari potest), which
shows that the Hellenizing of Rome continued. Ovid
wrote a Medea, which, however, was not presented
on the stage.
The exaggerations which we find in the fragments
of the tragic poets correspond to the monuments
with actors in tragic costume of the Roman period.
In principle this tragic costume is still the same as
 Figs. 570, 571. Perseus and Andromeda
Fig. 569. Heracles, Deianeira, Iole. Masks on marble relief in Naples (Fig. 568) has two rows of short curls
that which Aeschylus had given to his actors and in his beard and corkscrew locks hanging from his
which Sophocles as well as Euripides had accepted. half-circle onkos deep over his forehead and on the
The long-sleeved robe was probably made more shoulders. A broad fillet with symmetrical loops at
colorful. The greatest change is the lengthening of both sides hangs in a bowline over the onkos and
the whole figure of the Roman actors by higher soles down on the shoulders in front of the sidelocks.
and higher onkos, the hairdress above the mask. The Masks of tragedy, like those of comedy, are com-
tragic boot, the cothurnus, was originally a soft and bined in high relief on decorative plaques in Pom-
elegant footwear, under which Aeschylus had added peii, to give the dramatis personae of one play. One
a sole to make it a firmer support for the actors represents Heracles and two women, probably
(see Ch. p. 26). In the Hellenistic period the
II, Deianeira and Iole (Fig. 569). 36 Retween them is
soles were doubled (see Ch. VII, Figs. 290 and 307, an altar with votive offerings of fruit. In the back-
actors of tragedy). In the Roman
period the sole ground right and left are towers, probably indicat-
became wooden, bulky block (Figs. 785,
a high, ing the city Oechalia, which Heracles has conquered
788-792, 799). A good example is offered by the and where he took Iole prisoner. Deianeira, fearing
scene from a tragedy on the terracotta relief (Fig. that she might lose the love of her husband Heracles
588) in the cothurni of Odysseus and Andromache. to the captured girl, sent him the shirt of Nessos,
This may be a representation of the Astijanax or the believing it to be a love charm. While sacrificing at
Hecuba Roth man and woman are de-
of Accius. an altar, Heracles was killed by the poisoned shirt.
cidedly padded, a contrivance taken over from Perhaps we have here the masks for a Latin adapta-
comedy, because the figures would otherwise appear tion of Sophocles' Trochinian Women.
too thin compared with their height. Thus the whole A marble relief in Naples (Fig. 570) 37 and a wall
figure was made taller and broader, inflated, just as painting in Pompeii found in a house in the Via
the characters in Latin tragedy departed from the Stabiana near the theaters (Fig. 571), 38 belonging
simplicity and grandeur of the classical Greek to the Augustan age, both show the masks of Perseus
models to a more weighty and exaggerated rhetori- and Andromeda opposite each other. They are cer-
cal style. tainly based on the romantic story of how the
The Roman tragic masks have wide openings for maiden was left a prey to a sea monster to atone
mouth and eyes and abundant, even luxurious, for her mother's sin, and how she was rescued by
growths of hair and of the beards of men (Figs. Perseus, as told in the Andromeda of Euripides ( see
567-568). 35 There is often a very artificial arrange- Ch. II, Fig. 110). The monster comes out of the
ment of twisted locks. Thus the hero from Pompeii water; the sickle sword or harpe of Perseus is near

157
XI. ROMAN PLAYS OF THE REPUBLIC • LAST CENTURIES

his mask, and the head of the Medusa, which he has ing altar between the two masks, decorated with a
chopped off, is below his mask. In the painting garland. The same altar stands between masks laid
there are also the masks of the parents of Andromeda on rocks on a relief found in 1902 under the Quirinal
with high onkoi, below the mask of their daughter. hill in Rome, brought to the Antiquario Comunale
In both monuments the girl has delicate features on the Celio, now in the Museo Nuovo, formerly
and parted hair. On the relief she has long twisted Museo Mussolini (Fig. 573a). 40 The hero to the
strands hanging on her shoulders and back. She and right, at whose side a sword is standing, has a high
Perseus have narrow fillets. Perseus has short strands onkos with twisted locks, broad fillet, and a curled
standing up over his forehead, long hair falling on beard similar to one of the mask in Naples (Fig.
his shoulders, and sideburns. In the painting he has 568 ) Opposite is a woman with hair hanging deeply
.

a very high onkos with a narrow fillet, and above into her forehead as in Fig. 567. Behind her is a
it there are the head and wings of a griffin. This is bearded man wearing an onkos with corkscrew
the cap of Hades which makes him invisible. Both locks but without fillet. His beard has natural
monuments may be based on a Latin adaptation of tresses. The companion relief (Fig. 573b) seems
Euripides' Andromeda. The title Andromeda is at- to be composed of Dionysiac masks on rocks: to the
tested for playsby Livius Andronicus, Ennius, and left the bearded Dionysus with a wreath, to the
Accius. It was thus a favorite of the Latin tragic right a maenad with a double row of knotted wool
writers. These masks grouped together from a fillets, behind her a young satyr. Below is a basket

definite play are the forerunners of the aediculae with fruit to the right and a drinking horn to the
in the Terence manuscripts (Fig. 560). left.

A male and a female mask with very elaborate and On the reverse of the relief with comic masks and
artificial hairdress are laid opposite each other on a temple (Fig. 562) in Naples are two tragic masks
some rocks on two reliefs from Pompeii in Naples in flat relief, opposite each other, laid on rocks, with
( Fig. 572 )
39
. On the one illustrated there is a flam- lofty onkoi. The hero has curly ends on his long
hair and beard and there is a sword under him; the
woman has a kerchief which completely covers her
high onkos and side locks.
That the onkos was already worn very high in the
later republican period and decorated with luxuriant
hair streaming down over the ears, is proved by
monuments belonging to the last two centuries B.C.
The mosaic threshold of the Casa del Fauno (Fig.
574 ) in Pompeii is part of the decoration of this fine
patrician Oscan house in the second century B.C. 41
It was laid at the entrance to the main atrium at the
end of the hall. Two masks are inserted into a
luxuriant garland, a female and a male one. The
male (Fig. 574) has a reddish-brown face and long
brown wavy hairstrands hanging from his onkos

Fig. 572. Archaistic masks and flaming altar

Fig. 573a-b. Group of masks. Marble reliefs from the Quirinal

X/. ROMAN PLATS OF THE REPUBLIC

Figs. 575, 576. Tragic masks. Medallions from Pompeii

Fig. 574. Tragic mask. Mosaic threshold, Pompeii

down to his eyebrows and shoulders. There are

enormous openings for the eyes and the mouth.
Similar are the colossal masks set up on a cornice or
shelf in the Villa of Boscoreale, belonging to the
second style of the first century B.C. 42 The medallion
from Pompeii in Naples ( Fig. 575 ) probably belongs
to the Augustan age. 43 The mask has corkscrew locks
hanging over the forehead and on the shoulder,
while a kind of pony tail comes out on the crown of
the head. Another medallion from Pompeii in Naples
(Fig. 576) 44 has, in contrast, a female mask with
Fig. 577. Male mask with waved hair and beard. Marble
natural hair parted in the center and a mask of an
old mime continued to dance while the army of the
older man with furrowed forehead, into which the
Carthaginians was being defeated outside the Porta
hair falls with soft short strands, while the beard has
Capena. From 173 B.C. on, the mimes became the
natural waved long strands. A similar mask with
most important part of the Floralia. The facts that
furrowed brow and softly waved hair and beard is
they were played without masks, that women ap-
in the Metropolitan Museum (Fig. 577).
peared in them, and that the plots were short and
Several of these monuments show a connection
often indecent or lighthearted burlesques taken from
with the Dionysiac cult (see Figs. 572-573), and on
the lower class of the city life, with adultery a
a relief in the British Museum (Fig. 578) 45 a group
favorite subject, made them very popular among the
of purely Dionysiac masks is assembled: two
Romans. The mime was given its first literary form
maenads above, one with a fillet, the other with a
by the knight Decimus Laberius (106-43 B.C.). His
kerchief and mitra; below Dionysus, behind him a
rival was a former slave of Julius Caesar, Publilius
thyrsus, and opposite a satyr crowned with ivy. This
Syrus, from Syria. Because Laberius had mocked
connection, which we found also in the phlyakes
Caesar in one of his mimes, Caesar forced him to act
and Atellan farce, explains the continued use of
in his own mime against the Syrian slave who won
masks in the serious plays.
the victory. This was a great affront to the sixty-
Eventually, however, the forms of stage entertain-
ment which did not need masks became more popu- Fig. 578. Masks of Dionysus, a satyr, and two maenads. Marble relief

lar than the masked presentations. The mime is an

old and primitive form of entertainment, which
originated in Sicily. Strolling troupes of male and
female acrobats and dancers travelled through
Greek lands and performed even in Athens, as de-
scribed by Xenophon in his Symposion. 46 Similar
dances and acrobatic feats are performed by girls
on vase paintings from Southern Italy (Fig. 579). 47
A girl tumbles in and out of a circle of knives stuck
in the ground; another shoots arrows with her feet,
while her arms support her on the ground; and one
dances with swords in her hand. The first mimetic
dancer in Rome, Pompilius, is mentioned for 212 B.C.
(Macrobius, n, 7,2). At the Ludi Apollinares this
XI. ROMAN PLAYS OF THE REPUBLIC • LAST CENTURIES

year-old Laberius, who lost his rank of knight tradesfolk, moreover, were pictured: Aruspex,
through the acting, which was considered undigni- Augur, Medicus, Citharista, Pictores, Piscatores,
fied without a mask. But the Romans liked to see —
Fullones the Fortune Teller, the Augur, the Doc-
the facial expressions of the actors. The mime, tor,the Cithara Player, the Painters, the Fishers, the
therefore, gradually replaced in public favor the Fullers. The last-named, a very respected and truly
Atellan farce with its set character masks, and Italian profession,was treated by both Novius and
forced the latter out of its position as the concluding Pomponius. The scene seems to have often been
piece (exodium) of the tragedies. Beside conclu- laid in small towns and villages. Later the same
sions, it served also as a play for the intermissions material also passed over to the mime, which tempo-
(interludes) of more serious drama, as Cicero rarily replaced the Atellan farce. The latter bloomed
( ad Fam., ix, 16,7) tells us in the year 46 B.C.
Epist. anew, however, under the Empire, and then was
The mimes wore a motley dress of patchwork sometimes called the exodium because it often fol-
(centunculus) and no shoes, or only light sandals lowed the serious tragedies as concluding play. The
or soles. They therefore were called planipedes, flat actors were correspondingly called exodiarii and
feet, and it is assumed that the name Plautus comes they were always masked.
from his playing with bare feet in the mime, as he From the Fabula Togata, the native comedy
did in the Atellana. played in the Roman toga and other Italian dress
The Atellan farce was given literary form in Latin (see above, Figs. 550-553), arose during the first
about 89 b.c. by C. Novius (quoted by Cicero, De century b.c. a form which depicted the humble life
Oratore, n, 255, 279, 285, in 55 b.c), and by L. in country towns of artisans and poor folk living in
Pomponius, who was active in 89 b.c. 48 Both used small private houses, the so-called tabernae. It is
the four old Atellan types. We have such titles as therefore named Fabula Tabernaria. 49 Provincials
Maccus the Soldier, The Twin Macci, Bucco the such as the Oscans and Volscians appeared on the
Gladiator, Pappus the Farmer, The Two Dossenni. stage in their native dress and spoke their own lan-
To these old figures were added motifs, modes of guage, because they did not know Latin. The origi-
speech, and dresses copied from the Latin farmers. nators of this variety of play are T. Quinctius Atta,
The titles Rusticus, Agricola, Vacca, Asina, Maialis who died in 77 b.c, and L. Afranius, whose Sim-
—the Rustic, the Farmer, the Cow, the She-donkey, ulans, the Dissembler, was presented in 57 b.c. and
the Pig— give proof of its milieu, which was
rustic repeated in the time of Nero (Suetonius, Nero,
certainly portrayed with correspondingly coarse and xi,2).
rustic humor, more urban bur-
in contrast to the Thus at the end of the Republic one could see
lesques of the mime. Other themes were taken from in Rome many kinds of plays, from sublime tragedy
civicand family life: Patruus, Heres-Petitor, Gemini, to the coarsest farces and parodies of daily life. The
—
Nuptuae the Uncle, the Legacy Hunter, the Twins, costumes were different for each kind and therefore
the Wedding. Various social classes, professions, and of the greatest variety.

Fig. 579a-c. Acrobatic entertainers. Gnathia vases from southern Italy

 CHAPTER XII

THE ART OF ACTING IN ROME

The art of acting was highly developed among the Comedy with the themes
also adopted, together
See Figs.
Romans. 1 The Italian natives have always had a of Attic New Comedy, the dress of everyday life,
549, 568
special gift for mimicry. They are born improvisa- which was often worn over the obligatory tights
tors, having lively gestures and great skill in the use taken over from Old Comedy. 3 The movements in
of language. To
this was added in Roman times a comedy had to be quick and lively, particularly for
strict which is described by Cicero (De
training slaves. Plautus in the Miles gloriosus (w. 201ff,
Orat., m,22,83. and 59,220). He says that the actor 901ff) and elsewhere gives delightful portrayals of
needs the physical training of an athlete and of a the expressive attitudes and gestures of slaves plan-
dancer. Quintilian (Inst. Orat., xi,3,86,lll,181 ning some intrigue or stratagem. The attitudes de-
recommends to public speakers that they imitate scribed in Plautus' plays correspond with many Hel-
the art of the actors for their gestures. The Romans lenistic and Roman statuettes of comic actors. A
alsohad the advantage of inheriting along with the bronze statuette in Boston (Fig. 580) wearing a
Greek plays the Greek art of acting, which had been Roman tunic with a low belt has its right hand
developed for centuries. A further circumstance lifted in salutation. 4 The proud attitude of the head
which may have fostered the growth of acting was thrown back and the left hand on the hip reminds
the fact that Livius Andronicus in the second half one of public orators like the late Mussolini. A small
of the third century had already separated song and statuette, formerly in Rome (Fig. 581), demon-
recitation from mimetic art in the numerous cantica strates with his lifted right hand, leans his head
of the Latin dramas and comedies. As Livy (vn,2) forward, and with his left hand holds the small
tells us, one actor sang or declaimed, while another mantle, which, like "Mussolini," he wears over his
went through the appropriate gestures. This proves left shoulder.
5
His tights are of a coarse material,
that the actor in tragedy must from the beginning indicated by crossed lines. The same is true of the
of the Roman drama have worn the costume once tights of the slave,shown on a lamp in Rome with
introduced by Aeschylus, which covered his whole a woman (Fig. 582). 6 The crossed lines can be seen
body with mask, long-sleeved robe, and high boots. on her sleeves and on his legs. The woman, prob-
The attitudes and gestures had to correspond ex- ably a courtesan, is in a pensive mood, supporting
actly with the spoken word or with the music. her right elbow with her left hand and her head
Clarity of voice and of expression were demanded. with her right hand. The slave is leaning forward
In the popular mimes, which did not use masks, the with crossed legs, his right hand before his breast,
Roman actors, in contrast to the Greek, were able and he holding his small mantle with his left
is

also to develop facial expression. But in the other hand, as in an emotional turmoil. The running
if

— —
plays tragedy, comedy, and farce the actors had slave, so frequent in Latin comedy, is represented in
7
to express their changing moods by movement and a marble statuette in the Villa Albani (Fig. 583).
gesture, as the masks prevented facial expression. Since he wearing a large fringed pallium, he is
is

As the actors were often slaves, they could be made probably a freedman. The slave, deeply absorbed
subject to strict discipline and were even beaten if in thought —
as described in Plautus' Miles gloriosus
they did not perform satisfactorily (see Plautus, (w. 901f ) where he is called an architect may be —
Cistclkria, v. 785). 2 The gesticulation in the dif- depicted in a marble statuette in Istanbul (Fig.
ferent kinds of plays was sharply differentiated. 584). 8 Leaning against a pillar, he crosses feet and
Each age and each profession had its peculiar at- hands, holding his left wrist tightly with his right
titudes. hand. There are many similar attitudes in Hellenistic

Figs. 580-584. Roman actors; Slave and courtesan; Running slave; Pensive slave
 Figs. 585, 586. Pairs of comic actors

representations of comic actors, like the comedy

relief in Naples (Ch. VIII, Fig. 324) and in many
statuettes (Ch. VIII, Figs. 332, 338, 402-405). These
gestures, therefore, must have been adopted with
the comedies, but were developed further by Fig. 587. Scene of comedy. Terracotta relief, reconstructed

the Romans.
The grouping two or more persons provides
of
Plautus (w. 1093ff). The slave Tranio has pre-
vented his old master Theopropides from entering
expressive and lively scenes. The two actors on the
his own house, pretending that it is haunted. When
cover of a Praenestine cista in the British Museum
(Fig. 585) 9 —
found in the Latin territory of Prae- found out to be a liar, he is to be beaten but takes
refuge at an altar; young Callidamates, the friend
neste and probably belonging to the late third cen-
—
tury B.C. show contrasting emotions. The one
of the young master, prevents the punishment. The
background, a rich scaenae frons, proves in any
carrying a lantern lays his right hand soothingly on
case that this is a scene from a Latin Palliata.
the shoulder of the second, who holds in his left
hand a lekythos and a strigil (a skin-scraper) and The same background as on the comedy relief
a rich scaenae frons of an early Roman type ( see
lifts hand to his mouth as if stifling an out-
his right
Figs. 634-637 in Ch. XIII ) with three doors—is used
cry. Both have their heads thrown back. The group
for the tragic scene on a terracotta relief of the
makes a good handle for the cista, as the fingers
can close firmly around the arm to lift the cover. "Campana" type which adorned the tomb monu-
But the motif must have been observed in the thea- ment of P. Numitorius Hilarus, found on the Via
Salaria and now in the Museo Nazionale Romano
ter of this period which is probably the same as that
delle Terme in Rome (Fig. 588). 13 It probably illus-
of Plautus.
trates a performance presented at his funeral and
Much more lively is a group on a fragment of a
therefore was used in his tomb monument. Before
so-called Hellenistic relief in Verona (Fig. 586). 10
Two throw themselves violentlv forward. The
slaves the rich background of an early scaenae frons stands
one wearing a chlamys and a wreath around his Andromache, the wife of Hector. She grasps the left
shoulders, who may be drunk, falls around the neck arm of her and Hector's son Astyanax, who is wear-
of the other, who is dressed in an exomis, a scanty Fig. 588. Scene of tragedy. Terracotta relief, Rome
tunic. Behind the two is a door with a ring as
knocker hanging from the mouth of a lion's head.
Above is part of a garland. Between the legs of the
two appear two steps of an altar.
Three figures are combined in the reconstruction
of a terracotta relief preserved in various fragmen-
tary replicas (Fig. 587). 11 A slave has sought refuge
at an house and clings with his
altar in front of a
right hand to its edge, as do the marble figures of
seated slaves in the Vatican and British Museum
(Figs. 556-558). 12 An excited man, plainly enraged at
him, rushes in from the right with a long cane to beat
him. But a man standing in the center, obviously
good-tempered, tries to quiet him. This is a situa-
tion similar to the final scene of the Mostellaria by

162
 Fig. 589. Tragic scene. Wall painting, from columbarium in Villa Doria-Pamphili, Rome

ing the oriental headdress, the Phrygian cap with He arm with a commanding
stretches out his right
the tip hanging forward. Odysseus wears the pointed gesture. A man holding a lantern, dressed in an
pilos, under which the onkos is distinguishable, and exomis, seems to protest with outstretched fingers.
reddish strands of hair emerge, covering the cheeks. A bearded man in a yellow tunic and green mantle
He wears the chlamys of a warrior, and he holds the with a yellow cap on his onkos, leaning on a long
scabbard of his sword in his left hand. He clearly staff, turns to face the judge. At his feet is a basket

demands the surrender of the child with the lively which seems to contain three little children. Next
gesticulation of his outstretched right hand. An- to it is a slender girl, also in a yellow chiton and
dromache refuses and thrusts the boy to the side, green mantle. She and the bearded man seem to
awav from the outstretched hand of Odvsseus. The point at each other. A woman in a blue tunic and a
masks of the hero and heroine are large. Their violet mantle is running toward them, her right
sleeved robes have broad belts and fall in deep hand stretched forward, her left hand lifted to her
folds. The soles below their closed shoes are high. head which is turned back. She has a gray kerchief
The child also has sleeves on his short garment. He laid over her onkos. The last two persons lift their
wears little high boots, but not high soles. The right arms pointing excitedly toward the center. A
adolescent boy and girl, who huddle close together, man shouldering a tool, a pole with a crosspiece
represent the servants whom the queen has to have —
perhaps a plow or a yoke and dressed in gray tunic
even in captivity, just as Hecuba in the Trojan and grayish-blue mantle, turns to a running woman
Women of Euripides has maids. They are much whose mantle flies behind her back, emphasizing
smaller, thinner, and less noticeable than the her- the quick movement. She holds a staff over her left
oine, whose followers they are; and their gestures shoulder, and wears garments of grayish-green. All
indicate that they bewail the fate of the royal house persons except the lantern-bearer, who is a sub-
in which they have served. They are probably ordinate person and probably a servant, have the
supernumeraries, and they wear the garb of every- high onkos and long sleeves.
day life. They have taken the place of the old Another tragic scene has been found in a tomb
chorus, sympathetically accompanying the fate and chamber at Ostia and is now in the Lateran Museum
action of the main characters with their gestures. at Rome A child seems to be the sub-
(Fig. 590). 15
The relief probably illustrates a scene from the
Astyanax of Accius, based on Sophocles. The trag-
ject of the drama —
probably a recognition scene
similar to that in the Ion of Euripides, only the
edies of Accius, just as those of Pacuvius, were still child here is younger and naked. It seems to flee
given in the first century B.C. Somewhat later Seneca, to a seated king with a high onkos, who lays his
who knew Accius, has a similar scene in his Troades hand soothingly on the head of the boy and grasps
(w. 705ff). his right hand, while the boy throws his left arm
The fact that tragedies were performedat funerals high up into the air. The queen, seated on the same
explains the fact that tragic scenes are found on bench with the king, is the only quiet person. From
tomb monuments, not only on that of Numitorius the left a woman with a high onkos comes running
Hilarus, but alsoon others from Rome and Ostia. A
painting in a columbarium discovered in the Villa Fig. 590. Tragic scene. Wall painting from Ostia, Lateran

Doria Pamphili at Rome and transferred to the

Museo Nazionale Romano delle Terme (Fig. 589) 14
seems to portray a quarrel between two parties who
have been brought before a king-like judge seated
on the left. He carries a long scepter, wears a green
tunic and a violet mantle, and he has an exceedingly
high onkos on his mask. A staff is lying at his feet.
XII. THE ART OF ACTING AT ROME

with wide strides, holding a yellow object which

looks like a garment or piece of cloth. This might
furnish proof for the identification of the boy, like
the dresses and trinkets which the Pythia brings to
Creusa so that she can recognize Ion as her own
child. A bearded man running forward out of the
background with his right hand lifted may be an
old pedagogue contributing to the identification of
the boy. All figures wear the sleeved stage dress.
All these pictures show violent motion and emotions.
The picture painted on white marble, from Her-
culaneum and now in Naples, of Phaedra, her
nurse, and another woman is one of the few pre-
served ancient tablet paintings (Fig. 591). 16 It may
represent a Latin adaptation of Euripides' Hip-
polytus. Phaedra, with a wig of red curls on her
huge mask, is made especially prominent by means
of stuffing and by shoes on high stilts which are
Fig. 591. Phaedra and nurse. Painting on marble
covered by her dress. We can notice here the be-
ginning of the exaggeration which transformed the sponger without a mask, for the parasite squinted
costume, once so grandiose in fifth-century Athens, at invitations to fat meals. He may, therefore, have
at the time of the emperors, into something which looked like the mask formerly in Rome (Ch. VIII,
excited derision in some regions and even horror Fig. 375), which has a pronounced squint. Bulle
in others ( see Ch. XV, pp. 239-243 ) Phaedra wears
. believes that the actor on the Dresden relief (Ch.
a long white-sleeved chiton, a white mantle with VII, Fig. 307) is Roscius, but his physiognomy ap-
yellow border, and a yellow veil on her onkos. Her pears to be Hellenistic Greek. 17 Roscius is said to
arms are too short compared to the lengthened have acted on the stage one hundred and twenty-
body. She points to something outside the painting five times in one year. His great art is described in
toward which she walks, but she looks back to the the oration of Cicero in defense of Roscius. When
old woman behind her whom she seems to chide. Quintilian (Institutiones oratoriae, xi,3,71,73-4,89,
This second figure is much smaller, has a hooked 91,103,111-12,123,125) gives rules for the gestures
nose, and wears a kerchief on her head. She must be of a public speaker, he has partly borrowed them
the nurse who has betrayed the love of Phaedra to from Roscius or from the admirer of Roscius, Cicero
Hippolytus. The old woman hangs her head and (De orat., m,59,221). The gestures had to cor-
left arm and pulls her mantle forward as if in great respond not with the single words, but with the
embarrassment. A third woman who listens in a meaning of the whole sentence. They had to depict
mourning attitude may be a representative of the character, which was expressed not only with the
chorus. Some time later Seneca adapted the same head but with the whole body. In the masked plays
story in his Phaedra, although in a different manner. more attention had to be paid to the other parts of
The terracotta reliefs and the paintings (Figs. the body by the actors. Whereas the Greeks placed
587-591) were created in the first century b.c. The —
more weight on the ensemble that is, the effect of
gestures in all of them are extremely vivacious, in the presentation viewed as a whole the Romans —
accord with what literary sources tell us. In this —
emphasized the stars that is, the principal and
period the art of acting reached its height in Rome. —
prominent actors and they placed high value on
It followed upon the highest development of Roman brilliant and individual accomplishment. Each actor
dramatic poetry in the third and second centuries specialized in a particular type of role, so that there
b.c, just as formerly in Athens and in Greek Taren- were specialists, for example, for the parts of
tum the peak of acting was reached in the fourth women, gods, youths, and parasites (Roscius). The
century following upon the culmination of classical actors are now no longer only slaves but citizens as
tragedy and old comedy, which preceded it in the well, aswas the case with Roscius, who later played
fifth century. The most famous actors in Rome were without a fee. Decimus Laberius, the knight and
Aesopus intragedy and Roscius in comedy. The writer of mimes, was forced by Caesar to act on
latter, deviating from Greek usage, acted both in the stage against his will (see Ch. XI, p. 159). The
tragedy and comedy, both of which he played in chief actors were surrounded by supernumeraries,
masks except when he assumed the role of a para- who probably were then, as formerly and later,
site. Because he squinted, he played the role of the slaves.
XII. THE ART OF ACTING AT ROME

The mime, which took its name from

art of the
life, was of course especially
the imitation of real
well developed and included the art of expressions
through the movement of the facial muscles. In this
type of play women were allowed for the first time
to appear on the stage. The mime never adopted the
mask and was played not in stereotyped costumes
but in the variegated forms of the dress of daily
life. It enjoyed from the first century B.C. a much

greater popularity than the masked plays. The

archimime Sorix was especially famous, and he was
a protege and friend of Sulla (Plutarch, Sulla, 36,
2). Such an archimime was at the same time the
director of a troupe of mimic actors and actresses. Fig. 592a-b. Portrait of the mime player Norbanus Sorix,
from Pompeii, Naples
Beside the archimime stood the deuteragonist ( actor
secundarium partium) who played the secondary comedy. Such declamation is portrayed in two small
parts. He had often to repeat, emphasize, and dis- pictures from the Roman Villa near the Farnesina
tort the jokes of the chief actors. His jests may have inRome, now in the Museo Nazionale Romano.
been as coarse as those of the clowns in our circus, One shows an actor with a tragic mask, the other
who imitate the feats of the main performers. Such ( ) an actor reciting while a seated man holds
Fig. 593
an actor of secondary roles was C. Norbanus Sorix a comic mask. 20 They are dated in the early period of
whose portraits, in the form of a marble pillar with Augustus, to which the first pantomimes also belong.
a bronze head, were placed as a sign of high reputa- Bathyllus, a freedman and favorite of Maecenas, was
tion in the temple of Isis and in the cloth market born in Alexandria and died in 2 B.C. He introduced,
of Eumachia on the Forum at Pompeii (Fig. 592). 18 in 22 B.C., the comic pantomime, dealing for example
Perhaps he appeared as actor in mimes and other with Pan and Echo or Satyr and Amor. This type
sacred performances in honor of the Egyptian god- was not of long duration. On the other hand, Py-
dess Isis. It has been assumed that this was the same lades, a freedman of Augustus, introduced at the
Sorix who was a friend of Sulla. But Sulla had died same time the tragic pantomime, with subjects
in 78 B.C. in Puteoli, two years after he had estab- taken from Greek mythology. This type lived on
lished a colony of veterans in 80 B.C. in Pompeii. The through all antiquity (see Ch. XV, Figs. 776 and
portrait of Norbanus Sorix is not earlier than the 783). One actor performed the most diverse roles
early Augustan period, as is indicated not only by with changing masks while either a chorus or one
the style but also because the actor was made interpreter sang or declaimed the content of the
—
probably in his old age magister of the suburb story (Quintilian, Inst. Orat., rv,3,63). These actors
Pagus Augustus Felix, which was founded under had to use a very refined gesticulation and had to
Augustus. He may have been a son or nephew of be very versatile in order to express such diverse
the older Sorix, whose family perhaps took part in actions and characters. They also must have had a
the Roman colonization of the Oscan Pompeii. The good knowledge of mythology and a higher educa-
honors given to Sorix, particularly the portrait tion. This cultivated solo performance was very
herms, prove that the mime actors were highly re-
Fig. 593. Reciter declaiming a subject. Wail painting
spected in this period. The portrait head of Nor-
banus Sorix has cropped hair groomed carefully in
rows of short strands. His physiognomy is expres-
sive, and he looks very self-contented.
Love of the art of acting and boredom with the
endlessly repeated subjects of tragedy led to the
development of a last type of dramatic performance
and of acting: the pantomime. 19 This consists of
acting and dancing in dumb show. It was an out-
growth of the separation of declamation, recitation,
or song from the mimetic art, for which Livius
Andronicus had already paved the way. Later, the
cantica, the singing parts, were developed as solo
declamation, recitation, or song in tragedy and
 XII. THE ART OF ACTING AT ROME

logues were now taken out of their context and pre-

—
sented on the stage or even at funerals and other
—
occasions by a single actor in tragic costume, with
mask, expressive gestures, and finely-differentiated
movements. At the funeral of Caesar ( 44 B.C. ) songs
from the Contest for the Arms of Achilles by Pacu-
vius and scenes from the Electra by Atilius were
presented (Suetonius, Caesar, 84). Such solo per-
formances became the pantomimes which had a
great vogue in the time of the emperors.
A victorious poet or reciter of a tragic monologue
seems to be represented on the fragment of a wall
painting from Pompeii (Fig. 594). 21 The dignified
man, crowned with a wreath, holding a scroll, comes
out of an open door above a small staircase leading
to the stage. A tragic mask on the top of the
wooden screen through which the door leads alludes
to the tragic content of his recital.
The Greek forerunner of this type of entertain-
ment is the lyrical solo declamation, as testified by
the Persians of Timotheus which describes the battle
of Marathon. It was recited with cithara accompani-
Fig. 594. Victorious poet or monologuist. Wall painting, ment by a rhapsode, probably for the first time by
from Pompeii, Naples the poet himself at the Panionian Festival in 397
b.c, and was performed again in 207/6 B.C. 22 A
it

popular among the higher classes, while the mime comparison between these two related types of
which needed a troupe was more popular among public performances shows the same characteristic
the masses. Sometimes the pantomime was taken differences which we can find between the Greek
from the comedies or tragedies. The portrayal of and Roman theater buildings. It is a difference be-
the battle with the Teloboae in the Amphitruo of tween creative art and elevated spirit on the one
Plautus would be a good literary example. Such ef- side, and of show business and lavish use and
fective monologues, other single parts, or even dia- adaptation of inherited forms on the other.

166
 CHAPTER XIII

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROMAN THEATER BUILDING

DURING THE REPUBLICAN PERIOD

The development of the theater building always sometimes an upper story (Figs. 484, 492, 501, 535).
follows the development of dramatic literature. The stage for the farce was in this period already
Both were slower in Rome
than in Athens. For a blended with the Hellenistic proskenion stage, just
long period chariot and horse races, athletic con- as the comedies of Plautus are blends of farce and
tests,and gladiatorial fights were the main enter- Greek New Comedy. Therefore the simple posts are
tainments in Rome. The circus therefore was the sometimes replaced as supports by elegant Greek
first public permanent building for spectacles. columns (cf. Figs. 508, 509, 517). As these tempo-
Gladiatorial fights were first given on the Forum rary stages were set up in public places without a
Boarium by the consuls Appius Claudius and Quintus building behind them, little staircases led up to the
Fulvius. When the Etruscan dancers and musicians pulpitum from the public place, the sacred precinct,
were introduced in 364 B.C., their performances the arena of the circus, or wherever the perform-
were given in the circus or in public places such as ances took place. These were retained in the Roman
the forum, or in the sanctuaries before the temples stage as late as the second century a.d. (below, Figs.
(see Polybius apud Athenaeus xiv,4, p. 615; Livy 680, 686-690, 717, 718). The back walls, however,
xl,52; xm,10). The Etruscan players brought with often had a door, to which perhaps movable stairs
them temporary wooden stands which could be could lead up. Sometimes these doors are framed
erected everywhere for the spectators. They are with columns and protected by a gabled roof (cf.
portrayed on the wall painting from the tomb at Figs. 491, 507, 512). They were called vestibula in
Corneto named after Stackelberg (Fig. 546 J. 1 These comedies, and these are the forerunners of the
scaffoldings developed later into the Roman audi- richly-framed royal doors of the Roman stage. The
torium built up freely from the level ground, instead podium always remained floored with planks to
of against a hillside as did the Greek theatron, al- insuregood acoustics. Thus these modest phlyakes
though occasionally the Greek method was also and Plautus stages are in all respects the forerun-
used by the Romans. ners of the elaborate Roman scaenae frons.
When the popular comedies of Southern Italy There was no provision for a change of scenery
came to Rome as Atellan or Oscan farce, they in these open-air and curtainless theaters. The
brought with them the phlyakes stage (see Ch. X, podium with its back wall represented whatever
p. 146). The many different forms in which this the poet wished it to be. "Hoc oppidum Ephesust,"
wooden podium could be erected, are depicted on this town is Ephesus, says Palaestrio in the Miles
the vases (Ch. X, p. 130ff.) —
from the most primitive Gloriosus (v. 88) and "Athenis hoc est pros- . . .

wooden floor on crude posts (Figs. 489, 491, 504, caenium," this stage represents Athens, the prologue
514, 515, 159) to the most elaborate "Assteas" stage of Truculentus (v. 10) informs us. Plautus names
(Fig. 479). the stage with the Greek word proscaenium also in
When, beginning in 240 B.C., the first tragedies Amphitruo (v. 91) and Poenulus (w. 17 and 57).
and comedies were brought to Rome as translations It was not so beautifully executed, however, as the
and adaptations from the Greek, they were pre- Greek proskenion, and it had to be torn down again
sented on such temporary wooden stages. Plautus' at the end of the festivals.
Stichus was performed in 200 B.C. at the Ludi While the stage had to be removed, the wooden
Plebeii, which took place in the Circus Flaminius. seats for the spectators could remain to be used for
Because other more popular activities such as races the following games. Plautus calls the auditorium
and athletic contests were also held here, the stage cavea (Amphitruo, 66 and 68). There can be no
had to be removed for the days set aside for the doubt that his audience was seated. "Qui autem
circus games. Plautus certainly needed the most auscultare nolet, exsurgat foras — Ut ubi sedeat sit
elaborate "Assteas" stage (above, Fig. 479) for his ille qui auscultare volt — Nunc qua adsedistis causa
Amphitruo. He used an upper story, which he calls in festivo loco. . .
." ("Whoever does not want to
cenaculum (v. 863), apartments used as dining listen may get up and out, so that he who wishes
rooms or rented out with a separate entrance and to listen may sit. Now that you are seated in a
with a gallery opening on the atrium or on the festive place. . .
." Miles gloriosus, vv. 81-83). In the
street (see Ch. X, p. 130f.). Windows also indicate Amphitruo (65), Poenulus (5, 17-35, 1224), and
XIII. ROMAN THEATER BUILDING

Truculentus (968) a seated audience is also ad- painted scenery pleased the public but not the
dressed. 2 Special seats near the stagewere assigned mathematician Licymnius, who considered it too
to the senators by Scipio Africanus in 195/4 B.C. on fantastic. Apaturius yielded to this verdict and was
the occasion of the Ludi Romani (Livy, xxxiv,44 obliged to remove the scenery and to remodel it in a
and 54), just as they were in the circus near the semblance of reality. These seem to be the last
arena. In the circus there were of course always examples of merely painted backgrounds.
seats, called by Livy (i,35) "furca spectacula alta The Roman scaenae frons, the front wall of the
sustinentes," high supports for the spectacles. In —
stage house now erected behind the podium in-
179 b.c. the censor M. Antonius Lepidus built an stead of the earlier simple wall of the phlyakes
auditorium and a stage (theatrum et proscaenium, —
stage was no longer painted in the Greek manner
Livy, xl,51 ) near the temple of Apollo at the place— but tended toward plastic and architectural deco-
where the theater of Marcellus was later erected rations combined with great ornamental luxury.
and the censors A. Posthumius Albinus and Q. Ful- Thus 62 b.c. Antonius is said to have used silver,
In
vius Flaccus built a scaena without a cavea in the Petreius gold, and Q. Catulus ivory for covering the
circus, where there were already wooden stands rear wall of the stage (Valerius Maximus, n,4,6).
(Livy, xli,27). In 167 L. Anicius gave a spectacle This is certainly an exaggerated statement. Equally
with musicians on a large stage erected in the circus, fantastic is the report that the aedile M. Aemilius

which Polybius, who describes the performance in Scaurus in the year 58 b.c. built a wooden theater,
Athenaeus (xrv,4, p. 165), called scaena and pro- the auditorium of which held 80,000 persons, and
scaenium. the stage of which was decorated with 360 columns
A begun by the censors Valerius
stone auditorium in three stories. The lowest story was of marble, the
Messala and Cassius Longinus in 154 b.c. was pro- middle one of glass, perhaps mosaic, the uppermost
hibited by the consul Publius Cornelius Scipio one of gilded wood. Three thousand bronze statues
Nasica ( The senate objected
Livy, Epitome, xlviii ) . were erected between the columns (Pliny, Nat.
to permanent auditoria because the people spent too Hist., xxxiv,36; xxxvi,5,50,113-115,189). The whole
much time at the theatrical presentations (Valerius report may have been exaggerated as time went on;
Maximus, Factorum et Dictorum Memorabilia, n, it could not be verified, because this expensive thea-
4,2). Seating was allowed, however, in the theaters ter, too, was soon torn down. It shows, however, that

built more than a mile from Rome. In 145 Mummius the modest "Assteas" stage had in this period de-
again erected subitarii gradus, hastily built steps, for veloped to several stories decorated with columns.
the audience to see his triumphal plays, for which he Such a monumental development of the popular
invited Greek actors ( Tacitus, Annates, xrv,20 ) —
comedy stage for which we have evidence in Rome
Onereason for destroying the wooden temporary for the period down to the middle of the first cen-
buildings after they had been used for a short time tury from literary sources about temporary build-
only may have been the hazard of fire in the densely- —
ings had in the meantime, however, already taken
populated center of Rome. There was indeed hardly place in the stone theaters built in Southern Italy
any necessity for a permanent theater beside the and Sicily. There were many stone theaters of the
circus for the scattered festivals and triumphal classical as well as of the Hellenistic period, of
games. Thus even the richly-decorated theaters of which those in Syracuse, Segesta, Tyndaris, and
the first half of the first century B.C. were only Pompeii are the best preserved. The development in
temporary buildings. The stage wall erected by these parts was, however, different from that found
Claudius Pulcher in 99 b.c. may have been painted in the eastern Greek world, and it still offers many
in imitation of the thyromata panels of the late unsolved problems.
Hellenistic stage, and it may have been similar to The theater built by Hieron I in Syracuse was
the frescoes of Boscoreale (see Ch. IX, Figs. 471- rebuilt by Hieron II (270-216 b.c.) about 230 b.c.
474). The paintings in the theater of Claudius At that time it was probably given a wooden pro-
Pulcher are described as exceedingly realistic ( Pliny, skenion in line with the paraskenia. At the same
Nat. Hist. xxxv,23; Valerius Maximus, Factorum et time provision was made for the erection of a tempo-
Dictorum Memorabilia, n,4,6). Birds were lured rary phlyakes stage (Fig. 595; cf. Ch. V, Fig. 225
to perch on the painted brick roof. The fragmentary and Ch. X, Fig. 540). 3 In this region the stage needs
remains of such a painting have been preserved in were different from those of the Greek mainland
the small theater at Pompeii (below, Figs. 613-614), and in the east because comedy and farce played
built soon after 80 b.c. A scaenae frons painted by a larger part than elsewhere. As a consequence,
Apaturius of Alabanda for the ecclesiasterion at other forms of the stage evolved.
Tralles, an assembly hall built in the guise of a tiny The stage houses in Segesta (Figs. 596-598, 600-
theater, is mentioned by Vitruvius (vn,5,5). The 601 * and Tyndaris (Figs. 599, 602) 5 were originally
 A „

Fig. 595. Theater of Syracuse. Area of the stage building

paraskenion-theaters with the peculiarity that the Figs. 597, 598. Theater of Segesta. Plan of the actual re-

inner sides of the paraskenia run obliquely toward mains and stage building

the rear in order to give to the onlookers seated at

the sides a full view of the place of action before
the stage house (Figs. 596-598, 600). A. von Gerkan
believes that there never was any proskenion, and
that the plays were given in the Hellenistic as in
the classical period in the orchestra until a Roman

Fig. 596. Segesta, view of the theater

XIII. ROMAN THEATER BUILDING

stage was built. In Tyndaris there are, however,

engaged half columns on the front wall of the high
stage below the platform (Fig. 602). The two-
storied scaenae frons reconstructed by Bulle
(Figs. 600-602) is dated by inscriptions which be-
long not before the second century b.c. according
to Marconi, and probably later according to Meritt;
while R. Herzog dated them in the first century B.C. 6
The gable, which according to Bulle served as a
theologeion, would be an effective finial and would
match the gables over the two-storied side build-
ings, which had open galleries in Segesta (Fig. 601 ),
but only a door in the first story and a window in
the second story in Tyndaris (Fig. 602). The exist-
ence of the central gable is, however, doubted by
von Gerkan, as no remains of it are preserved. 7 The
idea that gods appeared inside the pediment is
attractive, but it can hardly be proved. The gods
must have appeared above a flat roof. It would have
been unnatural if they had made their appearance
from a door in the pediment as Bulle assumes.
Temples in Syria have such doors in the pediments,
but they were probably used for cleaning or per-
haps oracular purposes.
I consider Segesta and Tyndaris, in any case, a Figs. 600, 601. Theater of Segesta. Reconstructions
transitional —
form of about 100 B.C. best named
Hellenistic-Italic or Graeco-Roman, or Roman Re-
—
publican designed for local plays, as was the
wooden forerunner, the "Assteas" stage. The front
wall of the podium is not, as in the Hellenistic
proskenion, treated as a colonnade but as a solid
wall with pilasters in Segesta and engaged columns
in Tyndaris. The main story of the scaenae frons is
decorated below with Doric columns and their en-
tablature, above with Ionic columns in Segesta and
with only flat pilasters in Tyndaris. This rich deco-
ration reminds us of the stage wall of Scaurus built
in Rome in 58 b.c. We have here an eclectic mix-
ture of older and newer forms, which is charac- Fig. 602. Theater of Tyndaris. Reconstruction
Roman.
teristically
The auditoria in Segesta and Tyndaris have the In Segesta the front faces of the paraskenia are
Greek horseshoe form (Figs. 596 and 597). They decorated on the ground floor with engaged statues
probably never developed the vaulted parodoi of the of Pan (Figs. 601, 603). Their lower parts, which
Roman theater (see below, pp. 172ff. ). The tempo- alone are preserved, are similar to two statues of
rary theaters in Rome must certainly have had the Pan in Rome, said to come from the theater built
horseshoe form of the auditorium. In the time of by Pompey in 55 These are well preserved,
b.c.
Caesar, C. Scribonius Curio built two wooden thea- together with the pilasters behind them. (Figs.
ters back to back, which could be turned around. In 604a-b; see below, Figs. 630-632.) 8
the morning scenic plays were given, in the after- In Pompeii the gifted Oscan inhabitants had ac-
noon gladiatorial fights. For the latter the theaters cepted the Greek civilization from their Greek
were turned and made into an amphitheater ( Pliny, neighbors much earlier than the Roman conquerors
Nat. Hist., xxxvi,117). As the amphitheater is an of Magna Graecia, that is, Southern Italy and Sicily.
ellipse, the two orchestras which formed the arena They had built themselves a stone theater in the
must have had the horseshoe or U-shaped form Hellenistic form around 200 b.c. (Figs. 605-607). 9
which is similar to one half of an ellipse. It was laid out in horseshoe form on the natural
XIII. ROMAN THEATER BUILDING

stage, threefrom the back wall and one from each

side. Open parodoi
led into the orchestra which was
extended tangentially beyond the half circle in such
a way that a full circle could be inscribed (E in
Fig. 605 and Fig. 610).
—
We can study in this theater even better than in
—
Segesta and Tyndaris the transformation from a
Greek to a Roman theater building. It took place
after Sullahad established a colony of Roman
veterans in 80 B.C. in the Oscan city. They built
the small covered theater (F in Fig. 605; below,
Figs. 613-615) in the Roman manner, and this now
influenced also the remodelling of the large theater.
In order to give it more unity the paraskenia were
removed and the parodoi were vaulted. The vaulted
side approaches were now called itinera versurarum,
the entrances of the projecting wings of the stage
building. These afforded side entrances to the stage,
while five doors opened from the back wall (B in
Fig. 608). The stage was lowered and every door
was probably flanked by two pairs of columns on
pedestals, which would make twenty columns in all
arranged in a straight line in one row.
In the period of the emperor Augustus the
duumviri M. Holconius Rufus and M. Holconius
Celer built, according to their inscription ( Fig. 609
"cryptam, tribunalia, theatrum," a covered corridor,
boxes for the tribunes, and the auditorium. The
crypta, a covered corridor, is situated between the
second and third gallery ( E6 in Fig. 605 ) and from
it six doors (vomitoria) lead to the six staircases

which divide the main middle gallery ( media cavea

(E5 in Fig. 605) into five sections (cunei). The
third, uppermost gallery (summa cavea) is above
this covered corridor and is reached by four outside
doors. One of them leads in from the triangular
forum (Fig. 606). It seems to me possible that the
Holconii are also responsible for the enlargement of
Fig. 609. Pompeii, inscription of the Holconii
Figs. 607, 608. Large theater at Pompeii. Plan, Maiuri; Suc-
cessive plans of the stage building, Bieber, Denkmdler

slope of the hillside which descended east of the

triangular forum ( B in Fig. 605 ) from the north to
the south. Above
it on higher ground was a palaestra

(C 605) and later a temple of Isis (J in Fig.

in Fig.
605). Strong stone rings were laid against the slope
as a base for the seats which afforded room for
about 5,000 persons. The rings end with robust
pilasters at theanalemmata (Fig. 607). The oldest
stage building ( A
in Fig. 608 was probably erected
)

during the second century B.C. in a form similar to

that of Segesta. It was provided with paraskenia
flanking a proskenion supported by a colonnade.
The inner side walls of the paraskenia were slanted
as they are in Segesta. Five doors gave access to the
 XIII. ROMAN THEATER BUILDING

the older and more important of the two rebuilders,

may be credited with this change. He was given
recognition in a lost monument, the inscription for
which is preserved on the broad step below the
main gallery (Fig. 609). The architect of this re-
modelled building, a freedman, M. Artorius Marci
libertus Primus architectus, has signed his name
outside the eastern parodos on the wall of the audi-
torium. Above the vaulted entrances are the tri-

bunalia, the balconies or boxes for the magistrates

who provided the plays (E7 in Fig. 605). Below
these boxes the guests of honor could reach their
bisellia in the orchestra. Thus, Artorius with the
money which
of the duumviri has created a building
provided for better means and
of filling emptying
a large auditorium than any Greek theater had ever
achieved. The scene building was given an early
Roman straight scaenae frons —
probably during the
time of the emperor Augustus (B in Fig. 608).
Finally, after the earthquake in a.d. 63 —perhaps
between 63 and 68, in the time of the emperor
—
Nero the scene building in Pompeii received its
final form, probably imitating those in Rome. A
deep, low stage with a varied and richly-decorated
wall in the background was built (E2 in Fig. 605,
C in Fig. 608, and Figs. 610-611). This scaenae
frons has a large semi-circular niche in the center
and a rectangular niche on each side. In these niches
are the three doors of the Roman theater which
Vitruvius (v,6,8) calls aula regia and hospitalia,
the doors of the royal palace and of the guest
chambers. The curves of the rear wall are empha-
sized by accompanying columns set upon pedestals.
The dressing room is considerably narrowed by the
depth of the niches (El in Fig. 605 and Fig. 612).
Its floor lies somewhat higher than the stage, so
that short stairs led from the dressing room down
to the stage floor, providing effective entrances for
actors, as we see them appear on the wall paintings
(above, Fig. 594 and below, Figs. 774-778). The
front wall of the stage (proscaenium) below the
platform is likewise broken by a rounded niche in
the center and flat rectangular niches at the side
Figs. 610, 611. Large theater at Pompeii. Views of the scaenae (Fig. 610). Small flights of steps lead down to the
frons and stage orchestra between the two flat niches at each side.
the auditorium by an uppermost gallery with the This is carried over from the Atellan farce, which
help of this crypta above and the low marble steps needed these stairs because it did not have a scene
in the orchestra below (E4 in Fig. 605 and Fig. building (cf. Figs. 488b, 489, 491). The theaters in
606). These narrowed the orchestra and gave space Rome certainly had such stairs leading from the
for the bisellia, the broad honorary seats for magis- stage to the orchestra, for they are mentioned in
trates. Thus the space for the plays was decreased, stories of Suetonius ( Divus Julius, 39 and Nero, 12
that for the audience increased. The classical place of the first centuries B.C. and a.d. The knight D.
of action has been transmuted into seats of honor for Laberius descended such steps to reach his seat
members of the governing bodies. The auditorium after the presentation of his mime, and Nero also
has encroached into the orchestra. Holconius Rufus, used these stairs.
XIII. ROMAN THEATER BUILDING

Fig. 612. Large theater at Pompeii. View of the stage building from the outside

Rich temporary decoration of this stage on play the large theater, and has a capacity of only about
it

days is testified by the wall paintings of the fourth 1,500 spectators (F 605 and Figs. 613-615). 10
in Fig.
style which agree with the architectural late forms Two inscriptions inform us that it was a roofed
of the stage (Figs. 775-778). We find here once theater (theatrum tectum), or an odeum, a music
more in the scaenae frons the central niche flanked hall, for musical contests, declamations, and recita-
11
by rectangular niches, the columns or pilasters set tions. The orchestra and the auditorium have a
upon bases, the three elevated doors from which semicircular form, and the orchestra is filled to a
stairs led down to the stage, and in the front wall large extent with the broad steps for the movable
of the pulpitum the small rounded and rectangular seats provided for the members of the city council
niches. Added on the painted walls are an abundant ( decuriones ) and for guests of honor. The low deep

number of statuettes, bronze ornaments, carved stage corresponds to the one described by Vitruvius
parapets between the columns, painted prospects, (see below, Fig. 645). The scaenae frons, or front of
masks, and garlands. Even if these were more easily the stage house, had an architectural painting in the
executed in paint than in solid material, we can be so-called second style of the first century B.C. The
sure that curtains, painted tablets, and plastic parts of the cavea, which would project beyond the
figures were profusely used in Rome still more than limits of the stage, are cut short so that a solid roof
in Pompeii. The wall paintings inform us that at covering both auditorium and stage could be carried
Pompeii in the time of the Empire mimes, panto- by the outer wall. We thus have here a compromise
mimes, and athletes were allowed on the stage of between a rectangular and a curvilinear theater. In
the large theater. the gaps which the curves of the uppermost seats
While the large theater at Pompeii was the trans- leave at the upper two back corners, staircases lead
formation of a Greek theater into a Roman one, the to a vaulted corridor (crypta) from which doors
small theater, built soon after the foundation of a open onto the cavea. The roof was possible only on
Sullan colony at Pompeii in 80 B.C. and thus to be smaller buildings. We must assume such a wooden
dated about 75 B.C., is a purely Roman theater. It roof for the odeum in Taormina (Fig. 616) 12 and
is, indeed, the oldest purely Roman theater which the one mentioned in Naples. 13 Both were, like the
has been preserved. It was erected by the duumviri one in Pompeii, connected with a large open theater.
Quinctius Valgus and Marcus Porcius southeast of In Greece odea in the Roman form were built by
 XIII. ROMAN THEATER BUILDING

Figs. 613-615. Small theater at Pompeii. General view; Orchestra; Telamon

 Xlll. ROMAN THEATER BUILDING

Fig. 616. Odeum at Taormina

618a-b. Restored sections

617a. Plan of ground level,

b. Plan of level at the top
of the cavea Figs. 617-619. Odeum of Agrippa on the Agora of Athens
Agrippa, the general and son-in-law of Augustus, on
the market place in Athens (Fig. 617-619) 14 and in
the Roman colony of Corinth (Figs. 748-749).
13

Small odea or lecture halls were also built in the

Greek gymnasia, as in Syracuse (Fig. 620) and in
Epidaurus (Fig. 621). 16 The roof gave an architec-
tural unity which no Greek theater ever had at-
tained.
A purely Roman is also the parapet, which
feature
in the small theater at Pompeii separates the chairs
of the magistrates and honored guests from the semi-
circular passageway running in front of the lowest
row of seats. Into this passageway in the small
theater of Pompeii some semicircular steps led up,
upon which the visitors first mounted to the curved
gangway (
praecinctio, aisle )
( Fig. 614 Thus they
) .

reached the six radiating stairways which brought

them while the magistrates reached
to their seats,
their bisellia through the vaulted passageway and
along the stage. The kneeling giants as telamons
(Fig. 615) supporting the ends of the analemmata
above the entrances to the gangway and the winged
griffin's feet below are of excellent workmanship.

The same duumviri who had commissioned the

little roofed theater at Pompeii erected there soon

afterwards, probably around 70 B.C., at their own

expense, an amphitheater, the oldest of its kind, for Fig. 620, 621. Odea, in Syracuse and in Epidaurus

Fig. 622. Amphitheater of Pompeii, interior

XIII. ROMAN THEATER BUILDING

gladiatorialgames and animal baitings, which as

many prove were very popular in
inscriptions
Pompeii as they were elsewhere (Figs. 622-624). 17
The arena is sunk into the ground so that vaulted
passages lead down to it. The lowest tier is sepa-
rated from the arena as well as from the second
tier by parapets. It also is still below ground level.
It isentered through a vaulted curved passageway
crypta ) which leads around below the second tier.
( ,

The upper tier is reached by outside stairs built over

high arches (Fig. 623). They end at a broad ter-
race, above which there were boxes for the women.
We have here, for the entrances and exits of the
public, the beginning of a well-planned structure

Fig. 623. Amphitheater of Pompeii, entrance staircases

added to the auditorium from below and from the
outside. This structure later developed into that

Fig. 624. Amphitheater of Pompeii and the riot of a.d. 59. Wall painting from Pompeii, Naples
grandiose system of corridors, stairs, and entrance
doors which distinguishes the Flavian amphitheater
(Colosseum) and other amphitheaters of the time
of the Empire (Ch. XIV, Figs. 662-670).
The amphitheater of Pompeii still lacks the sub-
terranean passages, rooms, and elevators for beasts
and decorations which we find not only in the
Colosseum, but also in the other Campanian amphi-
theaters and at Puteoli (now Pozzuoli) (Fig. 625)
and Capua (Figs. 626-627). 18
A wall painting from Pompeii in Naples (Fig.
624) 19 shows the outside staircases going up to the
terrace above the cavea, the arched boxes for the
women, and the city wall against which the amphi-
theater is built. It also depicts a large palaestra with
a swimming pool in the center, built near the
amphitheater, which has recently been excavated. 20
The same painting also illustrates a story told for
the year a.d. 59 by Tacitus ( Annates, xiv,17). The
large building, accommodating more than 12,000
persons, was not only used by the inhabitants of
Pompeii but also by those of the neighboring cities.
When Livineius Regulus, a scoundrel who had been Figs. 625, 626. Amphitheaters of Pozzuoli and Capua
thrown out of the Senate in Rome, tried to gain
power in the province by promoting gladiatorial over the theater of Pompey in Rome in a.d. 66 in
bloody fight as represented on the painting
fights, a
honor of the visit of Tiridates, the king of Armenia
brought death to many visitors. As a consequence
(Pliny, xxxin,54; cf. Martial, xi,21,6). Nero was
the Senate forbade the use of the amphitheater for
painted on such an awning as the sun god in a
ten years.
chariot among stars (Cassius Dio, lxiii,6,2). The
The Pompeians, however, did not want to re-
awnings were manipulated by sailors who stood on
nounce their beloved gladiatorial spectacles. They
the roof of the colonnade surrounding the upper-
allowed them to take place in the large theater side most row of seats in the auditorium, and probably
by side with the mimes, pantomimes, tragedies, and
also on the roof of the side wings (versurae) of the
comedies (see Ch. XV, Figs. 775-778). The beauti-
stage house.
ful colonnaded square behind the theater (G in
Another Roman detail which we can observe in
Fig. 605) was given over to the gladiators. Behind
the large theater of Pompeii is the trench behind the
the portico a kind of military barracks was erected,
front of the stage for lowering the aulaeum, the
in which elegant weapons, helmets —
one ( Fig. 628
curtain (Fig. 611). 23 In the soil of the trench are
richly decorated with reliefs —
shields, shoulder pro-
holes lined with lava stones, which lead to similar
tectors, greaves, and swords have been found.
holes in a vaulted subterranean trench below. These
The painting (Fig. 624) informs us in addition
holes held the poles for the curtain. Such a trench
about the use of a Campanian invention, the velum
has also been observed in Syracuse ( Fig. 595 24 and
or velarium, an awning or linen roof credited to
Quintus Lutatius Catulus in about 70 B.C. (Pliny,
in many other theaters —
Fiesole, Aries, Lyon, Vai-

xix,23; Valerius Maximus, n,4,6). It is represented

Fig. 627. Amphitheater of Capua. Fig. 628. Gladiatorial helmet,
above the ladies' boxes hanging between two towers Subterranean passages Pompeii
of the city wall. The large theater has two rows of
corbels in which masts were fixed, which held the
velum firm. 21 The Greek name for these awnings, as
testified by an inscription in Ephesus, is petasos, a
broad brimmed hat, 22 a good description, for it
served like a hat to protect the spectators from rain
and sunburn. Sometimes, to add a decorative touch
to its practical nature, it was painted as well (Lu-
cretius, rv,75-83). A purple awning was stretched
 Naples (Ch. VIII, Fig. 324). The siparia are repre-
sented neatly folded above a Roman scaenae frons
on the relief from Castel S. Elia (Fig. 629). 26
Elegant hangings were brought from Pergamon to
Rome and were used on the stage even in later
periods (Donatus, De comoedia, 12,3). Probably
good material was used for these curtains, which
were lowered with cords from a shelf below the
They fell down in elegant festoons like
stage roof.
the velum over the amphitheater in the painting
(Fig. 624).
A ropf over the stage is indicated — although worn
away —on the relief from S. Elia (Fig. 629). Such
a stage roof is already shown on some of the
phlyakes stages (Ch. X, Figs. 491 and 540), but in
Rome became probably a permanent feature only
after permanent theaters were built. The purpose
of the stage roof was to serve as a sound reflector
and also to protect not only the siparia, but also the
statues and other expensive decorations of the
scaenae frons. In addition to the architectural orna-
ments and the permanently erected statues, the
stage certainly received on festival days, when plays
were presented, special decorations such as paint-
ings, bronze ornaments, hangings, masks, garlands,
—
and wreaths all of which are found on Pompeian
wall paintings (see Figs. 594, 775-778).

Fig. 630. Theater built by Pompey, Rome. Ancient plan

Fig. 629. Marble relieffrom Castel San Elia showing scenic

plays and circus races

son, Orange, Timgad, Dugga, and Athens of the —

time of the Empire (below, Ch. XIV, Figs. 65b',
671-673, 676, 687, 724). The curtain was lowered
at the beginning of each play and raised again
at the end, probably with the help of levers
and pulleys. See Horace, Epistle, n,l,189: quattuor
aut plures aulaea premuntur in horas. When it was
dropped at the beginning of the performance, first
the heads and last the feet of the actors could be
seen. When it was raised at the end, first the heads
and last the feet of figures painted on the curtain
would appear (Ovid, Metamorph. in,lllff).- 5
The siparia were smaller curtains to be dis-
tinguished from the aulaeum. They were hung from
above, before parts of the scaenae frons, and they
could be folded and drawn upward or to the side
(Apuleius, Metamorph. i,8: aulaeum tragicum
dimoveto et siparium scaenicum complicato . . .
;

cf. X, 29: aulaeo subducto et complicitis sipariis,

scaena disponitur). These siparia were already in

use on the Hellenistic stage, to cover the decoration
of a thyroma, when it was not used. A siparium is
hung before a city view in the comedy relief in

180
 XIII. ROMAN THEATER BUILDING

It was dedicated in 52 b.c. with a variety of shows.

Musical and gymnastic competitions were given in
the theater, while in the hippodrome horse races
and animal battles with lions and elephants were
presented (Cassius Dio, Historic, Romano, xxxix,38).
The theater was so constructed that the central
wedge ( cuneus ) of the auditorium formed a monu-
mental flight of steps leading up to the temple
(Figs. 630-632). 27 We have the plan of this theater
only in the late Severian map of Rome. We know
that under Septimius Severus in 209-211 there was
still building on the theater, and that
activity
restorations had been made under the emperor
Augustus (A/on. Anc, 49) and under Nero in a.d.
66 after a fire in the time of Tiberius. It may be
assumed that the general ground plan does not differ
from the first building. It thus had a semicircular
orchestra and corresponding auditorium as well as
the intimate connection of the auditorium with the
stage house. We
have found such a unity twenty
years earlier in the small theater in Pompeii (F in
Fig. 605 and Fig. 613). There, however, the plan
for a unified theater building is still incomplete, for

it isforced into a rectangle. In the theater of Pom-

pey, in contrast, for the first time a completely
semicircular form was given to the tiers of seats as
well as to the outer facade of the auditorium.
Pompey is said to have used as a model for his
theater the theater of Mytilene, which he had visited
in 62 Plutarch (Vita Pompei, 42) tells us that
b.c.
Pompey had a design made of this theater, but had
it executed larger and more holy (sacred, solemn?)
in Rome (
TrtpitypdipaTO to eiSos avTOv kcu tov rvtrov, tos

Ofioiov aTrepyaao/xtvos to ev 'Pwprj, ptl^ov 8e Kai aep^vorepov )

The theater of Mytilene is unknown

unfortunately
to us, and it is therefore uncertain how much Pom-
pey borrowed from it. It was formerly assumed that
he took from it the rounded form of the auditorium
with the division into tiers by means of semicir-
cular passageways and into wedge-shaped sections
:l : by means of the radially ascending stairs. Such
:l
: 0! 0 auditoria, however, Pompey could see not only in
2 :
N
Southern Italy and Sicily, but also at Rome in the
circus and in the temporary theaters. It was rather,
i .

[H .
i

1
i
I 1
1TH TTTTTr "fl as Rumpf has shown,
ing in which stage
28
the general plan of a build-
house, orchestra, and auditorium
Figs. 631, 632. Theater built by Pompey, Rome. Plan, Renais-
sance reconstruction; Plan with colonnades behind the scene
were intimately connected with each other with the
building help of side buildings (versurae) which took the
place of the paraskenia of the Greek theater. The
The many details which we learn from the build- open air theater in Mytilene could, however, hardly
ingsand wall paintings at Pompeii for the early have been such a unified theater. Mytilene, the large
Roman theater are all the more valuable because city on the island of Lesbos, probably had as large
the first stone theaters in Rome are insufficiently a theater as that which Pompey built in Rome, and
known to us. The first permanent one was built by therefore there was no necessity to enlarge it.
Pompey in the year 55 b.c. below the temple of Mytilene, however, also had a bouleuterion, men-
Venus Victrix, with which it was intimately related. tioned in an inscription (ZG, xn,2,67). Such a
 Fig. 633. Bouleuterion of Miletus, a, Plan of assembly hall; b, section and south elevation; c, east elevation

bouleuterion is named a little theater or ecclesias- architectural remodelling 608 and Figs.
(C in Fig.

terion by Vitruvius (vn,5,5), and the podium for the 610-612). There, as here, the deep scaenae frons
speaker is named scaena. The bouleuterion of Myt- had invaded the space originally taken by larger
ilene has not yet been excavated, but other such dressing rooms. We may conclude that the theater
semicircular auditoria inside a square, as in the of Pompey originally had a straight scaenae frons
small theater of Pompeii, are preserved in Priene, like the large theater at Pompeii ( B in Fig. 608 ) and
Notium, Miletus (Figs. 633a-c). The latter was perhaps similar to the early Roman at theaters

erected in the time of Antiochus IV ( 175-164), who, Segesta and Tyndaris (Figs. 598-602). Such a

according to the inscription in Miletus, built a straight front decorated with columns on the same

similar one in Antioch.

29
As we have seen, Plutarch plane is best known to us from the terracotta relief
says that Pompey had executed
his theater building of Numitorius with a tragic scene (Ch. XII, Fig.
not only in larger size, but also more solemn or 588), and those with comedy scenes (Fig. 587).
reverend (semnos). This may refer to the connec- They have columns on high bases in the same plane
tion with a temple and also to the more luxurious with entablature and small pediments. The same
decoration. the sumptuous additions was the
Among arrangement in a still simpler form with engaged
colonnaded gallery at the top of the rows of seats, columns existed in Segesta and Tyndaris (Figs. 601-
which is level with the top of the back wall of the 602), and we may assume that such a simple form
stage, and was connected with its side buildings existed also in the earlier period in the large theater
(versurae). This covered colonnade could not only at Pompeii (B in Fig. 608). The same kind of

be used by the spectators in case of rain and in the scaenae frons with columns on square bases in a
intermissions, but belongs to the temple of Venus straight line is represented on a marble relief with

Victrix.Caputo 30 believes that this connection with the model of a stage in the Museo Nazionale
Romano Terme at Rome (Fig. 634). 31 The
a sanctuary and a portico on top of the auditorium delle

was also taken from Mytilene. There was, further, main door (regia) lies in a deep rounded niche,
while the side doors (hospitalia) are placed in
a colonnaded square, like the one behind the large
theater at Pompeii (G in Fig. 605) and at Corinth, smaller and flatter rounded niches. Flanking the
after the Greek manner, behind the stage building. doors are spaces with rectangular sinkings, prob-
That any case the unity of the whole layout is the
in ably for the insertion of paintings. The columns
new feature, appears also from the fact that the carry on each side a triangular gable between two
older references to temporary buildings either men- rounded ones. Behind them is a closed wall. At
tion only a stage or only an auditorium, or, if both, the sides are pilasters which carry a stage roof,
they are separately named. which is decorated at the edge with cupids carrying
The scaenae frons in the theater of Pompey was garlands. The roof slants upward toward the spec-
and has on the ceiling rows of carved rosettes
certainly not so richly and plastically organized in tators

the first layout as it was later, as shown in the as decoration.

Severian plan (Fig. 630). In this late form there

Fig. 634. Marble model of a Roman stage
were fifty columns set in front of a very large rec-
tangular central niche and two semicircular side
niches. This may have been arranged at the time of
the remodelling under Nero, for it was at his period
that the large theater at Pompeii received a similar
 XIII. ROMAN THEATER BUILDING

The theater of Taormina in Sicily has the best-

preserved scaenae frons in Italy (Figs. 635-637), 32
and it agrees in the general plan (Fig. 635) with
the theater built by Pompey. Groups of four col-
umns on a high podium in a straight line separate
the regia from the hospitalia, while two large col-
umns on a lower base decorate the main entrance
and the side doors, and two columns on a podium
stand outside the side doors. Eight niches for statues
are behind the columns (Figs. .636-637). The ver-
surae connect the stage building with the audi-
torium. This is laid out in the Greek manner on a
hillside, probably in the late third century, as
Philistis, queen of Hieron mentioned in an
II, is

inscription. In the Roman period it was crowned

 Figs. 638, 639. Theater of Taormina, auditorium and corridor behind the stage

with two concentric vaulted porticoes, the inner of stories, storerooms, side entrances to the stage build-
which opened into the cavea with forty-five granite ing (scaena), and side entrances to the stage proper
columns on a high parapet (Fig. 638). Eight doors (pulpitum). The public, in order to reach the
led down through this parapet to the eight stairs orchestra and the radiating staircases of the lower
of the cavea which separate the nine sections, down gallery, had to enter through vaulted passages laid
which the visitors could walk to take their seats. below the outermost sections; above these were the
There are thirty-six niches in the parapet on the tribunalia, the boxes, provided for the magistrates
inside of this balustrade, probably also intended for who gave the plays. A crypta below the passage-
statues. Thus the Roman remodelling brought richer way ( praecinctio ) which separated the two gal-
decoration but also great improvement for filling leries contained small staircases leading to the
and emptying to this originally Greek theater. The
room behind the scaenae frons has become, as in the
large theater at Pompeii and the theater of Pompey Fig. 640. Theaters of Pompey and of Marcellus. Ancient plans

in Rome, a kind of corridor which connects the outer

entrances to the large side buildings with each other
(Fig. 639).
For a long time the theater built by Pompey
remained Rome's only theater. When the emperor
Augustus gave the secular plays in 17 B.C., Greek
thymelic plays were presented in this theater, while
Greek scenic plays were presented in the Circus
Flaminius, and the last wooden temporary theater a a a
ir^N^?? ^fx^iL-
cj_ J." "\D
**.\J: '. • • • *L> o d o a

recorded for the capital was erected near the river

O D O O Q_ o a o o o
Tiber for Latin plays. 33
Soon after, in 13 B.C., Balbus built a second
gorgeous stone theater in the Campus Martius, in
which four onyx columns are recorded (Suetonius,
Augustus, 29; Pliny, Nat. Hist., xxxvi,60). 34 Caesar
had begun a new theater which was completed by
Augustus in 11 b.c. and dedicated to the memory of
his nephew and son-in-law, Marcellus. The ancient
marble plan of Rome ( forma urbis Romae ) sketches
a part of this theater, and old drawings of Peruzzi
published by Serlio show that the general plan was
not unlike that of the theater of Pompey ( Figs. 640-
643). 35 Behind the scene building were colonnaded
walks flanked by two small buildings resembling
basilicas, from which doors led into the versurae.
These high-sided buildings provided, in several

184
 XIII. ROMAN THEATER BUILDING

cades, between the openings of which are engaged

columns with their entablature. They are of the
Doric order in the lowest story, with their entabla-
ture of metopes and triglyphs, and of the Ionic order
in the second story with a continuous frieze and
dentals. The Corinthian engaged columns of the
third story are not preserved, but some traces re-
main.

Fig. 641. Theater of Marcellus. Reconstructed plan

radiating staircases of the upper gallery. Inner stair-

cases also led to the doors in the center of the
sections which were called vomitoria, because they
spit out (vomit) the masses of spectators. Above the
uppermost tier of seats was a colonnaded gallery
which at both its ends connected with the upper
stories of the versurae.
The whole stage building, the interior and the
uppermost facade of the cavea of the Marcellus
theater were lost when the castle of the Pierleoni,
the Palazzo Savelli, and finally the Palazzo Orsini
were built into it. Only the lower outer facade
was preserved, and in the lower story artisans prac-
ticed their trades (Fig. 642), until it was excavated
and restored at the instigation of Mussolini (Fig.
643). The magnificent remains of this outer curvi-
auditorium correspond to the first
linear wall of the
and second inner tiers. They open in vaulted ar-

Figs. 642, 643. Theater of Marcellus. Outside facade of the auditorium before and after restoration

185
 inner construction, which certainly developed grad-
ually from the high substructures of the wooden
theaters. The carefully planned system of radial
and concentric walls, stairs, roofed corridors
(crypta), vaulted passages, ambulatories (prae-
cinctiones), and doors (vomitoria) served as means
of entry and exit for the many thousands of Roman
theatergoers, thus enabling them to reach their
seats without crowding by separate and unin-
terrupted approaches leading to each section in
each tier. There was no necessity to rush and com-
pete for good seats. All seats afforded an equally
Fig. 644. Theater of Herculaneum, model good 'view, because those extending beyond the
semicircle were cut off and the stage was low. The
The theater of Herculaneum had a similar al-
spectators were also guided unfailingly to their
seats by the Roman tickets, many of which have
though smaller form than the theater built by
Pompey at Rome and the remodelled large theater been found in Pompeii, at Rome, and in the Roman
provinces (see Ch. XV, Figs. 811-816). They
at Pompeii. The cavea seated about half of the
designate the seats in the different sections by means
number accommodated in Pompeii. The
of persons
of Roman numerals and often by additional Greek
theater was by the architect Publius Numisius
built
letters as an aid to a bilingual public. Sometimes
in the time of Augustus, but it was redecorated in
buildings or part of a building, probably some en-
the time of Claudius and Nero from a.d. 41 on.
Since it was excavated in the eighteenth century
trance to the theater or some part of it, or landmarks,
with the help of shafts and tunnels like a coal mine,
statues, or names designating the sections are shown
(see Figs. 813d-e, 814a, 815a).
it can hardly be visualized on the spot. Good recon-

structions, however, have been made by Mazois,

The form of the theaters built in the late repub-

which prove that this provincial theater was, like

lican and Augustan periods must be the one which
the Roman one, constructed and sustained by
Vitruvius Pollio (De architectura, v,3-9) knew
vaulted arches and pilasters (Fig. 644). 36 Staircases
when he described, in about 16-13 B.C., the Roman
led to the passageway between the two galleries and
theater (Fig. 645) and recommended it for imita-
smaller stairs to the uppermost tier. On the top of
tion.
37
He and simple rules for the
gives (v,6) clear
construction of the Roman theater which he then
the cavea, where in Rome the temple of Venus
contrasts (in v,7) with the Greek theater of which
stood, were small shrines (aedicula) for statues,
he gives a less clear description (cf. Fig. 475). In
flanked by equestrian statues, while between col-
umns of precious polychrome marble many other
statues stood in the niches of the scaenae frons.
Among them were the celebrated statues of mother
and daughter, called the Herculaneum women, now
in Dresden. The proscenium had small niches similar
to those in the large theater at Pompeii. The or-
chestra had low steps for the seats of the magistrates
and outstanding citizens; boxes for the magistrates
who provided the plays were above the vaulted side
entrances. The model demonstrates the importance
and stage
of the versurae for the unification of cavea
building. They have doors at the sides which lead
to the stage and others facing the cavea which lead
to the praecinctio and to the uppermost gallery with
the shrines.
The exterior of the theater of Marcellus and of
4 W u y u u ./ v v — \- -u >

Herculaneum was imitated by many other theaters yj

m
of the Roman Empire and by several later amphi- 1
Iff
theaters (see Ch. XIV, Figs. 663-670). These in turn
!

-
M
t S
i if,
j

'7''-. * j
J^Cj-i'H.
influenced the facades of later palaces, especially
those of the Renaissance. The exterior wall, how-
' '
ever, is not merely decorative but expressive of the
Fig. 645. Plan and section of the Roman theater
according to Vitruvius

186
 XIII. ROMAN THEATER BUILDING

the orchestra circle, which in both theaters forms those on either side of it were the guest doors (hos-
the center of the layout, four equilateral triangles pitalia),and the two outermost angles designated
are inscribed at equal distances apart, the points of the side entrances from the wings to the stage
which touch the boundary line of the circle in (itinera versurarum). These correspond to the en-
twelve places. The base of the triangle, the point trances from the paraskenia in the Greek theater,
of which touches the middle of the auditorium, which frame the stage (see Figs. 261-266 and 463-
forms the front wall of the stage house, which the 468). In the Roman theater these projecting wings
Romans richly equipped as the scaenae frons. The support at the same time the sides of the auditorium.
line parallel to this, which runs through the center The open parodoi, which in the Greek theater led
of the circle and thus divides the orchestra into two into the orchestra between the paraskenia and the
halves, forms the front wall ( proscaenium ) of the analemmata, have in the Roman theater become
platform of the stage (pulpitum). In this way the vaulted passages, which remain the main entrance
stage has the depth of half of the radius of the (aditus maximus) to the orchestra and the lower
orchestra ( see Fig. 641 and 645 ) From this we may
. part of the auditorium. Vitruvius (v,6,6) gives as
—
conclude even if we did not know it that the — measurement most practical construction of
for the
Roman theater had a semicircular orchestra and a these vaulted passageways one-sixth of the diameter
much deeper stage than the Greek. Vitruvius ex- or one third of the radius of the orchestra. This
plains this on the basis that all the actors performed results in rather low side approaches, probably be-
on the stage of the Roman theater, while in the cause the tribunalia, or boxes for the officials who
Greek theater only the scenic artists made their gave the plavs, are situated on top of these en-
appearance there, the lyric and other artists (thy- trances (see Figs. 606, 646, 655-657, 690).
melici) appearing in the orchestra. Vitruvius gives several additional measurements
Vitruvius gives five feet as the maximum height in relation to the diameter of the orchestra; thus,
of the stage, in contrast to the twelve feet of the the length of the scene building is set at double the
Greek stage. He accounts for this by pointing out diameter of the ground circle (v,6,6), while it was
that in the orchestra, no longer used for plays, shorter, sometimes only one diameter, in the Greek
were seated.
spectators of high rank, like senators, theater. The height of the podium is to be one-
From this place they would not have been able to twelfth of the diameter. The columns in the scaenae
see the performances on a high stage. This state- frons are to diminish in height according to a defi-
ment of Vitruvius is confirmed by the broad flat nite ratio in the upper stories. Vitruvius, being a
steps for the chairs in the orchestra of the large practical architect, adds that his rules of symmetry
theater at Pompeii and of other theaters ( Figs. 607, must of course be modified to suit the nature of
613-614, 656, 696). the site or the size of the theater. Some parts, such
Of the twelve corners of the four triangles, seven as steps, cross-aisles, and passages must be made
point in the direction of the ascending stairs in the of the same size in a small and in a large theater.
auditorium which articulate the wedge-shaped sec- The Roman theater building is as-
unity of the
tions (cunei) in the lowest circle and lead the sured by the specification that a roofed colonnade
visitors to their seats. In the second tier above the must surround the uppermost rim of the cavea at
first curved cross-aisle
(
praecinctio) more stairs the top of the rows of seats, and that this must be
areadded midway between those of the lower sec- level with the top of the stage building (Figs. 635,
The principle of this arrangement is borrowed
tions. 638, 645, 650, 700-703). Vitruvius (v,6,4) gives as
from the Greek theater, but it was seldom carried the reason that the voice thereby resounds evenly
out there with perfect regularity. The Roman theater throughout the theater. He also gives additional
naturally also had variations, since the large theaters specifications for the acoustics (v,3,4-8 and v,8,l-2).
have more flights of stairs, and the small theaters He praises the plan of the Greek auditorium, which
fewer. Yet we often find seven stairs, as for example served as a model for the Roman because of its
in the theater of Marcellus ( Fig. 641 ) and in Her- excellent acoustics. 38 Vitruvius also dedicates a
culaneum (Fig. 644), both being of the time of whole chapter to harmonics (v,4) and another
Augustus and contemporary with Vitruvius. In later (v,5) to sounding vessels, which, although not used
theaters we sometimes also have seven stairs (see in Rome produced advantageous results in
itself,
Figs. 658-659, 680, 685, 689, 694, 726-727), some- districts and in many Greek states. The
of Italy
times more (Figs. 700, 710, 733-734), and sometimes acoustics were also improved by the fact that wood
fewer (see Figs. 647-650, 655-656, 675, 711-712). continued to be employed for the floor of the stage,
The five remaining angles determine the entrances also for the doors, barriers, and painted panels set
to the stage. The door opposite the middle angle into the stone scaenae frons. The wooden roof over
was the king's, or royal, door (valva or aula regia), the stage, slanting down toward the scaenae frons
XIII. ROMAN THEATER BUILDING

and away from the spectators, also served as a kind

of sounding board (see Figs. 629, 634, 715). The
floor was paved instead of being of earth (Figs.
614, 717) and thus reflected better the sounds com-
ing from the stage.
Dorpfeld 39 tried to derive the Roman theater
directly from the Greek by insisting that the inner
half of the circular orchestra, towards the spectators,
was set deeper into the ground, while the outer half
remained at the original Greek level, and that con-
sequently the low Roman stage was at the same
level where formerly in the Greek theater the main
scene of action also took place. The earlier Greek
row of columns in the front wall supporting the
platform of the proskenion, in Dorpfeld's opinion,
became the scaenae frons behind the platform of the Fig. 646. Differences between the plans of the Greek and
Roman pulpitum. His drawings (Fig. 646), how- Roman theaters, Dorpfeld

ever, which are meant to illustrate this develop- out much more systematically and uniformly than
ment, succeed only in showing the great differences in the Greek is accomplished by the
theaters. This
between the two types of stage. high substructures, which make the auditorium
Fiechter, 40 followed by Bulle, 41 tries on the other independent of the formation of the ground used
hand to develop the scaenae frons from the thy- as its site. The construction of large and complex
romata, with their inset painted decorations of the arches and vaulted passages was made possible by
late Hellenistic stage. Here again I can perceive only the copious use of concrete, seldom used by the
differences. Decorations which were merely painted, Greeks. The Roman architects with this help built
tried out by Claudius Pulcher and Apaturius (see tier over tier of corridors, with staircases leading
p. 168), did not please the Romans. They were separately to the various parts of the theater. The
therefore replaced by rich plastic and architectural outside was decorated with the different orders of
forms totally different in character and mass. Al- the Greeks, which the eclectic taste of the Romans
though we do not possess stages from the first cen- liked to combine in the same building. The arched
tury B.C. preserved in Rome, we know that the openings between the columns in the ground floor
scaenae frons of Scaurus was decorated with many formed the entrances to the rounded passages; in the
columns, and such plastic columns are also found upper stories they gave light to the rounded cor-
in the purely Roman terracotta reliefs with tragic ridors and to the stairs. A roofed portico crowned
and comic scenes (Ch. XII, Figs. 587-588). The the cavea, which terminated directly at the side
scaenae frons takes the place of the thyromata wall, buildings of the stage, built as high versurae, with
and the low closed front of the pulpitum, the stairs and doors leading to the cavea as well as to
proscenium, replaces the high engaged columns of the stage. The Roman love of law and organization
the Hellenistic proskenion. created a well-planned whole. The Roman ma-
The architects who built the Roman were
theaters terialistic spirit, love of pomp and luxury,
their
of Roman nationality, like M. Artorius Primus in created the splendid display of architectural tri-
Pompeii and Numisius in Herculaneum. This is in umphs of the scaenae frons which exerted their
contrast to the Greek sculptors, who provided their influence into the Renaissance.The Romans needed
Roman masters with copies and adaptations of a permanent decoration striking to the eye in its
Greek masterpieces, many of which decorated the splendor. It is the same in other fields such as —
Roman theaters. dress, particularly the Roman toga, which needs a
The individual and special creations of the definite form in an effective arrangement. The
Romans in theater construction seem to me to con- counterpart to the scaenae frons is found in super-
sist of the following elements: Out of the primitive imposed orders on the exterior wall of the audi-
wooden stage, which had migrated to Rome with torium. The rear outer wall of the stage building
the Atellan farce, and out of the rounded auditorium is also richly ornamented, but it is kept flatter and
copied from the Greeks, the Romans in the first more simple than the scaenae frons facing the
century B.C. created an architectural unit which was auditorium. Thus, the Roman theaters are un-
both beautiful and practical. The division of the doubtedly among the greatest and most masterful
auditorium, borrowed from the Greeks, is carried creations of Roman architecture.
 XIII. ROMAN THEATER BUILDING

The main differences between the Greek-Hellenistic and the Roman theater are:

HELLENISTIC ROMAN
The orchestra is a full circle. The orchestra is a half circle.
Stage house and orchestra are separated. Stage house and orchestra are brought into an ar-
chitectural whole.
The stage is high and shallow. The stage is low and deep.
The proskenion is decorated with columns and The proscenium has a closed front decorated with
painted pinakes. niches and sometimes small pilasters.
The background of the stage has wide openings The background is a sumptuous architectural
( thvromata ) with painted scenery. scaenae frons.
The entrances to the orchestra are open parodoi. The side entrances are vaulted.
The seats of honor for the priests are in the lowest Boxes (tribunalia) are above the vaulted entrances
tier of seats. for the providers of the plays. Senators, members
of the city council, and other distinguished spec-
tators are seated in the orchestra.
The different tribes are separated in sections in the The different classes are seated in different galleries,
same gallery. separated by parapets (barriers).
Entrance for all spectators is through the parodoi Entrance for the public is through different outer
and the orchestra leading to the radiating stair- vaulted entrances, staircases, vaulted and open
cases. passageways.
The auditorium is built against a hillside, and there- The auditorium occasionally is also laid on a hill-
fore has no outside facade. side (Vitruvius, v,3,3), but mostly built on high
No colonnade on top. substructions from level ground with a rich
facade, a colonnaded gallery, and sometimes
shrines on top.
The theater is built in sanctuaries. The theater can be built anywhere in a healthy
place (Vitruvius, v,3,l). It sometimes has a shrine
above its cavea.
The Greek theater is a religious and democratic The Roman theater is a class theater. It has more
building with equally good seats for everybody. seats for officials and space for the perform-
less
ances. It has different seats for the different ranks
of society.
The Greek performances are literary events. The Roman performances are shows catering to the
taste of the public (see Ch. XV).
 CHAPTER XIV
ROMAN THEATER BUILDINGS IN ITALY AND THE
PROVINCES DURING THE EMPIRE

The Roman theater builders developed during the tuaries above the uppermost gallery, as in the
last century of the Republic a definite method of temple of Venus Victrix above the theater of Pompey
design for their plans as well as for their elevations. (Figs. 630-632) and the shrine for Ceres in Leptis
This is described by Vitruvius and evidenced by the Magna ( Fig. 696 ) Like the Greeks, they had colon-
.

remains of the theaters in Rome. The Marcellus naded courts behind the scene building for the use
t

theater and the theater of Pompey were, however, of the spectators during intermissions, but they also
rebuilt and redecorated during the Empire in a had covered porticos on top of the cavea, which
and more luxurious form developed in Rome.
richer served as approaches to the uppermost gallery as
The same thing happened to the earlier Greek well as to the sanctuary, and together with the
theaters in Southern Italy and Sicily, such as the vaulted corridors below the upper galleries served
large theater in Pompeii (B and C in Fig. 608 and as refuge in case of rain. The comfort of the spec-
Figs. 610-612) and the theater of Taormina (Figs. tators was augmented by the velum (see Ch. XIII,
635-637), as well as to many Greek theaters in Fig. 624) and by sparsiones, sprinkling with per-
Greek lands, Asia Minor, and the Greek mainland. fumed water, to offset the heat of the sun ( Martial,
The tendency of the Empire was to make everything v,25,7, rx,38,5. Lucretius, n,416; Pliny, Nat. Hist.,
bigger and better, more luxurious and more pre- xxi,33; Apuleius, Metamorph., x,35; Lucan, Phar-
tentious, but also more practical than the Greeks salia, ix,808-810).
had made it. The peak of this tendency is in the We must distinguish, therefore, for the time of the
Antonine period. Then a tendency to simplification Empire, between ( 1 ) the purely Roman theaters
sets in,although the tendency toward large scale is and (2) the older Greek theaters transformed into
continued. The theaters all over the Empire became Roman ones, which may be called Graeco-Roman.
very numerous in agreement with the recommenda- We find the first kind mostly in places which pre-
tion of Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture viously had not possessed theaters. New theaters in
(v,3,l): "After the forum has been arranged, next, the purely Roman form were erected particularly
for the purpose of seeing plays or festivals of the in those places and countries which developed a
immortal gods, a site as healthy as possible should progressive Roman civilization only after they had
be selected for the theater." Vitruvius recommends been conquered and settled by the Romans. These
following the principles of healthfulness, which he are Northern Italy, Germany, Britain, France, Spain,
has given in Book I. He warns (Ibid., v,3,2) par- North Africa, and Arabia. The second kind is mostly
ticularly against southern exposure: "The air, being found in the Greek lands, Southern Italy, Asia
shut up in the curved enclosure and unable to cir- Minor, and the Greek mainland although single —
culate, stays there and becomes heated." This and examples of the purely Roman kind are also found
other practical rules given by Vitruvius are followed in those parts which had become Roman provinces.
in new theater buildings which are erected on level Another difference between the non-Greek and the
ground with the help of arches, rarely used by the Greek provinces is that amphitheaters and circus
Greeks. As they are erected on level ground they buildings were erected in a great number in the
are oriented to the north, northwest, and occasion- non-Greek provinces together with purely Roman
1
ally west (Timgad). The Greek in contrast, and theaters, while there are very few in Greek lands.
those Roman theaters which use natural slopes, The Roman soldiers and veterans who settled in
follow different exposures, including southern, for the conquered lands wanted to see their beloved
example, in the theaters of Athens; the theater of popular entertainments. Therefore in the Greek
Dionysus as well as the Roman theater of Herodes lands, where no amphitheaters were built, many
Atticus, laid on the south slope of the Acropolis, theaters were remodelled in such a way that gladia-
have southern exposures. torial fights, animal baitings, and aquacades could
Another characteristic difference is that the Greek be shown to the Roman masters.
theaters were built in sanctuaries, particularly of Our main sources for the different types of build-
Dionysus (Athens) and Apollo (Delphi, Delos). ings are many well-preserved ruins and inscriptions
The Romans built their theaters anvwhere on a which often give the dates of the first layout or its
"healthy site." However, they sometimes built sanc- remodelling in a later period.
 Fig. 647. Ostia. Plan of theater and square

Purely Roman Theaters

The oldest purely Roman open-air theater outside

Rome probably the theater in Ostia, the harbor
is

town of Rome, which was built by M. Agrippa, the

son-in-law and general of Augustus, in the begin-
ning of the Empire (Figs. 647-650). 2 It is organi-
cally connected with the piazza delle corporazione,
a large square with a temple, probably of Ceres, in
the center. Around the square are the offices for
corporations of the ship owners, who imported the
grain, oil, and other commodities necessary for the
capital. The colonnade around this square served
at its smaller end as the foyer of the theater behind
the scene building (Fig. 647). The cavea is built
against the slope coming down from the main
street, the decumanus maximus. The Emperor
Septimius Severus and Caracalla as Caesar in a.d. Figs. 648-650. Theater of Ostia. Interior view; Exterior; Re-
195 restored and enlarged the theater in brick. A construction _
third gallery was built up so that the cavea became
higher than the decumanus. Originally there were straight scaenae frons behind the stage was richly
only two galleries and two side entrances through decorated with columns, niches, and statues, as the
vaulted corridors. The reconstruction added not only reconstruction (Fig. 650) implies. Several such
a large central vaulted entrance leading down from statues, for example the so-called Venus Marina,
the decumanus directly into the orchestra (see Fig. have been found here. A stage roof and contrivances
648 ) but
, now outside entrances led through arches for holding the poles for the velum are likely. An
between engaged pilasters to the upper gallery elegant altar, now in the Museo Nazionale Romano
(see Fig. 649). In the orchestra low steps were laid delle Terme was found in the theater and is dated
for the movable chairs of the dignitaries. The in the period of Hadrian. 3 Scenic plays are testified
pulpitum was, as always, floored with wooden for Ostia by inscriptions (C1L, xiv, 353) and by the
planks. The proscenium, the front of the stage, was cake moulds with scenes from tragedy and comedy
decorated alternately with five half-circle and four (Ch. XV, Figs. 793-794). The reconstruction bears
rectangular exedrae or niches (Fig. 648). The witness to the unified plan of the theater.
XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE • PURELY ROMAN

building
Orchestra and scene building; Cavea, entrances, and stage
Figs. 653, 654. Theater of Minturnae.
 Not much than the theater of Ostia, and
later A
relief found in Castel S. Elia north of Rome
similar in its is the one excavated at Min-
layout, in Southern Etruria is dated in the time of the
turnae, in Latium, south of Rome near the Cam- Emperor Claudius (41-54) (Fig. 629). 5 The scaenae
panian border (Figs. 651-654). 4 It was erected in frons, in the earlier straight type, has eight columns
about the second decade of the first century, in the in pairs at the sides of the (originally painted)
last Augustan period or in the reign of Tiberius. It regia and hospitalia. Above them are seven niches
was connected with the north portico of the forum, corresponding to the three doors and the four pairs
whose north wall served as the rear wall of the scene of columns, filled with the statue of Apollo in the
building. The stoa became an appendix to the center and with six muses at the sides. The niches
theater, and the colonnades of this stoa could be are treated like small shrines framed by columns
used as shelter for the audience in accordance with which support gables. Above is a contrivance for
Vitruvius (v,9,l). In the second century the scene five siparia (see Ch. XIII, p. 180). Below the
building was rebuilt in a more elaborate form at the theatrical scene is a circus race (Fig. 629), indi-
expense of the stoa, which was cut up into fourteen cating that in the province as in Rome and Ostia
compartments as dressing and property rooms ( Fig. circus games and scenic plays were given at the
652). At the two ends passages were left from the same festivals.
cavea to the forum. The proscenium has three ancient Faesulae, near Florence, in
Fiesole,
rounded and two rectangular niches. In the orches- Northern Etruria, has an early provincial small
tra flat steps were laid for the bisellia (Figs. 653- theater of the Roman form prescribed by Vitruvius
6
( Figs. 655-657 ) . It has radiating staircases dividing

Fig. 655. Theater of Fiesole. View of cavea and orchestra

193
Figs. 656, 657. Theater of Fiesole. Front of pulpitum and
orchestra; Side entrances to stage and orchestra
the lowest cavea ( maenianum imum ) into four sec-
tions. Vomitoria lead from a vaulted corridor into
the upper tiers. It is situated behind the praecinctio
between the first and second galleries. The entrance
to the uppermost cavea (maenianum summum) was
from above, from an upper colonnaded terrace. In
the orchestra are four low steps for the movable
chairs of the officials. Tribunalia, for the providers
of the plays, are above the vaulted entrances which
lead into the orchestra alongside the proscenium.
This front wall of the pulpitum had a rounded niche
in the center and two rectangular niches at each
side. A trench for a curtain is behind it. To the
original wooden pulpitum vaulted side entrances
(itinera versurarum) lead in from the side build-
ings (versurae) of the stage (Fig. 657). Columns
on high pedestals stood before these side doors and
before the doors in the background ( scaenae frons
leading into the rear scene, which seems to be of
a later period.
The theater in Verona (Figs. 658-661) has been7

drawn and reconstructed by Carotta, Palladio, and

others, but their plans are not reliable. The central
part of the cavea is built against the slope of a hill
above the Adige river, where the church S. Libera
now stands (Fig. 658), perhaps in the place of an
ancient temple. The two outer portions were erected
on high substructures and arches, which afford
vaulted entrances to the lower gallery (maenianum
primum) and staircases to the upper gallery (Figs.
659-660), which were built of heavy stones. The
half-circle orchestra is surrounded by a water
channel and had low steps for the bisellia, the
 658

660

^—
movable chairs of honored
guests. The
The
CorinZ
(

,
*W
m ™ P»
had coIossaI
ed
co '™ns with
orchestra

Srss^ft
£ T
menk
revetments
° marbk
f stai ««
^corations of which many frag- -

s^idTsIt;^-
Among them -
661
I

Fig. 663. Amphitheater Verona

Like many other cities, Verona had an amphi-

theater. among
It is the best preserved in Italy,
although many of the seats have had to be restored
(Figs. 662-665). 8 Pliny (Epist. vi,34) attests gladia-
torial fights and animal baitings in this amphithea-
ter, so that it must have been finished before 114, the

year when the younger Pliny died, but it is probably

still earlier. It agrees well with the description of an

amphitheater by Ovid (Metamorph., xi,25): "struc-

tum utrimque theatrum," a building with an audi-
torium all around. It gives us a complete picture of
the two lower galleries (maeniana) around the
elliptical arena (Figs. 662-663). The two large en-
trances in the mainhave above them the tri-
axis
bunalia, the boxes for the magistrates who gave the
plays. The lowest seats are above a high balustrade
which protects the visitors against the wild beasts
in the arena. Vomitoria lead out in regular distribu-
Fig. 665. Verona. Vaulted corridors
tion to the seats from covered corridors, hidden
below the seats. The outside arches ( Fig. 664 ) lead idea of this north Italian amphitheater in Gallia
to these vaulted corridors and to the staircases Transpadana is the same as in the Flavian amphi-
which go up to the upper galleries. The elliptical theater in Rome.
corridor between the outermost and the second The Colosseumin Rome was built in the place of
elliptical wall is built in two stories, while of the a lakewhich had belonged to the Golden House of
third floor corridor only a few arches of the Nero by the three Flavian emperors, and, therefore,
outer wall are preserved (Fig. 665). The building is called the Flavian amphitheater. Its popular name
Fig. 666. Colosseum, Rome
 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE • PURELY ROMAN

animals and about 4,000 tame animals were used

» for the venationes, the hunting of animals and their
• / fights with each other. Domitian (81-96) finished
the upper part of this grandiose building. It still
represents the consummation of the idea of group-
ing a big mass of spectators around a central arena.
The Colosseum is 48/2 meters high, 188 long, and
156 broad. It has a circumference of 527 meters and
a capacity of about 45,000 spectators (Figs. 666-
669) 9 It is built in travertine in four stories. The
.

lower three stories open up in arcades, each with

eighty .arches, flanked by the Tuscan Doric order in
*
# '. *•••••••• .»» the first, the Ionic order in the second, and by the

» f-MH ...«»* Corinthian order in the third story, while the fourth
story has engaged Corinthian pilasters and windows.
The arches in the arcades of the second and third
stories were probably filled with statues (see Fig.
670) The outside is a reflection of the inside. All
.

eighty arcades on the ground floor are entrances to

the arena and the cavea. The two in the long axis
lead into the arena, and it was here that the proces-
The two in the short
sion of the gladiators entered.
podium in the center above the arena,
axis led to the
where the emperor and his retinue had a special
box, while around him and on the opposite side the
vestal virgins, consuls, praetors, ambassadors,
priests, other dignitaries, and honored guests were
seated. The seats in the first maenianum were above
a low wall which had at its top a fence as a pro-
tection against the wild animals. In this first gallery
(maenianum primum) persons of senatorial and
equestrian rank were seated. They entered through
about 38 of the 76 arches of the lowest arcade which
were indicated by numbers, agreeing with the
tickets indicating the cunea, the wedge-shaped sec-
tions in the auditorium.Nineteen of the other arches
led to staircases ascending to the second and nine-
teen to those ascending directly to the third maeni-
anum. The staircase to the second gallery began in
the second parallel arcaded gallery, and the one to
the third gallery in the third elliptical, concentric
vaulted corridor, built between the arcaded walls,
which follow the outer one like the layers of an
onion ( Fig. 669 ) The number of the arcaded walls
.

and the vaulted corridors decreases in the upper

stories, while the cavea spreads out to accommodate
more and more people in the middle gallery
Figs. 6C7-669. Colosseum, Rome. Plan; Section; Interior of ( maenianum medium ) where the patrician citizens
,

vaulted corridor
wearing togas were seated, and in the upper
itreceived from a colossal statue erected next to it gallery where the plebeians sat or stood. The galler-
originally to represent Nero, but changed by Ves- ies were separated from each other by elliptical cor-
pasian to represent the sun god. Vespasian (69-79) ridors (
praecinctiones ) corresponding to the outer
built most of amphitheater in Rome.
this first stone vaulted corridors, along side walls (baltei) which
Titus dedicated it a.d. 80 with games which lasted one were about 5 meters high. Sixty doors (vomitoria)
hundred days, at which occasion about 5,000 wild led out from the inner corridors to the different

198
 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE • PURELY ROMAN

sections. Staircases parallel to the outer wall ledup fect, more admirable could be conceived, so as to
to where women
the fourth, uppermost, gallery, render the whole really magnificent, and a master-
were seated in boxes. Thus the space between the piece of art that it is practicable to build a
. . .

outer wall and the slanting tiers of seats was filled fabric which might accommodate so many
. . .

with vaulted passages and staircases, which went in thousand spectators in such a way that none
all directions and provided direct and easy access should incommode another, and with so many
to all parts of the cavea. At the top of the wall was distinctions and separate entries, and convenience
a broad walk for the sailors, who pulled the velum, of enteringand coming out in a very short time,
the sunshade, back and forward (see Ch. XIII, p. and with such nice divisions of stairs and outlets
179 ) All these details are well represented on coins
. on the higher steps, and with so much con-
of Titus and Gordian (Fig. 670). 10 Many of the venience of places for various uses, . . .

brackets for the poles holding the velum are pre- In Northern Italy there are many purely Roman
served (Fig. 666). Most of the seats are destroyed, buildings. Besides Verona, Pola in Istria also has
but the radiating substructures and vaults between a well-preserved amphitheater of three stories, with
them, which carried the seats rising from the arena a hall of three naves under the arena. While Verona
inside to the uppermost story of the outside wall, had one theater, Pola had two Roman theaters in
are well preserved. addition to the amphitheater. 12
The arena, named from the sand with which it Both buildings and sometimes a circus are also
was covered, is under-tunneled with more elliptical found in France, because the originally Celtic Gaul
walls, which comprise corridors, cages for the ani- had been conquered by Caesar. Many veterans of
mals, and elevators and machinery needed for lift- the Roman army who settled there wanted their
ing the beasts, the scenery and properties, and amusement. Paris (Lutetia) had an amphitheater
occasionally also for watering the arena. Here the combined with a theater and later a second theater.
manifold and cruel spectacles which delighted the Most Roman buildings are found in the Provence,
Roman public were performed. Whoever survived the original Roman province (provincia Romana),
the fight was tried with burning irons by a servant in the valley of the Rhone. The best preserved am-
dressed as Mercury, the messenger of the gods. phitheater is in Nimes (Nemausus), already built
Another servant dressed as Charun with a hammer, in the Augustan period according to the inscription
like the Etruscan demon of death (Ch. XI, Figs. 544- of the architect: "T. Crispius Reburnus fecit." It has
545), drew the bodies and the wounded into the Doric pillars in the first, and Doric engaged col-
death chamber, where the surviving were killed. umns in the second story. 13 This amphitheater has
The amphitheater thus is a monument not only of been restored to accommodate bull fighting, as has
the cruelty of the Roman people and of the class also been the amphitheater in Aries (Arelate) with
character of the Roman society, but also of the a capacity of 26,000. 14 These fights are certainly a
genius of the Roman architects. In the eighteenth survival or a revival of the animal huntings (vena-
century Maffei described the amphitheater in the tiones ) of the Romans, who introduced them to their
following way: 11 provinces in France and Spain. The Spaniards have
. . . whoever . . . will take pleasure to examine transmitted them to Mexico.
well the nature of this structure thoroughly, will Aries also had in addition to the amphitheater a
be forced to acknowledge that nothing more per- circus and a large theater which accommodated

Fig. 670. Coin of Titus, Fig. 671. Theater of Aries

showing the Colosseum
 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE

Fig. 672. Theater of Vaison

Fig. 673. Large and small theaters of Lyon Fig. 674. Large theater of Lyon. Model

12,000. The latter was erected probably as early as Aries with swans in the style of the Ara Pacis came
the founding of the colony in 46 well pre-
B.C. It is from the theater, it would prove the original build-
served in its lower part, so that the plan could be ing to have been finished in the period of Augustus, 16
reconstructed (Fig. 671). 15 The scaenae frons has a but the columns of Carrara marble and the African
large rounded niche for the regia, with four columns marble used seem to testify to a remodeling during
before the staircase on which the actor could make the second century. The largest theater in Gaul is
an effective entrance. The postscaenium has only the one in Autun ( Augustodunum), built for 13,000
small dressing rooms which open on a portico, from spectators. It was also used for gladiatorial fights
which one could enter the large versurae. There is and animal baitings; therefore, the lowest seats are
a trench and shafts for the working of the cur- placed on top of a high podium.
tain. Broad entrances lead to the orchestra which The theater at Vienne is almost as large as the
was reserved for the seats of honor. If the altar in one at Autun. 17 Above its two galleries it has an

Figs. 675, 677. Theater of Orange. Plan; Exterior of stage building

Fig. 676. Theater of Orange. Interior

upper portico and again the substructure for a ferent sections. The high tower-like sidebuildings,
temple connected with the theater. It was dedicated the versurae, corresponding to the Greek para-
to Apollo. Two vaulted galleries open up with skenia, open with arcades in two stories and provide
vomitoria to the cavea, which accommodated about staircases leading to doors for the upper galleries.
10,000 spectators. The orchestra has four low steps They were certainly used for dressing rooms, re-
in white marble and one in violet breccia for the hearsals, and the preparation of movable properties,
seats of honor. A balustrade of green cipolin marble for behind the scaenae frons there are only some
separated it from the cavea. The proscaenium was small recesses. These open on a long corridor-like
decorated with niches and pilasters. Reliefs, one room, which in turn opens to the outside with an
with animals, and a caryatid probably decorated the arcade. In the upper stories there are blind arcades.
scaenae frons. Other important theaters are in Vai- This outer facade fronted a peristyle whose north
son-la Romaine (Vasio) (Fig. 672) 18 and in Lyon portico was connected with the scene building. The
( Lugdunum ) with a smaller theater next to it ( Fig. colonnaded court thus served as a foyer as at Min-
673 ) .The large theater is well preserved. A model
19
turnae (above, p. 192f. ) and in accordance with
was made and exhibited in Frankfurt-am-Main in Vitruvius (v,9,l) provided shelter and recreation in
1937 (Fig. 674). Roth these theaters have trenches case of rain. Above the blind arcades are two rows
for the curtain. of brackets or corbels, the lower ones with round
At Orange (Arausio) the amphitheater has dis- sinkings, the upper pierced with circular holes to fix
appeared, but the theater is the best preserved in the masts which carried the roof over the stage
France (Figs. 675-679). 20 It is a unified building (Fig. 677). The square slots for the cantilevers of
with a high impressive outside, as well as inside the stage roof are seen above the scaenae frons ( Fig.
facade. The cavea is built on a hillside, and beside 676). This inner facade has two stories of decora-
itis the rounded end of a circus which stretches tion above the regia, three over the hospitalia. In the
along and beyond its west side (Fig. 678) 21 a com- — center above the deep rounded exedra for the regia
bination which occurs in a different manner also at is a large niche in which stood the statue of an

Aezani and Pessinus (see below, Fig. 743). The emperor, the torso of which has been found. The
outer uppermost parts of the cavea are built up sides were ornamented with statues, friezes one —
freely on arches, and a covered colonnade runs —
with centaurs and mosaic pictures. Columns of
around it at the upper rim. An outside staircase granite, green, yellow, and white marble stood be-
ascends the hill to the uppermost seats. The free fore the niches. This scaenae frons is 36 meters high
standing parts of the auditorium are provided with and 103 broad ( Fig. 679 ) ." There are arrangements
23
staircases and roofed galleries leading to the dif- for raising and lowering a curtain.

combined with circus: Scaenae frons

X .EX..* —
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T
35.
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tS
3C S.A£.AX.XIK£
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J».
53
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XL JB.'Jl' £'
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 Figs. 680-684. Theater of Menda. Plan; Orchestra; Scaenae
frons; Arched outer entrance to staircase; Colonnaded court
behind stage building

In Belgium (Belgica), western Germany (Ger-

mania Romana), and southwestern England (Bri-
tannia), which had been only partly occupied by
the Roman armies, there also are many amphi-
theaters, for example in Treves (Trier, Augusta
Trevororum), Mayence (Mainz, Mogontiatum ),
and Cologne (Koln on the Rhine, Colonia Agrip-
pinensis). They are, however, more modest than
those in France and were often built wholly or
partly of wood. Sometimes they were intended for
both amphitheatrical and theatrical use, and such
mixed buildings are also found in northern France
(demi-amphitheatres or theatres mixtes). 24 Only a
few real theaters for scenic plays are found in these
and the northern Roman provinces, for example in
Augst (Augusta Rauracorum ). 25
It is different in Spain(Hispania) which, like
Gaul, had become a Roman province in the first
century b.c. Thus the grandiose theater of Merida
(Emerita) in Lusitania (western Spain) was built
and completed in 18 b.c. by Agrippa, but was re-
newed and redecorated by Hadrian (117-138) in
26 '
a.d. 135 (Figs. 680-684 ). The orchestra with the
steps for the bisellia is paved with marble (Figs.
680-681 ) Long vaulted entrances ( aditus maximus
.

lead from outer arches ( Fig. 683 ) into the orchestra

and to the precinctio behind the parapet sepa-
rating the seats of honor from the cavea; fifteen
other exterior entrances lead to the staircases and
vomitoria. The proscaenium has three rounded and
four rectangular niches and, at the ends, two little
staircases leading up to the (originally wooden)
pulpitum. The scaenae frons (Figs. 680-682) has a
deep, rounded niche for the regia and flat rectangu-
lar niches for the hospitalia. Staircases lead down
to the pulpitum, framed by columns following the
curves of the niches. All the columns stand on a high
podium; and they are so far removed from the wall
that statues on high pedestals could be set up be-
tween the columns and before the wall (Fig. 682).

202
 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE • PURELY ROMAN

Twelve little shaft-holes in line with the proscae- other cities. The best preserved amphitheater is in
nium testify to a drop curtain. The postscaenium is El-Djem (Thysdrus). 28 The preserved Roman build-
reduced to two rooms behind the hospitalia, opening, ings belong mostly to the second century a.d. when
like the regia, on the rear portico. This colonnade the Antonines (138-192) and particularly Septimius
connects the two parascaenia at the sides and is part Severus (193-211), who was born in Africa, took
of the colonnaded peristyle which served as a interest in this province. The plays kept their re-
pleasant walk during intermissions or as a refuge ligious character, for they were given mostly by the
during rainstorms (Fig. 684). That tragedies were highest priests of the provinces; and some have
given in Spain is also testified by Philostratus (Apol- chapels on top of the uppermost rim, as in the
lonios of Tijana, v,9; cf. Ch. XV, p. 243). He tells theater of Pompey. There are well-preserved thea-
how the inhabitants of Sevilla (Hispalis in Baetica) ters in Timgad, Djemila, and Dugga in Algiers
were so frightened by the gaping masks, the stuffed- —
excavated by the French and in Sabratha and
out bodies, and the high stilts of the actors that they —
Leptis Magna excavated and admirably restored
fled out of the theater. In Merida there were also an by Italian scholars.
amphitheater and a circus; a large amphitheater is Timgad (Thamugadi) in Numidia (Algiers) has
preserved in Italica; and a large theater and a circus —
been well preserved together with the whole city
are in Saguntum. 27 —by the sand of the Sahara (Figs. 685-687). 29 It
The northern coastland of Africa became a Roman is a good example of a Roman class theater which
province in 146 B.C. when Carthage, the Punic gives separate seats to the different classes of Roman
capital, was captured and destroyed by Scipio society. High parapets separate the orchestra with
Africanus. More and more land was won for Roman its shallow steps from the lower gallery, and
civilization after the wild beasts had been captured another parapet separates this from the higher
for. the venationes in the amphitheaters, and after gallery. Entrances are through the colonnade on the
the Sahara deserthad been pushed back by irriga- top of the cavea, which is partly built on a hillside,
tion—both done on a large scale. Amphitheaters and through vaulted corridors, which begin at the
were then built in Carthage, Leptis Magna, and side entrances. The front of the pulpitum is deco-
 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE • PURELY ROMAN

The
theater in Djemila (Gemila) also has a high
terrace behind the scaenae frons, from which the
actors couldmake an effective entrance down to the
pulpitum, or they could reach it through the large
side buildings. The front of the podium (pro-
scaenium ) has, like Timgad, three rounded and two
rectangular niches, while at the sides are the little
"phlyakes" staircases (Fig. 688). 30 The wall of the
proscaenium decorated with Corinthian engaged
is

which originally stood small free-

pilasters, opposite
standing columns.

Figs. 689, 690. Theater of Dugga. Plan, and view of the

stage from the cavea

Figs. 685, 687. Plan of theater of Timgad and provision for

curtain

rated with three rounded and two rectangular

— —
niches and as often two "phlyakes" staircases
lead up to the stage at the sides. As the staircases
are, of course, also in rectangular niches, this results
in four rectangular and three round niches, an ar-
rangement which is also found in the large theater
of Pompeii, in Vienne (France), Djemila, and in
Dugga. The wooden floor was supported by two
rows of rectangular pillars. Behind the proscaenium
are holes for the poles to which the curtain was
attached (Fig. 687). The scaenae frons is lost. The
large side buildings open onto the stage and, to the
rear, onto a colonnade, which is higher than the
stage and has to be reached by stairs. From this
portico the actors reached the door of the scaenae
frons and descended by other stairs to the platform.

Fig. 688. Theater of Djemila, proscaenium

.. A AA
 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE • PURELY ROMAN

Figs. 691, 693. Theater of Dugga. Scaenae frons, reconstruc- Fig. 692. Theater of Dugga, stage (scaenae frons, hyposcae-
tions of scaenae frons and stage nium, proscaenium)

Dugga (Thugga) in Tunis was built by P. Mar- the stage was reached by
side doors. Small staircases
cius Quadratus, a priest of the deified emperor led down lower level, and up to the tribunalia
to the
Augustus (flamen divi Augusti) in the time of the and to the covered interior corridors, which opened
emperors Antoninus Pius ( 138-161 ) and Marcus up through vomitoria to the radiating staircases. Most
Aurelius (161-180). It is well preserved and was spectators entered through the vaulted side passages;
recently restored (Figs. 689-693). 31 The priest built a few went below the tribunalia to the seats of honor.
"scaenam cum sipariis, et ornamentis omnibus, thea- The others went through the passageway behind the
trum cum basilicis et porticis et xystis." That is, he lowest parapet and thus came to a broad stairway
erected "the stage building with the curtains and all with fifty-two steps. This stairway led up to the
ornaments, the auditorium including the basilicas or principal one of the five entrances leading in from
halls, colonnades and walks." Wetherefore must the outside through a semicircular wall, which was
credit to him the whole building. The ornaments the back wall of an arcade and opened to the upper-
must be the thirty-four Corinthian columns which most gallery in thirty-one arches. The parapet
stand before the back wall on bases over five feet behind the five shallow steps in the orchestra
in height, and which follow the lines of the three for the seats of honor had a bronze gate in the
niches, the semi-circular one for the regia and the center, so that the guests of honor could also come
rectangular ones for the hospitalia. Before each door down the central stairs and reach their chairs from
two larger columns support a stretch of entablature, above. The pulpitum, like those in other African
above which statues were probably set up in aedic- theaters, had in the front three semicircular and two
ulae. At the top was the contrivance for the siparii, rectangular niches flanked by small flights of stairs
as we see them on the relief from San Elia (Fig. (Fig. 692). Under the wooden floor of the stage,
629). In the central niche stood the statue of an supported on small pillars, was a lower floor, from
emperor, probably one of the Antonines. Behind the which a trap door opened in the center of the stage
scaenae frons four irregular rooms lead to the porti- for the appearance of ghosts. There was also scenic
co, from which the actors reached the doors. It machinery and a curtain which could be manipu-
also connects the two side halls, which are probably lated from the side (see Fig. 693). In a cubicle at
the basilicas of the inscription. Thus this portico the side was a peephole at eye level and an opening
connected all parts of the theater with each other. large enough to allow a man to crawl through to the
The large exedra on the outside may belong to the hyposcaenium or whisper to the actors or direct the
xystos. From the side buildings, which served for stagehands when it was time to move the curtains
preparation rooms, wardrobes, and dressing rooms, or let ghostly apparitions arise from the trapdoor.

205
 I-

XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE

by Septimius Severus in Rome 33 and

built to other
nymphaea in Asia Minor (see below, p. 210). It
certainly provided the actors with most effective
entries, particularly through the regia. The actors
came from the portico behind the scene building,
from which they mounted a few steps, could pause
on the platform in the doorway, where they would
appear tall and dignified, and then step slowly down
to the stage between the colorful columns. The front
of the stage (the front wall of the hyposcenium or
the proscenium) had again, like the other African
theaters, three rounded and two rectangular niches,
while little staircases led up from the sides. Reliefs
on the front depict the plays given there, tragedy
and mime (see Ch. XV, Figs. 785-786), and figures
of the three Graces, Paris and Venus, Muses, Tyche-
Fortuna, and personifications of Roma and Sabratha
clasping hands, surrounded by warriors. Behind the

11 proscenium is the provision for a curtain. Behind

the deep scaenae frons are four small irregular

in Ml rooms opening on the same portico as the entrances

to the stage. The side buildings are large halls
which can be entered from the portico, serving as a
foyer. They can be reached also from the outside,
and from the stage. Inner staircases of these side
buildings lead up to the corridor between the first
and second galleries. The twenty-four arches of the
outer facade of the cavea lead to six ramps with
steps to the upper cavea, while five passages go
directly to the inner covered corridor. From here
doors lead to the open corridor, from which one
ascended to the middle gallery. Other ramps lead to
the vomitoria in the different sections. The lowest
Figs. 694, 695. Theater of Sabratha. Plan; Stage with scaenae
corridor is behind the parapet which separates the
frons reconstructed shallow steps of the magistrates from the lower gal-
lery, to the seats of which one ascended on the outer
Sabratha in Tripolitana was built in the period of radiating staircases. The marble parapet ended in
Septimius Severus about a.d. 200, and it is the dolphins. The small orchestra is paved with white
largest theater found in Africa. It was excavated by marble. Orchestra and lowest corridor were reached
Giacomo Guidi and splendidly restored by Giuseppe through the long passages leading in from the outer-
Caputo. It has the most effective scaenae frons of most arcades or from the side buildings. Sabratha
any Roman theater preserved in three stories ( Figs. thus had a perfect system of radiating vaulted pas-
694-695). 32 There are ninety-six columns arranged sages between radiating walls, outer and inner
before the high back wall, decreasing in height in semicircular corridors, ramps, and staircases for use
each upper story. Larger columns on separate bases of the audience.
and with separate entablature stand before the three Leptis Magna in Tripoli also has been excavated
large niches, through which the actors passed from and excellently restoredby Italian scholars, and it
Between and outside the
the regia and the hospitalia. will soon be published in full by Caputo ( Figs. 696-
doors the columns are placed on a common podium. 699). 34 It was built in the time of the emperor
Larger columns flank the side entrances from the Augustus, but it received many refinements and
versurae ( parascenia ) and smaller columns stand
, decorative and practical additions under the later
before the niches in the back wall. The material emperors. The original theater was probably similar
used columns is white marble, violet pavonaz-
for the to the theater of Pompey in Rome (Figs. 630-631),
zetto,green cipollino, and black granite. The facade for it had a temple on the uppermost rim of the
also
with its seven divisions is similar to the Septizonium cavea. This temple was broader than it was deep

206
 Figs. 696-699. Theater of Leptis Magna. Orchestra and audi ium; Additus maximus and tribunal; Scaenae frons; Regia
because it had to be adapted to the upper colon- The scaenae frons of the theater of Leptis Magna
nade. The theater was dedicated in a.d. 1-2 by the was originally in stone. The new facade marble
in
proconsul Rubellius Blandus. In a.d. 35/6 a native (Figs. 698-699) was dedicated by L. Hedius Rufus
Punic woman, Suphunibal Ornatrix, the daughter Lollianus Avitus, who was proconsul about 159-160
of Hannibal Rufus, gave the money for the accom- in the time of Antoninus Pius. There were originally
panying temple which was dedicated to Ceres three stories as in Sabratha (Fig. 695), but only the
Augusta. Another temple, dedicated to Caesar, proscenium and the lower order have been recon-
Augustus, and Livia was built, probably in the structed. The columns are of white marble, red
Claudian period, in the portico behind the scene breccia, green cipollino, and for the epistyle a bluish
building. This portico served as a foyer and, as in marble is used, which resembles Hymettus marble.
Corinth, included a fountain. An altar, perhaps for The columns stand on a high podium, following the
Bacchus, was dedicated by a flamen Titus Claudius retreating curves of the niches for the regia and the
Sextus. The orchestra has flat steps and a pave- hospitalia. Single larger columns frame the stair-
ment of painted stucco. A broad paved entrance cases, on which the actors descended to the pul-
leads to it from the outside between the cavea and pitum (Fig. 699). Large stafues stood between the
the versurae (Figs. 696-697). Above the inner end is columns on the podium; small statues stood in the six
the box for the magistrate who provided for the rounded niches of the front wall of the pulpitum.
plays. An inscription at this place informs us that Thus all the scaenae frontes of the African thea-
this box was built in a.d. 10-14. ters erected in the later second century, when this
 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE

coastland to the south of the Mediterranean sea

flourished, are almost identical (Figs. 685-699).
They are all enriched by colorful columns, and large
exedrae and rectangular recesses. With their move-
ments, projecting forward and receding backward,
they make contrasts of deep shadows and sharp
lights, which almost dissolve the wall. Behind the
scaenae frons lie colonnades connecting the deep
side buildings. These have become large rooms or
halls, sometimes called basilicas. They have taken
over the functions of the scaena for dressing rooms,
wardrobes, and rooms for preparation of the shows.
The postscaenium, the rooms behind the scaenae
frons, decreases and the space for the decoration in- Fig. 700. Theater of Aspendus. Plan

creases. Roman love of luxury and ostentatious dis-

play created architectural masterpieces in these end of the outer wall of the cavea, are long walks
African provinces. leading into the side buildings which open with the
While the Romans brought a new civilization to lower doors on the pulpitum (Figs. 700-702). Above
northern Africa, western Asia had long been colon- the entrances are the boxes for the magistrates
ized by the Greeks and had a Greek Hellenistic which could be reached only from the side buildings
culture, which the Roman conquerors had also ac- by a staircase. Other staircases in the versurae led
cepted. There were many Hellenistic theaters but to doors opening on the praecinctio between the first
no amphitheaters built by the Greeks. Many amphi- and second gallery and at the upper story on the
theaters were, therefore, erected by the Romans; the arcaded portico. The building is thus a perfect unit
first was the one in Caesarea in Palestine built by (see Fig. 701). The scaenae frons is luxuriously
Herod, in which he celebrated contests in honor of decorated with about forty free-standing columns
Augustus in 8 b.c. (Josephus, Ant. Jud., xv,9,6), and ( see the reconstruction, Fig. 705; cf Fig. 706 )
. They .

in which Titus in a.d. 70, only eighty years later, had are nearly all lost, but the parts which were bound
many Jewish prisoners killed in gladiatorial fights into the wall are well preserved (Fig. 704). The
and combats with wild beasts (Josephus, Ant.
in columns stood on a high podium in groups of two
35
Jud., xvi,5,l). The best preserved amphitheater is each between the five doors of the rear wall. The
in Pergamon. Purely Roman theater buildings, were, wall, in contrast to the African and many other
however, erected only in remote places where the theaters (see Figs. 673-676, 679-682, 689-691, 694-
Greek influence had not reached or was weak. Thus 695, 698-699, 707), has no receding niches cutting
we find theaters newly built in the Roman imperial into it, but is straight. The common socles of the
period in southern Asia Minor (Aspendus), in the columns as well as the entablature above them and
interior (Palmyra) and in Semitic Arabia (Bosra in the second story run back to the wall. The en-
and Philippopolis ) and Palestine (Amman and Es- tablature is richly decorated with cymatia, scrolls,
Suhba). and garlands carried by ox skulls. The upper story is
The best preserved purely Roman theater in Asia crowned by gables over each of the ten groups of
is the one erected at Aspendus in Pamphylia in two columns, but in the center is a large pediment
southern Asia Minor. It is perhaps the most impor- above two pairs of columns, decorated with the
tant Roman building of the province of Pamphylia figure of Dionysus between scrolls. Thus there are
(Figs. 700-706). 36 It was designed by the architect only nine smaller pediments which alternate in
Zeno, son of Theodorus, during the reign of Marcus curved and triangular forms. They form a kind of
Aurelius ( 161-180), and it was dedicated to the gods aedicula or tabernacle. Smaller aediculae of the
and to the imperial house. This theater by Zeno same form are between the groups of columns in the
shows the final culmination of the practical as well back wall, like tabernacles for statues. That there
as representative ideas of Roman theater architec- was a wooden roof above this luxurious facade is
ture. Although part of the semicircular cavea is shown by sinkings in the back wall and traces for
built against the east slope of the Acropolis of cantilever trusses at the side buildings, which rose
Aspendus, the upper part stands up freely and a from the back wall toward the front (Figs. 701-705).
portico supported by fifty arches runs around the They were held by poles, for which two rows of
top. The cavea is broader than the scene building, corbels are set in the outer fa£ade of the scene
so that the vaulted side entrances, beginning at the building (Fig. 702), like those for the velum at the

208
 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE

Figs. 705, 706. Aspendus. Pulpitum with scaenae frons and stage
roof, reconstruction; Detail of entablature

Figs. 701, 702. Theater of Aspendus. General view; exterior

outside of auditoria.The upper ones have circular

holes, the lower round sinkings for the poles. This
outer wall is that of a high and shallow corridor,
which, instead of a postscaenium, connects the two
side buildings. One enters it through five doors de-
creasing in size toward the sides, opposite to the five
doors which lead to the pulpitum. Above are small
square windows, and still smaller ones lighten up
the staircases in the versurae. In the second story
Fig. 703. Aspendus. Sections are windows in arched openings corresponding to
the upper story of the scaenae frons, and then again
Fig. 704. Actual state of scaenae frons
two rows of small rectangular windows. The exterior
view (Fig. 702) shows best the complete fusion of
auditorium and stage building (Fig. 703).
In contrast to Aspendus and in agreement with
the western and African theaters, most Roman thea-
ters in Asia have a large central niche for the regia
and smaller niches for the side doors, which cut
deeply into the sustaining wall. A good example is
Fig. 707. Theater of Palmyra. Elevation of scaenae frons and an of stage

Palmyra (Fig. 707). 37 It was built in the Hadrianic ious decoration. Perhaps the same architects built
period, with columns on a high common pedestal both, and it could well be that the basins before the
following the rounded central and the rectangular nymphaea as well as the basins in the theaters were
side niches, for the main doors. Other doors lead on occasionally used for the popular aquacades in the
to the pulpitum at the ends of the back wall and late Roman period, with similar baroque back-
from the side buildings. Larger columns standing on grounds used as real or as imitated nymphaea (see
their ownpedestals before the regia carry a pedi- Ch. XV, p. 237).
ment and frame a niche above the door. The theater Another theater of the same type was in Amman,
in Antioch, the capital of Syria founded by Seleucus the Greek Philadelphia, named originally from the
Nicator about 300 B.C., must have been similar to the Ammonites in Palestine, later captured and renamed
one in Palmyra. Trajan rebuilt the scaenae frons by Ptolemy II Philadelphus. Situated near the Dead
after the earthquake of 114/5 and Malalas (Chrono- Sea, it is now has a
the capital of Transjordan. It
graphia, ed. Dindorf, 1831, p. 276) says that the very well preserved auditorium (Figs. 708-709). 40
emperor set up a copy of the celebrated Tyche of A few very imposing columns of the scaenae frons
Antioch "on top of four columns in the middle of the with their Corinthian capitals are preserved (Fig.
nymphaeum of the proscaenium." 3 This use of the
-
709).
word nymphaeum indicates the great central hemi-
cycle deep enough to contain the four columns. The
—
nymphaea in Asia Minor for example that in As-
—
pendus 39 rival indeed the scaenae frontes in luxur-

Figs. 708, 709. Theater of Amman. Auditorium; View

through scaenae frons
 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE • PURELY ROMAN

The Daphne, the suburb of Antioch-on-

theater at All parts communicate with each other and make
the-Orontes,was built in the time of Vespasian in a the auditorium easily accessible from all sides.
bowl formed by the encircling hillside. 41 The The Greeks of the mainland had their roots in
pulpitum has a straight front without niches which classical civilization. After the country had become
prolongs the walls of the parodoi. The orchestra is a Macedonian and later a Roman
province, Athens
separated from the cavea by a stone barrier. In the still remained the spiritual capital of the Greek
center of the orchestra is a circular slab, with a de- world. The Greeks kept to their classical forms of
pression for an altar, or for a fountainhead, to which performances and accepted only late the Hellenistic
water channels lead. A gutter around the orchestra type of the theater building (see above, Ch. IX).
may have been used to convert it into a water basin They did not build amphitheaters, with the excep-
for aquacades. The Corinthian architecture of the tion of the one in the Roman colony in Corinth,
scaenae frons is of good workmanship. built there on the ruins of the Greek Corinth.
To the third century belong the theaters in Bosra Athens itself was reached by the Roman form of
(Fig. 710) 42 with three broad flat rounded niches in the theater in the Antonine period when the rich
the scaenae frons, and those in Philippopolis in sophist Herodes Atticus honored the memory of his
Arabia and Es-Suhba in Israel, with a flat back- wife, Regilla, who died a.d. 161, with the erection
ground wall (Fig. 711). 43 The decoration is much of a theater on the southwest slope of the Acropolis,
simpler than in the second-century examples. The as a counterpart to the theater of Dionysus on the
postscaenium is no longer an open, but a closed southeast slope. The cavea is laid on the slope of the
corridor behind the scaenae frons, connecting the Acropolis, but is crowned by a Roman semicircular
two small parascenia with staircases and the cavea surrounding portico (Figs. 712-716). 44 The scene
up to the portico above the uppermost row of seats.
i

1. Theaters of Bosra and Es-Suhba

Figs. 712. Theater built by Herodes Atticus, Athens. Plan

 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE • PURELY ROMAN

Fig. 713. Theater of Herodes Atticus. Exterior

building opens up with arches set upon pilasters in

the Roman manner ( Fig. 713 ) The postscaenium is
.

a hall entered from the sides. The sidebuildings

extend the full length of the parodoi. They open
below on the stage; to the cavea over staircases to
the praecinctio, the semicircular passageway, which
separates the two and farther up to the
galleries;
portico (Fig. 714). Thus the theater is a unit in the
Roman style. The scaenae frons is decorated with
one row of pilasters opposite which stand columns
raised on high pedestals. The entablature was
crowned with triangular and curved pediments.
Retween the doors and above the regia are niches
Fig. 714a. Theater of Herodes Atticus, Athens
for statues. In the upper story are arched openings.
It is doubtful whether a roof of cedarwood, men-
tioned by Philostratus (Vitae Sophist arum, n,l,5
[p. 551] and n,5,8 [p. 571] ) belonged to this theater
rather than to the odeion on the market place, which
Herodes Atticus probably renewed (see Ch. XIII,

Fig. 714b. Theater of Herodes Atticus. Stage and versura Fig. 715. Theater of Herodes Atticus. Reconstruction, Fiechter

212
 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE GRAECO-ROM AN

p. 174-177 and Figs. 617-619 and below p. 221). It is

likely that this theater ofHerodes had only the
ordinary wooden roof over the pulpitnm (Figs.
715-716). It is well equipped for scenic plays, which
were at that time displaced by gladiatorial shows in
the theater of Dionysus (see below, p. 215).

Graeco-Roman Theaters
Manyof the Greek theaters on the mainland and
in Asia Minor were modernized in the Roman period.
The first to be reconstructed in the Roman style
was the sacred theater of Dionysus Eleuthereus in
Athens (Figs. 717-725). 45 It was dedicated to the
Emperor Nero, probably in 61/2, or at the earliest
in 54/5, by Claudius Novius, a Romanized Greek.
The inscription with the dedication to Nero and
Dionysus was engraved on the architrave over the
central aedicula of the scaenae frons (Figs. 721-
722). 46 Dionysus had to share the possession of the
theater with Nero also in Lisbon (CIL, n,183) and
in Aspendos with the imperial house (see above,
p. 208). At Athens the large marble scaenae frons

Fig. 716. Theater of Herodes Atticus. Reconstruction, Versakis

Fig. 717. Theater of Dionysus, Athens. View of orchestra
 in two stories been best reconstructed by
has remained open (Figs. 719-720). The Athenian thea-
Fiechter with some improvements by von Gerkan ter, therefore, never attained the unity of a genuine
(Figs. 721-723). The new stage was brought for- Roman building.
ward and cut off a large part of the orchestra, which When Hadrian visited Athens in a.d. 126, each
was paved with white, bluish, and reddish marble tribe dedicated to him his portrait statue in their
in a geometric pattern (Figs. 717-718). In the cen- A
allotted sections. for him in the
box was erected
ter is round depression for an
a large stone with a auditorium, and new seats of honor were set up
altar. The proscaenium
wall was probably smooth. above the older ones at the edge of the orchestra.
Behind it are shafts for the curtain (Figs. 724a-b). These seats in the lowermost part of the audi-
The low Hellenistic colonnaded parascenia flanked torium were no longer the best ones, because a para-
the high versurae, which, however, were not con- pet was erected closely in front of them ( Figs. 717-
nected with the auditorium. The parodoi always 719, 725). The orchestra had become a conistra or

Figs. 719, 720. Theater of Dionysus. Plans: period of Nero; latest period

214
 X/V. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE
'1 '

'

a P

*1
' '
1 ' '
M'
1 '. !

Figs. 721, 722. Theater of Dionysus. Reconstructions of the Neronic stage, Fiechter

arena, which served for shows and

gladiatorial
animal baitings. The orator Dio Chrysostomus in his
discourse to the people of Rhodes (Oratio, xxxi,
121), blames the Athenians because they look on
gladiatorial shows "in their theater under the very
walls of the Acropolis, in the place where they put
up their Dionysus in the orchestra, so that often a
fighter is slaughtered among the very seats in which
the hierophant and the other priests must sit." Such
occurrence may have been the reason for erecting
the parapet.
After the destruction of Athens by the Herculians
in 267, the archon Phaedrus again remodelled the
stage in about a.d. 270. The front wall of the pul-
pitum had the old "phlyakes" stairs in the center; a
geison block of the stoa of Eumenes
reused for is

the uppermost step. At its is alone

right half, which
Fig. 723. Reconstruction of the Ne- Fig. 724a. Shaft for curtain,
preserved, the well-known earlier reliefs with the ronic stage, side view, von Gerkan b. cross-section
story of Dionysus are reused (Ch. II, Figs. 53-55).
from the orchestra; and the side entrances, there-
They served, however, only as structural material,
fore, led behind the parapet into the lowest prae-
not as decoration. All the heads of the figures were
cinctio to the seats of honor and to the staircases in
broken off along with the upper part of the back-
the auditorium. In the postscaenium the dressing
ground, and a heavy cornice was laid over them. I
rooms were cancelled and one continuous hall was
believe that they were originally the four sides of
formed, entered by double arches from the outside
an altar dedicated to Dionysus, either of the Neronic
on the east and west (Figs. 720 and 723).
or of the Hadrianic period. 47 The ancient theater of
Fig. 725. Theater of Dionysus. Seats of honor and Roman parapet
Dionysus was desecrated and no longer required an
altar, for the scenic and thymelic plays in honor of
the god were transferred to the theater of Herodes
Atticus (Figs. 712-716). Between the
are reliefs
niches in which kneeling satyrs, probably taken
from the older stage, were placed, but they do not
support anything. The niches as well as the reliefs
were thickly covered with stucco, painted red. The
front wall of this latest stage as well as the parapet
around the orchestra were reinforced by a rubble
wall so as to be waterproof (Figs. 717-718 and 720).
The water channel was covered with marble slabs
between the old bridge stones. Thus the orchestra
could be transformed into a watertight basin for the
aquacades or water ballets that were so popular in
the late Roman period 48 (see Ch. XV, Fig. 784).
The parapet and the stage wall cut off the parodoi
XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE • GRAECO-ROMAN

The theater of Dionvsus was incontinuous and late Roman period. Before this was done the theater
intensive use for many centuries, but in the later in this city, sothoroughly investigated bv Stillwell,
periods the crude Roman amusements, which were received a "phlyakes" stage in the earliest Roman
ordinarily given in the amphitheaters, replaced the period. It was rebuilt in the early first century a.d.
sacred performances. in the Roman style with a straight scaenae frons,

An amphitheater was built in Corinth only in the but then in the Hadrianic period with three hemi-
cvcle exedrae and columns standing on a podium
with entablature, which follow the regia and hos-
pitalia with their curved lines (Figs. 726-729). 49
Between them the straight friezes were probablv
decorated with a gigantomachy, an amazonomachy,
and the deeds of Heracles. At either end are large
halls instead of the modest paraskenia in Athens,
with staircases to the tribunes over the side en-
trances at the end of the long vaulted parodoi
(aditi maximi). At the back of the scaenae frons
is a rectangular colonnaded peristyle, probablv
planted as a garden, serving as foyer or lobby be-
hind the scaena, in accordance with the prescription
of Vitruvius for such porticos ( v,9,l and v,9,5) "post :

scaenam porticus . . . media

adornanda spatia . . .

viridibus videntur. ." ("Colonnades must be con-

. .

structed behind the scaena the space in the middle

. . .

between the colonnades and open to the sky, ought to

be embellished with green things. .") From this . .

colonnade staircases flanked by pilasters and free-

standing columns led down to the stage level. The
front wall of the stage was of stone and had provi-
sion for a curtain. Later, in 211-217, the theater was
again remodelled into a hunting theater for an ex-
pected visit of the emperor Caracalla (Fig. 727).
The first ten rows of seats were removed, the rock
was cut back and three small caverns or refuges
were cut into it. A high wall decorated with paint-
ings showing animal hunting ( see Ch. XV, Fig. 839
surrounded the arena. The tiers of seats now ter-
minated at the top of a podium, leaving the orches-
tra in the form of a sunken pit. At the same time the
lowest seats got hereby a better view of the per-
formances on the stage. Similar changes were made
Figs. 726, 727. Corinth, restored plan of Roman theater;
in the theaters of Assos, Magnesia, Pergamum, and
restored plan of arena

Fig. 728a-b. Theater of Corinth. Views from the south and northwest
 • 9 Ill fi

Fig. 729. Theater of Corinth. Scaenae frons, reconstruction

Tyndaris. These changes enlarged the orchestra

which was used for gladiatorial and animal combats.
In the second half of the third century the orchestra
level in Corinth was raised again, the lower seats
were restored, the painted arena wall was partly
730, 731. Theater of Magnesia. Plan and
destroyed, a gutter and a new parapet were built. Figs. of stage,

—
The parapet was as in Athens reinforced and — comparison with Vitruvius

made waterproof by a masonry backing. This was The thyromata were

of the late Hellenistic stage
probably done for the water ballets so popular in kept, but three columns were erected before them
the imperial period/' 0 The theater of Corinth seems on each side between the doors and one each out-
to have been in use until the invasion of Alaric in side, next to the large paraskenia. The open side
a.d. 396. entrances over closed corridors are entered from the
The conservative mostly non-
city of Sparta held side rooms, from the second story of the scaena, and
scenic contests and games in honor of Leonidas and protected bv high walls. These additions were
other heroes. It had a Hellenistic high stage intro- probably made in the first century b.c. when Romaia,
duced at a late date and that only in the form of plays in honor of the Romans, were given here. The
a wooden rolling stage which was stored in a program included newly-written tragedies, satyr
skenotheke, a shed in the parodos, and wheeled out dramas, and comedies. 55 It is likely that the tragedies
over tracks on play days. This happened probably and satyr dramas were given in the orchestra, the
not before the first century B.C. When this wooden comedies on the stage. Later the stage was brought
skene burnt down in the first century a.d. Vespasian farther forward, supported by pillars, at the same
erected the first architectural scaenae frons, deco- height as the Hellenistic proskenion. The Roman
rated with columns standing on a podium, but stage closed the open parodoi. Along the back of
without a permanent pulpitum. A temporary the scene building a terrace reached by side stair-
wooden stage about five feet high could have been cases led through a door into the central room
erected. A permanent stage seems to have been opposite the regia.
51
built not before about a.d. 200. Priene remained for a long time in its Hellenistic
Stobi in Macedonia (now Jugoslavia) received a form (see Ch. IX, Figs. 416-425), but in the An-
scaenae frons still later, in the Hadrianic period. It tonine period it also received a modest scaenae frons
was connected with a shrine of Nemesis. It never (Fig. 732). 56 The thyromata wall was torn down,
had a stage. The five doors of the scaena led down and farther back two semicircular niches framed
by flights of five steps directly into the arena. by free-standing columns between the three doors
Thus Stobi was a kind of half amphitheater, with a were built up over the rear rooms of the scene
refuge for hunters, used for gladiatorial fights and building, which were vaulted to support the new
venationes. The latter were still given at about a.d. heavy wall. The front wall of the proskenion re-
•300. 52 A similar arena with a parapet was built mained standing. Between the columns thin walls
in the theater at Philippi in Macedonia in the second of cement were erected. They were painted on yel-
century. 53 low ground in white, black, and red to represent
In Asia Minor the rebuilding of Greek into Roman doors, with the exception of the three real doors
theaters led to many unusual forms. Magnesia, of the Hellenistic proskenion (above, Fig. 424).
Priene, Ephesus and Miletus kept the height of the There were no versurae and the parodoi remained
Hellenistic proskenion stage, but decorated its back- open.
ground with the Roman scaenae frons. Magnesia
has the Greek form of the auditorium and the or-
chestra described by Vitruvius (Figs. 730-731). 54

Fig. 732. Theater of Priene. Plan of Rorhan scaenae frons

217
 In the large theater of Ephesus, on the other
hand, the front wall of the proskenion was moved
forward in order to attain a deep Roman stage
(Figs. 733-736 )/•" Around a.d. 44 the remodelling
began by moving the stage forward about 20 feet
(6m.) with the help of twenty-six columns in two
rows and before them one row of ten square piers
(Fig. 733). At the front, twenty -two Hellenistic
pillars with engaged columns, including their
threshold, were reused (cf. Figs. 441-447 in Ch. IX).
This pulpitum closed off the open parodoi. Vaulted
entrances led as ramps up to the stage. The main
room of the stage building was vaulted. A scaenae
frons dedicated in a.d. 66. reconstructed by Niemann
(Fig. 735) and by Hormann (Fig. 736), had five
doors, columns on high podia, an architrave with
sculptured friezes; in the second story were pedi-
ments and in both stories niches for statues. The
details are not quite certain. Vaulted entrances led
from arches of the outer wall to the diazomas ( Fig.
734). In about 140-144 the orchestra, reduced by the
pulpitum, was enlarged by cutting away the seats
at the height of the pulpitum; and a parapet was
laid around the orchestra, so that gladiatorial shows
and animal fights could be presented. The inter-
columnia of the proskenion were closed and niches
added in the outermost ones. A colonnade was
added at the edge of the uppermost gallery. Finally
in the third century a third story was added to the
scaenae frons (Figs. 734-736). There is no third
story behind it in the scene building. The Romans
loved facades, even if they represented an empty
decoration.
The Hellenistic theater of Miletus was also rebuilt
58
on the Roman plan (Figs. 737-739). It had three

galleries which could be entered from vaulted cor-

ridors by many doors. The floor of the pulpitum
was laid like that in Ephesus, on three rows of
pillars, but the front wall of the stage was of the
height of the old proskenion with columns and three
entrances to the hyposkenion. The scaenae frons
behind the deep stage was laid out in the early
imperial period, but it was rebuilt with richer
decorations about the middle of the second century
( Fig. 739 ) . It had a deep central niche in the form
of the segment of a circle, with four large columns
before it, while the columns on pedestals follow the
receding form of the niche. The same plan is used
in three stories, and many tabernacles testify to the
use of many The orchestra was paved with
statues.
red, violet, and bluish-white marble plaques. It was
changed into an arena by cutting down the lowest
seats. The parodoi were closed to the arena and
became entrances to the stage ( Fig. 737 ). A portico
with cross vaulting on arches was added above the
auditorium.
Figs. 733-736. Theater of Ephesus. Plan of Roman period;
Section; Reconstructions of scaenae frons, Niemann, Hormann

218
 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE • G R A EC 0 -RO M AN

Fig. 740. Theater of Termessus. View of the stage

fights and baitings were held in the orchestra,

thereby converting it into an arena. The parapet
around the orchestra, which in other theaters sepa-
rated the officials and guests of honor seated in the
orchestra from the common folk, has here become a
protection against the wild animals, as in the amphi-
theaters. The stage building belongs to the Antonine
period.
The situation is similar in Sagalassus (Figs. 741-
00
742). The auditorium is built on a hillside in
Greek fashion and extends beyond the semicircle by
one wedge-shaped section on each side. But only the

Figs. 741, 742. Theater of Sagalassus. Plan;

Figs. 737-739. Theater of Miletus. Views from the side and
Reconstruction of the stage
above; Plan of the scaenae frons

While the theaters of Priene, Ephesus, and Mile-

tus are more Greek than Roman, the theaters in
Termessus and Sagalassus in Pisidia are more
Roman than Greek. Termessus (Fig. 740) 59 origi-
nally had an auditorium going beyond the half-
circle and a stage building separated from it by
open parodoi. Above the auditorium, however, was
a Roman colonnade, closed on the outside, open
to the inside. A broad staircase leads down from the
colonnade to the lower gallery. The parodoi were
later vaulted over and tribunals were built over their
inner entrances. The stage building received a
scaenae frons with five doors, before which columns
with Roman composite capitals were erected on
high pedestals in a straight line. Heavy side walls
were erected support a stage roof. The front wall
to
of the podium 2.36 meters in height, built up with
is

square blocks and decorated with shields in framed

plaques. Three doors, only 0.98 meters high, lead
into the orchestra, which has a parapet 1.75 meters
high to protect the spectators. It is clear that animal
 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE • ODEA

east part is built against the slope of a hill. The west

portion is built up in the Roman manner on radiat-
ing walls and rising vaults. The semicircular corridor
(diazoma) which separates the two galleries has
behind it a concentric vaulted corridor, which opens
with doors onto the open corridor. Narrow parodoi
separate the auditorium and the stage building. The
scaenae frons has five doors, in decreasing height,
with niches for statues over the smaller doors and
pairs of columns on high pedestals between the
doors. The pulpitum is 2.77 meters high (9 feet),
and is built with large stoneblocks. The center door
is 2.09 meters high, and thus is usable by men,

while the other doors are only 0.87 meters high, too
small for human beings, and thus certainly meant
for animals. It seems, therefore, that besides animal
baiting, gladiatorial fights were also given in the Figs. 743, 744. Aizani, theater and circus. Plan; View of the ruii

orchestra.
oldest known odeum was built by Pericles near the
The Greek world, with the exception of some theater of Dionysus at Athens (see Ch. V, Fig. 237).
places like Corinth, did not adopt the amphitheater
Itwas destroyed by the army of Sulla in 86 B.C. and
from the Romans, formerly uncultivated
as the
reconstructed in 52 b.c. at the expense of Ario-
provinces had done. If the masters of the ancient
barzanes II of Cappadocia ( 63-52 b.c. ) by two
world did not wish to do without their beloved Roman architects, C. and M. Stallius (C7A, m,541).
bloody games in the Greek provinces, they had to odeum, the music
Just as in the case of this Periclean
make provisions for them in the theater, as they did halls were often built in the vicinity of larger thea-
in Athens (see above, Figs. 717-720). This explains,
ters. They distinguished from them by the
are
therefore, the peculiar form of the theaters of Asia
rectangular form of the outer walls which carry a
Minor. The correspondence to the Greek theater of roof (theatrum tectum), and they are always smaller
Vitruvius is no more true for these Graeco-Roman
than the open-air theaters. The oldest well-pre-
theaters than for other Roman theaters of the Em-
served Roman odeum, called theatrum tectum, is the
pire. One must not, therefore, conclude with Dorp-
small theater in Pompeii (Ch. XIII, Figs. 613-615).
feld that Vitruvius must necessarily have known
Other combinations of theater and odeum are testi-
such theaters. All of them are much later than
fied for Naples and Taormina in Italy; and pre-
Vitruvius. 61
served in France at Lyon ( Fig. 673 ) and Vienne; in
In Aezani in Asia Minor an auditorium in the
Greek horseshoe form was combined in the Hadri-
anic period with a circus or stadium in such a way
that the scaenae frons of the shallow but high stage
was at the same time a kind of triumphal arch serv-
ing as entrance to the circus (Figs. 743-744). 62 The
scaenae frons has a central niche decorated with
columns of larger size than the other columns, which
stand about 6 feet from the wall. They are of com-
posite order in the lower, of Corinthian order in the
upper story. A similar combination is found in Pes-
sinus, also in Asia Minor, only here the theater is

not on an but at right angles to the circus, in

axis,
the middle of one flank. 63 In both cases there
scenebuilding behind the empty facade.
is no if I 1 i
-J 1 J J
Odea
The name odeion, Latin odeum, is derived from
ode, song (w&f). The odeum thus is a music hall for
concerts and recitations which were accompanied
by musical instruments (see Ch. I, pp. 3f. ). The
1
Figs. 745, 746. Odeum of Termessus. Section; Exterior

220
 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE • ODEA

Syria at Amman (Philadelphia); in Pamphylia at assembly were strengthened by half columns

halls
Aspendus; and in Pisidia at Termessus (Figs. 745- or pilasters,between which windows admitted
746) and Sagalassus. 64 The finest odeum in Greece, light. This is the case in the odeum of Agrippa as
according to Pausanias (vn,20) was the one in well as in later odea like the one in Termessus
Patras, which was only surpassed in size and deco- (Figs. 745-746) 09 and the one at Aosta in Piedmont
ration by the one which Herodes Atticus had built (Fig. 747). 711 The
latter has twelve small arched
in memory of his wife Regilla in Athens. It is gen- windows second story and four large arched
in the
erally assumed is the one on the southeast
that this openings in the uppermost story. The Roman odea
slope of the Acropolis (above, Figs. 712-716). improve the roofed buildings by reducing the orches-
Not much later than the time when the Periclean tra, cutting off drastically the sides of the curved

odeum was restored, Agrippa, the general and son-in- tiers, adding more windows, and eliminating the

law of Augustus, built a concert hall on the market- columns entirely, of which there still had been four
place of Athens, called the Agrippeion by Philostra- in Miletus (Figs. 737-738).
tus (Vitae Sophistarum, n, 5,4, and 8,4) and
mentioned by Pausanias in his description of
the Agora (i,8,6 and 14,1). This odeum must have
been erected around 15 B.C., for Agrippa visited
Athens in 16 and 14, not long before his death in 12
B.C. It has been excavated by American scholars and
published in a model paper by Homer Thompson 65
(above, Figs. 617-619). It has been found in the
same place where dances and songs in honor of
Dionysus were performed and wooden bleachers
erected, before the theater in the sanctuary of
Dionysus was built. The original building had an
auditorium which was square in plan, and which
could seat about 1,000 persons. It had a long narrow
stage and an orchestra of less than a half-circle with
a small altar in the middle. The was paved
orchestra
Fig. 747. Odeum of Aosta. Exterior
with opus sectile in white Pentelic, gray-blue Hy-
mettian, green marble from Carystus, purple and It seems, however, that this last improvement
pink with white marble from the islands, red and brought disaster to the odeion of Agrippa in Athens.
yellow limestone, and black slate. The stage front The span of 25 meters was too large for the con-
—
was decorated with herms the shafts were of struction of a room without any other support than
green, the heads of white Pentelic marble, on a blue the outer walls. It collapsed in the second century.
plinth —and crowned by a sima on which a lotus and The auditorium, therefore, was greatly reduced, by
palmette design is carved. To the north behind the shifting the south wall to the north, so that the span
scaena was a small entrance porch, to the south a was 7.66 meters less, and the auditorium could then
long narrow lobby or foyer at the back of the audi- seat not more than 500 persons. Instead of the
torium. A
balcony was laid around three sides. This podium and the north porch, a long open colonnade
building probably was to replace the Periclean was erected, its entablature supported by six square
building near the theater, whose many interior piers decorated with colossal figures of tritons,
columns must have interfered with the view as well flanked by pedestals for statues of seated philoso-
as with the acoustics, and thus was probably con- phers (Fig. 619b). The odeum had become a lecture
sidered obsolete bv
J
the Romans. hall for the four great philosophical schools, for
The odeum in theAgora is thus a Roman build- which Marcus Aurelius had created two chairs
ing, but one developed from Hellenistic assembly each, the incumbents to be chosen by the teacher
halls, like the Bouleuterion of Miletus ( Fig. 633 ) 66 ,
of the Emperor, Herodes Atticus ( Philostratus,
built in 175-164 B.C., the ecclesiasterion in Priene, 67 n,2). I believe that this rhetor gave the celebrated
and other meeting places of political bodies. 08 It is roof of cedar wood which Philostratus mentions, not
certainly the same type of rectangular building with to the theater on the south slope of the Acropolis,
a roof and sloping auditorium which was the model which he built to replace the desecrated theater of
for the unified open-air theater of the Romans also Dionysus for scenic plays (see above, p. 211ff., Figs.
(cf.the theater of Pompey, Ch. XIII, p. 181, Figs. 712-716), but to the odeum on the market place,
630-632). The walls of the upper stories of these which had become a university. 71 Such auditoria for
 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE • ODEA

tian, 5). The Romans preferred shows for the eyes,

not active intellectual or bodily participation in
exercises. Thus even odea, as well as many theaters,
were changed into arenas for gladiatorial and ani-
mal fights, or for water ballets. This happened in
Corinth, the odeum of which is mentioned by
Pausanias (n,3,6) and which has been excavated
by American scholars and published in a complete
way by Broneer (Figs. 748-749). 74 It was connected
with the open-air theater by a colonnaded court. It
had two galleries with seats for about 3,000 persons.
The upper gallery was entered from higher ground
by outer stairways which opened into the cavea by
vomitoria. Erected toward the end of the first cen-
tury, it was rebuilt by Herodes Atticus around 175
( Philostratus, Vitae Sophistarum, n,2, p. 551). The

floor and walls were revetted with marble. The

columns of the scaenae frons were carved in dif-
ferent kinds of marble. About fifty years later, how-
ever, this elegant music hall was made into an
arena. The stage was removed, the lowest tiers of
seats cut away to erect a wall of about 2 meters, in
order to enlarge the arena and to protect the specta-
tors against the wild beasts. The rooms in the side
buildings became cages for the animals or refuges
for the hunters.
While the Romans built amphitheaters side by
side with the theaters, the Greeks built music halls

Figs. 748, 749. Odeum of Corinth. Plan; View from the north
or auditoria even in remote parts of the Greek world
during the imperial period. Thus a well-preserved

lectureswere sometimes incorporated in gymnasia

odeum of small dimensions built in Roman brick
work has been excavated in Butrinto in Albania
example, in Syracuse and in Epidaurus (Figs.
as, for
(Fig. 750). 75 A strong wall reinforced by pilasters
620-621) 72 and Sylleum in Pamphylia. 73
carried the roof. The stage building was vaulted.
Vitruvius (v,ll,2) in his prescriptions for the
The auditorium and orchestra are in horseshoe form.
Greek palaestra speaks of roomy recesses ( exedrae
Other odea are preserved in Gortyn in Crete, 76
with seats in them, where philosophers, rhetoricians,
Ephesus, 77 Amman in Transjordan, 78 and Cretopolis
and others who delight in learning may sit and
in Pisidia (Fig. 751). 79
converse. He mentions (v,ll,l) that such buildings
are not used in Italy. The Romans did not care for
Fig. 751. Odeum of Cretopolis. Plan and section
the intellectual and physical education which was
the center of life for the Greeks. There seems to have
been just one odeum in Rome, erected by Domitian
in the Campus Martius 86 b.c. (Suetonius, Doini-

Fig. 750. Odeum of Butrinto. General view

12 o -x- 4,3 0->

 Sculptured Decorations

The Greek al period had little

theater in the classic
sculptural ornament,except on the altar which
stood in the center of the orchestra. A few portrait
statues were erected to distinguished men, like
Themistocles and Miltiades in the theater of Dionv- J
sus at Athens in the fifth century, 80 and the great
tragic poets Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides in
the fourth century (see Ch. II, Figs. 64, 101, 108).
In the Hellenistic period Menander was the first
comic poet so honored (see Ch. VIII, Figs. 318-
319). The background was not decorated with
statues butwas painted (Ch. IX, Figs. 446, 471-
474). Even the figure of Demetrius mentioned by
Athenaeus (xii,536a) was only painted (see Ch.
IX, p. 124). A example of an
fine late Hellenistic Fig. 752. Altar found in sacred precinct of Dionysus, Athens

altar decorated in relief with satyr masks carrying The same uncertainty of date is found among
full garlands of ivy, grapes, and acanthus has been scholars for the kneeling figures of Sileni, used by
found in the sanctuary of Dionysus (Fig. 752). 81 Phaedrus between the reliefs (Figs.
in the niches
Broad fillets hang down and a rosette is carved 53, 718).
82
They remained visible while the reliefs
above the center of each garland. The followers of were covered with mortar. It is not certain what
Dionysus, satyrs and maenads, are well fitted for they originally carried, but it was probably an
decoration in the sanctuary of the god. In the entablature. Again I believe that they are of the
archaic period a relief with satyrs and maenads Neronic age, when the first Roman stage was built
decorated some building. It was believed to be and dedicated to Nero and Dionysus. Herbig as-
from the pediment of the oldest temple of Dionysus sumes that these and a third Silenus carried a basin
(Ch. V, Fig. 222). An altar had on its four sides for holy water. The replica in the Museo dei Con-
the history of Dionysus. It is now used as building servatori on the Capitol in Rome carries a wineskin
83
material in the front of the late stage of Phaedrus (Fig. 754 ); the other, in the Louvre, a cushion
84
(Figs. 53-55; 717-720), but belongs either to the (Fig. 753). Both attributes are probably additions
— —
Neronic or less likely to the Hadrianic period. of the copyists. The original has been dated in the

Figs. 753, 754. Kneeling Sileni. Marble statues, Louvre; Capitoline Museum

223
 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE • SCULPTURE

third quarter of the 4th century B.C., which date I

believe to be too early. The satyr in Athens prob-

ably belongs to the same Roman decoration of the
theater of Dionysus as the large figures of Sileni,
which have a pillar in the back and thus certainly
had an architectural connection. The one with his
hands at his side, his head leaning forward, his tail
outlined against the pillar (Fig. 755), 85 must have
had a companion; perhaps they stood as telamons
at the versurae or paraskenia, like the Pans in the
theaters of Segesta and of Pompey in Rome (see
Ch. XIII, Figs. 603-604). The Papposileni, Father
Silenus in goatskin (Figs. 756-757), 86 also originally
supported some weight. Besides four small ones,
there is the fragment of one colossal silenus (Fig.

756) which originally must have reached a height

of about 3 meters. He also must have had a counter-
part, while the smaller figures must have stood in
one row somewhere in the scaenae frons. All have
heavy mantles and long full beards. Only one (Fig.
757) has the head preserved. He wore a thick
wreath which was originally enriched with bronze
leaves, for which only the holes remain. He has pig's
ears, and hishead is lifted with a pathetic expres-
sion.

Figs. 755-757. Colossal Silenus; Fragment of large Silenus; of Silenus. Marble, Theater of Dionysus

224
 XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE • SCULPTURE

Two women in full dresses with many folds are

preserved only in their lower part. 87 The better pre-
served (Fig. 758) is 1.30 meters high. The right
foot is missing. On the left foot there is a shoe on
a high sole with ornate lacing. Both women stood
on plinths about 1.30 meters high and both have
pilasters at their backs. One (Fig. 758) has been
found in the east, the other in the west part of the
stage building. They are again companion pieces.
Herbig explains them, probably rightly, as per-
sonifications ofTragedy and Comedy, comparing
them to the same personifications on the relief of
Archelaus (Ch. I, Fig. 2). Herbig dates the women
in the Neronic-Flavian period, the sileni in the
Hadrianic-Antonine period. I believe that they all
belong to the Neronic stage.
It is to be regretted that these statues from the
—
Athenian theater and indeed most statues found
in Roman theaters —cannot be seen any more in
their precise architectural locations. We cannot
completely visualize a Roman theater or odeum
without its rich sculptural decoration. The Romans
loved to assemble masses of statuary in their public
places and particularly in their theaters. We learn
that in 58 B.C.Marcus Aemilius Scaurus erected a
wooden temporary theater with three thousand
bronze statues standing between the columns. This
was perhaps a kind of exhibition of the loot of
Greek works of art which the Roman generals and
consuls had assembled in Rome. Later copies of
celebrated masterpieces were added to the originals.
Thus an archaistic statue of Athena has been found
in the odeum of Corinth (Fig. 759), 88 copies of
classical statues in the theater of Corinth; and the
Demeter and Kore, called the Herculaneum women
from these statues, were found in the theater of
Herculaneum. Dionysus himself, the god of the
theatrical contests, was always a good choice, and
we find him in the odeum of the Athenian Agora. 89
The satyrs, his followers, are used in a great number
in Athens; groups of satyrs struggling with nymphs,
in Daphne. The mask, his sacred symbol, is used on
friezes, like the ones in Philippi and Pergamum (Ch.
IX, Figs. 311-313, 380) and on oscilla, decorative
marble disks, like one found in the theater at
Vaison. 90 Caryatids and telamons, often in the guise
of satyrs, take the place of pillars (Figs. 615, 755). 01
Since, however, many theaters in the Hellenistic
and particularly in the Roman period were no longer
connected with Dionysus but with other gods,
statues of all kinds of gods —
such as Athena, Aph-
rodite, and Demeter —were set up in the theaters.
Portrait statues of emperors were erected in the
theaters of Vaison and Orange in the central niche
of the scaenae frons. 92 Statues of magistrates and
deserving citizens were erected in a larger number
Fig. 759. Archaistic Athena. Marble statue from Odeum in
Corinth
XIV. BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE • SCULPTURE

than those of outstanding spiritual men. Personifica- The theaters of Leptis Magna and Merida are the
tions, like the Tyche of Antioch, Nemesis, and Nike only ones where, thanks to the careful work of the
were occasionally used according to local prefer- Italian and Spanish excavators who have set up the
ence; and Muses, like the ones on the relief of San statues again in their original locations, we can
Elia (Ch. XIII, Fig. 629), or Tragedy and Com- get some idea of the true appearance of a Roman
edy —if the woman in Fig. 758 and her companion scaenae frons (Figs. 681-682, 698). It would be a
—
are rightly interpreted were a natural choice. The rewarding task to collect the decorative statues and
many niches and tabernacles of the Roman scaenae friezes which are now scattered in museums and
frontes demand filling with statues. Friezes with bring them back to their architectural frames, at
reliefs were often inserted in the entablatures, as least in reconstructed drawings. As most theaters
in Ephesus, Delphi, and Corinth. The deeds of are dated, the statues could also be dated according
Heracles, the battles with centaurs, Amazons, and to the period of the theaters where they were used.
giants are used. 93
 CHAPTER XV
PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

See Figs.
801, 810
The passion of the Romans for plays of every kind Olympia were added, was true also at the Pana-
as
constantly increased. In the time of the Emperor thenaic Athena in Athens) the
festivals for —
Augustus the calendar (fasti) tells us that there Romans, in contrast, gave to each god the same
were over 60 days on which public spectacles were kinds of plays. The Romans also gave the same
given regularly in connection with the old religious kinds of spectacles for funeral games, when scenes
festivals. They always began with scenic plays, from tragedies and even comedies were presented;
followed by circus performances. The calendar lists: for birthday celebrations of emperors; on the occa-
(1) Ludi Romani, September 4-19, of which ludi sion of dedications of buildings; and for triumphal
(2) Ludi Plebeii, November 4-17, of
scenici 4-12; games. They even gave different plays at the same
which scenici 4-12; (3) Ludi Megalenses, April 4-10, festival at the same time in different places. Thus at
of which scenici 4-9; (4) Ludi Cereales, April 12-19, the secular festival celebrated by Augustus in 17
of which scenici 12-18; (5) Ludi Florales, April 28- B.C. —for which Horace composed his Carmen Saccu-
May 3, of which scenici, mostly mimes, only on the sung by a chorus of boys and girls three day-
lar e, —
last day, May 3; and (6) Ludi Apollinares, July 6-13, long Greek thymelic or lyric plays were given in the
of which scenici 6-12. Thus the majority, about 40 theater of Pompey, Greek scenic plays in the Circus
days out of 60, were devoted to theater plays. Dur- Flaminius, and Latin plays in a newly-erected tem-
ing the Empire, however, interest in the scenic porary wooden building near the Tiber. These were
plays declined and that in the spectacles in the followed by seven days of games in the circus. The
circus and amphitheater grew steadily. The result birthday of Augustus on September 23 was also
was that toward the end of antiquity, in the year celebrated with circus games.
a.d. 354, of the 175 days set aside for festivals only This mixture of plays at the same occasion ex-
about 100, that is, four-sevenths were devoted to plains the fact that in the monuments we often have
theater plays. Although the scenic plays had been a combination of tragedy and comedy, which were
more than doubled, the games in the amphitheater both popular in the
still first century a.d. The mask

and in the circus had increased almost four reliefs Pompeii, Ostia, and Rome often have
in
times. tragic masks on one side and comic masks on the
The forms of plays created during the republican other (pp. 155, 158, Figs. 562 and 572-573). The
period lived on, but the emphasis was shifted from Dionysiac masks on other reliefs (see Fig. 578)
the more serious to the lower classes of scenic plays. may refer as much to the connection with the Dio-
At the end of the republic, tragedy and comedy in —
nysiac cult which, however, in imperial Rome was
the Graeco-Roman form, crepidata and palliata, —
very loose as to the satyr drama, which also re-
held first place. During the Empire they were mained alive in the Empire. Horace, in his poem on
pushed more and more into the background by the the art of writing poetry, not only gives rules for
lower varieties of drama. Sometimes only single tragedy but also for the satyr drama (Ars Poetica,
scenes of tragedy were declaimed. The heir of vv. 220-250). 2
tragedy became the pantomime with a continuous There are many pictures in Pompeii belonging to
plot and the acting of a single mute actor. The heir the century a.d., before its destruction in 79,
first

of comedy became the mime played without masks which prove that tragedy and comedy were as
and with subject matter taken from daily life. The vigorous in this more and more Romanized colony
heir of the Atellan farce became the Latin farce as they must have been in Rome itself. Of course,
with coarse and low-class plots and characters. The the question always arises as to whether the wall
theater plays, in order to compete with circus and paintings reproduce Greek or Roman representa-
gladiatorial entertainments, had to become steadily tions, and whether they show contemporary per-
more sensational. 1 formances or are copies of earlier votive pictures.
While the Greeks gave definite plays different After the earthquake of 63, many painters may have
—
from each other in the different cults tragedies and come from Rome and may have copied Greek paint-
comedies for Dionysus in Athens; mainly athletic ings assembled in Rome by the Roman conquerors.
games and races for Zeus in Olympia; mainly Yet there are two features which betray contempo-
musical plays for Apollo in Delphi (to which later rary representations as the source: the stage costume
athletic games and races modelled on those in and details of Roman theater buildings.

227
 XV. PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Figs. 760-764. Masks of tragedy and comedy set on movable steps; Andromeda; Youth, Woman of tragedy; Father, Youth of com-
edy. Wall paintings from Pompeii, Naples

Thus tragic and comic masks are on the same wall 764

in Boscoreale. A series of masks, alternating tragic

and comic, lying above little staircases, which the
Romans had taken over from the popular farce ( see
above, Figs. 483, 485, 488, 489, 491, 518, 688), to-
gether with the very high hairdress, the onkos, for
the tragic masks seem to prove that these are masks
actually used on the Roman stage (Figs. 760-764). 3
One (Fig. 760) may be Andromeda, with a veil
hanging from the extremely high onkos, a sea dragon
below her, as we saw it in the relief and the paint-
ing with the masks of Andromeda and Perseus
(Figs. 570-571). The masks of a youth beside which
a spear is leaning ( Fig. 761 ) and of a woman ( Fig.
762 ) both have a fillet and a wreath in their highly-
built-up long hair. One of the comic masks repre-
sents a father with a long beard ( Fig. 763 ) and one

228
 Fig. 765. Wall decoration with alternating tragic and comic scenes. Casa del Centenario, Pompeii

a youth with a book basket (capsa) beside him ( Fig. Accius and Naevius were still presented in the first
764), both with the rolled arrangement of the hair, century a.d. The play of Accius was named after
the speira, used in New Comedy. Amphitruo, the old father of Heracles. In both
Scenes from tragedy and comedy alternate within pictures he stands next to Megara, the wife of
a frieze in two houses in Pompeii, the Casa del Heracles. The mischievous tyrant Lykos sits on an
Centenario (Fig. 765) 4 and the Casa di Casca at altar to the right, apparently filled with fear on
the crossing of Via dell'Abbondanza and Vicolo di account of the arrival of Heracles. In the Greek
Tesmo. 5 In both reappears a painting containing original he does not appear at the same time as
Lykos, Megara, and Amphitryon, while the one Heracles. Amphitryon probably received greater
from Casa del Centenario also has at the left side emphasis in the Latin than in the Euripidean play.
Heracles (Figs. 766-767). This seems to be a revi- He may also have been killed by Heracles on the
sion of the Madness of Heracles by Euripides, re- stage.
worked by Accius for the Roman stage, on which Among the tragic scenes from the Casa del Cen-

Fig. 766. Heracles, Amphitryo, Megara, and Lycus. Casa del Centenario, Pompeii Fig. 767. Amphitryon, Megara, and
Lycus. Casa di Casca, Pompeii
 Figs. 768, 769. Priam kneeling to Achilles; Medea pointing her sword at her children. Casa del Centenario, Pompeii

tenario are Priam, seated, and Hecuba talking to looks on from behind a door (Fig. 770). On an-
him, and Priam kneeling before Achilles supplicat- other,an older man followed by a slave stands near
ing for the body of his son Hector (Figs. 765 and an on which a goose is lying, killed by an
altar
768). These two paintings may be taken from a arrow. A
priestess wearing a fillet and a wreath and
Latin play dealing with the Trojan saga so popular holding another wreath in her hand stands to the
in Italy. Medea pointing the drawn sword at her left (Fig. 771). Neither these nor the other pictures

children (Fig. 769), who are being brought to her can be explained by their subject matter. 7 There
by their tutor, does not agree with the Medea of is, indeed, no comedy preserved from this period.

Euripides, where the children are killed inside the The wall paintings, however, testify to the presenta-
house. In Seneca's Medea the children are killed tion of comedies along with tragedies during the
on the stage, but the mother kills them when alone period of the first century a.d.
with them and not in the presence of a servant. In In Palermo there are also one tragic and one
Seneca's tragedy, however, Medea wounds her arm comic painted scene which again belong together.
with her sword before the children are brought in, One scene consists of a hero and a messenger, per-
and in the tragedy underlying the painting in the haps Oedipus at the moment when the messenger
Casa del Centenario it is to be assumed that she from Corinth tells him of the death of his adoptive
killed the children on the stage. The spirit is cer- father (Fig. 772). 8 The scene reminds one of
tainly the same as in the contemporary tragedies Seneca's Oedipus, vv. 784ff. and 1042. One would
of Seneca, and one can easily imagine the tragedies like to give to this scene as a companion piece a
of Seneca with their rhetorical pathos and far- painting from the Casa dei Dioscuri in Naples of a
fetched declamations being presented in this form. heroine and her serving woman (Fig. 773). 9 The
The other tragic scenes in the Casa di Casca are heroine is carrying a baby in swaddling clothes, and
unfortunately effaced, and it is not possible to she may be Auge with little Telephus. The figures
identify them. There might have been some illus- in both pictures have the exaggerated tall onkos,
tration of Seneca among them. There seem to have wooden high soles under their boots, rich dresses of
been twelve pictures in the atrium, probably six variegated colors, and show lively gesticulation.
tragic and six comic scenes. The messenger has disorderly hair; the serving
Among the three preserved comic scenes in the woman has a quince-colored yellow complexion, a
Casa Casca most important is the one where an
di stump nose, and a protruding chin. But the actual
old slave mocks a woman and a youth, a scene also companion piece in the Casa dei Dioscuri was the
known from a replica in Herculaneum (abo.ve, Fig. comedy scene in Bonn (above, Fig. 327) and the one
395). 6 In one painting from the Casa del Cen- belonging to the painting in Palermo was the com-
tenario we see a young man coming home accom- edy scene between a lady and a cook (above, Fig.
panied by a torch-bearing slave and a little boy, on 383). 10 A similar scene is in Plautus' Menaechmi,
whose head he has put his hand, while a servant w. 219-225. This testifies again to the fact that

Figs. 770, 771. Young master's return; Priestess, old man and slave near altar. Casa del Centenario, Pompeii
XV. PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Fig. 772. Tragic scene, hero and messenger. Palermo Fig. 773. Heroine with baby and nurse. Casa del Dioscuri

comedies in the stvle of Menander, Plautus, and Goldsmith they are set before an elaborate scaenae
Terence were still performed in the first century, frons: Iphigenia appears above a staircase in the
but with stronger exaggerations in the costume than regia, the royal door, framed by a rich architecture
before. It also asserts the fact that both kinds were with columns, pediment, and acroteria. Before the
given and painted side by side. hospitalia, the side doors, on the one side Thoas
Contemporary performances are certainly meant is seated with a bodyguard; on the other side,

when a luxurious Roman scaenae frons is set up Orestes and Pylades are standing. Naevius was the
behind the figures. Thus the figures in the painting first to write a Latin Iphigenia based on Euripides'

in the house of the goldsmith Pinarius Cerialis ( Fig. IpJiigenia in Tauris, and there may have been other
774) 11 reoccur in other paintings and they do not adaptations.
have theatrical dresses. 12 But in the House of the This picture with the story of Iphigenia and three

Fig. 774. Iphigenia in Tauris. Wall painting, House of the Goldsmith (Pinarius Cereales), Pompeii

231
 Fig. 775. Stage with the presentation of a mime. Wall painting, Pompeii

other paintings from the Casa dei Gladiatori in pears as Marsyas who has picked up the flutes,
Pompeii correspond remarkably to the theaters of despite the curse put on them by Athena. Marsyas
Pompeii and Herculaneum (Figs. 775-778). 13 We challenged Apollo to a musical contest. The victor
find here once more in the scaenae frons the central Apollo stands with his cithara in the royal door.
niche flanked by rectangular niches, the columns Four members of the chorus who sang the plot are
or pilasters set upon bases, the three elevated doors seen in the background between the three doors and
from which stairs led down to the stage for an in the outermost doors. The third picture (Figs. 777-
effective entrance of the actors, and in the front wall 778) shows a victorious athlete holding a palm
(proscenium) of the pulpitum the small rounded branch led by Victory out of the central door, while
and rectangular niches (Figs. 777-778). The painted other athletes appear in the hospitalia. Tragic masks
walls show abundant decoration: in the front niches allude to the fact that tragedies were also performed
statuettes, carved parapets between the columns, on this stage. The athletes are indeed only late in-
—
and bronze ornaments, all of which even if more truders. They lived in the barracks above the colon-
easily executed in paint than in solid material nade behind the theater (Ch. XIII, G in Fig. 605),
were certainly not lacking in the theaters at Rome. and when the games in the amphitheater were for-
There, as in Pompeii, mimes, pantomimes, and occa- bidden as a consequence of the riot of the year 59
sionally athletic games were given in the theaters (see above, Fig. 624), they were transferred to the
before a similar rich background. The mime (Fig. large theater. The discus thrower and the boxer in
775) shows a young hero dressed in a chlamys the outer niches of the proscenium allude to the
standing in the regia, two older warriors fully armed athletic games, while the poet reading from a scroll
in the hospitalia, and slaves in the background be- in the center reminds one of the more serious per-
tween them holding a wine jar and a torch in formances.
preparation for a banquet. The pantomime (Fig. There hardly could be a better frame and more
776 ) depicts the story of the contest between Apollo gorgeous background for the tragedies of Seneca
and Marsyas. The actor appeared first in the left (a.d. 5-65) 14 than this type of scaenae frons, which
hospitalium as Athena, trying out the flutes which belongs to his period. His nine plays, the only Latin
she has invented. In the right hospitalium he ap- tragedies preserved for us, were written during his

232
 XV. PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE • SENECA

Figs. 777, 778. Stage with victorious athletes and decorated

banishment in Corsica (41-49) or during the time proscenium. Wall painting, Pompeii

when he was tutor and advisor to Nero (49-59). It

is the period when the wall-paintings (Figs. 765-
769 and 772-773) were painted, which are related
to the bloody and rhetorical dramas of Seneca in
subject-matter, actions, and costume. All tragedies
of Seneca are based on older plays which were
never meant for reading but only for presentation.
The Hercules Furens, Troades, Medea, and Hip-
polytus are Latin adaptations of Euripides' trage-
dies; the Oedipus and Hercules Oetaeus are based
on Sophocles, and the Agamemnon on Aeschylus.
The Phoenissae combine motifs of all three classical
Greek writers. The only play for which the original
is not preserved for us is the Thyestes. It might be

the Atreus of Accius, at the presentation of which

Seneca was present, or the Thyestes of Ennius, first
produced in 169 B.C., or the Thyestes of Varius, pre-
sented in 29 b.c. (see Ch. XI, p. 156). Seneca de-

233
XV. PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE • SENECA

Fig. 780. Portrait of Seneca. Marble bust, Berlin

Medea inserted the gruesome speech of the Medea

of Seneca (w. 740ff. ), singing incantations to the
gods of the nether world.
Seneca may also have inspired his pupil Nero to
Fig. 779. Two tragic actors threatening children (Atreus and give tragic recitations on the stage. Nero appeared
Lamp, Rome
Merope? ) . as god, hero, or heroine; he sang the parts of the
scribes the fiendish revenge taken by Atreus upon blinded Oedipus, the insane Heracles, and Orestes
his brother Thyestes because he had seduced his as matricide. Nero even took the part of Canace
wife. Atreus kills his nephews and gives their flesh and mimicked the cries of a woman in labor. His
and blood to the unsuspecting father to eat and last appearance was as Oedipus in exile, a role pre-
drink. The killing of the children of Thyestes, or in sented in the Greek language (Suetonius, Nero, x,
any case of children, is also represented on a lamp in xxi, xlvii). At these occasions he must have worn
the Museo Nazionale Romano delle Terme in Rome the tragic costume in the form depicted in the wall-
(Fig. 779). 15 A king and a queen, probably Atreus paintings of his period (above, Figs. 768-769 and
and Merope or Laodameia, hold the children who 772-773). He certainly appeared in this theatrical
struggle to get away, because the man threatens them costume when he presented himself in Athens in the
with a large sword. Both have diadems on their lofty theater of Dionysus, which was rebuilt for him and
onkoi and are on high stilts. This might be a still later dedicated to him together with Dionysus (above,
revision of this subject which appealed to the Roman Ch. XIV, Figs. 717-722). Among the single scenes
love of cruelty. or speeches which he declaimed (Lucian, Nero,
Seneca kept the dramatic and theatrical forms of 2-3.10) there may well have been some from the
the Greek models, even including the chorus, but he tragedies of his teacher Seneca. Professional actors
assimilated the borrowed material to the Roman —
dared to rival him for example, the actor Epirotes
character. Seneca's portrait in Berlin also testifies to —and as Nero was proud of his skill it was an honor
his purely Roman personality (Fig. 780). 16 He was to compete against him (Lucian, Nero, 9). An-
certainly thinking of performing his tragedies in the other actor pretended that he was singing the songs
theater, for one of his letters (Epist. i,xi,7) demon- exactly as Nero had done in Olympia ( Philostratus,
strates his interest in stage presentations. has He Vita Apollonios Tyana, v,ix,8). These were probably
such effective roles for great actors that it would be rhapsodic songs, and as rhapsode Nero may have
unlikely for the great actors of his time to pass them worn the cithara player's costume. It may even be
by. When the Medea of Euripides was presented that the statue in the Vatican, occasionally attrib-
by the Morningside players of Columbia University uted to Skopas, showing an Apollo with portrait
in New York, the Broadway actress who played features, represents Nero idealized as Apollo the
XV. PLATS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE • SENECA

cithara player (Fig. 781). 17 In a similar form Nero

is represented on his coins, as Suetonius (Nero,
xxv ) has observed: "item statuas suas citharoedico
habitu, qua nota etiam nummum percussit." (There
were statues of Nero in the dress of a cithara player,
and he issued a coin in the same guise.) 18 Nero is
said to have "danced" the Turnus and Dido after
Virgil. 19 We know also that other famous poetical
works such as the Medea of Ovid and even orations
were declaimed on the stage, probably in this cos-
tume of a musician.
The influence of Seneca began immediately after
his death. The Octavia was even attributed to
Seneca, but could have been written only after
it

the death of Nero ( a.d. 68 ) and therefore only after

,

the death of Seneca (a.d. 65). 20 The story is laid in

62, when Seneca was still councilor of Nero, but
he retired after Nero had murdered his mother and
banished and later killed his wife Octavia. As the
death of Nero is predicted, it was certainly written
after 68. It displays, however, a rhetorical style,
misplaced erudition, hollow lamentations, and no
real action — all of which are found in Seneca's
tragedies. The Octavia is the only tragedy with a
national theme, a fabula praetexta, known to us, for
all the others are known
onlv bv their titles, such as
the Domitius and the Cato of Curiatus Maternus,
dating from the time of Nero, or the Aeneas of Fig. 781. Apollo Kitharoidos, perhaps Nero. Marble, Vatican

Pomponius Secundus. As these patriotic plays were

given in the Roman toga with purple stripes, the While historical plays were seldom written and
dress worn by the upper classes (Fig. 550), it is not tragedies often declaimed only in detached scenes
possible to distinguish them in monuments. It seems or detached roles lacking in continuity, the panto-
possible to me that the scene on a pulpitum before a mime with its continuous plot became the real heir
scaenae frons from Castel S. Elia represents such a of tragedy. 22 The pantomime danced the in-
actor
praetexta, as several persons are represented in the dividual roles, which means he had to refine
that
toga (Ch. XIII, Fig. 629). 21 This Roman dress is his gestures to such a high degree and perform his
clearly recognizable in the tall man standing in the movements so expressively that in him alone one
center before the regia below the statue of Apollo could see embodied now a god and now a goddess,
in the upper niche, and in the two men with staffs, now a hero and now a heroine. These characters
probably the lictors, who accompany the main were made more readily distinguishable by changes
figure. The flute player who also has a footclapper in the actor's masks and attributes. The text sung
and the player of a syrinx are at the head of a chorus, by the chorus ( see Figs. 776, 782 ) was for the most
while another chorus of twelve little girls, behind part a second-rate revamping of well-known tragic
whom stand four grown-up persons, has been ex- scenes. We know many librettos through the book
plained by Anti as a chorus of girls who performed on the dance by Lucian (Lukianos) of Syria, who
in honor of Juno in the ludi falisci given in Falerii wrote in the time of the Antonines. In the time of
in the Romanized period. This relief belongs to Nero a pantomime "danced" the adultery of Ares
about the middle of the first century, in the period and Aphrodite. He had to play Sol, Hephaestus,
of Seneca. Chorus-singing with the accompaniment Aphrodite, Ares, and other gods one after the other
of the flute remained popular in the Hellenistic and (Lucian, Dialogus de Saltatione, 63). In another
Roman periods (Hyginus Fab. 273.) Ptolemy Auletes pantomime he had to represent Bacchus, Cadmus,
and Marcus Antonius favored this type in the first Pentheus and Agave (Anthologia Palatina Plan.
century b.c. (Strabo, xvm,796; Plutarch, Ant. 24). 289). But better writers also, such as Lucanus (a.d.
Seneca definitely influenced not only the age im- 39-65), a nephew of Seneca, and Statius (a.d. 45-96)
mediately following his own, but all subsequent pe- wrote these Fabulae Salticae. Among the titles
riods. which have been handed down to us are Atreus and

235
 XV. PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

closed mouth ( in contrast to the masks of tragedy )

the tragic costume made of expensive material, and
they appeared before the same gorgeous scaenae
frons.The emperors particularly favored the panto-
mimes. Common names for them are Paris and
Pylades. Thus one pantomime, Paris, was the teacher
and friend of Nero. The pantomime Pylades was
liked by Trajan. L. Aurelius Apolaustus was a Syrian
freedman of Lucius Verus; a statue was erected to
him at Tivoli as the "best of his time" (temporis
sui primus), and an honorary statue base was dedi-
cated to Aurelius Pylades in Puteoli. 24 Most of the
pantomimes were Greek, many from the countries
which were the homelands of the founders of this
kind: Syria, the country of Pylades, and Alexandria,
the home of Bathyllus (see above, p. 165). They
travelled to Rome and the Roman provinces. The
honorary inscription for the pantomime M. Sep-
timius Aurelius in Leptis Magna, praising him as the
best of his time, tells us that he performed also in
Milan, Vicenza, and Verona.
When women appeared as pantomimes they were
considered shameless (Juvenal, vi,66 and xn,62).
But the Emperor Justinian of Byzantium made
Theodora, a pantomime, his queen. From Trier, the
capital of the Western Roman Empire, an ivory relief
now in Berlin (Fig. 783) 25 depicts such a woman in
about the fourth century. Her masks represent a
and a youth. The attributes of the
hero, a heroine,
sword, crown, and lyre indicate the content of the
Fabula Saltica.

Fig. 783. Pantomime. Ivory relief from Trier, Berlin

Fig. 782. Dwarf fluteplayer Myropnous. Tombstone

Thyestes, Ajax, Niobe, The Mad Heracles by Lu-

canus, and Agave by Statius (Juvenal, 7,87). In the
latter, the roles of Bacchus, Pentheus, Cadmus, and
Agave were danced successively by the same actor,
Paris. In the pantomime Achilles on the Isle of
Skyros the personages of Achilles, the spinning
maidens, Odysseus, Diomedes, and others had to be
characterized in succession. The music was undig-
nified, frivolous, sensual, with loud yet enervating
tunes. Double pipes, lyre, trumpets, and scabellum,
a foot clapper, that is, a rattle beaten with the foot
for the rhythm ( see above, Fig. 629 and below, Fig.
829), formed a noisy orchestra, though at times
pleasant and easy melodies and many trills accom-
panied the songs of the chorus. Sometimes abnormal
musicians such as dwarfs were used. Thus Myrop-
nous, the fluteplayer for a chorus, is shown on his
23
tombstone in Florence (Fig. 782) with an enor-
mous head in contrast to his crippled short legs.
The pantomime actors, on the other hand, must have
been well-built men and women with supple bodies.
They must have worn with the masks which had a

236
XV. PLATS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE r
The ballet is related to the pantomime when a solo
dance, to the mime when a group dance. In Greece it
was called Pyrrhiche when danced by armed men
w ho presented sham battles. In Rome this dance
was given a dramatic content. Male and female
dancers fought with each other or represented
satyrs,maenads, and corybants. They were dressed
in tunics embroidered with gold, wore purple man-
tles, and had golden wreaths. The mythological

ballet dramatized such scenes as the story of Pen-

theus and Dionysus, and the Judgment of Paris,
described by Apuleius (Mctamorph., x,29-34),
which took place in the second century in the
Fig. 784. Girls dressed in bathing suits for water ballet.
theater of Corinth. Luxurious scenery represented Mosaic, Piazza Armerina, Sicily
Mount Ida with animals, plants, and springs on it.
The setting and the costumes were sophisticated hand. Others have clappers, a tambourine, or a
and rich. Venus appeared naked save for a trans- wreath; and one has a large fan-like flower which
parent silken palla round her hips. She was sur- looks like a small umbrella. One girl with a loose pal-
rounded by dancing Cupids, Graces, and Horae. la around her body comes running with a crown in
Minerva was accompanied by the demons of horror, her right hand and a palm branch in her left hand.
Juno by Castor and Pollux, Paris by his herd. At the In the second and following centuries the Roman
end the scenery was lowered with the aid of a games and plays were more and more extended to
sinking machine. the provinces. The scenic and thymelic plays were
Water ballets and water plays, aquacades, were brought to the whole Roman imperium by the guilds
given in small water basins, which were built into which developed from the Hellenistic technitae and
the theaters 26 (see below, p. 253). They were the Roman troupes of actors. 28 Here also variety
choreographic mimes, tetimimes, mimes for Tethys, was required. On the pulpitum of the theater of
the wife of Okeanos. Martial (Libellus spectacu- Sabratha (see Ch. XIV, Figs. 694-695) a tragic
lorum, 8 and 16f) mentions a ballet with nereids scene of a hero holding a club and of a heroine, both
and a mime in which Leander swam to Hero. A wearing large masks and standing on high stilts
mosaic found in the grandiose late Roman Villa at —
perhaps Theseus and Phaedra has as a counterpart
—
Piazza Armerina in central Sicily built or deco- a mime which displaced comedy in the favor of the
rated perhaps for the Emperor Maximian Herculeus, public (Figs. 785-786). 29 The mime enjoyed the
—
about 297-300 shows the skimpy bathing suits of greatest popularity of because of its lack of
all,

ten female athletes and ballerinas (Fig. 784). 27 The masks, its sketching of ordinary life, and its frequent
undress surpasses even modern beachwear. The vic- use of current themes and political satire. In later
torious girl in the center of the lower row holds a centuries it reigned over the stage almost exclu-
crown over her head and a palm branch in her left sively. The mockery of the gods, taken over from
Figs. 785, 786. Hero and heroine, tragic scene; Scene from a mime. Marble reliefs from pulpitum of theater at Sabratha
XV. PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE • SENECA

i i i it i mriu

TV]

_
A B

Fig. 787. Funeral plays. Wall painting from the necropolis of Cyrene

comedy and farce, was exaggerated to absurdity. lus in Rome. In Corinth, after the ballet, Lucius,
Luna appeared as a man, Diana was whipped, and changed into a donkey, is to take part in a sordid
Jupiter made his last will and testament. At the mime, but runs away (Apuleius, Mctamorph., v,34-
time of Tiberius, Lentulus and Hostilius wrote a 35). Attempts were also made to compete with the
mime about Anubis as adulterer. Love and adultery cruel games of the amphitheater. On the day when
were also popular themes for civic mimes and low- Caligula was murdered, the robber Laureolus in a
class comedy. Something similar may have been the mime was actually nailed to a cross and died before
subject of the mime in Sabratha. A seated woman the eyes of the spectators (Suetonius, Caligula,
seems to order two men about, one elegant and the Lvn). Blows, ear-boxing, kicks, dances at suitable
other stupid-looking. This may be a scene like that and unsuitable times, acrobats, and lively gesticula-
described in Ovid ( Tristia, n,497-514 ) a rich : tion with the hands were added to the mimicry.
woman with her elegant lover and her stupid hus- Women, who were permitted to appear here as in
band. 30 A similar subject is found in Moliere's the pantomime, often stepped on the stage half
George Dandin. The men in Sabratha wear togas naked, particularly at the Floralia in Rome, like
and the woman also wears an everyday dress. The Aphrodite in the ballet in Corinth and the girls in
background shows rich stage doors. the aquacade in Sicily (Fig- 784). The result was
In other mimes the play catered to the popular that the profession of a female mime had a very bad
—
morals the rich were persecuted, the poor became reputation. Aelian (Fragm. 123) says that a courte-
rich, and lovers were discovered and driven off. As san is worse than an actress in the mime. The Chris-
in modern motion pictures, animals were permitted tian writers, when fighting against the late, degen-
to take part. Thus at the time of Vespasian, a dog erate form of the theater, fought chiefly against the
a forerunner of Rin-tin-tin and Lassie had the — mime, which had occasionally ridiculed Christian
chief role in a presentation at the theater of Marcel- religious rites.
 XV. PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

The guilds now had their headquarters in Rome.

They had become a world organization, a profes-
sional bodv, no longer under the patronage of
Dionysus. They travelled not only to public festivals
for all gods, but also to private festival celebrations
including important funeral games. They were
obliged to give plays as varied as possible in order
to satisfy the restless and novelty-loving public of
the Empire, which demanded their services in far-
separated places. Thus the wall-paintings, now un-
fortunately destroyed, from a grave in the necrop-
olis Cyrene (Fig. 787) 31 shows a group of tragic
of
actors: a cithara player and a flute player, each sur-
rounded bv a chorus of seven young men; two solo
citharists; and one solo fluteplayer. Thus dramatic, Fig. 788. Funeral plays for Flavius Valerianus

lvric, and purely musical performances seem to have a reciter holding a scroll, and a singer is in the
been combined. The tragic actors have richly-pat- background. The main tragic hero in sleeved robe,
terned sleeved robes, large masks with an onkos on high stilts and wearing a mask with long twisted
which is higher than their faces, and probably high locks, holds a club in his left hand and declaims with
buskins, crepidae, with heavy wooden block-like outstretched right arm. He may be Heracles or
soles which the copyist has mistaken for little podia. Theseus. The mask of a heroine is seen in the back-
The one in the center has the club of Heracles, the ground. There follows a younger actor holding
one to the right has a herald's staff; he may be what seems to be a torch. His mask, like that of the
Mercury. At his side is a table with wreaths and bearded hero, has such large openings for eyes and
palm branches for the victors. The seven chorus mouth that his real eyes and lips obviously were
members around the tragic actors and the cithara seen. The younger man does not have either the
player, who performs in lively movement, are all of sleeved robe or the stilts. He may be a secondary

about the same height and age. The fluteplayers' character, and his costume of daily life may be
chorus, in contrast, contains two little boys. Next taken over from comedy. The tragic actors are ac-
to the solo fluteplayer and to one solo citharist is companied not by the usual instruments but by a
also a boy. The other citharist has at his side two water organ operated by a boy. Again we see that
boys arranging something on a table; these may be the troupes had young children in their service. It
the keepers of the wardrobe for the troupe. There is difficult to decide whether actors of a comedy or

follows to the left a richly-decorated door and a lyric group with a fluteplayer are lost at the left
then a grown-up man talking to another boy. This side. In any case thymelic or lyric presentations
may be one of the poets who were attached to the were often combined with scenic ones, and pure
travelling troupes. The boys may be the personal musical performances, originally given in the odea
servants of the poets and of the musicians particu- as semi-dramatic concerts, seem to have been popu-
larly engaged to care for their instruments and other lar for funeral games.
paraphernalia. Tragedy and even satyrplay were certainly pre-
Dramatic and lyric performances combined are sented in Rome as well as in the provinces during
also seen on a marble relief depicting the funeral the later Empire. Lucian (Lukianos, Dialogus de
plays for theyoung Flavius Valerianus, given for Saltatione, 27) describes the tragic actors of his
him by and therefore represented on his
his father time: "As far as tragedy is concerned, let us form
tombstone, which is now in the garden of the Villa our opinion of its character from its outward
Doria Pamphili in Rome (Fig. 788). 32 The date is semblance. What a repulsive and frightful spectacle
given by the form of the toga of the deceased is a man tricked out to disproportionate stature,

whose half-length portrait is sculptured at the right mounted upon high clogs (embates), wearing a
—
end with the stiffly-pleated folded band in the mask that reaches up above his head, with a mouth
fashion of the early third century. Behind the bust that is set in a wide yawn, as if he meant to swallow
of Flavius Valerianus is a small shrine with primitive the spectators. I forbear to speak of the pads for
figures of his ancestors, as they were kept in the the breast and for the paunches (prosternidia and
atria of patrician houses and exhibited at the occa- progastridia), wherewith he puts on an artificial
sion of the funerals. Three scenic and three lyric and counterfeit corpulence, so that the dispropor-
artists perform in two groups. A citharist, resembling tion in height may not betray the more
itself in a
Nero ( Fig. 781 ) in dress and attitude, accompanies slender figure." The monuments agree with this
 XV. PLATS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Figs. 789-792. Royal pair; Two women sacrificing; Mercury

leading Alcestis; Hero and satyr. Mosaics from Porcareccia

statement.On a mosaic found near Porcareccia, the

ancient Lorium in Etruria, now in the upper lobby
of the winding entrance stair to the Vatican Mu-
seum, late Roman representations in theatrical cos-
tume are depicted (Figs. 789-792). 33 The mosaic
contains twenty-two hexagonal panels with two
tragic actors each; one with a tragic hero and a
satyr; one with a seated poet accompanied by two
muses and a boy holding a mask; eight trapezoidal
panels containing one mask each. The tragic groups
may mean that only single scenes were taken out for
recitation, but the presence of the poet makes that
unlikely. The examples here given represent a pair
of rulers, perhaps Agamemnon and Clytemnestra
or Theseus and Phaedra (Fig. 789); two women
sacrificing a small animal on a high altar (Fig. 790);
Mercury leading a veiled woman, perhaps Alcestis
( Fig. 791 ) The satyr ( Fig. 792 ) dances around a
.

hero who is wearing a wreath and a fillet and

carrying a scepter. As in the classical satyr drama

(see Ch. I, Figs. 32, 36, 39), the satyr capers around
the serious figures of Greek mythology. The cos-
tumes on the mosaic are patterned with stripes of
motley colors, with broad belts. Lofty onkos and
high soles in the form of blocks lengthen the bodv
in an unnatural way. The impression is clumsy and
crude, in agreement with the description of an actor
who appeared in a not yet cultivated part of Spain
as described by Philostratus (Apollonios Tijana, v,
91 ) : "When the actor was silent walking on high
stilts ( okribantes ) which made him over life-size,

240
 XV. PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Figs. 793, 794. Clytemnestra kneeling to Achilles and servant, tragic scene; Electra on couch and Pylades, comic scene.
Cake moulds, Ostia

and with a wide open mouth, they were already that she is to be given in marriage to Achilles. The

fearful. But when he lifted his voice, the spectators servant informs her that Iphigenia is to be killed
fled from the theater as if persecuted by a demon." instead, and she kneels to Achilles (v. 900). The
Tragedies and comedies continued to be given at servant does not speak any more after v. 895 and
tlie same festivals as circus and amphitheatrical probably left the scene. He is turning away, and
games in the first half of the third century, as testi- energetically tying his mantle around his neck. He
fied by cake moulds found in Ostia (Figs. 793- resembles a slave of comedy with his grotesque
794). 34 About two hundred double forms were mask, stuffed-out body, and rough dress, which
found in a storeroom, each large enough for about seems to be made of fur. He thus is best described
one pound of cake, so that two hundred cakes could as the oldest slave in tragedy who does not wear an
be baked at one time. The same room also contained onkos and is dressed in fur (Pollux, iv,137: diph-
thirty-five large storage vessels and some jugs, all therias, dupOepias) We might, therefore, assume that
.

of the same shape and with a capacity of about the cake baked in this form was dealt out at the
three-fourths of a quart. Near the storeroom is a occasion of a Latin adaptation of Euripides' Iphi-
large bakery. There seems to be no doubt that genia.
these are provisions for dealing out to the audience The comic scene on another mould (Fig. 794)
cake and wine or honey wine (crustulum and mul : shows a similar servant seated at the feet of a
sum), on the occasion of the festivals represented heroine who is reclining on a couch. We have three
in the moulds. 35 Perhaps these gifts were also trans- replicas: a fragment in the British Museum (Fig.
ported to Rome for the festivals there. 795), the upper part found in Paestum, and a mould
On the mould with a tragic scene a weeping found in 1951 on the Agora of Athens (Fig. 796). 86
woman kneels before a youth, perhaps Clytemnestra This latter one has the inscriptions comedia and
supplicating Achilles to save Iphigenia (Fig. 793). pylades. This Pylades may be the friend of Orestes,
She has, according to Euripides' Iphigenia in Aulis, who in Euripides' Orestes, v. 1658f., is ordered by
brought her daughter to the harbor town, believing Apollo, and also in the same author's Electra is
 ordered by the Dioskuroi, v. 1249, to give his sister
Electra in marriage to Pylades, here disregarding
the fact that she had already been forced to marry
a poor peasant. That is good stuff for a comedy. The
low-class person on the mould may, therefore, be
the discarded boorish first husband seated mourn-
fully at the feet of Electra where, in Euripides'
Orestes, the heroine is seated at the feet of the
ailing Orestes. The possibility that Pylades is the
name of a pantomime mime, which imitated or
or a
caricatured a tragedy, issuggested by the name
of Pylades so frequently mentioned for pantomimes
(see above, p. 236), but the inscription comedia is
against this assumption. The scene on a lamp, also
found in Ostia (Fig. 797) 37 has the same grouping
of a female reclining and a male figure seated on a
couch, but this time both figures wear full tragic
costume, and here they might be Electra and
Orestes. Both are holding swords, as if to defend
themselves against the Argives who have sentenced
them to death. They might, however, also be Pro-
tesilaos and Laodameia.
It is rare to find a mythological comedy, as the
Pylades must have been, among the subject matters
of New Comedy. We know, however, that even
Menander wrote travesties of the heroic saga. The
center picture of a large floor mosaic found in
Ulpia Oescus in Bulgaria shows four comic actors
and above them the inscription: The Achaioi of
Menander ([M]ENANAPOY AXAIOI, Fig. 315 in
Ch. VIII). The date is about a.d. 200. It represents
the quarrel of Agamemnon and Achilles in the
presence of Patroclus and an aged seated man, who
may be Nestor or Phoinix, the old advisor of
Achilles.
The terrifying appearance of Roman tragic actors
can be seen in moulds as well as on lamps. One from
Fig. 797. Tragic scene. Lamp, Ostia Fig. 798. Tragic actor. Lamp, the Sieglin Collection, which was assembled in
Dresden
Egypt, is with a comedy counterpart in Dresden
(Fig. 798). 38 It shows a warrior hero with a sword
at his left side. He wears the sleeved robe with
broad belt and the paludamentum, the Roman
chlamys, and walks on high blocks ( embates, crepi-
dae). He has an oversized onkos, to which he lifts
his right hand, as he bows his head forward.
The well-known ivory statuette in the Petit Palais
in Paris, painted gaily in blue, the sleeves alter-
nately striped in blue and yellow (Figs. 799a-b), 39
has gestures which are, if possible, still more pa-
thetic than on other monuments, and an onkos still
more exaggerated, surmounting an exceedingly
elongated face. The lofty stilts lengthen the body
immensely. The statuette depicts, possibly, an
elderly woman, perhaps Clytemnestra in a scene
with one of her children, Orestes or Electra, both
of whom she hates, and who in turn hate and wish

242
 XV. PLATS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Fig. 799. Tragic actor. Ivory statuette, Paris Figs. 800, 801, Masks of tragic hero and heroine. Marble

9
I T OH F f A C
5=Cv=-~
A r

Fig. 802. Three tragic masks. Mosaic by Heraclitus, Lateran

to murder her. The actors who so frightened the tragicmasks on the mosaic made by Heracleitus, in
audience that it from the theater in Hispalis
fled the Lateran (Fig. 802) 42 represent a woman with
( Sevilla ) in Spain, must have appeared in a similar much jewelry on her lofty hairdress in the center,
outfit as described around a.d. 150 by Lucian. The flanked by an older and younger man. They have
actor turns his head violently to the right, and holds large rounded openings for the eyes and wide
his right hand before his breast as if to avert a blow. irregular openings for the mouth. Like the unswept
Eyes and mouth of the real face appear through the floor, to which they belong, they seem to be later
openings of the mask. The arm is too short and distortions of an older original. A mask found in
thin in comparison with the long body, which ap- Spain in Barcelona ( Fig. 803 43 has an onkos which
pears to have some stuffing. towers over the forehead, and from which baroque
The tragic masks of the later empire must indeed twisted long locks hang. The eyes and mouth of the
have been particularly frightening, as those worn actor appear through the wide openings of the mask.
by the actors represented on the monuments (Figs. The same is true for a mask from Carthage in the
785, 793, 799) demonstrate. The same is true for a Louvre (Fig. 804). 44 Ample space for eyes and
great number of single masks in marble, terracotta,
Figs. 803, 804. Tragic masks. Marble, Barcelona; Louvre
and mosaic. The earlier masks are often still rather
serene, for example, the mask from the House of
the Large Fountain in Pompeii (Fig. 800). 40 The
mask of a heroine from Tralles (Fig. 801) 41 in
Constantinople has long twisted locks and a pathetic
expression, but as yet no distortions. The three

243
 Fig. 805. Tragic masks. Marble, theater of Ostia

mouth to show is left in the masks of Heracles and That comedy also was performed in Rome and
several bearded heroes in the later remodelled is proved by the comic and tragic scenes
other cities
theater of Ostia (Fig. 805, Ch. XIV, Fig. 650). 45
cf. painted side-by-side in the wall-paintings of the
These masks are conceived in harsh lines, with deep Casa del Centenario and Casa di Casca in Pompeii
folds on forehead and between the eyes, protruding (Figs. 765-771), and in Palermo (Figs. 383 and
small cheeks, stiff arrangement of the hair with 772), and by the tragedy and comedy scenes on
two tiers on the onkos and much play of light and cake moulds from Ostia (Figs. 793-794), and on
shade. These masks testify that even in this late lamps, like Fig. 798 and its counterpart from Alex-
period tragedy was alive in this harbor town and andria in Dresden. That Latin comedies were per-
therefore also in Rome. The fragment of a season formed in the later period of the Empire is testified
sarcophagus has, above the fruit garland represent- by the mosaic from Thracia (Fig. 315) and by the
ing autumn, good masks of Heracles and Deianeira Terence manuscripts (Figs. 559-561). We
even
(Fig. 806). 46 possess a late Roman original comedy in the
Querolus. 47
Fig. 806. Heracles and Deianeira. Masks from Season Sar-
cophagus, Berlin Tragic and comic masks are used as decorations
side by side, as in Boscoreale and in the Casa del
Triclinio and in a mosaic in Herculaneum. 48 The
type of the comic masks is that of the father of
comedy with twisted long strands in his beard. A
similar mask from Minturnae in the University
Museum of Philadelphia (Fig. 807) 49 was found to-
gether with another comic and two tragic masks.
The same type appears also on a mosaic from the
Villa of Hadrian in the Cabinetto delle Maschere of
the Vatican (Fig. 808). 50 On a bench lies such a
mask of the father of comedy next to one of a young
man and opposite it a female mask, while the mask
of another youth is on a lower base, near which
two vases allude to a banquet, and a lyre alludes

244
 XV. PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Fig. 807. Father mask Fig. 808. Group of masks

to the music used in all Roman comedies. The

exaggerations of the later period appear in the
mask on a herm in the Galleria Geographica of an
older youth with curly hair, falling in corkscrew
lockson his shoulders (Fig. 809). 51 The actor's
own mouth is seen in the wide opening of the mask
and the wide pupils of the mask also allow for his
eyes to shine through. This mask confirms the de-
scription of the mask of the serious curly-haired
youth in Pollux (rv,147) who draws his eyebrows The descriptions of Julius Pollux, Onomastikon,
upward, and has one wrinkle on his forehead. The written in the time of the Emperor Commodus
harsh rendering of the muscles, as in the tragic ( 180-192), iv, 133-142 for tragic, 142 for satyric,
a.d.
masks from Ostia (Fig. 805) is found in the colossal and 143-155 for comic masks have been and can be
mask from the tomb of the Calpurni on the Via quoted frequently for the Hellenistic as well as for
Salaria (Fig. 393 in Ch. VIII) and in the mask the Roman They prove the continued in-
periods.
carved in Rosso Antico in the Villa Albani. 52 Some terest in theGraeco-Roman plays. They are prob-
of these masks have mouths so wide that half of ably based on the typical wardrobe of the travelling
the face is swallowed by them. guilds. In practice, the masks might have been
The over-lifesize mask found in the Kerameikos arranged on shelves in the sequence of the appear-
in Athens near the Dipylon (Fig. 810a-c), 53 carved ance of the dramatis personae, as they are in the
in Pentelic marble, is in the tradition of New Com- Terence manuscripts (Fig. 560). Thus, when the
edy. It exaggerates the differentiation of the two same actor played several roles, he could quickly
sides of the mask, which began in Middle Comedy take up each mask as he needed it. In Pollux' cata-
(see Ch. Ill, p. 47, Figs. 196-198; Ch. VIII, p. 94, logue, however, we have an arrangement according
Figs. 335-337) and is described by Quintilian, to classes, sex, and age. Thus there are for tragedy
xi,3,74: "The actor could change his expression by six old men, eight young men, three slaves, and
turning one or the other side of his head to the eleven women; for the satyr play one young and one
audience." Here the expression of gaiety on one, bearded satyr beside an old papposilenus; for com-
and the expression of anger on the other half is well edy, nine older men, eleven younger men, seven
expressed, but the means of expression are grossly slaves, three oldwomen, five young women, seven
distorted forms. The nose is extremely broad and courtesans, and two young maid servants. Thus
flattened into a leaf pattern. The openings for the there are 44 comic masks as against 28 tragic masks,
eyes have impossible shapes. The eyebrows are testifying to the greater variety in comedy than in
connected with each other in a grotesque curve. tragedy. It is difficult to say how far the sources
They leave only a small upper forehead into which for the catalogue of Pollux go back to the earlier
wavy lines are cut. The hair on the speira looks like periods. Pollux' description of forms and colors in
wire. It is the mask of the leading servant as de- stage costumes (iv,116-120) can in any case give
scribed by Pollux (iv,149) who has a speira of red only a small selection of those used in the different
hair, draws his eyebrows up, and draws the skin periods. Again he may be describing the typical
on his forehead together. wardrobe of the traveling troupes.

245
 Figs. 811-816. Roman theater tickets.
(See List of Illustrations and Sources)

814a-c 816a-c

246
 XV. PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

The great variety of plays given during the Em- were also used for the circus (Fig. 812e) and amphi-
pire is also reflected in the theater tickets, many of theater.
which have been found in Pompeii, Rome, and in While the higher-class entertainments still per-
54
the provinces as well (Figs. 81 1-816). Good col- sisted, some of the theater plays degenerated into
lections are the one formerly in the Collection sensational amusements for the common people. It
Froehner, now in the Cabinet des Medailles of the is, therefore, not to be wondered at that the Atellan

Bibliotheque Nationale (Figs. 812-814), and those farce, from the very first created for the amusement
in the in the Museo teatrale
Louvre (Fig. 815) and of the people and transmitted to the Romans by the
alia Scala at Milan 816). The tickets are
(Fig. Oscans (cf. Ch. X, p. 148), should ascend to a con-
usually made of bone or ivory and they have an spicuous place in the theater of the Empire, and
engraved picture on one side, and inscriptions on that it should entirely displace comedy, although
the other (cf. p. 71, Fig. 270, p. 90 and p. 186, Fig. even comedy had adapted itself more and more to
320).They are mostly round, sometimes square (Figs. the crude taste of theRoman populace. The follow-
811, 812f and 816a) and occasionaly have the forms ing example from the time of Nero illustrates how
of fish, of birds, or fruit (Figs. 812j, 816b-c and 814b). extreme the tendency had become. A f abula togata of
The engravings testify to tragedy by masks with tow- Afranius was given under the title of Incendium or
ering onkos, wreath, and long strands of hair falling the House on Fire. In it a house was actually burned
onto the shoulders and down the back (Figs. 811 down, and the actors had to rescue the rich furnish-
and 812f ). Comedy is indicated by masks with speira ings, that is to say, they were permitted to plunder
for a serious youth (Fig. 812c), rich headdress for it. They were allowed to keep such furnishings and

a courtesan (Fig. 814c), a grotesque mask for a furniture as fell into their hands (Suetonius, Nero,
slave (Fig. 816a),and a baldheaded mask for the xi,2). The actors of the Atellan farce, like the comic
senex. the old man (Fig. 813c). In one case the actors, played in masks. Therefore they could
representation of twins, named brothers (adelphoi, eventually dare to offer criticism of public affairs
aSe\4>ol) on the other side, seems to point to the and even of the Emperor, although such boldness
Greek original of the Twin Brothers Menaechmi by might become dangerous. An actor of the Atellan
Plautus (Fig. 813f). The skeleton (Fig. 813b) refers farce who attacked Caligula was burned to death
to funeral games. The ticket found in Athens near in the amphitheater (Suetonius, Caligula, xxvn,4).
the Odeion with the inscription Aischylou (A«tx 1'~ Another actor of the farce, who ridiculed the poison-
Xov) and a complicated building on the other side ing of the Emperor Claudius and the drowning of
(Fig. 813d) may refer to a revival of Aeschylus, Agrippina, was banished by Nero ( Suetonius, Nero,
but could also mean a statue like the one set up by xxxlx,3). Trimalchio in Petronius (Cena Trimal-
Lycurgus in 340-330 (see Ch. II, Fig. 64). Such chionis, 53,15) asserts that he bought a set of
statues of celebrities or of gods and heroes were comedians, but limited them to Atellan farces. The
erected in many theaters, and their names were Atellana was still popular under Trajan and Hadrian
attached to particular sections, to which the tickets (Juvenal, m,174f. Hist. Aug. Hadrianus, 25,4).
led the visitors. For the theater of Syracuse, for The fixed types of Maccus, Bucco, Pappus, and
example, the names attached to the different sections Dossenus remained typical for the Atellan farce
include Zeus, Heracles, and Hieron. 55 The head of (see Chs. X, p. 131 and XI, p. 148). A masterly
Zeus on a ticket in the Louvre (Fig. 815b), of Graeco-Roman bronze statuette in the Metropolitan
Kronos (Figs. 812a and 813a) and of a Hellenistic Museum of Art —formerly in the Ficoroni Collection
ruler with diadem (Fig. 812i) both in the Cabinet and probably found in Southern Italy may be a —
des Medailles, therefore, might refer to statues or Dossenus (Fig. 817). 56 A meagre hunchback stands
names marking definite sections of the theater. The Fig. 817. Actor of farce. Bronze statuette, Metropolitan Museum
central part of a theater, inscribed on the other side
"semicircle" ( hemikyklia, HMIKYKAIA ) ( Fig. 813e
,

with a shrine above the center, agrees in the form

with the theater of Pompey ( see Ch. XIII, Fig. 631
and that in Leptis Magna (Ch. XIV, Fig. 696),
where such little sanctuaries were built above the
central sections. The outside entrances to the thea-
ters are represented by elaborate porches, with
birds seated on the wall to the right and left (Fig.
814a) or a statue above the lintel (Fig. 815a). A
double gate (Fig. 812h) may lead to adjoining en-
trances for two different galleries. Similar tickets
 head. The crooked nose and mouth as well as very
unequal eyes appear on a mask in Tarentum (Fig.
820). 60 On a bronze head in the Metropolitan Mu-
seum of Art in New York 61 warts are everywhere: on
the crown of the pointed bare head, on the nose, and
on both cheeks. This must be a juggler of the farce
(scurra) who was called fighting cock (Cicirrus).
This name is given to Oscan performers by Horace
(Sat. i,5,vv.50ff ) They entertain him and his party
.
.

on the occasion of his journey to Brindisi in a villa

Ifl^^BvHBNlHilHHNIHNl near Caudium with a duet of abuse.
Figs. 818, 819. Actors of farce. Terracotta
The actor of the farce named Manducus had, in
addition to the other characteristics of the farcical
masks, enormous chattering teeth. Good examples
are in Worms ( Fig. 821 ) ,
Cologne, and Bonn ( Fig.
822). 62 A female addition is Lamia, a spook to
frighten children. The naughty children were swal-
lowed by her and pulled out of her body, to the
and to the horror of
delight of the childish adults
the children. A mask of such a frightening female
may be represented in a terracotta mould found in
a kiln at Westheim near Augsburg (Fig. 823) 133 and
in the fragment of a woman's mask, found near the
Fig. 820. Actor of farce Figs. 821-822. Manduci theater of Heddernheim and now in the Historical
Museum of Frankfurt (Fig. 824). 64 The six holes
along the upper edge of this fragment are for rib-
bons to bind the mask to the head and were then
probably covered with a peruke. The forehead,
nineteen centimeters broad, fitted to the author's
forehead in a perfect manner. Thus these masks of
Germania Romana were certainly for practical use
in the farces.
The farce remained popular in its original home
in Southern Italy. It did not gain a foothold in the
Greek East, but became popular in the still barbaric
northern provinces, where the Roman armies had it
Figs. 823, 824. Lamia; Fragment (of Lamia mask?) introduced. degenerated to a crude horseplay,
It
awkwardly on his thin legs. He has a big mask with particularly in Germania. But masks from Crete to
bald forehead, large ears, an enormous crooked Cologne bear striking resemblance to each other.
nose, and teeth wrought in silver standing out of the Still more important for the late period and for

corners of his mouth. The actors of the farce were the continued vigorous life of ancient civilization
often people with abnormally ugly bodies, extremely was the mime. 65 Like the Atellan farce, it served
lean and small or excessively
J
tall or fat for comic as an entr'acte and a concluding play, especially
contrast. A terracotta statuette made in the factory after more serious dramas in the first centuries of the
of Vindex in Cologne, now in Bonn (Fig. 818) 57 Empire (cf. above, p. 232). Later it became more
may be a Maccus, a stupid and gluttonous rustic. and more independent, and gradually it degen-
The miserable cripple has drawn his mantle over erated. The mimes were wandering entertainers who
his head and holds the edges together before his gave little farce-like shows inside and outside the
breast. His enormous mask has a crooked face, a theater. They dived deeply into the seamy aspects
gigantic nose, a much too broad mouth with of life.

puckered corners, unsymmetrical eyebrows and a The mimes did not wear masks, but actors with
wart on the forehead. The wart reappears on the grotesque faces were used. It often is difficult to
fragment of a mask in Bonn. 58 A mask from Western determine when such heads and statuettes are
Crete in Candia (Fig. 819) 59 has again the enormous simple caricatures or mimes caricaturing life. Thus
nose and grotesque eyebrows under a bald fore- a head in Munich (Fig. 825) 66 has all the charac-

248
XV. PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

teristics of a low-class mime player: stupid yet

cunning expression, thick lips, large nose and ears,
small eyes and a distorted long bare skull. The same
type of mime player is represented in a group,
probably from Egypt, in Hildesheim (Fig. 826). 67
Two men in short belted tunics seem to present a
gay and lively dialogue scene, a lusus (paignion,
nalyviov). One, the main player (archimime) has
almost female hanging breasts. He gesticulates with
his lifted left hand, while his right hand is stretched Figs. 825, 826. Mime, profile; Two mimes
out to the side, in a gesture imitated by the second
player who has to emphasize and ridicule the jokes
of the first. He has laid his left arm around the
shoulders of his companion. These are genuine
stupid fools (morio, moroi) with shining bald fore-
heads (mimus calvus, moros phalakros). They are
barefooted, "planipes saltans," mimes dancing with
flat feet, as described by Gellius (Nodes atticae,

i,xi,12).
Sometimes the phallus of the old Doric farce was
retained, as in a bronze statuette in Florence. 68 The
mime isdancing clumsily, lifting his right hand to
his mouth, which is overshadowed by a crooked
and pointed nose. He and some particularly gro-
tesque heads found on the Agora of Athens (Fig.
Figs. Mimes with fools' caps; Mime in Paenula.
827a-b, 828.
827) wear the peaked cap, which out of the head- Roman lamps, Agora, Athens
Statuette;
gear of travelers and peasants has become the fool's frilled collar, scallops hanging down on hips and
cap of the Roman mimes, of mediaeval buffoons, of back, and a belt from which eight straps hang
Shakespeare's jesters, and of modern circus clowns. 69 down over the tunic. The mima is at the same time
While some of these mimes wear only cap and loin- dancing, gesticulating, and accompanying herself
cloth, others are dressed in a kind of paenula, to with music. She holds clappers in both lifted hands,
which the pointed fool's cap is attached as a hood, throws back her head, beating the rhythm with the
similar to worn by the little demon
the mantle scabellum, the footclapper, under her left foot. She
Telesphorus accompanying Asclepius. 70 Many such also accompanies her dance with bells, seven at-
figures have been found in Germania and in the tached to her cap, three to the lowest points of the
Agora of Athens. 71 A bronze statuette in Florence 72 scallops of her jacket, eight to the ends of the flaps
has a grotesque oldish face which appears framed over her skirt, and four to the strips ornamenting
by the edges of the mantle, which go up to the hood. the buskin to which the clapper is attached. Her
Several of these mimes are used for lamps and from other foot is bare.
their opened cloaks protrudes a mighty phallus The mimes associated themselves often with
which is used as the muzzle of the lamp ( Fig. 828 )
joculatores, jugglers, like the statuette of a Negro
Perhaps this type was used for gods, for Seneca with head, hand, knee, three balls
in Berlin, tossing
(Epist. cxiv,6) describes a person wearing a cloak at the same time (Fig. 830),
74
said to have come
covering his head and wrapped round both his ears —
from Thebes. These merrymakers mimes, dancers,
as "just like fugitive gods in a mime." The gods rope dancers, jongleurs, jugglers, acrobats, and
could, however, also wear an ordinary pallium sometimes also boys leading animals like monkeys
wrapped around the head. Figs. 829a-b, 830. Female mime; Negro juggler
The most characteristic costume of the mime is
the centunculus, a dress composed of many different
colored patches (Apuleius, Apologia sive de magia,
p. 416). A statuette of a female mime found in
Syria, from the collection of the late Professor
Friend in the Art Museum in Princeton (Fig.
829a-b) 73 combines this clown's costume with the
high-peaked fool's cap. She wears a jacket with a
 ably a slave boy, brings a casket which he carries,
stooping under the weight, on his back and supports
with his lifted hands. Next to the second hero is a
water organ (cf. the tomb relief of Valerianus
Paterculus, Fig. 788) and behind it a pillar. On the
other side of the organ a man holding a curved staff
in his leftarm is kneeling or beginning to kneel to
the two heroes, stretching out his right hand toward
the knees of the second hero. Another man, prob-
ably a servant, is turning away, holding with his
right hand a mantle,which hangs down from his
right shoulder. All four men wear tights; the sleeves
of the heroes are of smooth material, those of the
kneeling man and the servant indicated as rough
material, tricot, felt, or fur, by regular rows of bored
holes. They appear on the legs of the second hero
and the kneeling man, on the sleeves of the kneeling
man and the servant and on the whole body of the
last. This shows his stuffed-out stomach, similar to

the servant on the cake mould from Ostia ( Fig. 793 )

His mantle is knotted around his hips, while those
Fig. 833. Tragic actors, Medea and Oedipus
of the others are draped in the usual manner. The
or bears —
lived on through the Middle Ages. They first hero has a high belt. The slave wears a short
transmitted their skill as small wandering troupes tunic. The background has a curtain,shown to the
or as individual actors ( see below, Ch. XVI ) side of the first hero, and a door, shown between the
Comedy and tragedy continued, however, into at two heroes. Some trellis appears between the kneel-
least the third century. This is proved for comedy ing man and the servant. It seems possible that the
by a late Roman relief formerly in the Villa Albani, scene is taken from funeral plays, during which
now in theLouvre (Fig. 831). 75 An actor wearing some celebrated scene from tragedy was performed.
a mask with speira and beard and a large opening While all spectacles ended in Rome in 568 after
for the mouth, which is clearly seen, declaims with the coming of the Lombards, they continued in
his head turned to the left, his right arm lifted. He Constantinople, that is, in the Byzantine Empire,
wears the sleeved tunic and the pallium. He stands as late as 692.
77
Here, in this Eastern Roman Em-
against a curtain which hangs in bow lines (si- pire, tragedy with its late Roman
pathos and cos-
parium). Tragedy is represented on two fragments tume, the mime as a low burlesque show, alternating
from the Collection Campana. It decorated the with jugglers, horse shows, and animal baitings
cover of a sarcophagus, testified as such by the lived on from the fourth into the seventh century.
remains of a colossal mask at the corner (Fig. Ivory tablets which the consuls handed out when
832a-b). 76 There are remains of five figures. Near they gave these plays represent below the large
the right end ( Fig. 832b ) two heroes are conversing. figure of the consul throwing the mappa to open
They have masks with wide openings for the visible the games, all these still popular entertainments.
mouth, high onkos and a broad fillet over curlv hair. A fragment in the Hermitage (Fig. 833), 78 dated
The one to the right has a scepter in his left arm around 500, shows two scenes from tragedy. The
and holds his left wrist with his right hand. The upper represents Medea. The youthful actor has
other leans his head forward. A small figure, prob taken off his large mask, which has a high onkos

Fig. 832a-b. Tragic scene. Fragments

from marble sarcophagus, Louvre

250
 Fig. 834. a, Horse show, scenes from mime and tragedy; b, Animal baiting

covered by a Phrygian cap, and salutes the acclaim-

ing audience with his raised right hand. The two
boys at his side point with lively movements to
their mother, and a man in the background also
acclaims the actor. In the lower scene the actor
probably represents the blind Oedipus leaning on
two boys, with his two daughters in the back-
ground. The secondary persons, however, may per-
haps represent members of the chorus.
In the diptych of the consul Anastasius issued
in 517, now in the Cabinet des Medailles of the
Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris (Fig. 834a-b), 79 a
tragic scene comprising two seated and one standing
person is represented in the lower register, right. On
another tablet of the same consul, found in Limoges,
now in Leningrad, Fig. 835, 80 there is in the same
place only one tragic actor, an older man, leaning
heavily on a boy and lifting his right hand. (This
may be the old Tiresias from an Oedipus drama.)
Next to the tragic scene (Fig. 834a) a mime is de-
picted. It shows a man holding a sword and a
woman with a crown, both in long dresses, laying
their right hands on the foreheads of two bald-
headed, idiotic looking men in short dress. Both
these stupidi have identical movements, with
trembling knees and outstretched hands as if sup-
plicating. Perhaps we have here a scene with
magicians and charlatans healing blind men. An-
other mimus on a tablet of the same date, 517,
found in Liege, now in the Victoria and Albert
Museum at London (Fig. 836), 81 has in the center a
young man who seems to deal out compensation
and punishment. He lays his hand on the head of a
youth who is coming forward smiling, with hands
outstretched, while a man behind him lifts his left
hand. On the other side two slaves, whose hands
are bound behind their backs, are punished by
having crabs hung from their noses. One of them
tries to scrape off the torturing pincers on a table.

251
 XV. PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

The public, hardened by bloody spectacles, must

surely have laughed heartily over this torture.
Besides these theatrical plays there are race
horses brought forward (Figs. 834-837). These
horse shows allude to the races in the circus. Near
the Tiresias in tragic costume (Fig. 835) there are
seven acrobats forming a complicated living pyra-
mid, to the apex of which a little boy is just being
lifted. The counterpart to Tiresias at the other end
of the register is a juggler with three balls, one each
on his head, his right hand, and his bent knee (cf.
the statuette, Fig. 830). Another such ball player
is represented on an ivory tablet of Anastasius, dated

517, in Verona (Fig. 837). 82 Beside him is a chorus

of four boys and three men, the latter perhaps the
conductor, the musician with a syrinx, and the poet.
Thus there are again seven men in the chorus as in
the funeral games of Cyrene (Fig. 787). To the
right is an organ which probably accompanied the
songs or recitals of the chorus.
Fig. 837. Horse show, chorus, ball player. Ivory tablet, Verona Animal baitings belonging in the amphitheater
are also frequently represented (Fig. 834b). Lions,
panthers, bears, stags and elephants are popular in
these venationes. 83 Gladiators no longer fought
against each other, 84 but they fought in Rome and
elsewhere against the wild beasts, 85 as seen on a
terracotta relief in the Museo teatrale alia Scala di
Milano (Fig. 838). 86 The circus plays remained
widely popular everywhere. The circus always was
a separate building for chariot races, although it
occasionally was brought together into an architec-
tural unit with a theater, as in Orange, Aezani, and
Pessinus (cf. Ch. XIV, Figs. 678 and 743). 87 Special
amphitheaters were generally built for the gladia-
torial fights and animal baitings in those lands
where the Romans first introduced their culture.
When, however, amphitheaters were not available,
the wild games fought their way into the theater
buildings. The oldest evidence is in Pompeii, where
the square behind the large theater was used as
barracks for gladiators and where they appeared
after 63 against the same richlv-decorated scaenae
frons as the mimes and pantomimes, a fact evi-
denced by the wall paintings of the latest style in
Figs. 838, 839. Animal baiting. Terracotta relief, Milan;
Painting from balustrade, theater of Corinth Pompeii (cf. Figs. 777-778). For Athens, gladia-
torial fights are attested for the period of Augustus
by Dio Chrysostomus (Oratio, xxxi,121). A marble
parapet was later erected to protect the audience
(see Ch. XIV, Figs. 717-720, 725). In the theater of
Corinth gladiatorial fights and animal baitings are
proved for the early third century by the paintings
on the parapet around the orchestra (Fig. 839). 88
Lions, bulls, and leopards are recognizable. In other
theaters the orchestra was also equipped as an arena
for these popular games. The so-called Termessus-
type is certainly designed for animal baitings, as

252
 XV. PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

the small doors leading into the orchestra prove ing water beasts like crocodiles and hippopotami. 92
(Ch. XIV, Figs. 740-742 ). It is a compromise build- The games in the theaters and amphitheaters be-
ing which permitted the Romans in Asia Minor came continually wilder and bloodier, in Rome as
during the second century a.d. to enjoy their beloved well as in the provinces. 93 In the time of Trajan,
bloody spectacles in spite of the lack of amphithea- 10,000 pairs of gladiators, as well as 11,000 animals,
ters. were presented in the Flavian amphitheater at
In several theaters, as in Athens, the parapet Rome during four months. At this time a musician,
was made watertight (see Ch. XIV, Fig. 720), 89 or, dressed as Orpheus, was torn to pieces by wild
as in Corinth, the lowest ten rows of seats were beasts. How many death sentences were carried out
removed and the rock cut down so as to make a there for helpless and innocent persons we do not
podium for the auditorium (see Fig. 727). 90 The know. Finally, slaves, prisoners of war, and robbers
arena, then, can hardly have served — as was for- who had be defenselessly
to fight for their lives or
—
merlv believed for mock naval battles (nau- slaughtered, were replaced by Christian martyrs
machiae), for which it is too small and for which (Augustine, Confessions, vi,8,13). This ended in the
special buildings were erected. 91 They were used closing of all arenas, including the theaters, after the
rather for water ballets, aquacades (see above, p. general recognition and acceptance of Christianity.
237). Sometimes rectangular, round, or oval water The form and content of the ancient theater,
basins were placed in the orchestra, as in Corinth, however, have lived on or have been resuscitated
Pompeii, Tyndaris, and Taormina (see above, Figs. in later times. Our modern theater buildings and
599, 607, 616, 728). These could also be used, in dramatic performances are incomprehensible with-
addition to swimming feats, for exhibiting and bait- out a knowledge of Greek and Roman antiquity.
 CHAPTER XVI
THE INFLUENCE OF THE ANCIENT THEATER ON
THE MODERN THEATER

The Greek and Roman theater, like

history of the (harlequin), 5 and in Western Germany as puppet
the history of the whole Greek and Roman culture, shows with Kasperle. The English Punch and Judy
is so rich and many-sided that each later period show also has its origin here. 6
These figures in-
of European civilization has found some aspect of herited the patchwork costume of the later Roman
it to use as an inspiration or model for its own mime, the centunculus ( see Ch. XV, Fig. 829 ) The .

time. Even the periods which resented the ancient old Pappus or Senex became Pantaloon, the clever
theater and the religion which underlay its produc- Dossenus the doctor, the greedy Maccus Pulcinella;
tions found something to explore and to use for the boasting Bucco and Manducus with his chat-
their own goals. Thus the mediaeval period with tering teeth became the German Kasperle and the
its distrust of everything pagan and the romantic English Punch.
age of the early nineteenth century with its hatred In the Renaissance, the reawakening of ancient
for classicizing and its nationalistic tendency, drew civilization included the study of the Latin writers
occasionally on ancient sources which are still living Plautus, Seneca, and Vitruvius, who were used as
and productive today. models for creative production.
Although in mediaeval times the tragedy and the In Italy the Latin comedies were imitated as early
theater buildings of the Greeks and Romans were as the late fourteenth century, when for example
unknown, the Latin comedies of Plautus and Ter- Petrarch wrote his Philologia, said to have been in
ence remained alive. In the tenth century the nun Terentian character. It is unfortunately lost. The
Roswitha of Gandersheim wrote six religious and influence of Plautus during the fifteenth century
moral comedies in imitation of Terence, in which was, however, much greater than that of Terence. 7
she portrayed in the Latin language the victory of Both were published in printed editions, first
Christianity over paganism. 1 In the twelfth century Terence in 1470, then Plautus in 1472. There fol-
Vital de Blois, a French writer, adapted the Que- lowed performances of Plautus in the palaces of
rolus —
the only Latin comedy of the imperial period, Cardinals, thus the Aulularia was presented in 1484
—
then considered to be by Plautus in his Aulularia in the palace of the Quirinal. The Menaechmi was
and presented the story of Amphitruo in his Geta. performed before the Pope in the Vatican in 1502.
The comedies of Plautus and Terence were copied At Ferrara comedies by Plautus in translation were
and read all through mediaeval times, with Terence presented as early as 1486. At the wedding of
preferred and continuously illustrated. 2 This, how- Lucrezia Borgia at Ferrara in 1502 five comedies
ever, was done only in the monasteries and in small of Plautus were presented on five succeeding days.
intellectual circles.There were no theatrical pres- In the sixteenth century many comedies were pro-
entations and no real continuity in the study of duced in Italy which combined the motifs of Latin
the Latin comedy. comedies with portrayal of contemporary Italian
For the entertainment of the people the perform- life, the earliest being Ariosto's La Cassaria and
ances of mimes, farces, jugglers, rope dancers, and I Suppositi, each based on several Latin models.
jesters lived on. Such lower-class performances are This comedy was called the commedia erudita in
always more conservative and more persistent than contrast to the commedia dell' arte.
those of literary drama. In Europe the actors of the During the sixteenth century the influence of the
mime gave their third-rate entertainments in the Roman comedy spread to Spain, Germany, and
small cities and villages, in inns and in castles. 3 They Holland. 8 The University of Salamanca decided in
have found a permanent home in the modern circus. 1574 that henceforth no comedies except those of
As frequently rather serious jesters, they play an Plautus and Terence should be performed at the
important role in the drama of Shakespeare. The University.
Turks also took over the mime and turned it into In the seventeenth century the most famous
Karagdz. 4 The farce continues even today in both imitator of Plautus and Terence was Moliere. His
of its most important seats, in Southern Italy as L'Etourdi ou les Contretemps (1653) is related to
Commedia dell'Arte with Pulcinella and Arlequino Plautus' Bacchides; his L'ftcole des Maris ( 1661 ) is
 XVI. INFLUENCE OF ANCIENT ON MODERN THEATER
adapted from Terence's Adelphoi; his Amphitryon drama, continued Shakespeare and
in the plays of

( 1668 ) is an imitation of Plantus' tragicomoedia with

persisted well into the seventeenth century. The
the same title; L'Avarc ( 1668) is a reworking of the Elizabethan drama inherited from Seneca super-
Auhdaria; finally, Les Fourbcries de Scapin (1671) human villains, bloodthirsty passion, but also an
is based on Terence's Phormio. Moliere is rather effective rhetorical style, sincere tragic sentiment,
Terentian in spirit, but this spirit is combined with and good dramatic technique. The bloody scenes,
farcical elements which were taken from Plautns. murder on the stage, revenge, cruelty, and pathos
In England during the sixteenth century Plautus in the English drama surpass even Seneca in in-
and Terence were frequently presented in schools tensity and frequency. Senecan sensationalism and
and universities. 9 The students of the St. Paul's rhetoric appealed to the playwrights of the Renais-
School in London performed The Menaechmi by sance, and thus Seneca helped them to create their
Plautus in 1527 and the Phormio by Terence in own dramas. Through Seneca, therefore, the sub-
1528. At Oxford the Andria by Terence was pro- jects first given literary form by Aeschylus, Sopho-
duced in 1559 and at Cambridge the Aulularia by cles, and Euripides have taken their place in the
Plautus was put on, with Queen Elizabeth present, literature of the world.
in 1564. Plays in imitation of Latin comedies were Vitruvius became the model for the theater build-
frequent, but they show combination with influences ing of the later Renaissance and the baroque period,
from Italian comedies and with English settings. just as Plautus and Terence had become the models
Shakespeare had certainly read Plautus in his for comedy and Seneca for tragedy. Vitruvius was
school days. In his Comedy of Errors (about 1591), rediscovered and printed for the first time in 1484.
he used the Menaechmi as his model, enriching it Up to that date there had been no special theater
with motifs from the Amphitruo. 10 He doubled the building. The mediaeval plays were given in the
number of the twins and thereby increased the con- churches; the Renaissance plays in palaces, schools,
fusion and the number of farcical complications. and universities. The first stages built especially for
His Falstaff is a blending of the braggart warrior classical plays were erected and acade-
in schools
and the parasite in the Miles gloriosus and other mies of Italy, France, England, and Germany, in a
plays by Plautus. form developed from mediaeval art combined with
Shakespeare and his contemporaries considered precepts taken from Vitruvius. Such a stage is repre-
Plautus a model for comedy and Seneca a model sented in late fifteenth-century manuscripts of Ter-
for tragedy (cf. Polonius in Hamlet, n,ii,419f: ence. 13 A platform four to five feet high has at the
"Seneca cannot be too heavy, nor Plautus too rear a facade of pillars supporting arches. The
light"). different houses needed for comedy are placed in
Seneca dominated the tragic stage of the Renais- compartments of the arcade. Curtains hide the in-
sance for 300 years. 11 The first early Renaissance terior, which would occasionally be revealed. Each
dramas in the Latin language and in Senecan form principal character has his own house. The idea is

are the Eccerinis and the Achilleis written by Al- that of a row of houses along an open street. Al-
berto Mussato of Padua in about 1314. Italian though the architect tried to recreate a Roman
tragedies of the sixteenth century are almost purely stage, it is in reality an adaptation of the mediaeval
Senecan. They emphasize the elements of horror and stage with forms taken from a misinterpreted de-
gruesomeness, the motif of vengeance, ghosts, scription by Vitruvius. The actors wore their con-
and death on the stage. French tragedy down to the temporary Renaissance costumes.
neo-classic tragedies of Corneille (1606-1684) and The late fifteenth, the sixteenth, and the seven-
Racine (1639-1692), on the contrary, banned scenes teenth centuries were much interested in the ma-
of gruesome violence and death. They preferred to chinery of the ancient theater as described by
develop the characters with indomitable will in ex- Vitruvius. A linen background was fixed on a skele-
ceedingly intricate plots. Their interest in psy- ton of planks and parted in the center, so that it
chology, however, is closely related to Seneca. could be drawn away to show other scenery, like the
In England the tragedies of Seneca were per- ancient scaena ductilis. Three-sided devices revolv-
formed in schools and universities from as early ing around a pivot could be used for different pic-
as 1560. The first English translation appeared in tures on side wings or for living pictures (tableaux
1581. 12 After this, purely Senecan tragedies were vivants), like the ancient scaena vertilis or the
written for academic circles. Rut Marlowe in his periaktoi (cf. Ch. VI, pp. 74-75). They were called
plays and particularly Thomas Kyd in his Spanish telaribecause they were painted on linen (Fig.
Tragedy (1586) fused Seneca and the popular Eng- 840a-b) and were used from the late fifteenth cen-
lish drama. Rloody scenes, revenge, horror, and tury on in France. In Florence they are described
violence entered the main stream of the English and recommended by Vignola in the sixteenth cen-
XVI. INFLUENCE OF ANCIENT ON MODERN THEATER

the large open platform were galleries divided by pil-

15
lars. They resemble the Assteas stage (cf. Fig. 479),
the stage used in Southern Italy for the popular
farce, but there is hardly any real connection. It is
possible that wandering troupes of mimes may have
carried this form through Europe. It is, however,

more likely that similar requirements and circum-

stances produced similar forms. 16
At the same time in Italy the study of Vitruvius
led to a quite different form. Italian designers fol-
lowed his indications for different scenery for the
and used his plans for arrang-
different kinds of plays
ing the auditorium, the orchestra, and the stage.
Their experiments in reproducing the Roman theatri-
cal forms culminated in the Teatro Olympico in Vi-
cenza, designed by Palladio and erected 1580-1584
(Fig. 841). 17 The auditorium and the orchestra have
the Roman semi-circular arrangement. Small stair-
cases lead from the orchestra to the long stage,
which is backed by a richly-designed facade with
one large central opening and four other smaller
doors and with two more doors from the side build-
ings for entrances. But a contemporary addition was
the perspective vistas of city streets seen through
/ i \ the large central door. This opening served as a
R frame for the painted changing scenes, and from it
/ :

/
:
;
\
» developed the modern "proscenium arch." In the
1
Farnese Theater at Parma built in 1618 the Roman
\
s

forms are distorted. 18 The auditorium is elongated,

WiNC7t«E.; auRBEM the stage has a richly sculptured proscenium arch,
/
and a kind of scaenae frons architecture is added
above the seats. This led to our modern theaters
with boxes arranged around the auditorium in
several stories. As in the drama, so in the theater

u C0MU7IA.
VsJ^"""'
building; the Roman source was used as a model
for the creations of the period.
Joseph Furttenbach built a theater in 1640/41 in
Ulm in which he used the scaena ductilis, the scaena

V \ X
vertilis, and the flying machine (Fig. 840a-b). 19 In
a trench at the back of the stage movable coulisses
could be parted in the center and drawn to the sides
and thus the scenes were changed. Three prismatic
Fig. 840a-b. Telari stage by Joseph Furttenbach; Section; Plan trestles at each side could be turned by a handle to
show different sides with different paintings. Cranes
tury. In the early seventeenth century Inigo Jones with square hooks could carry clouds and heavenly
devised a scheme following Vitruvius of turning apparitions. Such a flying machine was also used in
sections around for scene changes in Christ College Turin in the seventeenth century. 20
at Oxford (1605). 14 The study of the Latin authors during the six-
In London the inn-yards were used for plays. A teenth century was supplemented by that of the
platform on trestles was erected at the far end of Greek authors. Aristotle's Poetics was read but
the yards with doors leading to it from inside the sometimes misunderstood. He was credited with the
inn. Richer patrons used galleries around the court. three unities of action, place, and time. 21 This in-
Special theaters were erected in a similar form be- duced the playwrights to restrict themselves to a
ginning in 1576; such were the Theatre (1576), the single plot, to avoid a change of scenery, and to
Swan (ca.1595) and the Globe (1599), the theaters limit the action to not more than one day. This was
used by Shakespeare and his contemporaries. Above in contrast to the taste of the late Renaissance and
 XVI. INFLUENCE OF ANCIENT ON MODERN THEATER

the baroque period, when audiences wanted rich many. Sophocles' Oedipus the King was performed
shows and got them in the intermezzi, given be- in an Italian translation at the occasion of the open-
tween the acts of the dramas, where scenery could ing of the Teatro Olympico (see Fig. 841) in 1585. 25
be changed at will, and discrepancies of time and Music was used as a background. In Germany,
place were disregarded. Melanchthon, the friend of Luther, translated Greek
Greek Comedy was almost non-existent during plays into Latin. The celebrated Meister Hans
the Renaissance. Menander was unknown; he had Sachs wrote an Alcestis in 1555.
disappeared behind his Latin imitators. Aristoph- Opera, the most important creation based on the
anes was occasionally performed in Cambridge: Greek tragedies, originated at the end of the sixteenth
Plutus in 1536 and Peace in 1546. 22 A program century in Florence. 2 A group of scholars, poets,
'1

drawn up for Jesuit colleges in 1551 recommends and musicians called the Camerata gathered in
readings from Plutus (the latest of Aristophanes' 1594 in the palazzo of the nobleman Giovanni
comedies) in the class for beginning Greek. 23 Bardi. They discovered that music had played a
The comedies of the seventeenth and eighteenth predominant role in ancient tragedy. Members of
centuries continued to use the stock characters of this group included Vincenzo Galileo, the father of
the Latin comedy: the contrasting pairs of old men Galileo Galilei, a musician and mathematician, much
and of youths, the braggart soldier, the parasite, the interested in the revival of ancient music; Jacopo
miser, the servant, the maid; also the same plots com-
: Peri and Guilio Caccini, musicians; and Ottario
edies of errors, mistaken identity, impersonation, dis- Rinuccini, a poet. Peri and Rinuccini collaborated
guise.While in the seventeenth century Plautus was in Dafne, performed in 1597; Caccini with both in
favored as a model, Terence, who was nearer to the Euridice, performed in 1600. They were convinced
Greek originals, became more popular in the that they had recreated Greek tragedy. This mixture
eighteenth. 24 of drama, music, and spectacle spread through all
The by the three classical Greek tragic
plays Italy, France, Austria, Germany, and England.
writers were first printed by Aldus in Venice: Claudio Monteverdi performed his Dafne, Arianna,
Sophocles was published in 1502, Euripides in 1503, and Orfeo at Mantua in 1607-1608. Mythological
and Aeschylus in 1518. From then on they were stories in dialogue against a musical background,
translated and adapted in Italy, France, and Ger- thought to be reincarnated Greek tragedy, became

Fig. 841. Teatro Olympico, Vicenza

XVI. INFLUENCE OF ANCIENT ON MODERN THEATER

so popular that most theaters from then on were the curricula of high schools and universities in
built in large scale and with overladen decorations England as well as in Germany, Italy, and France.
solely for opera. Venice had one opera house in More and more people read the authors in the
1637, ten more in 1700, by which time some 360 original. While Keats knew only translations, Shelley
operas had been produced. read the dramatic poets, of whom Aeschylus was his
The eighteenth century is a period of great actors favorite, in Greek. He even wrote in 1816 a Prome-
and singers, and opera flourished. Gluck based theus Unbound as a sequel to Aeschylus' Prometheus
Orpheus unci Eurydike ( 1762 ) on principles of the Bound. 32 He was reading Sophocles' dramas at the
Greek drama, which he attempted to recreate. His time of his death. He also translated Euripides'
pupil Antonio Maria Gasparo Sacchini (1772-82, Cyclops. When, however, he tried to write an
active in London; 1782-86 in Paris where he died) Aristophanic comedy with the title Oedipus Tyran-
wrote an opera, Edipo a Colono, based on Sophocles' nus or Swellfoot the Tyrant, he failed. It is impos-
last tragedy. More sumptuous theaters were built sible to transfer Aristophanic comedy into any other
for opera: San Carlo in Naples, 1737, and La Scala period. Robert Browning translated three Greek
in Milan, 1778. The Metropolitan Opera House in dramas, among them the Agamemnon of Aeschylus.
New York City still follows in general the Italian Nietzsche produced in 1872 a new theory for the
pattern. Richard Wagner was the last composer to origin of Greek tragedy. 33 In contrast to the prevail-
attempt to produce a drama in the nineteenth ing opinion that it was impassive and stiff, he saw
century in music, with the legendary background of that it had grown out of the dithyrambic frenzy of
his own people for subject matter, just as the Greeks the Dionysiac cult in combination with the beauty
had used their myths. The Festival theater in Bay- of the cult of Apollo. His hero was Aeschylus. His
reuth, built in 1876 for Wagner's operas, still has the friend Wagner adopted for his new form of opera,
but has improved the
Italian kind of stage setting, the music drama, the conception that music is the
auditorium by adopting the ancient system (see soul of drama and drama is the body of the work.
below ) At the end of the nineteenth and during the first
In the second half of the eighteenth century Greek half of the twentieth century, Greek and Latin lost
drama was rediscovered, reinterpreted, and revital- their leading position in education. They had to
ized in new tragedies. The leading intellectual men yield to more practical training in modern lan-
in Germany and Italy now read the Greek originals, guages, physical science, economics, and psychology.
not only translations. Winckelmann as a poor school- One reason for the decline was that many eminent
master in his youth read Sophocles among other scholars taught the classics in a way which deterred
Greek writers. He certainly could find here, as later students seeking to understand the spirit of an-
in visual art, the same essential quality of "noble tiquity. This author remembers a class with Profes-
simplicity and quiet grandeur." 27 Lessing, the great sor HermannDiels in Berlin University on Plato.
critic of drama, was the first to declare in 1759 that He used up many hours discussing the different
the French neoclassical tragedy is far inferior to the forms of different words in different manuscripts,
Greeks. 28 Goethe read Greek tragedies in 1773 and and we learned hardly anything about the signifi-
imitated the Iphigenia in Tauris of Euripides in his cance of Plato's ideas. 34 Yet the interest in Greek
Iphigenia, which he wrote in 1779 in prose and re- drama reached an unusual height in the same period.
cast in verse in 1787. He performed, himself, the role In the twentieth century the attitude of scholars
of Orestes in the presentation of this tragedy in and poets in reference to Greek and Latin drama
Ettersburg near Weimar. 29 Schiller composed for has changed. In order to bring the masterpieces to
his Bride of Messina ( 1803), beautiful —
even if only a larger public than only the classicists, who became
—
pseudo-classic choral songs and gave to this drama lessand less interested in the languages themselves,
an excellent balanced form in the classic spirit. In eminent scholars translated the dramas into their
Italy Alfieri gave a new development to the stories native tongues. Thus Ulrich von Wilamowitz Moel-
used by the Greek tragic writers. He imitated lendorf in Germany, Gilbert Murray at Oxford, and
Euripides, Sophocles, and Aeschylus in his Oreste Moses Hadas at Columbia Universitv, have trans-
(1776), Sophocles in his Antigone (1783), and lated the Greek tragedies and comedies on the basis
Euripides in his Alceste seconda ( 1790). He is, how- of a much deeper and more scholarly knowledge
ever, rather more Senecan than Greek. 30 This style than any of their predecessors. 35
of drama and grand opera has remained prevalent The modern poets, on the other hand, use the
in Italy up to the present day. ancient originals as vehicles for bringing forth their
The nineteenth century is a century of classical own ideas of the great issues of human life: love,
scholarship. 31 Much was done, and Greek
research war, sin, tyranny, courage, fate. They preserve the
and Latin had the undisputed primary position in outlines of the ancient myth as transmitted by the
 XVI. INFLUENCE OF ANCIENT ON MODERN THEATER

Greek tragic poets, but they alter the values, the on Broadway in 1946 in the English translation of
motifs, the significance, and the Their own
results. Lewis Galantiere the idea of protest was not brought
philosophy and political creeds are brought in. Thus out. Therefore neither public nor critics understood
Eugene O'Neill in his Mourning Becomes Electra that politics had replaced religion. The audiences
uses the frame given by Aeschylus' trilogy the were bored and the play closed rather quickly, de-
Oresteia, but the scene is laid among the Puritan spite the great art of Katharine Cornell as Antig-
aristocracy of New England in the time of the Civil one. 38 The impression of dullness was increased by
War, instead of in the royal house of Mycenae at the commentator who substituted in this play for
the time of the Trojan War. It has been remarked the chorus, by the introduction of the nurse who is

that O'Neill used the severe dramatic structure of a Euripidean character, and by everyday dress, par-
Aeschylus' masterpiece for "a grand stupendous ticularly the kind of housecoat for Antigone and an
thriller," "his most ambitious and impressive play," evening coat for Creon instead of the beautiful
and "a mechanical imitation of the Attic pattern." 36 Greek dresses. More authentic dresses were used in
The last work by Gerhard Hauptmann ( died 1946 another representation of the same play in the off-
published in 1949, Die Atridcn-Tetralogie (Iphi- Broadway production of the Circle-in-the-Square
genie in Aulis; Agamemnons Tod; Elektra; and Theater at Sheridan Square in Greenwich Village
IpJiigcnie in Delphi) is based on the Oresteia of in 1951. Even if Creon had not worn the swastika,
Aeschylus and the Electra, Iphigenia in Aulis and the veiled allusion to the problems of the Hitler era
the Iphigenia in Tauris by Euripides. Hauptmann came out very well. In the German Antigone by
uses, however, the ancient stories of the house of Walter Hasenclever, presented in 1917, the figure
Atreus to describe the mood in Germany during the of Creon bore a resemblance to the last German
Nazi period and the lost war. It was performed by Emperor, Wilhelm II, but at the same time seemed
the Utah Players in their home state and in other to foreshadow the era of Hitler, whose Gestapo
places in the West. drove Hasenclever to his suicide in 1940. In a similar
The French and the German writers are particu- way the Trojan Women ( Die Troerinnen ) by Franz
larly inclined to imbue the classical dramas with Werfel (1914), presented in the Deutsche Theater
political allusions. Thus Jean-Paul Sartre, in The in Berlin and in many other German cities, seems to
Flics, written in 1943 during the Nazi occupation of predict the defeat and survival of Germany after
France, reworks the Eumenides of Aeschylus in both world wars, as the original by Euripides pre-
such a way that the flies represent the feeling of dicted the defeat and survival of Athens after the
guilt instead of being revenging furies. Orestes does Peloponnesian war.
not kill his mother and her paramour out of revenge The Medea of Euripides was adapted by Anouilh
for his father, but to liberate the population of in 1946, translated into English by Robinson Jeffers,
Thebes from tyranny. The moral implication is that and staged by John Gielgud in 1947-1949 on Broad-
France must achieve self-reliance and assume a way. 39 The translation, the production, and the great
sense of responsibility. 37 Anouilh has reworked art of Judith Anderson (Fig. 842a-b) all showed a
Sophocles' Antigone (1942) in a similar sense. This tendency toward the Senecan spirit. Instead of the
play was produced in Paris at the time when it was tragic grandeur of a deceived and humbled proud
occupied by the Germans. The framework of woman, only the jealousy of a disappointed loving
Sophocles was retained, but the leading characters wife was worked out. The background of a decaying
were changed. The criticism of the tyrant is so Minoan palace (Fig. 842a), such as neither Corinth
subtle that the Nazis did not grasp the significance. nor Athens could ever have known, also detracted
When this play was presented by Cedric Hardwicke

Fig. 842. Judith Anderson in Medea; a, with John Gielgud

as Jason; b, with her children
 XVI. INFLUENCE OF ANCIENT THEATER

from the tragic story. Great modern actresses like

Judith Anderson are inclined to the more pathetic
style of Seneca; recently a retired Broadway actress,
playing the Medea of Euripides on the Columbia
campus, insisted upon inserting one speech from
Seneca into the Euripidean text. The idea of Medea,
the fate of a foreigner in a hostile land, was also
used by Maxwell Anderson in his Wingless Victory
(1937). Hugo von Hofmannsthal's Electra (1903)
and the music written for it by Richard Strauss
develops the torrid and violent feelings only alluded
to in the plays of the same name by Sophocles and
Euripides. Robinson Jeffers' The Cretan Woman,
performed 1954 at the Provincetown Theater in
New York City, is a distorted version of Euripides' Fig. 843a.«Aristophanes' Birds performed by high school
students in Berlin. Painting by Eric Heckel
Hippolytus mixed with Senecan frenzy, calculated
revenge, and modern adulterous passion. Jeffers
Greek myth with ludicrous prejudices.
interprets the in the direction of the old farce. The same is true
The costumes were good, but the scenery was poor. for The Boys from Syracuse, a musical comedy by
Gabriele d'Annunzio in his Hippolite (1909) com- Rodgers and Hart, with text by George Abbott,
plicated the passionate love of Phaedra with her based on Plautus' Menaechmi. 40 In the Menaechmi
deep hatred of her husband, in order to make the two brothers are constantly mistaken for each other.
play more exciting. Siegfried Lipiner added (in Shakespeare took this subject for his Comedy of
1913) hidden love of Hippolytus for Phaedra. All Errors. He was, however, also influenced by the
these modern additions spoil the beauty of the theme of mistaken identity between Jupiter and Am-
Greek originals. phitryon on the one side, and Mercury, the servant of
The modern adaptation of a Latin comedy
best the Olympian gods, and the mortal servant Sosias on
is the Amphitryon 38 by Jean Giraudoux, adapted the other side. Both these plays, however, are incon-
from the French by S. N. Behrman, and produced ceivable without the Greek and Southern Italian
in New York City in 1937 and 1938 by the Theatre masked and stereotyped costume. Only with the typ-
Guild with Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne as ical disguise and complete covering of face and body
—
Jupiter and Alcmene. Giraudoux as before him is the interchange of indistinguishable brothers made
Moliere (1668), Kleist (1807) and other imitators- possible.
has retained the invention and the working out of While the humor and stage efficiency of Plautus
the theme by Plautus (see Ch. XI, p. 151); but he is Greek Old
indestructible, the representative of
reveals new ideas about love between husband and Comedy, Aristophanes, does not lend himself to
wife, and the power of women over men. He be- modern adaptations and cannot be understood with-
lieved that he had written the 38th version of the out a thorough study of the political, cultural, and
story. If he has counted rightly, his play ought to literary circumstances under which he wrote. The
have the number 39, as he did not know about the Lysistrata, made into a farce from the Greek of
phlyakes farce on the same subject (see above, Ch. Aristophanes by Gilbert Seldes, and produced by
X, Fig. 484). In the meantime a fortieth Amphitryon the Philadelphia Theatre Association in New York
has become a musical comedy: Out of This World City, 1930-31, reached 252 performances. When,
by Cole Porter, produced on Broadway in 1950. It however, the Lysistrata was made into a "movie" in
lays the old story in modern Athens and moves back Vienna and announced in New York in 1948 as "The

Fig. 843b. Menander's Samia Fig. 844. Performances of Plautus and Terence by German students; a-c, Cassel; d, Giessen
 XV/. INFLUENCE OF ANCIENT ON MODERN THEATER

Battle of the Sexes," it became, despite some Vien- only read (Fig. 843b). An excellent and enjoyable
nese grace related to Aristophanes' grace, a deserved performance of the newly found Dyskolos by
failure. The same is true of the recent attempts to Menander was given by the students of Fordham
rewrite and produce the Thesmophoriazusae and University in New York, in the translation by Gil-
the Ecclesiazusae of Aristophanes. The first, in an bert Highet, in 1960. I believe that the plays by
anonymous translation edited by Whitney Oates and Menander have a meaning for modern audiences
Eugene O'Neill, Jr., was performed at the Rooftop and a great future in the theater of our time, for
Theater in New York City. The latter, presented their human qualities appeal to human nature at
under the title Time ior a Change by the Division all times.

of Social Philosophy of Cooper Union in New York The best and most successful performances of
City, used the literal translation by Benjamin Bick- ancient drama are those which are given in good
ley Rogers in Loeb's Classical Library. Both were and faithful translations without trying to bring in
conceived as farces, which Aristophanes' comedies modern ideas, but where every effort is made to

with their serious backgrounds decidedly are not. If bring out the ancient conceptions. Thus the modern
Aristophanes is played in a more serious mood, as presentations of Plautus and Terence in Cassel and
the Lysistrata was performed by Max Reinhardt in Frankfurt in Germany in 1930 by high school stu-
the Grosse Schauspielhaus at Berlin, or the Frogs in dents led by Dr. Zuntz and in Giessen by university
YVellesleyand Reed College, Portland, Oregon in students were a great success (Figs. 844a-d). They
1940, the result is more satisfactory. Students of a were given in Greek dress, as the Latin comedies as
High School ventured in 1935 to present
in Berlin well as those of Menander were given also in an-
Aristophanes' Birds. The gay, masked production tiquity. Plautus' Amphitruo was given in the Roman
amused the audience and inspired the celebrated theater of Ostia in 1955.
painter Erich Heckel for a painting of the two main Performances of Greek tragedies could be seen in
actors and part of the bird-chorus ( Fig. 843a ) our time in many places: in Greece, Italy, France,
Menander, the newly-discovered representative of Germany, Holland, England, and in the United
Greek New Comedy, in contrast to Aristophanes, States, mostly in good translations into the respective
lends himself beautifully to modern presentations. languages, but sometimes even in the original or
A successful production, under the direction of Carl modern Greek. This was the case in the impressive
Robert, of the A rbitrants in German translation was performances produced by an American, married to
given in Lauchstedt, in the old theater, in 1908 by a Greek poet, Madame Sikilianos, in the ancient
students of Halle University, among them Gerhard theater in Delphi in 1927 and 1930 (Figs. 845-
Rodenwalt. The Arbitrants in English translation was 846). 41 The back part of the orchestra was raised
produced in 1929 at Haverford and Bryn Mawr Col- and temporarily built into a kind of podium. Here
leges under the direction of L. A. Post; and the Prometheus in Prometheus was seen
Aeschylus'
same play was given in Berkeley, California, in the bound to a rock, which was supposed to blend with
translation of Gilbert Murray (1948). The Girl
from Samos, reconstructed with fragments from the Fig. 846a-b. Performance of Aeschylus' Prometheus in Delphi
Arbitrants, was produced by Ida Lublinski Ehrlich
in Everyman's Theatre in New York City during
1954-1955. Her play is more than a mere translation;
she has blended together all the preserved scenes
and all important characters found in the original
fragments and made them into a delightful unit.
Seeing her performance one realizes that all Greek
dramatic poetry was meant to be produced and not
Fig. 845. Theater of Delphi during Aeschylus' Prometheus
 mi a t

ETC

«5

b
Fig. 847a-d. Performance of Aeschylus' Suppliants in Delphi

the mountains in the background. The chorus of the memnon also was performed in 1930 in Delphi
Oceanides in the orchestra was sometimes turned (Fig. 852), and the Prometheus was produced by
toward him, with their backs to the spectators, lift- Vittorio Gassman in 1956 in the ancient theater of
ing their hands while singing to him. In the same Syracuse. 42
place the Suppliants, the oldest tragedy of Aeschylus The Persians was performed with masks in Frank-
known to us, was performed in 1930 (Figs. 847a-d). furt and without masks by the Berlin "Sprechchor"
The chorus, which here has the leading part, per- in the ancient Theater of Herodes Atticus in Athens
formed various movements and dances in the or- in 1930. The Seven against Thebes was given in
chestra ( Figs. 847a-c ) . The actors, the king of Argos, Ostia in 1927, where also the Antigone by Sophocles
for example, or the Egyptian herald who tries to and the Clouds by Aristophanes were presented. 43
seize one of the Danaides (Fig. 847d), or occasion- The favorite drama by Aeschylus for modern pres-
ally even some representatives of the chorus entation is, however, the Agamemnon. It was given
mounted the podium (Fig. 847c). The actors wore in Greek in Delphi in 1930 and in Italian in the
masks and long flowing robes (Fig. 848, Io, ancient theater of Syracuse in 1914, with an excel-
and Fig. 849, Oceanus). Special costumes and lent actress asCassandra (Fig. 853). 44 This author
masks for the Egyptian herald in the Suppliants saw, in 1934, an outstanding performance in Greek
(Fig. 850) and for Hephaestus in the Prometheus at Bradford College in England. This is a school for
(Fig. 851) were very impressive. Aeschylus' Aga- boys, most of whom afterwards pass to the universi-

Figs. 848-853. Modern actors in ancient tragedy

848 849 850 851 852 853

 Fig. 854. Performance of Aeschylus' Agamemnon, Reading, England

ties of Oxford and Cambridge and continue to take since 1909, all in the Greek language. Besides the
interest in their old college. The theater building Oresteia, the Electra of Sophocles, the Medea and
and the acting, therefore, have had the benefit of The Trojan Women of Euripides, and the Birds of
advice from eminent scholars who were formerly Aristophanes were performed against improvised
students at Bradford. The stage is a low podium backgrounds with great success. Fordham Univer-
between the two paraskenia. The theatron has the sity in New York City also performed Greek drama
ideal democratic form that allows every spectator in the original language prior to World War II. The
an equally good view of the play. It is built as the whole Oresteia was reduced to one hour for a pres-
Greek theaters always were on the slope of a hill entation on television in January 1959 in New York.
round the orchestra, this being a perfect circle. The Even in this compressed version some scenes, for
background is a palace in simple lines with one example the return of Agamemnon, made a great
door and a few steps leading to the low platform. impression.
The pictures of the chorus in the orchestra or the Revivals of the tragedies of Sophocles in good and
scene of Agamemnon and Cassandra arriving in exact translations, well presented, always make a
their surrounded by the soldiers in the
chariots deep impression. The Antigone was given in 1921
midst of the chorus in the orchestra ( Fig. 854 ) were in the Volksbuhne ( the popular stage ) at Berlin, in
fascinating. All parts, male and female, were played a fine translation by Walter Amelung under the
by students about eighteen years old. It was amazing direction of Jiirgen Fehling and with a stirring
how the heroic greatness and eternal vitality of the performance by the young Mary Dietrich. 45 The
Greek tragedy came to life again in this excellent actress looked like the Iphigenia of Feuerbach and
performance. Wonderful productions of Agamem- brought out the human side of the Sophoclean
non, Prometheus, and other Greek tragedies have character with deep understanding. The author saw
been given in the Greek language since 1928 in an excellent presentation of Sophocles' Electra at
Wellesley College. Cedar Crest College, Pennsylvania, in an open-air
—
The whole Oresteia Agamemnon, Choephorae, theater where it was given several times up to 1956.
—
and Eumenides was given in 1954 in Greek in the The best performances of Electra and Oedipus
Randolph-Macon College at Lynchburg, Virginia. the King that the author has seen were given in
This college has performed Greek plays each year 1952 in New York. The plays were presented in

263
 Fig. 855a-c. Performance of Sophocles' Electra by the Greek National Theater

modern Greek by the Greek National Theater, other plays were also given (Fig. 857): 47 in 1930
staged by Alexis Minotis, with Katina Paxinou as the Persians (see above, p. 262) and in 1955
Electra and Jocasta. Electra hugging the urn sup- Sophocles' Oedipus the King, Euripides' Hecuba,
posed to contain the ashes of her brother Orestes, and the Orfeo by Gluck, one of the early operas
who is standing beside her alive (Fig. 855a); Elec- based on Greek tragedy, and in 1956 the Medea by
tra embracing the feet of the old pedagogue who has Euripides. Oedipus the King was also presented in
brought Orestes home (Fig. 855b); Electra sur- the reconstructed theater of Sabratha (Fig. 695) in
rounded by the chorus, who really gave emphasis to the presence of Mussolini in 1937. Max Reinhardt
her expression of grief (Fig. 855c) —
all these scenes presented the same tragedy in his great drama
made the great art of Sophocles come to life again. theater ( Grosse Schauspielhaus ) where in the large

Similarly moving was Oedipus the King with Alexis orchestra the crowds of people and then the chorus
Minotis in the title role. When old Tiresias loomed were presented in a clear and integrated way. The
threateningly over Oedipus who asks, "What par- music had a wonderful effect with the stage building
ents?" surrounded by the chorus members, trans- serving as a sounding board.
mitting their sympathetic feelings (Fig. 856a), and Oedipus the King is a favorite with modern actors
when Oedipus realized the bitter truth through the and stage managers. Laurence Olivier of the Old
—
testimony of the old servant, "Ah me I am on the Vic in London, England, gave a truly tragic per-
dreaded brink of speech," and the chorus appeared formance on Broadway in 1946 in this play. The
stunned by the revelation of the guilt of their vener- proud behavior in the beginning, the turning from
ated king (Fig. 856b), then the eternal value of confidence to fear, the despair at the end, made this
Greek tragedy was brought out in full power. 46 The a memorable recreation of the Greek spirit. The
chorus, all too often a stumbling block in modern production in Stratford, Ontario, in 1954 and 1955
productions, here was excellent. The National Thea- by Tyrone Guthrie, despite excellent actors, and
ter has repeated these performances in Greece: despite the attempt to imitate Greek costume, had
Oedipus the King in 1951 at Delphi, in 1955 in Athens no power to move the audience. The human charac-
together with Euripides' Hecuba, and in 1956 at ters were distorted and literally stilted, on Roman
Epidaurus, where Sophocles' Antigone and the elevated boots, and wore much too stylized
Medea of Euripides were also performed. The Greek monstrous masks, quite different from what we know
Art Theater has performed three Greek plays in Sophocles used. The movements were rigid and
Athens in the theater of Herodes Atticus, where stylized to the extreme. It was like a Freudian inter-

Fig. 856a-b. Performance of Sophocles' Oedipus the King by the Greek National Theater
 Fig. 857. Performance in the Theater of Herodes Atticus, Athens

pretation, which makes the one case of a son killing Oedipus the King, Oedipus Colonus, and Antigone
his unknown father and marrying his unknown and were produced in 1955 in New York City by Milton
still young mother (Greek girls married at 12-15 Miltiades at the John Memorial Hall in good per-
years of age) into a neurotic "Oedipus complex." formances. In 1956 he made a "Theban Trilogy" of
The theater was also too small for such a severe the plays, performing them for several weeks on
and gigantic mounting. A film version of the produc-
tion under the direction of Guthrie was presented Fig. 858. Performance of Oedipus the King in the Schumann
Circus. From a painting by Orlik
in New York in 1957 and was better than the theater
ttjflEli _ •

production. It was concise and serious. The play j j

:
||
• if

fared still better in the performance by Reinhardt '

'..Kill !
I *flft<,3aiSS;*'.*'-.;-

in the Circus Schumann in 1910 (Fig. 858) and

even better in 1919 Grosse Schauspielhaus,
in the
built for 3,500 spectators who were
barely separated
from the large orchestra, with the sky-dome above. 48
Reinhardt opened this great playhouse with Aeschy-
lus' Oresteia.
The Amer-
students of the Catholic University of
ica Washington presented an adaptation of
in
Oedipus the King by Leo Brady in many colleges
in America, and in April 1959 it was performed in
Carnegie Hall, New York. The chorus spoke clearly
and melodiously. The deep meaning of Sophocles'
masterpiece was well transmitted.
Fig. 859. The Hearst Greek Theater of the University of Fig. 860. The Dietrich Eckard Freilichtbiihne, Berlin
California, Berkeley
three succeeding evenings in the sequence of the College in Williamsburg, Virginia; at Barnard Col-
events, not in the order of their creation by lege, and at the Riverdale Country School for Girls,
Sophocles. An
attempt to produce Antigone on tele- New York City, in 1948. The high school production,
vision in 1956 failed because it was acted by glam- to this author, seemed the best of the three, and the
orous actors, who did not understand the principles play, on account of its light touch of humor, fine
and emotions of the Greek drama. Of all the seven character delineation, and brevity (it is the shortest
plays by Sophocles, so far as I know, only the of all plays by Euripides), is particularly fit for pres-
Philoctetes and the Trachinian Women have never entation by young people. The Hecuba was pre-
been performed in our time. sented in 1955 in the Herodes Atticus Theater at
Euripides, although in spirit the most modern of Athens and the Medea there in 1956 as well as in
the three great tragic poets, is less popular in mod- Epidaurus. Wheaton College (Massachusetts) pre-
ern times than the two others. His Medea in the sented the Antigone in 1955 and the Trojan Women
adaptation of Robinson Jeffers (Fig. 842) and The in 1956. Wellesley College produced the Medea,
Trojan Women in the adaptation of Franz Werfel both Iphigeneia tragedies and the Trojan Women
in the Deutsche Theater in Berlin are not pure in the Greek language, 1928-1934.
Euripides, but modernizations. The Trojan Women, Thus, only seven of the seventeen extant plays
the Iphigenia in Tauris, and the Iphigenia in Aulis by Euripides have found favor in modern times. The
presented by the Columbia Theater Associates of author at least has never seen or heard about pres-
Columbia University in Brander Matthews Theater entations of the Andromache, Bacchae, Electra,
and in Low Library's large central hall in 1936-37, Helen, Heracles, Heracleidae, Ion, Orestes, Phoenis-
1942, and 1950, were genuine classical revivals sae or Suppliants. There are still treasures to be dis-

under the direction of Milton Smith. The Iphigenia covered by modern stage managers. On the other
in Tauris was also presented in 1938 in the theater hand, all of Aeschylus' and all but two of Sophocles'
of Sabratha. This play was
produced in 1951 in
also plays have had modern productions.
an open-air theater at the Holland Festival by the In the spring of 1957 Wayne Richardson arranged
Nederlandse Comedie in a round orchestra, with a Trojan Trilogy, consisting of Aeschylus' Agamem-
masks and a highly stylized chorus of dancers. 49 The non, Sophocles' Electra, and Euripides' Trojan
Hippolytus, one of the finest plays of Euripides, was Women, the first two in the translation of Richmond
more often selected. Lattimore, the last by Francis Fergusson. It was
In 1931 the Experimental Theater of Vassar Col- produced in the Theater Marquee in New York,
lege produced an impressive performance of Euripi- with The Trojan Women as the first play- Although
des' Hippolytos in Greek. The singers and chorus it was the last to be produced in antiquity, it precedes

linked the audience to the action; they moved main- the other two in time of the action. It was an ex-
ly on wide, curved steps before the low stage. It was tremely interesting experiment.
presented in Oxford in 1920, in Giessen by Profes- Greek tragedies have been presented in our
sor Bernbeck with the assistance of this author in —
century in ancient Greek theaters Epidaurus (festi-
1922, in the theater of Epidaurus in 1954 (see Fig. vals since 1954), (Fig. 866), Delphi (Figs. 845-852),
866), and in Syracuse in 1956, where the Electra of Syracuse (Fig. 853); in ancient Roman theaters
Sophocles was also presented. 50 Both tragedies made Theater of Herodes Atticus (Fig. 857), Ostia,
deep impressions on the educated audiences. The Sabratha (Fig. 695), Orange (see Fig. 676); mod-
Alcestis, the play which Euripides tried to substitute —
ern theaters in New York City on Broadway ( Figs.
for a satyr play, was given at William and Mary 842, 855, 856) and off Broadway (Fig. 843b) and in
 XVI. INFLU ENCE OF ANCIENT ON MODERN THEATER

the Brander Matthews Theater at Columbia Uni-

versity, in Berlin in the Grosse Schauspielhaus and
the Deutsche Theater, in Frankfurt, Cassel, Mainz,
Giessen (Figs. 844a-d); in modern open-air thea-
ters —
in Reading, England (Fig. 854), in Holland,
in American colleges like Cedar Crest, Elizabeth,
California (Fig. 859), in the Dietrich Eckart Frei-
r>1
licht theater, Berlin (Fig. 860 ); in the circus (see
Fig. 858); in community halls and barns. The best
productions were those where chorus and actors
acted together in the orchestra before a palace out of
which, as in ancient times, the main actors stepped
( see Figs. 854, 857, 858 ) When, however, the mana-
.

gers tried to present a scene simultaneously on the

stage and in the orchestra, the attempt was not suc-
cessful, or was even ridiculous, and sometimes con-
fusing. The old mistaken idea, that the actors per-
formed on the stage while at the same time the chorus
sang and danced in the orchestra, has definitely to be
discarded. The idea that one or a few speakers can
be substituted for the chorus is a false one; the result
is always unsatisfactory.

Aside from those already named, other American

colleges and universities are also active in stage
production and have done much to improve the
revivals of Greek plays. A partial list might include
the following: Vassar College, Reed College in
Portland, Oregon; Northwestern University; the
Pacific Little Theater in Stockton and several other
California theaters.
Barnard College, the college for girls at Columbia
University, has a specialty in the reviving of the
Greek spirit. Each year they have Greek Games, in
which they attempt to reproduce, as nearly as modern
conditions permit, a classical festival. It is built
around some story of Greek mythology, dealing with
some god or hero like Athena, Apollo, Orpheus,
Hephaestus. The chorus sings the story which, how-
ever, is also acted in short mimetic scenes. Story,
songs, music, dances and costumes are created by
the girls themselves. A contest in dance (see Fig.
861 ) is followed by the athlete's oath to Zeus and
to the god or hero to whom the games are dedicated
( Fig. 862 ) There follow contests in discus throwing
.

(Fig. 863), jumping of hurdles, hoop rolling, a

chariot race, and a torch race. Costumes and move-
ments are excellent. One actress (Fig. 864) could
be Antigone with the jar on her way to bury her
brother Polyneices, while the choral dance (Fig.
861 ) reminds us of the Bacchae of Euripides. The
poise of the discus thrower (Fig. 863) looks like a
copy of the discobolus of Myron, who renders the
fleeting pause between the two main movements
of this sport.
The scene of action for modern presentations thus
has been everything from the Greek orchestra to the
Figs. 861-864. The Greek Games at Barnard College

267
XVI. INFLUENCE OF ANCIENT ON MODERN THEATER

low Roman stage, the modern stage, or a primitive Rome to natural sunlight. They could only use the
stage erected in the open air or in a hall. In most dawn for scenes at daybreak, like the first scene of
cases the modern stage is used. This is quite satis- Agamemnon, or the sunset for scenes at twilight
factory, as the Romans not only produced Greek death of Oedipus in Oedipus at Colonus.
like the
plays on their stage, but had the forms of the Greek Thus the question, how can a Greek tragedy or
theater building adapted to their needs. The form comedy be presented in our time, has been solved
of the Roman theater is indeed the underlying by practical means in many countries. When we try
foundation of our theater building today, and to solve the question from a theoretical and ideal
knowledge of it is necessary if one wants to under- point of view, I would say that there are many
stand the modern theater. possibilities for the presentation of a Greek drama.
The modern auditorium has adopted more and We must consider: A) Costume, B) Scenery, C)
more the practical form of the ancient theatron and The Theater Building.
cavea, instead of the ornate boxes erected for pub- A. Costume
lic display of socially-prominent people. This is 1 Imitate the costume which the Greeks used in
)

still kept mostly for opera houses. The first theater their theater. This is a religious costume and is in
to change to the democratic form where everybody harmony with the religion not only of Dionysus
can hear and see equally well was the Festival but with the deep ethos of Greek tragedy and the
Theater at Bayreuth, designed by Gottfried Semper seriousness with which the Greek hero fights against
and opened in 1876 for Wagner. He was followed fate or submits to it as sent by a god. The full cos-
by Max Littmann with his Schillertheater in Berlin tume including the mask is particularly adapted to
and his Kiinstlertheater in Munich with a steeply the tragedies of Aeschylus with their monumental
slanting floor with equally good seats for every- simplicity and grandeur. I have seen the Persians
body. 52 The Grosse Schauspielhaus, built by Hans most successfully played with masks bv Cassel High
Poelzig in 1919 in Berlin for Max Reinhardt has the School seniors (see above, p. 262).
big U-shaped auditorium of the Greeks instead of 2) Use the beautiful, richly decorated, long-
the half-circle auditorium of the Romans. It sur- sleeved robe and the decorated boots, but not the
rounds the orchestra in the Greek manner and brings mask. The mask is a religious symbol, which no
the audience in close contact with the actors and longer has any meaning for us. It can easily become
the chorus. The spectator becomes part of the per- rigid or ridiculous. Particularly for the harmonious
formances; he is much more absorbed in the action serenity of Sophocles the heroic costume without
than when a proscenium arch around the stage the mask is excellentlv suited, as I have seen it at
—
separates him from the play. He like the chorus its best in Syracuse (Fig. 853).
becomes a sympathetic listener and spiritual partner 3) Use the ancient Greek costume of everyday
of the proceedings. He shares the great emotions The simple and harmonious Greek dress shows
life.

and eternal problems of humanity which the Greek the same spirit as the tragic literary work or as the
tragic poets presented. 53 This is also the case in the contemporary architecture, sculpture, or painting.
Dietrich Eckart Freilichtbuhne (Fig. 860) built re- We will bring out the spirit of the work of art best
cently in Berlin and the "Greek" theater at the when we use for the dramas the costume which is
University of California at Berkeley (Fig. 859), just as well an expression of the spirit of the great
which, however, has a Roman stage form and uses classical period as the dramas themselves. Particu-
—
the orchestra as the Romans did for spectators.— larly for the humanist Euripides the variegated free
Most assembly halls, playhouses, and movie theaters draperies of the Greek chiton, peplos, and himation
today use the Roman half-circle or less. are more suitable than the rigid mask and sleeved
If modern contrivances are used, such as the enfolding robe. Tragedy was performed using this
revolving stage, this also goes back to ancient usage, costume in Bradford College by the seniors, advised
although there it was in a more modest form. In- by Oxford scholars (Fig. 854), and by the Greek
—
spired by the turning machines eccyclema, hemi- National Theater (Figs. 855-856).
circle, and strophion —
described by Vitruvius and 4) Do not in any case use Roman costume with
Pollux, 54 the Japanese first constructed a revolving high stilts, exaggerated masks, white color! Greek
stage in 1760. From them Karl Lautenschlager took dress was colorful, dignified, and simple.
it over and used it for the Residenz-Theater in 189G Do Our spirit is not
not play in modern dress.
5)
in Munich, as did Max Reinhardt for his Deutsche
Theater in 1904-05 in Berlin. 55 Some Broadway thea-
—
the spirit of classical Greece just as the Renais-
sance spirit was not the spirit of Latin Terence and —
ters, and Billy Rose for
aquacade, have used the
his therefore the contrast impresses us as ridiculous. It
revolving stage. Light effects, so highly developed in is a great mistake to play ancient tragedy in modern
modern technique, were restricted in Greece and dress, as Katharine Cornell did in Sophocles' Antig-
 XVI. INFLUENCE OF ANCIENT ON MODERN THEATER

one in 1946 in New York City. Despite her great only its first development in Greece, was perfected
mimetic art, the plav did not make an impression, by the Bomans, and still challenges our modern thea-
while it did succeed in 1951 in the presentation by ter buildings. Any be used
theater, therefore, can
young actors in the Circle-in-the-Square, Greenwich for the presentation of Greek drama. It does not
Village, New York City. make much difference whether the drama is pre-
sented in the open air, on a meadow, in a barn, in
B. Scenery a circus, in a museum or university auditorium, in
As the spirit of literature and art is the same in an ancient theater or in a sophisticated, modern
thesame period, it is permissible to copy back-drops theater building. The modern attempts at central
and side-wings from contemporary Greek buildings staging, as in the theater of the Circle-in-the-Square
like the temples of Aigina, Olympia, or the Parthe- in New York, or in a projected theater for the Uni-
non. We must, however, consider that during the versity of Arkansas," are really a return to the
period of the three great tragic poets the develop- original and primitive idea of the dramatic dance in
ment of art was very rapid and rich. Probably each religious performances. The audiences
stood or sat
year the architecture was built differently and in on all sides of the Greek threshing floor and the
more developed form than in former years. Painting Boman circus, which were the places of action be-
also developed quickly from simple to more and fore Aeschylus and Sophocles in Athens and Plautus
more naturalistic forms. Agatharchus began the in Borne needed background scenery on one side
study of perspective in the period of Aeschylus, and and the audience concentrated on the opposite
the Boscoreale frescoes (above, Figs. 471-474) side. Wherever a clever director and responsive

show us the last development of perspective Greek Greek drama, the eternal
actors absorb the spirit of
scene painting, before the Bomans replaced it with value of heroic greatness and vitality will be
its

plastically built architectural backgrounds. When brought to the surface and stir the emotions of a
choosing a background setting, we have to take cultivated audience regardless of the outer sur-
account of the fact that it is not always the first roundings.
presentation which agrees with the intentions of Theatrical entertainment in America today re-
the dramatic poet. Siegfried Wagner, the son of sembles very much that of the Boman Empire.
Bichard Wagner, asserted fifty years after the first Serious drama and refined comedy in the legitimate

presentation of the Ring and long after the death theater are rather neglected. Motion pictures, musi-
of his father that only then did the presentation of cal comedies, athletic contests, and recently all these
the Ring agree with the ideas of the composer. It on A
continuance of a largely
television, are in favor.

is difficult to keep the right balance in the settings. improvisational comic tradition is found in the popu-
If they are too rich, they encumber the art of the lar entertainments of today: in the Italian Corn-

actors; if they are too poor or sketchy, they distract media dell'Arte, in Gilbert and Sullivan and in the
the audience. Craig rightly said: "A vast and forbid- American musical comedy, in light farce and on the
ding doorway, I often think, still remains the best radio, in the movies, and in comic strips. 58 Mr.
background for any tragedy. ." He adds: "Of
. .
Milquetoast is a perfect farcical senex. A celebrated
course it all depends whether you come to the female pantomime player was Buth Draper who
theater for drama or literature." 56 died in 1956; another, Angna Enters, calls herself
When the great Greek poets wrote their works, a dance-mime, but is really a pantomime artist who
they found neither scenery nor machinery. The tours with her one-woman "Theater of Angna En-
parodies of Aristophanes show how imperfect the ters" in the United States and abroad. Aquacades

flying machine, the conventions for snowing in- were given in New York by Billy Bose. In California
terior scenes, and the machine for the appearance Esther Williams performs in similar water ballets.
of gods still were at the end of the fifth century. But Dances like the ones from which the dithy-
as these contrivances had been invented in the Fig. 865. Dance of Austrian school teachers in the orchestra of Epidaurus
period of the poets, there is no harm in using the
perfected machinery of our own theater for presenta-
tions of Greek drama.

C. The Theater Building

The Greek theater was an open-air theater. When
it is possible, as in Athens, Epidaurus, Syracuse, and
Delphi, to use the ancient theater, the presentation
in the round orchestra with a background building
will be of great value. But the theater building had
XVI. INFLUENCE OF ANCIENT ON MODERN THEATER

ramb and the tragic chorus started can be seen on case of New York City's Madison Square Garden,
a restored wooden stage and in the orchestra in the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California, and the
ancient theaters such as those presented by Austrian Cotton Bowl in Dallas, Texas. The Lewisohn
schoolteachers in Epidaurus ( Fig. 865 ) and in Aries, "Stadium" near City College in New York City is
or gymnastic performances in Taormina. 59 Bull not a stadium, which was a race-course, but half an
fights like the venationes in the Roman amphi- elliptical amphitheater. The Central Park Theater in
and in a mild
theater are practiced in Spain, Mexico, New York, built in 1959 over the Skating Rink, is a
form in theamphitheaters of Nimes and Aries. 60 completely round amphitheater.
The Romans introduced their animal baiting hi A strong movement to revive the best of the
the provinces of Gallia and Hispania, and from world's dramatic literature in adequate productions
Spain they were transferred to Mexico. has started, particularly in colleges and small off-

Modern buildings for athletic games are often Broadway theaters. To the best belongs the Greek
imitations of the Roman amphitheaters, as in the Drama.

Fig. 866. Performance of Euripides' Hippolytos, August 1954, in the theater at Epidaurus
 ABBREVIATIONS

NOTES TO THE TEXT

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

INDEX
 ABBREVIATIONS FREQUENTLY CITED

AbhBerl (Gott, Munch, Leipz, Sachs, Baijr) = Abhand- HBr = Hermann-Bruckmann, Denkmdler der Malerei
lungen der Berliner (Gottinger, Miinchner, Leip- Helbig 3 = Helbig-Amelung, Fiihrer durch die offent-
ziger, Sdchsischen, Bayrischen) Akademie (Gesell- lichen Sammlungen klassischer Altertiimer in Rom,
schaft) der W
issenschaften 3rd edition
ABSA = Annual of the British School at Athens Hesperia = Hesperia, The Journal of the American
AdI — Annali dell'Instituto di Corrispondenza Arche- School of Classical Studies at Athens
ologica
AJA = American Journal of Archaeology 1G = Inscriptiones Graecae
AJP = American Journal of Philology
Ant.Denk. = Antike Denkmdler JdAI — Jahrbuch des deutschen archaologischen In-
Arch.Anz. = Archaologischer Anzeiger stituts
ArchRW = Archiv fur Religionswissenschaft JHS — Journal of Hellenic Studies
Arndt = Arndt, Griechische und romische Portrdts, JOA1 =; Jahreshefte des oesterreichischen archaologi-
herausgegeben von Bruckmann schen lnstituts
Arndt-Amelung = Arndt and Amelung, Photograph- JRS = Journal of Roman Studies
ische Einzelaufnahmen antiker skulpturen
Ath.Mitt. = Athenische Mitteilungen des deutschen MAAR = Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome
archaologischen Institut Mdl = Mitteilungen des deutschen archaologischen ln-
stituts
BCH = Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique Monlnst = Monumenti Inediti Pubblicati dell'Instituto
BerlWPr = Berliner Winckelmannsprogramm di Corrispondenza Archeologica
Bethe, Prolegomena = Bethe, Prolegomena zur Ge- MonPiot = Monuments et Memoires, Fondation Eugene
schichte des Theaters im Alterum Piot
Bieber, Denkmdler = Margarete Bieber, Denkmdler
zum Theaterwesen NJb — Neue Jahrbucher fur das klassische Altertum
BMMA = Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York PBSR — Papers of the British School at Rome
BrBr = Brunn-Bruckmann-Arndt, Denkmdler griechi- Pickard-Cambridge, Dithyramb = A.W. Pickard-Cam-
scher und romischer Skulptur bridge, Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy
Bulle, Untersuchungen — Bulle, Untersuchungen an Pickard-Cambridge, Theater of Dionysus = A.W. Pick-
griechischen Theatern ard-Cambridge, The Theater of Dionysus in Athens
Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals = A.W. Pickard-Cam-
CIL = Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum bridge, The Dramatic Festivals of Athens
CJ = Classical Journal
CP = Classical Philology Real-Enc. = Paulv-Wissowa, Real-Encycloptidie der
CR = Classical Quarterly klassischen Altertumstvissenschaft
CRPetersb = Compte-rendu de la Commission imperi- Robert, Masken = Robert, Masken der Neueren Atti-
ale archeologique, St. Petersbourg schen Komodie, 25. HallWPr
CVA = Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum Rdm.Mitt. = Mitteilungen des deutschen archaologi-
schen lnstituts, Romische Abteilung
D-R = Dorpfeld and Reisch, Das Griechische Theater
SBBerl (Leipz, Miinch, Wien) — Sitzungsberichte der
Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw. = Fiechter, Baugeschicht- Berliner (Leipziger, Miinchner, Wiener) Akademie
liche Entwicklung des antiken Theaters Schefold, Bildnisse =
K. Schefold, Die Bildnisse der
Fiechter, Dionysostheater = Fiechter, Theaterbauten, antiken Dichter, Redner und Denker
Das Dionysostheater in Athen
5-7, 9, Sechan, Tragedie grecque — Sechan, Etudes sur la
Fiechter, Theaterbauten — Fiechter, Antike Griechische tragedie grecque
Theaterbauten Skulpt.Vat.Mus. = Die Skulpturen des Vaticanischen
Flickinger, Greek Theater — Flickinger, The Greek Museums
Tlieater and Its Drama
F-R = Furtwangler and Reichhold, Griechische Vasen- Webster, Production — T.B.L. Webster, Greek Theater
malerei Production
Wieseler, Theater gebdude — F. Wieseler, Theaterge-
HallWPr — Hallisches Winckelmannsprogramm baude und Denkmdler des Biihnenwesens
 NOTES TO THE TEXT
NOTES TO CHAPTER I. THE RISE OF THE SATYR PLAY AND OF TRAGEDY
1
Watzinger, Das Relief ties Archelaos von Priene, 63. 118ff. Shear, in Hesperia, vn(1938), 341, fig. 23. Wegner,
BerlWPr, 1903. Lippold in Rom. Mitt., xxxm( 1918), 74ff. Musiklehen, pi. la-b.
Schede, in Rom. Mitt., xxxv(1920), 69ff. A. H. Smith, Brit- 11 F-R, pis. 1-3, 11-13. Weege, op.cit., fig. 75. Sechan,
ish Museum Catalogue of Sculpture, in (1904), 244ff., No. op.cit., p. 61, fig. 6.
12 Aristotle, Poetics, IV, 1449a, 10ft. tuv i^ap-
2191, fig. 30. A. Levi, in Bolletino d'Arte, Series vi, No. i] p.iv airb

6(1920-27), p. 353, fig. 3. A. B. Cook, Zeus, I, 129ff., figs. Xovtujv t'ov Siddpanpov. Flickinger, The Greek Theater and
97-98, pi. an. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 229, fig. 194. its 6ff., is right when he returns confidently to
Drama, pp.
Bieber, The Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age (1955), p. this most important source. Pickard-Cambridge, Dithyramb,
127f., figs. 404 and 497. pp. 174ff., extends to Aristotle as well as to the most im-
- Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Mu- portant contemporary monuments the astute criticism with
sic. which he has especially well refuted the following other the-
3 Strabo, xin,2,4, p. C 618. Plutarch, De Musica, p. 1140f. ories for the origin of tragedy:
Cf. Wilamowitz, "Der Timotheos-Papyrus gefunden bei Abu- a) The Eleusinian Mysteries. A. Dieterich, "Entstehung
sir," Wissenschaftliche Veroffcntlichungen der deutschen der Tragodie," in ArchRW, xi(1908), 163ff., and Kleine
Orient-Gesellschaft, 1903, Heft 3, p. lOf. Wilamowitz, Ti- Schriften, pp. 414ff. Followers of this theory are Jane Har-
motheos, Die Pcrscr, aus einem Papyrus von Abusir (1903), rison, Gilbert Murray, and F. M. Cornford.

p. 27, lines 235-238 and p. 64ff. M. Wegner, Das Musik- b ) Rites at the tombs of ancestors who had become heroes.
leben der Gricchcn (1949), pp. 28ft., 141f. On music in Ridgeway, Origin of Tragedy (1910) and Dramas and Dra-
tragedy see Carlo del Grande, Dioniso, m( 1931-32), matic Dances of Non-European Races in Reference to the
228-247, 346-360; rv( 1933-34), 291-322 with appendix pp. Origin of Greek Tragedy (1915).
i-xii. F. Behn, Musiklehen im Altertum und friihen Mittel- c) Spring rites for the year's demon, a theory deduced
alter, 1955, Ch. vn, pp. 79ff., figs. 108-110. partly from modern plays in Thrace, Thessaly, and Skyros.
4 Fig. 3 in the Vatican, Museo Etrusco-Gregoriano from Dawkins, in ABSA, xi( 1904-05 ),72ff., and in JHS, xxvi
Phot. Alinari, No. 35726; Fig. 4 in Athens National Museum, (1906), 191ff. Wace in ABSA, xvi( 1909-10), 232ff. Murray,
Nos. 1183, cf. 1469. Couve-Collignon, Vases d'Athenes, Nos. in Harrison, Themis, pp. 341ff. Cf. also Farnell, Cults of the
1260 and 1263. Bieber, JdAI (1917), 65f., fig. 35. Others Greek States, v, 107ff.
3
are in the Vatican, No. 86, Helbig No. 491. For other citha-
, d) Rites for the dead. M. Nilsson, "Der Ursprung der
roidoi with the large cithara see Beazley, JHS 42(1922), Tragodie," in NJb, xxvn(1911), 609ff., and 673ff.
70ff., pis. ii and V; Gisela Richter, Red-Figured Athenian e) Rites for Zeus in Crete, where he was reborn in the
Vases in the Metropolitan Museum, Nos. 66 and 94, pi. 70 form of Zagreus. Cook, Zeus (1914), i, 665ff., and 695ff.
(Pan-Painter) Max Wegner, Das Musiklehen der Griechen
. It is hardly necessary to consider the modern theory of

(1949), pp. 28ff., fig. 3, pis. 7a, 16b, 18, 28a, 31a, 32a. Winterstein, Der Ursprung der Tragodie, ein psychoanaly-
Behn, op.cit., figs. 111-119. tischer Beitrag zur Geschichte des griechischen Theaters
5
F-R, pi. 64 ( Alkaios-Sappho). Orsi, in Mon. ant. dei (1925). Following the example of Freud, who transferred
Lincei xix(1908), 102ff., figs. 9-10, pi. in; cf. p. 95, fig. 11, information gathered from insane or feeble-minded persons
for the vase by Oltos in London, British Museum E 18. to normal and highly intellectual persons, Winterstein tried
Hoppin, A Handbook of Attic Redfigured Vases, i, p. 24, to demonstrate the development of the highest dramatic
No. 25 and p. 464f. Beazley, Attic Red-Figure Vase-Painting, form of Greek literature from neurotic and infantile qualities.
p. 31, No. 2, Syracuse Mus. No. 26967. Freud's "Oedipus complex" shows the ignorance of this
6 F-R, n, 183f., fig. 64. Pfuhl, Malerei und Zeichnung, Freudian school, which completely misunderstood the cele-
figs. 324, 334, 338, 341, 376, 377, 409. Hoppin, Red fig. brated masterpiece of Sophocles.
Vases, 1,310; n,116. G. Richter, Red-Figured Vases, No. 15, 13 Bergk, Poetae Lyrici Graeci, 4th ed., n,
404, Fragment
pp. 39f., pi. 17 (Berlin Painter); No. 19, pp. 44f., pi. 21 77: us Aiovvffov olvclktos Ka\bv efd/}£at yue'Xos ol8a bi6(ipap.pov,
(Eucharides Painter). Wegner, op.cit., pp. 37ff., figs. 4-5, oiVw cvyKepavvu)6eh <pptva%.
pis. 11-17, 19-22. 14 Suidas, s.v. Arion: vpuros x o P 01' (tttjcoll ko.1 didvpap.f3ov
7
For Auloi see Wegner, op.cit., pp. 52ff., figs. 10-12, acrat ko.1 ovofidcrcu to qSoucvoi' vtt6 tov x°P°v KCLl <r&Tvpovt dfff-
pis. 4-10. Behn, op.cit., pp. 96ff., figs. 131-141. For the veyxeiv (p./j.(Tpa \eyovras. Cf. Pickard-Cambridge, Dithyramb,
long dress of the fluteplayer see E. Bielefeld, "Ein bbotischer pp. 131ff.
Tanzchor des 6. Jh. v. Chr." in Festschrift fiir Friedrich 15 Hydria Mus. No. 03.788. Brommer, Satyroi, p. 40, fig.
Zucker (1954), p. 31 and p. 34, note 8. Also Beazley, Hes- 18, and Satyrspiele, Bilder griech. Vasen, pp. 12ff., fig. 6.
peria, xxiv( 1955 ) ,308ff., pi. 87. Frances Jones, The Theater in Ancient Art, Princeton Ex-
8
F-R, pi. 136. Pfuhl, op.cit., fig. 468. Hoppin, op.cit., hibition, 1952, p. 2, fig. 1. Beazley, Hesperia xxiv(1955),
i,214f. 310f., pi. 86b.
9
Weege, Der Tanz (1926), pp. 31ff., 98ff. Sechan, La 18 British Museum, Catalogue of Vases, B 467. A. H.
Danse grecque (1930), pp. 35ff. M. Emmanuel, The An- Smith, JHS, xi(1890), 278ff., Bieber, Denkmaler,
pis. xi-xii.
tique Greek Dance, transl. from the French (2nd ed., 1927), p. 100f., no. 39, fig. 104. Webster, Niobiden-Maler, in Beaz-
pp. 216ff. For the importance of the dance in tragedy see ley-Jacobsthal, Bilder griechischer Vasen, pis. 14-15. Pick-
H. D. F. Kitto, in JHS, 75, 1955, pp. 36ff. Music and dance ard-Cambridge, Dithyramb, pp. 156f., fig. 14. Beazley,
reinforced the dramatic words. Hesperia, xxiv(1955), 316f., pi. 88a. Buschor, "Feldmause,"
10 Collignon-Couve, Vases d'Athenes, No.
468, pi. xx. Sitzungsberichlc Bayr. Akad. d. Wiss., Miinchen, 1937, Phil-
Sechan, op.cit., p. 49, fig. 3. Brinckmann, "Altgriechischer hist. Abt, pp. Iff., figs. 4-5.
Madchenreigen," in Bonner Jahrbiicher, 130(1925), pp.
17 G. Richter, Red-Figured Athenian Vases in the Metro-
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER I

politan Museum, No. 155, pp. 195f., pi. 155. Beazley, Hes- schrift fur Overbeck, pp. 103ff. Robert, Oidipus, i,259ff.,
peria, xxiv(1955), 314f. fig.45; n,96ff. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 96, fig. 99; p. 98, No.
18 and Revett, Antiquities of Athens (1825), i,
Stuart 36. Brommer, op.cit., pp. 44ff., fig. 44; cp. his fig. 45. The
Ch. IV, pp. 53ff., pis. 23-30. De Cou, A] A, viii(1893), 42ff. vase is attributed to Python by Watzinger, in F-R, m,372f.,
BrBr, pi. 488. Judeich, Topographie von Athen, 2nd ed. and Trendall, Paestan Pottery, p. 68f., No. 118, pi. xxia;
(1931), pp. 305ff., pi. 14. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of idem, PBSR, xx(1952), 10 and 34, No. 154, pi. xn a.
Ancient Greece (1950), p. 237f., pis. lix-lx. 30 Welcker, Nachtrag zu der Schrift: Ueber die Aeschy-
19 Hartvvig, Meisterschalen, pis. 32f. Pfuhl, Malerei unci leische Trilogie nebst einer Abhandlung iiber das Satyrspiel,
Zcichnung, m, figs. 426, 427, 430 (Brygos). Cf. G. Richter, 1826. Wernicke, in Roscher, in,1409ff.; idem, "Bockschore
Red-Figured Vases, No. 33, p. 55, pi. 32 (Oinokles painter). und Satyrdrama," in Hermes, xxxu(1897), 290ff. Fenster-
F. Brommer, Satyroi, Diss. Munich, 1937, has compiled much busch, in Bursians Jahresberichte, No. 253(1936), 12ff. Wi-
material for the representations of satyrs. lamowitz, Einleitung in die griechische Tragbdie (1907),
20 G. Richter, op.cit., No.
42, p. 64f., pi. 42 (Kleophra- pp. 81ff. idem, in NJb, xxix(1912), 449ff. Bethe, Prole-
;

des painter). Beazley, Der Kleophrades-Maler (in Bilder gomena, pp. 37ff. Korte, ibid., pp. 339ff.
;

griech. Vasen, ed. Beazley, and Jacobsthal, 1933), pis. 5-6. 31

Frickenhaus, in JdAI, xxxii(1917), Iff. Cp. Fenster-
G. Richter, op.cii., No. 55, pp. 77f., pis. 59-60 (Makron); busch in Bursians Jahresberichte, No. 253(1936), 16ff.
No. 109, pp. 140ff., pi. 109 (Methyse painter); No. 128, 32 Sophocles, Ichneutae, w.
375ff.: dXX' aiev el <tv irah veos •

p. 161f., pi. 127 (Leucippid painter). F-R, pis. 44-45. yap wv dvqp nioyuvi $dXXwi> uis rpdyos KvifKw x\i5as. Ylavov to
Weege, Der Tanz, figs. 89, 91, 95, 97, 98, 125, 127-30. Xelov (paXaKpbv r)bovfi irirvds. Aeschylus, Fragment 207 ( Ox-
21 Frickenhaus, Lenaenvasen, 72. Programm zum Winckel-
ford Classical Texts, 1937) =
Plutarch, De Cap. ex Inimicis
mannsfest (Berlin, 1912), pp. Iff., Nos. 1-29, pis. i-v. Weege, Utilitate, p. 86f.: tov de aarvpov to irvp. us npwrov ii<pdrj, fiov-
Der Tanz, figs. 101, 103, 105, 107-13. Pickard-Cambridge, Xofievov (piXfiaai teal irept^aXetv, 6 Hpofiedevs: Tpdyos, e<pt), yeveiov
Festivals, pp. 27ff., figs. 10-17. Nilsson, Griechische Religion, dpa irevdr}ae^ crvye. Cp. Pickard-Cambridge, Dithyramb, pp.
i(1941), p. 555, pi. 37, 1. 153ff. Shorey, in Flickinger, Greek Theater, p. 30, note 3.
22 Weege, Der Tanz, 33 For
pp. 56ff. Sechan, op.cit., pp. 159ff. Prometheus, see Beazley, "Prome-
satyrs surrounding
Lilian Lawler, "The Menads," in MAAR, vi(1927), 69ff., theus Fire-Lighler," in AJA, 43(1939), 618ff., pis. xiii-xv,
pis. xra-xxn. figs. 1-6, 9-14, and ibid., 44(1940), p. 212, fig. 1. Our Fig. 39,
23 Bieber, in JdAl, xxxii(1917), 68ff., and above, ibid. 43(1939), pi. xrv, in Gotha, Germany, No. 73. Brom-
pp. 8-9,
on the Dionysiac ecstasy. Cf. Thramer, in Roscher, i,1035ff., mer, op.cit., pp. 41ff., figs. 40-43. Baur, Catalogue of the
and Rapp, ibid., n,2252ff. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, Stoddard Collection, p. 86, pi. 7 above. A crater in Ferrara
v,102ff. with Prometheus, satyrs, and a fluteplaver: Beazley, Hesperia,
24 On M. Bieber, Ath.Mitt., xxxvi(1911),
satyr plays see: xxiv(1955), 311, pi.' 88b.
Athens and Bonn (our Figs. 27-28). F. 34 Jahn, "Perseus, Herakles, Satyrn auf Vasenbildern
269ff., pi. 13-14, in und
Brommer, Satyrspiele, Bilder griechischer Vasen (1944), das Satyrdrama," in Philologus, xxvn(1868), 1 ff., pis. i-iv.
with 67 illustrations. Our Fig. 26, a rhyton from Nola in the The crater from Southern Italy, published by Jahn with Per-
British Museum Catalogue, E 790, and Fig. 29, the frag- seus and Silenus is now in Bonn, Akademisches Kunstmu-
ment formerly in the Arndt Collection now in Amsterdam, seum, No. 79. Bieber, in Ath.Mitt., xxxvi( 1911 ),269ff., pis.
are illustrated in Bieber, JdAI, xxxn(1917), 56ff., figs. 28- xm-xrv. Flickinger, op.cit., pp. 25ff., figs. 5-7. G. Richter,
29. Figs. 27-28 in Brommer, op.cit., pp. 12ff., figs. 4 and 6. in BMMA, xxx( 1935),86ff. idem, AJA, xxxix( 1935),182ff.,
;

25 The calyx crater in Richmond (Fig. 30): Sechan, figs. 1-4. G. Richter, Red-Figured Athenian Vases in the

Trag.gr., p. 42f., fig. 11. Trendall, Fruhitaliotische Vasen, Met. Mus., No. 88, pi. 90 (our Fig. 41). Corpus Vaso-
pi. 12b. Brommer, op.cit., Figs. 7-8. rum ant., Bologna, pi. 24, 1-3. AJA, xxxix( 1935), 184, figs.
26 "Zum Ursprung von 3-4 (our Fig. 42).
Frickenhaus, Satyrspiel und Tra-
35 Bieber, in JdAI, xxxn( 1917),49ff.,
godie," in JdAI, xxxn(1917), Iff. Bieber, 'ibid., "Die Her- 80; Figs. 20-26 and
kunft des tragischen Kostums," pp. 15ff., 48ff., fig. 19. Bie- 46. Trendall, Paestan Pottery, p. 54, fig. 39, Allard Pierson
ber, Denkmaler, pp. 91ff., No. 34, figs. 97-98, pi. 48. Busch- Museum, No. 2491. Athens Mus., No. 1329, Couve-Col-
or, in F-R, m,132-50, pis. 143-5. Pfuhl, Malerei und Zeich- lignon, Vases d'Athenes, No. 1897. Mus. Nos. 12254-5. Ni-
nung, n,590f., in, fig. 575. Brommer, op.cit., p. 9f., fig. 1. cole, Cat. Vases d'Athenes, Nos. 1113-4. Papposilenus with
Pickard-Cambridge, Dithyramb, p. 153, figs. 11-12, and Fes- cothurnus before him. Our Fig. 45 is Athens, No. 12595.
tivals, p. 179, fig. 28. I cannot accept the theory of Buschor, Vase Jatta in Ruvo, our Fig. 38, Mus. No. 1528; Robert,
that the actors are those of tragedy, while the chorus is that Masken; HallWPr, pp. 109 and 112, fig. 128.
were would be tragic 36 Pfuhl, Malerei und Zeichnung,
of the satyr play. If this true, there 1,480,482; in, fig. 467.
actors surrounded by a satyr chorus and no tragic chorus, Seltman, Attic Vase-Painting, p. 63, pi. 27b (our Fig. 40).
and a satyr chorus without 37 F-R, pi. 47,2. Bieber, Denkmaler,
their actors. But the leader Pap- pp. 9ff., figs. 4-6.
38 Pratinas, Fragment
posilenus conferring with one of the actors; they therefore
is 18, apud Athenaios, xrv, p. 617 c:
belong together. One might also expect representatives of Tt'j 6 06pvj3os 68e ; tL rdSe ra \opevp.ara ; ti's vfipis e/xoXef eiri Aio-
comedy if the two other forms of dramatic plays were in- ivo~id5a TroXi'Trdraya 8vp.eX-qv.
dicated. 39 British Museum E
768. F-R, pi. 48. Flickinger, op.cit.,
27 Fragments from Tarentum Wiirzburg: Bulle, Corolla 10. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 232, fig. 199.
in p. 31, fig.

Curtius, pp. 151-160, pis. 54-56. Pickard-Cambridge, Festi- Brommer, op.cit., pp. 60ff., fig. 66.
vals, p. 183, figs. 40a-c (our Figs. 34-35). 40 On the tripod of victory see: Emil Reisch, Griech. Weih-
28 HBr, pi. 14. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., geschenke, in Abh. des arch, epigr. Seminars Wien, No. 8
pp. 46ff., fig. 51.
Bieber, Denkmaler, pp. 95ff., No. 35, pis. 49-50. E. Rizzo, (1890), pp. 63ff., figs. 1-11. On animals as prize of victory
La Pittura Ellenistico-Romana, p. 68, pi. cxlvi. Pickard-Cam- see Scholion to Plato, Republic, p. 394 C.
bridge, Festivals, p. 188, fig. 69. Spinazzola, Le Arti deco- 41 Vittorio Macchioro, Zagreus, Studi Intorno aT Orfismo,

rative, 179. Pernice, in Winter, Die Hcllenistische Kunst in new edition, 1930, pp. 219ff. L. R. Farnell, Cults of the
Pompeji, vi, 1938, Pavimente und Mosaiken, p. 171. Greek States (1909), \.106,162,164ff. Frazer, The Golden
29 Naples, Museo Nazionale No. 2846. Crusius, in Fest- Bough, one vol. ed., 1925, p. 391f.
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTERS I AND II

42 Later statues of Papposilenus in full goatskin chiton, 45 See in addition to the sources quoted in note 41: Rizzo,

besides the vases (cf. note 35), see particularly Fig. 46, the Dionysos Mystes. B. Eisler, Orphisch-dionysische Mysterien-
statue carrying the child Dionysus, found in the theater of gedanken, in Vortrage Bibliothek Warburg, n( 1922-23). De
Athens, Mus. No. 257. Arndt-Amelung, E. A. No. 643. Bie- Jong, Das antike Mysterienwesen. Vollgraff, Over den Oor-
ber, JdAI, xxxii(1917), 80, fig. 46. Pickard-Cambridge, sprong der Dionys. Mysterien, in Mededeel. Akad. Weten-
Festivals, p. 179, fig. 29. Terracotta statuettes of Papposi- schappen (Amsterdam, 1924), Deel 57, Ser. A, No. 2. Bos-
lenus with the infant Dionysus: from Melos, British Mu- tovtzeff, Mystic Italy, pp. 34ff. Beitzenstein, H ellenistische
seum C 74, B. A. Higgins, Catalogue of the Terracottas in Mysterienreligionen (3rd ed., 1927), pp. 12 and 96ff. Bie-
the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities, i,197f. ber, in JdAI, XLin(1928),326f.; idem, "The Mystery Fres-
No. 736, pi. 97; from Halae, Hetty Goldman and Frances coes," in The Review of Religion, n( 1937),3ff. Martin Nils-
Jones, "Terracottas from the Necropolis of Halae," Hespcria, son, A History of Greek Religion ( 1925), pp. 205ff. and 293;
xi ( 1942),405f., pi. xxiii— they date the actors 390-350 B.C.; idem, Geschichte der griechische Religion (1950), in Hand-
from Corinth, Results of Excavations, xn, No. 331, pi. 29. buch der Altertumswissenschaft Fiinfte Ahteilung, Zweiter
Fig. 47 from Borne in Berlin No. 218. Wieseler, Theaterge- Teil, I, 216-219 and 532-568; II, 663.; idem, The Dionysiac
baude, pi. vi, 1. Terracotta statuettes of Silenus in fur tights Mysteries of the Hellenistic and Roman Age ( 1957). Farnell,
and mantle: Winter, Typen der figiirlichen Terrakotten, in, Cults of the Greek States, v,85ff.
2, p. 397, figs. 1. 2, 4-6; p. 398, figs. 2, 4-8. See statues from 46 Olivieri, Lamelle Aureae Orphicae,
pp. 4ff. Vollgraff,
Delos in BCH, xxxi( 1907 ),517ff., pis. x-xi. An excellent op.cit., p. 9. V. Macchioro, op.cit., pp. 85ff. Farnell, Greek
marble statue of Papposilenus has been found in a Boman Hero Cults (1921), p. 376f. For the vase in Berlin (Fig.
villa near Anzio, III. London News, Feb. 1, 1958, pp. 196f.
50) see C. Bliimel, Antike Kunstwerke (1953), p. 16f., No.
For Maenads in sleeved dresses, see Bieber, in JdAI, xxxn 9. Bielefeld, in Rheinisches Museum fur Philologie, vol. 97
(1917),58f., fig. 30.
(1954), 92ff.
43 .Good examples of satyrs on the
in loin cloth are also 47 Gregor Krause and K. With, Insel Bali, n,19ff., pis. 13-
Naples Pronomos vase (Figs. 31-33), in two craters in Deep-
25 (our Figs. 51-52). Unfortunately the tourist trade has
dene (Cook, Zeus, i, 701f., pi. xxxix), an Attic dinos in
degenerated these religious festivals to shows, which have
Athens and fragments with similar satyrs dancing before a
even been brought to London and to New York, in 1952-
fluteplayer in Bonn (Bieber, Ath.Mitt., xxxvi[1911],269f.,
1953. The dancers are no more in a state of trance. They
pi. 13. Brommer, Satyrspiele, fig. 2. Pickard-Cambridge, Fes-
still use the old art and some of the old ornaments, but they
tivals, p. 180f., figs. 30-31). A satyr mask from Samos in the
British Museum may have been actually worn in a satyr play,
are without inner exaltation. It is interesting to see here the

Higgins, Cat. of the Terracottas, British Mus., p. 142, no. transformation of a sacred performance secularized into a
523, pi. 70. Webster, Production, p. 157, pi. 66. profane presentation. Although something similar happened
44 Bieber, JdAI, xxxn( 1917),68ff. Pickard-Cambridge, in Greece, the reasons for the change there were higher
Dithyramb, pp. 149ff., discusses the explanations of tragedy and deeper ones.
48 Aristode, De Arte Poetica IV, 1449a, 9f
as chorus dressed in goatskins and as chorus dancing around
a goat destined to be a prize or a sacrifice. He chooses the &tt' apxys avTO(rxe5i<xcrTiK7;s ....
latter possibility.

NOTES TO CHAPTEB II. ATTIC TBAGEDY

1 Svoronos, Das Athener Nationalmuseum, i,232ff., pis. carrus navalis to the Anthesteria, and Pickard-Cambridge is

61-64. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 18f., pis. 6-7. A. B. Cook, inclined to follow him. See, however, my
Ch. IV, note 12,
Zeus, i, pp. 708-711, pi. xl. Herbig, in Fiechter, Diony- Fig. 219 on the wedding car, which belongs to the Anthes-
sostheater, n,36ff., pis. 9-16. Herbig dates the reliefs in teria.
the Hadrianic period. Alice Miihsam, in Berytus, x(1952), 6 The cup of Exekias: F-B, i, pi. 42. Pfuhl, Malerei und
86-88, calls our Fig. 54 Hadrianic, our Fig. 55 Antonine. Zeichnung, i, p. 268; m, fig. 231. Technau, Exekias, in
I do not see the difference, but as she dates both around Bilder griech. Vasen, ed. Beazley and Jacobsthal, ix, p. 10,
a.d. 160, they would be Antonine. Tins to the author seems No. 21, pi. 5. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 11, fig. 8.
too late. I still believe that the time when the theater was 7
Wilamowitz, Aeschyli Tragoediae, p. I8f. Bieber, in JdAI,
rededicated to Nero and Dionysus was the best occasion to xxxn( 1917), 18f., and in Real-Enc, xiv,2072ff. F. Lohrer,
erect a new altar with the story of Dionysus. See our Ch. Mienenspiel und Maske in der griechischen Tragodie, p. If.,
XIV, p. 213ff. and Figs. 719, 721-722. in Studien zur Geschichte und Kultur des Altertums, xiv,
2
The passages relating to Thespis have been gathered 1927.
and treated critically in Pickard-Cambridge, Dithyramb, 8 Bieber, in AJA,
45, 1941, pp. 529-36, pi. xiv. G. Bichter,
pp. 97ff. Redfigured Athenian Vases in the Met. Mus., No. 51, pis.
3 The date is given
by the Marmor Parium. See Jacoby, 47-8, and Attic Red-Figured Vases ( 1946), p. 87, fig. 62.
Das Marmor Parium (1904) and Fragmenta Hist. Gr., n, 9 M. Pohlenz, "Das Satyrspiel und Pratinas" in Nachrichten

239ff. Gbtt. Ges.d.Wiss., 1926, pp. 298ff.

4
Horace, De
Arte Poetica, vv. 275-77: "dicitur et plaustris 10 Stuart Jones, Catalogue
of Sculpture in the Capitoline
vexisse poemata Thespis." Cp. Pickard-Cambridge, Dithy- Museum, p. 252, Stanza dei filosofi, No. 82, pi. 60. Arndt-
ramb, p. 114. Bruckmann, Portrats, pis. 111-112. Hekler, Bildniskunst, p.
8
Bethe, Prolegomena, p. 44f. Frickenhaus, in JdAI, xxvn xii pi. 14. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 81f., No. 27, pi. 43,1, and
(1912),61ff., supplementary Denkmaler,
plate I. Bieber, Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age, p. 58, fig. 179. Orsi, "II Vol-
pp. 87ff., No. 33, figs. 91-95. Pickard-Cambridge, Dithy- to di Eschile" in Dioniso, i( 1929), 1-7, pis. i-ii. M. Squarcia-
ramb, pp. 112ff., figs. 4-10, and Festivals, pp. llff., figs. pino, Archeologia Classica, Bivista dell'Istituto di archeologia
6-7. Nilsson, Griechische Religion, i, p. 550, pi. 36,1. Deub- della Universita di Boma, 5( 1953), 55-60, pi. xni. G. Hafner,
ner, Attische Feste, pp. 102ff., pis. 11 and 14 gives the "Das Bildnis des Aischylos," JdAI, lxx, 1955, pp. 105-128,
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER 11

figs. 6-9. The story of the baldness of Aeschylus is told by op.cit., rv,2, p. 441f., fig. 366. Nilsson, op.cit., p. 377, fig.
Pliny, Natural History, x,3; Aelian, De Natura animalium, 184.
VII.16; Valerianic Maximus, IX,12. 19 Rodenwaldt, in Propyliien-Kunstgeschichte,
Kunst der
11
T.B.L. Webster, Diogenes 5(1954),86, favors a date Antike, pi. 171; idem in Bilderhefte antikcr Kunst, v(1938),
after 468 for the Suppliants. He bases this opinion on the frag- Altdorische Bildiverke in Korfu (1938), pp. 16ff., pis. 10-14;
mentary hypothesis in the Oxyrhynchus Papyrus, 2256, fr. 3, idem in Korkyra, n( 1939), 15ff., pis. i-viii. Kaiser Wilhelm II,
where a victory of Aeschylus over Sophocles with a group of Erinnerungen an Korfu, pp. 78ff., figs. 17-20. Picard, Sculp-
plays containing the Danaids and Amy m one is recorded. If ture Antique, p. 275f., fig. 71. Charbonneaux, La Sculpture
the production included the Suppliants, it might have been a grecque archaique, p. 22, fig. on pp. 20-21, pis. 24-25. On
revival. The simplicity of the plot, the inactivity of the actors, Medusa in general see Thalia Phillies Howe, Diss. Columbia
and the important role of the chorus in my opinion are in^.. University, (1952), an interpretation of the Perseus-Gorgon
favor of an early composition. Some scholars —
for example, Myth in Greek Literature and Monuments, pis. i-rv (pi.
A. Lasky and A. Raubitschek —
believe that the Suppliants in a-b: Corfu); idem, "The Origin and Function of the
is a later drama by Aeschylus. They also base this belief on Gorgon-Head," in AJA 58( 1954), 209-221, pis. 35-36.
the Oxyrhynchus Papyrus, fr. 3. But this may refer to a later 2u Buschor in F-R, pi. 145.
Cf. A. von Salis, in JdAI,
revival, and the late dating has been doubted bv Pohlenz xxv( 1910),126ff., supplementary pi. 4.
and Gilbert Murray. See Lasky in Gnomon 28 ( 1956),26ff.; 21 Bieber, in
JdAI, xxxn( 1917 ),89ff., fig. 59. Pickard-
Murray, ed., Aeschylus, p. vf. Cambridge, Festivals, p. 183, fig. 41. Cf. also Trendall, Fruh-
12 Suidas, s.v. Aischylos. Bieber in Real-Enc, xiv,2073, italiotische Vasen, in Bilder griech. Vasen, ed. Beazley and
s.v. Maske. K. Reinhard, Aisclujlos (1949), p. 11, asserts Jacobsthal, No. 12(1928), p. 25, pi. 27a.
22
rightly, that the Aeschylean theater was much richer in Bieber, loc.cit., fig. 60.
23
Reisch, "Griechische Weihgeschenke," in Abh. arch.ep.
effects than the later dramas.
13 Amelung, Skulpt. vat. Mus., i,72, Braccio nuovo, No. Seminar Univ. Wien, 1890, Heft vm, p. 145, figs. 13-14.
53, pi. 9. Hekler, op.cit., pi. 7b. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 81f., Bieber, op.cit., pp. 92ff., figs. 57-58, 61-65, 68-70 and in
No. 27, pi. 42. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 185, fig. 45. Real-Enc, xiv,2071ff. Frickenhaus, Lendenvasen 72. BerlWPr
The Lycurgean statues of the three tragic poets are men- (1912), figs. No. 2b, 9, 11, 18, 19, 23, 26, 27, 29, pis.
1,
tioned by Plutarch, Vita X Orat., Lycurgus 11 and Pausanias i-m, v. Weege, Der Tanz, figs. 101, 103, 105, 107-13. Pick-

1,21. ard-Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 27ff., figs. 10-17. Deubner,

14 Head in Florence: Bieber, Sculpture of the Hellenistic in JdAI, xlix( 1934), Iff. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States,
Age, p. 58, fig. 179 (our Fig. 65). Head in Naples: Arndt, v,240ff., pis. xxxii-xxxiii. Winter-Pernice, Der Hildesheimer
Portrats, pi. 401f. Others, ibid., 402-410. Schefold, Bildnisse, Silbcrfund, pis. xi-xvi. G. van Hoorn, Choes and Anthesteria
p. 88, 4 and 207. Head in Copenhagen: Poulsen, Cat. of (1951), p. 97, No. 271, fig. 38.
ancient Sculpture in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek (1951), 24 Lucy Talcott, "Kourimos Parthenos," Hesperia, vm
p. 297, No. 421. Billedtavler, pi. xxx. Poulsen, From the (1939),267f., fig. 1. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 178f.,
Collections of the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, i(1931), Icono- fig. 25.
graphic Studies, pp. 65ff., figs. 49-50. Hafner, op.cit., fig. 1. 25
Bieber, op.cit., pp. 81ff., figs. 47-56. Terracotta head
15 Bieber, in JdAI, xxxn( 1917),70ff., figs. 36-39. Musees from Olympia ( Fig. 75 ) Ausgrabungen Olympia, ra, p.
:

de VAlgerie et de la Tunisie, i, Delattre, Musee Lavigerie 35f., fig. 37, pi. vrr. Head from Delos in Athens (Fig. 76):
de Carthage, i(1900), pp. 80ff., pi. xii; ibid., Musee Aloui, National Museum, No. 49 and fragmentary head ibid., No.
Suppl. n( 1910 pp. 143f., pis. lxxii, Lxxm,l and lxxiv,5.
) ,
46. Hermes of Alcamenes from Pergamon in Ausgrabun-
G. Perrot, he Musee de Bardo a Carthage, p. 20f. Ehren- gen Pergamon, vn. Winter, Die Skulpturen, i,48ff., No.
in
berg, Karthago (1927), pi. i. F. Behn, "Vorgeschichtliches Double herm in the Stadion of Athens
27, Beiblatt 5, pi. ix.
Maskenbrauchtum," in Berichte der sachsischen Akademie (Fig. 77): Altmann in Ath.Mitt., xxix( 1904),179ff. and
der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Phil. hist. Klasse, Vol. 102, 185. Double herm in the Louvre, from Collection Campana,
1(1955), p. 9f., pi. 10. Gauckler, Necropole Puniques de No. 198. Head from Pompeii in Naples Fig. 78 Bieber, ( ) :

Carthage, i(1915), Nos. 198-200, pis, cxcvm-cc. op.cit., p. 85f., fig. 56.
16 For the masks from the shrine of Artemis Orthia see 26 Lobeck, Aglaophamos, i,84. Albert Miiller, Biihnen-
Dawkins, ABSA, xn( 1905-06 ),324ff. Bosanquet, ibid., pp. altcrtumcr, p. 229. The former belief has been refuted by
338ff., pis. x-xn. Dickins in Dawkins, The Sanctuary of
Pringsheim, Archaologische Beitrage zur Geschichte des
Eleusinischen Kidts, pp. 7ff.
Artemis Orthia at Sparta (1929), pp. 163ff., pis., 47-62.
Higgins, Catalogue of the Terracottas in the Department of
27 Hydria from Cumae in Leningrad: Comptes rendus
Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum, pp. 285ff.,
Petersbourg (1862), pi. m; Journal Int. d'Arch. Numis., iv
(1901),400ff., pi. 15. Hydria from S. Maria di Capua in
pis. 143-145. Higgins assumes that these are faithful copies
Lyons (Fig. 79): Schefold, Kertscher Vasen, p. 126, pi. 35,
of masks intended to lie worn at the occasion of the dances
No. 368. F-R, pi. 70. Pfuhl, Malerei und Zeichnung, n,
in honor of Artemis. For the masks from the shrine of De-
p. 707; m, fig. 596.
meter see Cavvadias, Fouilles de Lycosura, pi. rv. Dickins, 28 Ephemeris Arch. ( 1901), Iff., pi. i. Journal Int. d'Arch.,
in ABSA, xm( 1906-07 ),373ff., figs. 14 and 26, pi. xiv. Bie-
iv(1901),169ff., pi. x. Pringsheim, op.cit., pp. 64ff.
ber,Griechische Kleidung, p. 68, pi. xxxiv,l-2, and s.v. 29 Monumcnti, pp. 25ff., pis. ii-iii. Helbig 3
Lovatelli, Ant. ,

Maske in Real-Enc, xiv( 1930),2070f. Wace in A] A, xxxvm No. 1325. Rizzo, in Rom.Mitt., xxv( 1910 ), 130, fig. 9, pi.
(1934),107ff., pi. x.
vn. Moebius, in Ath.Mitt., 60-61 ( 1935-6 ),235f. and 250.
Furtwangler, Antike Gemmen, i, pi. n, Nos. 30-35.
17
30 Rizzo, op.cit., pp. 89ff., pi. n. Moebius, op.cit.
Evans, Palace of Minos, i,708, fig. 532; iv,2, p. 393; p. 431, 31 Pringsheim, op.cit., p. 7. Foucart, Les Grands Mys-
fig. 354; p. 441, figs. 364-365; pp. 441ff., figs. 367-369; pp. teres, p. 32.
452ff., figs. 377-387, 390-392; p. 522, fig. 468. Nilsson, 32 Pringsheim, op.cit., p. 14. Cf. Korte in Festschrift zur
The Minoan-Mycenean Religion and its Survival in Greek 49. Vcrsammlung deutscher Philologen (Basel, 1907), p.
Religion, 2nd ed. (1950), pp. 374ff. 202.
18 Tsountas, Ephemcris (1887), pp. 162ff., pi. x. Evans, 33 F-R, pis. 1-3, 11-13. Pfuhl, Malerei und Zeichnung,
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER II

i,255ff.,m, figs. 215, 217. See particularly the fragments by Tragedie grecque, pp. 93ff., figs. 30-300, pi. 1,2 and n.
the painter Sophilos, ibid., i,246ff., in, fig. 202. Graef, Vasen Trendall, Pacstan Pottert/, pp. 60ff., pi. xvn. W. Miller,
von der Akropolis, i, No. 587, pi. 26. Daedalus and Thespis, "m( 1932),648f., fig. 34. Pickard-
34 See Bieber, in Real-Enc, second series, iv a s.v. Syr- Cambridge, Theater of Dionysus, p. 83f., fig. 11; idem, Fes-
ma, p. 1786f. tivals, p. 220, figs. 175-77. Webster, in Classical Quarterly
35 Bieber, "Herkunft des tragischen Kostiims," ]dAI, 42 (1948), 15.
xxxn(1917),19ff., fig. 1 and pi. i; idem, Denkmaler, pp. 51
James T. Allen, "On the Costume of the Greek Tragic
88 and 90, fig. 90. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 213f., Actor in the Fifth Century," Classical Quarterly, i(1907),
fig. 162. 226ff.
seBieber, JdAI, xxxn( 1917 ),22ff., figs. 2-6. 52 Fig. 98: Head
in the Museo archeologico in Florence,
3T Svoronos, Athener National Museum, found near Livorno together with the head of
pp. 154fF., No. in the sea
1463. pi. xxix. Benndorf, JOAI, ii( 1899),255ff., pis. v-vn. Aeschylus, Fig. 65. Katherine McDowell in JHS, xxxiv
Bieber, op.cit., p. 26, fig. 5, and p. 32, fig. 9. ( 1904 ),81ff., herm in the garden of Villa Colonna, originally

Bieber, op.cit., p. 41, fig. 15. Athens Nat. Mus., No.

s in one piece with a head of Aeschylus: W. Amclung, Atti
1362. Couve-Collignon, Vases d'Athenes, No. 1889. Ponteficia Academia Romana, Series m, Memorie I, part 2
p. 33, fig. 10. Bieber, The Sculpture of (1924), pp. 120ff. M. Bieber, Sculpture of the Hellenistic
3; Bieber, op.cit.,
'

the Hellenistic Age, p. 154, fig. 655. Age, p. 59f., figs. 180-81.
*° Naples. Mus. No. 9276 and 112286. Bieber, JdAI, xxxn 53 Arndt, Portrats, pis. 113-115. BrBr, pi. 427. Delbriick,

(1917), pp. 28ff., figs. 7-8, 12, 14. Antike Portrats, plate 16 B. Hekler, Bildniskunst p. xiv, ,

41Bieber, op.cit., pp. 36ff., fig. 13. pis. 52 and 54. Paribeni, // ritratto nell'arte antica, pi. xxvi.
42 On the cothurnus see Alfred Korte, Festschrift zur 49. Schefold, Bildnisse, pp. 90-93, 107. Bieber, Denknuilcr, p.
Versammlitng deutscher Philologen (Basel, 1907), pp. 203ff. 82, fig. 85, pis. 44-45; and Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age,
Bieber, Dresdener Schauspielerrelief, pp. 48ff. S. P. Karou- p. 59, fig.183.
54
zou, JHS, lxv(1945), p. 38ff., fig. 1, believes that the ear- Poulsen, Iconographic Studies, i, fig. 71. Bieber, Sculp-
liest representation of an actor wearing cothurni in a satyr ture of the Hellenistic Age, p. 59, fig. 182.
drama on a lekythos, Athens Inv. No. 17612. 55 Aristotle, Poetics, 1452a, 1453a-b, 1454b, 1455a.
is pp.
43Beazley, Vases in American Museums, p. 168, fig. 104. F. Fergusson, The Idea of a Theater. A study of ten plays.
Buschor in'F-B, in, text to pi. 145, p. 134f., fig. 62. Hoppin, The art of drama in changing perspective (1949). Fer-
Handbook of Attic Red-figured Vases, i,83, No. 6. Caskey gusson gives an excellent analysis of the Oedipus Rex, and
and Beazley, Attic Vase-Paintings in the Museum of Fine he uses this drama as basis for the understanding of all
Arts, i, No. 63, pi. 29. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. tragedies, from Racine to Eliot.
182, fig. 39. T.B.L. Webster, Greek Art and Literature, pi. 5
6Hauser in JOAI, vm( 1905 ),37ff., fig. 5. Gardner, in
18, facing p. 144. JHS, xxv ( 1905 ),67f., pi. i,l. B. Schroder, in JdAI, xxx
44 Bieber, op.cit.,
p. 43f. Vita ed. Wilamowitz in Aesclujli (1915), 113, fig. 11; Studniczka, ibid., xxxi( 1916),205, fig.
Tragoediae, p. 5, part 14. 20. Beazley, Corpus Vas. Ant. Oxford, i, No. 530, pi. xxxn,
Kendall K. Smith, "The Use of the High-Soled Shoe fig. 1. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 232, fig. 204.

or Buskin in the Greek Tragedy of the Fifth and Fourth "Bieber, in Ath.Mitt., l( 1925 ) Jiff., pi. n. Pickard-
Century, B.C.," in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Cambridge, Festivals, p. 221, fig. 181. Trendall, Paestan
xvi ( 1905 ),123ff. A. Korte, op.cit., pp. 198ff. Bieber, op.cit, Pottery, p. 88, fig. 53.
58 Gilhert Murray, rec.,
pp. 42ff. Other literature, ibid., and C. Fensterbusch in Bur- Euripides, Fabulae (1902-09);
sians Jahresberichtc, No. 253, 1936, pp. 8ff. idem, Euripides and His Age, 2nd ed. (1946). Wilamowitz,
46 Bieber, op.cit., 10; p. 41f., Euripides, Hcrakles, i, 2nd ed. (1897), pp. 108ff.; idem,
p. 28f., fig. 7; p. 32f., fig.

fig. 15; p. 49f., 20; pp. 53ff., 25-27. Studniczka, Ka-

fig. Einleitung in die griechische Tragodie (1907), pp. Iff.
lamis, Abh. sdchs. Ges., iv(1907),78, pi. 7a (our Fig. 91). 53 Arndt, Portrats, pis. 35-36. Hekler, Bildniskunst, pis.

Bulle, Sclwner Mensch, pi. 45. De Ridder, Bronzes du 10 and 89. Delbriick, Portrats, p. xxxm, pi. 17. Arndt-Ame-
Louvre, No. 154, pi. 17. Schreiber, Hellenistische Relief- lung, Nos. 1982-83. Paribeni, Ritratti, pi. xxn. Poulsen,
bilder, pis. 37-39. F-R, pi. 120,2. Trendall, Friihitaliotische Iconographic Studies, i, figs. 55-56; idem, Cat. of Ancient
Vasen, pp. 24f., B 36, pi. 24. Volute crater in Tarentum, No. Sculpture in the Ny-Carlsberg Glyptothek (1951), No. 414b.
4358, attributed to the Karnaea painter. Wuilleumier, in Hinks, Greek and Roman Portrait Sculpture in the British
Revue arch., n( 1933), Iff. A relief from Koropi shows 15 Museum (1935), p. 8, pi. 4b. Mus. No. 1833. Schefold,
chorus members standing before an altar of Dionysus be- Bildnisse, p. 88f., No. 3. Bieber, Denkrruiler, p. 82f., No.
hind which a statue of Dionysus in short chiton and with 29, pi. 43,2; and Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age (1954),
a cantharus has high cothurni. Reisch, Weihgeschenke, Abh. p. 60, figs. 185-187. Lost statuette drawing by Orsini (Fig.
arch.ep. Seminar Univ. Wien (1890), Heft vni, pp. 123ff., 108): JHS, 43 (1923), 64, fig. 8.
60 Bieber, Denkmaler,
fig. 12. p. 82f., No. 29, pl7 46. Pickard-
47 Bieber, op.cit., pp. 15ff., headband (our Fig. 92). Cur- Cambridge, Festivals, p. 185, fig. 48.
tius, in JOAI, 36 (1946), 62ff., figs. 7-9. 61 Berlin Mus. No. 3237. Bethe, in JdAI, xi( 1896 ),292ff.,
48 Trendall, op.cit.,
p. 13, No. 101, pi. 4 d, p. 15f., No. pi. 2. Sechan, Tragedie grecque, pp. 256ff., fig. 76. Bieber,
144, pis. 10a and 11a, Copenhagen, No. 3635; Bari, No. Denkmaler, p. 103f., No. 40, fig. 105, pi. 52. Pickard-Cam-
4409, volute crater from Ruvo. Bieber, op.cit., p. 43f., fig. bridge, Festivals, p. 217, fig. 164-165.
16, vase from Ruvo in Naples, p. 53f., fig. 26, cover of the e 2 Bethe, in JdAI, xi( 1896),295ff.

amphora, Naples, No. 3249, with Orestes in Delphi: F-R, 63 Robert, in Arch. Zeitung, xxxvi( 1878 ),13ff.
in, pp. 362ff., fig. 172. 64 See Pottier, Catalogue des Vases antiques du Louvre,
49 Bieber, in Real-Enc, xiv,2082. Girard. L'Expression m,2 (2nd ed., 1929), pp. 1053ff.
des Masques chez Eschtjle, 1895. 65Lucanian hydria in the British Museum No. F185;
50 F-R, pi. 120-23 and 179. Huddilston, Griech. Tragodie British Mus. Cat. of Vases, iv, p. 95f., pi. vn. Sechan, op.cit.,
im Licht der Vasenmalerei, pp. 71ff. and 47. Greek Tragedy p. 261f., fig. 81.
in the Light of Vase-Painting, pp. 55ff., figs. 5-9. Sechan, 66 Studniczka, in Melanges Perrot, pp. 307ff. Svoronos, Das
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTERS II AND III

Athener National-Museum, u, pp. 512ff., pi. lxxxii. Bieber, raphie de l'lphigenie en Tauride d'Euripide" in Revue Beige
Denkmaler, p. 104f., No. 41, pi. 53. Buschor in F-R, m, text de Philol. et d'Histoire, rv( 1925),5ff. F-R, pi. 148. Pickard-
to pis. 143-145, p. 134f., fig. 61. Pickard-Cambridge, Festi- Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, pp. 86ff., figs. 14-16 and
vals, p. 179, fig. 26. 19. Ippel, in Studies Presented to D. M. Robinson (1951),
HBr, p. 54, pi. 42. Pfuhl, Malerei und Zeichnung der
67 i,809ff., pis. 105-6. Webster, Greek Theatre Production
Griechen, n, p. 621f., in, fig. 641. W. Miller, Daedalus and (1956), pp. 15 and 102f., pi. 7.
71 D-R,
Thespis, The Contributions of the Ancient Dramatic Poets pp. 307ff. The idea of Frickenhaus (Alt griech.
to our Knowledge of the Arts and the Crafts of Greece, III, Buhne, p. 7f. that these halls were wooden structures on the
)

Painting and Allied Arts (1932), pp. 630ff., fig. 28. I cannot eccyclema (see Ch. VI) and rolled out with it, seems to me
share the opinion of Pfuhl (op.cit.) and von Salis (in JdAI absurd.
72 Robert, Oedipus,
xxv[1910],144, and Kunst der Griechen, p. 172) that this pp. 381ff., figs. 51-52. Pickard-Cam-
wallpainting is copied from a picture of the classical period. bridge, Theater of Dionysus, p. 85f., fig. 13.
The pathetic movement is thoroughly Hellenistic. 73 Sechan, op.cit.,
p. 490, fig. 144. Pace, in Mon. ant.,
68 Carcopino, La Basilique Pythagoricienne, 1922, pp. 524ff., figs. 1-3, pi. i. Trendall, Paestan Pottery,
pp. 135ff., pi.
xv. Cumont, in Rassegna d 'Arte, vm( 1921 ), 37-44 with plate. p. 7f., pi. i,b. Early Paestan crater in Syracuse, No. 36319.
Jolliffe and Strong, in JHS, xliv( 1924 ),65ff.,91ff., fig. 15. Fig. 118: formerly Collection Castellani and Hearst, now in
Emily Wadsworth, in MAAR, iv(1924),85, pi. xlvii,2. the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, No. 56.171.58.
69 Vogel, Szenen Euripideischer Tragddien in griech. Va- D. von Bothmer, BMMA (1957), p. 179, fig. 2. I owe the
sengemalden, 1886; Huddilston, Greek Tragedy in the Light new photograph for Fig. 118 to his kindness.
74 Schaal, De
of Vase-Painting, 1898, trans, by Maria Hense, Griechische Euripid. Antiopa, Diss. Berlin, 1914. Se-
Tragddie in Licht der Vasenmalerei, 1900. Sechan, op.cit., chan, op.cit., pp. 291ff.
75 Mus. No. 3296. Found
pp. 231-518. C. Fensterbusch, in Bursians Jahresberichte, Berlin in Palazzuolo. Schaal,
No. 253, 1936, pp. 2ff. W. Miller, op.cit., i(1929), p. 74 op.cit., pi. i. Sechan, op.cit., pp. 305ff., fig. 88. Trendall,
with plate. For our Figs. 34-35 above, see: Bulle, in Corolla op.cit., p. 7f., pi. na.
Curtius, pp. 151-160, pis. 54-56. Buschor, "Zwei Theater- 76 Munich, Mus. No. 810. Found in Canosa. F-R, pi. 90.
kratere" in Studies Presented to David Robinson (1953), n, Bieber, Denkmaler, pp. 105ff., No. 42, fig. 106, pi. 54. A. B.
pp. 90-95, pi. 32a. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 183, figs. Cook, Zeus i,251f., pi. xxn. Sechan, op.cit., pp. 405ff., pi.
40a-c. Buschor thinks that the chorus, poet, chorodidiaskalos, viii.Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, p. 92, fig. 21.
and the musicians of Euripides' Hippolytus are represented. Robert, Archdologische Hermeneutik, pp. 159ff., fig. 130.
The fluteplayer and one actor have the sleeved robe. Four Robert believes that the vase painter had himself arbitrarily
white masks are preserved. The style is similar to the Pro- changed the Euripidean drama. The changes, however, are
nomos vase (Figs. 31-33) and the date is around 400 B.C. not in the form but in the substance of the plot, thus lit-
70 Vogel, op.cit., erary, not artistic deviations from Euripides.
pp. 68ff. Huddilston, op.cit., pp. 121ff.
Sechan, op.cit., pp. 379ff., figs. 109-114. Philippart, "Iconog-

NOTES TO CHAPTER III. OLD COMEDY AND MIDDLE COMEDY • ARISTOPHANES

Bethe, Prolegomena, pp. 48ff. F. M. Cornford, The
1 9 Pickard-Cambridge, Dithyramb, pp. 274ff.
Origin of the Attic Comedy (1914), pp. 35ff. Romagnoli, 10 G. Korte in JdAI, vm( 1893),89ff., and Ath.Mitt., xix
Nel Regno di Dioniso. Studi sul teatro comico greco (1923). (1894),346ff. G. Loeschcke, ibid., pp. 510ff., pi. vm. Bieber,
Pickard-Cambridge, Dithyramb, pp. 221ff. and 244ff.; idem, Denkmaler, p. 129, No. 72a, fig. 122. Payne, Necrocorinthia,
Festivals, p. 194f. H. Herter, Vom dionysischen Tanz zum p. 118f., fig. 44 C, and p. 314, No. 1073.
komischen Spiel. Die Anfange der attischen Komodie ( 1947). 11 Pickard-Cambridge, Dithyramb,
p. 265f., figs. 33-41.
2 Wilhelm, Urkunden dramatischer Auffuhrungen,
pp. 10 A. Greifenhagen, Darstellung des Komos im VI Jahrhundert
and 18. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 83, 106, 119. (1929), pp. 59, 66f. and 102f. note 128, pi. i; idem, "Ein
3 British Mus. No. B 509 (our Fig. 123): Cecil Smith in bootischer Tanzchor des 6. Jh. v. Chr.," in Festschrift fur
JHS, n( 1881 ), 309ff., pi. xiv. Berlin Mus. No. F 1830 (our Friedrich Zuckcr (1954), pp. 27ff. Padded dancers on Corin-
Fig. 124): Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 127f., No. 71b-c, figs. 119- thian plaques: Ant.Denk., i, pi. 7, 14a; n, pi. 39,9. Vases:
121. Pickard-Cambridge, Dithyramb, pp. 244ff., figs. 16-17. Payne, Necrocorinthia, pp. 118ff., fig. 44A-F., pi. 33, No. 2, 9-
4 Boston Mus. No. 20,18. Flickinger, Greek Theater,
p. 10; pp. 194ff., figs. 88a and 89, pi. 51, 1-7 and 52, 1-3. Busch-
40, figs. 15-16. F. Brommer in Arch. Anz., lvii( 1942),65ff., or, Satyrtanze, pp. 18ff. T. B. L. Webster, "Greek Comic
figs. 1-2. He gives parallels for the dolphin riders in his Costume: its History and Diffusion," Bulletin of the Rylands
figs.3-9. For other animal dances in comedy see Pickard- Library 36( 1954 ),579ff. Our Fig. 131 in the Metropolitan
Cambridge, Dithyramb, p. 247, and Festivals, p. 195, note Museum of Art, No. 22, 139, 22 is an Attic imitation. Payne,
1. Bielefeld, "Ein Delphinreiter-Chor," Arch. Anz., lxi/ii
p. 194, No. 8, pi. 51,6. G. Richter, Handbook of the Greek
(1946/.47), 48-54. Collection (1953), p. 57, pi. 37b., dated 590-570 b.c.
5
Berlin Inv. No. F.16 97. Gerhard, Trinkschalen und 12 Charlotte Frankel, Rheinisches Museum fiir Philologie
Gefdsse, n, pi. xxi. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 127, No. 71a,
(1912), pp. 94ff. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 129f., No. 72b, fig.
pi. 66. Pickard-Cambridge, Dithyramb, p. 246f., fig. 18.
123a-b. Flickinger, Greek Theater, p. 47f., fig. 20. Payne,
6 Th. Zielinski, Gliederung der attischen Komodie (1885)
Necrocorinthia, pp. 122 and 317, No. 1178. Pickard-Cam-
pp. 175ff. Bethe, Prolegomena, p. 55. Pickard-Cambridge,
bridge, Dithyramb, pp. 263ff. Pottier, Album Vases ant. du
Dithyramb, pp. 292ff.
7 Gregor Krause and Karl With, Insel Bali
(1920), i, pis. Louvre, i,55, E 632. A. B. Cook, Zeus, m,559f., fig. 381.
13 Kaibel, Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, in Frag-
20-21; ii, p. 23.
8 Poppelreuter, De Comoediae Atticae Primordiis (1892), menta Poetarum Graecorum, vi,l ( 1899), 91-133, Nos. 1-239.
pp. 23ff. G. Korte in Real-Enc, xi, s.v. Komodie, pp. 1242ff., Idem in Real-Enc, vi( 1909 ),34-41. Olivieri, Frammenti del-
especially p. 1251. la Commedia greca e del Mimo nella Sicilia e nella Mag-
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER III

na Grccia, Tcsto e Commento (1930; second 23 Our Fig. 150: Louvre No. 294. Good technique. Cf.
ed. 1947),
pp. I83ff. below, Fig. 196 in the Metropolitan Museum from Middle
14 Heracles: Kaibel, op.cit., p. 104f., Nos. 76-78. Odys- Comedy. As this figure in the Louvre has already the dif-
seus: p. 108ff., Nos. 99-108. ferentiation of the eyebrows, it may also, like others listed,
15 Hetty Goldman and Frances Jones, "Terracottas from already belong to the Middle Comedy. A related figure in
the Necropolis of Halae," Hesperia, xi( 1942),405f., pi. the British Museum: Walters, op.cit., C 62. Higgins, op.cit.,
xxm. The actors are dated 390-350 b.c.David Robinson, p. 200, No. 742, pi. 99. Higgins explains this as a thief
Excavations at Olynthos, iv(1931),70 and 86f.; vn(1933), who has found sanctuary on an altar.
78ff.; x( 1941), Iff. Text to pi. i, bronze statuette of actor; 24 151 in Rostock, Archeological Collection of the
Fig.
xiv(1952),263f.,2721f. The destruction of Olynthos. 348 B.C., University. Bought in Naples. A similar figure, complete,
gives a terminus ante queni. Dorothy Thompson, llcsperia, is in the Museo Teatrale in Milano, No. 208.

XXl(1952),141ff., Nos. 43-47, pi. 38: "the terracottas [of 25 Fig. 152 in Bonn, Akademisches Kunstmuseum, Inv. No.
actors] are not popular until Old Comedy had died out." D 5. An and beard,
excellent figure of a slave with red hair
Statuettes, heads, and moulds for similar heads of actors have who offers food to the baby in his arm is in the British Mu-
been found in Corinth: Agnes Stillvvcll, Corinth, xv, 1 seum, Walters, op.cit., C 237. Higgins, op.cit., p. 199, No.
(1948), Nos. 43-50, pp. 102-4, pis. 35-36; xv,2(1952), 740, pi. 97.

p. 1431., pi. 29, Nos. XIX 10-12, dated first half of fourth
26 Fig. 153: Berlin Mus. No. 6892. Bieber, Denkmdler,
century. R. A. Higgins, Catalogue of the Terracottas in the p. 133, No. 84, pi. 70,3. Fig. 154: Berlin No. 7820. Bieber,
Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Mu- Denkmdler, p. 133f., No. 85, pi. 72,3. Tights yellow, chiton
seum, i ( 1954), 171, 197-202, Nos. 736-748. Higgins dates blue, chlamys white, shoes dark blue, scabbard yellow. Rob-
these early to mid fourth century. ert, Masken, p. 21, fig. 17. Zahn, "Maison" in Die Antike,
10 Berlin,
Mus. Nos. 8823 and 8405. Bieber, Denkmdler, n(1926),328ff., pi. 23. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 204,
p. 132, Nos. 79-80, pi. 69. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, fig. 110.
27 Tarentum:
p. 204, figs. 103 and 109. Fig. 155: Notizie degli Scavi (1897), p.
17 Fig. 135 and 137: in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, 216, fig. 156: Berlin, Mus. No. 7042a. Found in
36. Fig.
No. 01.8013, Fat Man. Traces of red in the face and on Megara. Robert, Masken, p. 12f., fig. 24. Bieber, Denkmdler,
the feet, blue on the wreath; No. 01.7758, bought in Athens, p. 134, Nos. 86-87, pi. 72,1-2. Hair white. Eyebrows and
said to be from the Kabeirion in Thebes, Thin Man. Fig. iris black. Face, anus, legs lively red. Chiton white. Mantle

138: Walters, British Museum Catalogue of Terracottas, C. light blue.

239; Higgins, op.cit., p. 198, No. 737, pi. 97. Fig. 136 is 28 Berlin, Mus. Nos. 7603-4. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 135,
found in Megara Hyblaea, now in the Archaeological Col- Nos. 90-91, 74,1 and 3. In both, hair, face, beard, arms,
pi.
lection of the University of Rostock. legs red. Fig. 158 carries a yellow caldron; his lips are vio-
18 Fig. in Boston, Fine Arts Museum, No. 01.7838.
139 let. Fig. 157 has a yellow metal ring over his bald pate.
Found Greece. Hair and beard red. Mantle light violet.
in On the skillet over his left shoulder are yellow cakes with
Basket yellow with traces of gold at the rims. Fig. 140 red points. The bundle on his back is red and yellow. Fig.
Louvre, Mus. No. 300, found in Greece. Beard and hair 159: David Robinson, Olynthos, x( 1941 ), Iff., pi. i.
dark reddish-brown. Mantle blue. Fig. 142, Boston, Mus. 29 Fig. 160: Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, No. 01.7762.

No. 13.99. Traces of light red on the face, blue-black on the Cf. Pottier, Les statues de terres cuites, 120, fig. 42. Fig.
iris, grayish-black on the mouth. Fig. 143 in the Louvre, 161: British Museum, Higgins, op.cit., No. 745, p. 201, pi.
Mus. No. S 1682. Fig. 141 from a mould for an actor car- 99; Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 209, fig. 142. Fig. 162:
rying a broad and low basket on his head, found in Olvn- Athens, Nat. Mus. No. 13015; Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals,
thus. D. Robinson, Olynthos, xiv( 1952),263f., No. 364, p. 209, fig. 143. Fig. 163: Berlin Museum, No. 7089. Fig.
pi. 108. 164: Metropolitan Museum of Art, No. 07.286.8. Fig. 165:
« Fig. 145, Berlin, Mus. No. 8265. A similar fig. in the Archaeological Collection of the University of Rostock.
Louvre, Mus. No. 295: Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. Bought in Naples. Cf. Fouilles de Delphes, v, pi. xxm,5.
208, 139. Fig. 144: Princeton University, The Art Mu-
fig. 30 Fig. 166 in Wiirzburg. The left leg and right foot of

seum, No. 48-50. Frances Jones, in The Record of the Art the man are restored. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 136, No. 92,
Museum, x, 1(1951), 1-4. Frances Jones, The Theater in pi. 74,4. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 204, fig. 108. Fig.
Ancient Art: An Exhibition, The Art Museum, Princeton 167: Louvre, said to be found in Cyprus. A group of an
University (1952), p. 5, No. 13. Fig. 146 in Munich An- actor holding a woman in his arm is in the Museo teatrale
tikensammlungen, Mus. No. 5390. See also, Winter, Tt/pen of Milano, No. 310. Another comic actor in a group with
der figiirlichen Terrakotten in Kekule, Antike Terrakotten, a dancing woman, from Centuripe in Karlsruhe: Kekule,
in, part ii, p. 414, figs. 2-3. Figiirliche Terrakotten, n, Terrakotten von Sizilien, p. 74, pi.
20 Fig. Munich Antikensammlungen,
147, Inv. No. 5389. xliv,2; Winter, ibid., in, 2, p. 423,7. I owe the excellent
Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 133, No. 83, pi. 71. Pickard-Cam- photographs of the delightful pair (Figs. 166a=e) to the kind-
bridge, Festivals, p. 204, fig. 111. See also: Dorothy Thomp- ness of Professor Hans Moebius.
son, Hesperia, xxi(1952), pi. 38. Walters, British Mus. Cat. 31 W. Beare, "Actors' Costumes, in Aristophanes Comedy,"

of Terracottas, C 238. Higgins, op.cit., p. 198, No. 738, pi. CO, iv ( 1954), 64-75, denies that padding and phallus were
98. used otherwise than occasionally. I believe that these con-
Walters, British Mus. Cat. of Terracottas, C 90. Hig-
21
trivances were only occasionally hidden under the dress of
gins, op.cit., p. 200, No. 743, pi. 98 (our Fig. 148). Luschey, everyday fife for women and dignified persons. See also T. B.
Ganymed, Heidelberger Beitriige zur antiken Kunstgeschichte L. Webster, "Attic Comic Costume: A Reexamination," Eph-
( 1942), p. 71f., fig. 1. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 207f., emeris (1953-4, appeared 1957), 192ff.
figs. 130-134. Dorothy Thompson, Hesperia, xxi (1952), 32 Fig. 168: Statuette in Vienna, Austria, formerly in the

142f., Nos. 44-47, pi. 38. Winter, Typen der figiirlichen Terra- possession of Hartwig, Mus. No. 161, Inv. No. 1844.
kotten, in Kekule, Antike Terrakotten, m, 2, p. 418,9 and 33 Carapanos, Dodone,
pi. xin, No. 5. Bieber, Denkmdler,
p. 419,2-4. p. 131f., No. 78, pi. 68. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p.
22 Louvre No. CA 6816. 202f., fig. 102.
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER III

34 Heracles: Figs. 170-171: Boston Museum of Fine Arts, 45 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Inv. Nos. 13.225.13-28.
from Greece. Mus. No. 01.8014. Berlin Mus. Nos. 8838, G. Richter, in BMMA, Webster in CO,
ix( 1914 ),235f.
cf. head No. 4781. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 130f., Nos. 73-74, Idem, Studies in Later Greek Comedy,
xliii( 1948),20ff.
pi. 67, face, hands, and lion skin dark red. Jersey reddish- pp. 76 and 85. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 199f., figs.
yellow, chiton red. Quiver reddish yellow. Munich Mus. No. 84-88. Dorothy Thompson in Hesperia, xxi( 1952 ), 143. F.
382, formerly collection Arndt. Walters, British Museum Jones in The Theater in Ancient Art, An Exhibition The (

Cat. of Terracottas, C 80. Higgins, op.cit., p. 199, No. 741, Art Museum, Princeton University), 1952, Nos. 14-27. G.
pi. 98. Webster in Bulletin of the Ryland Library, xxxii Richter, Handbook of the Greek Collection (1953), 112f., pi.
(1949),97f., fig. 7. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 199, 93a-f.
figs. Odysseus: Fig. 172: Louvre, No. 485. Fig. 173:
82. 46 Parallels
from Olynthus, dated before 348, in David M.
Munich Mus. No. 383a, Inv. No. 6926, formerly collection Robinson, Excavations at Olynthos, The Terracottas, Vol.
Arndt. Cf. Fouilles de Delphes, v, pi. xxn,2. A mould for iv (1931), p. 70, No. 364, pi. 38, veiled young lady (see our
part of this type has been found on the Agora of Athens: Fig. 192); p. 86f., No. 404, pi. 46, nude man (our Fig. 195);
Davidson and Thompson, Small Objects from the Pnyx, I, Vol. vn(1933), p. 81, No. 308, pi. 38, seated man with
147, No. 65, fig. 61. Kadmos: Figs. 174-175: Louvre, from finger in mouth (our Fig. 197); Vol. xrv(1952), pp. 272ff.,
Cyprus? Both are sphenopogons. Hero with pestle (Ares) No. 378, pi. 113 and No. 380G, pi. 116, weeping man (our
in Munich (Fig. 176). Beplica in the Museo teatrale in Mi- Figs. 188 and 199); pp. 276ff., No. 380, pi. 115, man with
lano, No. 142. Hero: Fig. 177; Louvre, No. 298. Face red, punch bowl (our Figs. 190 and 200) and pi. 116, old woman
hair and beard brown, eyebrows black. Mantle yellowish- (our Figs. 185 and 193). Other parallels to our Figs. 185-
green. Crown red. 186 are in the British Museum. Both old nurse and giggling
35 Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 131, No. 76, pi. 67,4. young woman in the Brit. Mus.: Pickard-Cambridge, Fes-
36 Fig. 179: statuette of a tympanon player in costume tivals, p. 209, figs. 140-141. Walters, op.cit., C.4; Higgins,
of Old Comedy in the Louvre, No. 297. For clapper (krota- op.cit., p. 200ff., Nos. 744 and 747, pi. 99. For others see
lon) and tympanon see Wegner, Das Musikleben der Grie- Winter, in Kekule, Terrakotten, in. Typen der figiirlichen
chen, pp. 62ff. Terrakotten, n, p. 414, Nos. 7-8; 417, No. 3; 418, Nos.
37 Schnabel, Kordax, 1910. Vincenzo Festa, Memorie dell' 4,10,11; 421, No. 8; 424, No. 9; 462, Nos. 1, 7, 8; 463, No.
Accademia di Archeologia di Napoli, rv( 1919 ),35ff. Weege, 1. Cf. also above, Fig. 165, note 29.
Der Tanz in der Antike (1926), pp. 98ff., 105ff. Sechan, La 47 Bieber, Denkmdler,
p. 132f., No. 82, pi. 70,2.
dance grecque antique (1930), pp. 187ff. 48 An excellent example of the young woman is in Heidel-
38 Schnabel, op.cit., pp. 17ff., pi. i. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. berg: H. Luschey, "Komodien-Masken," in Ganymed, Hei-
175f., No. 186, fig. 141. Olivieri, Frammenti della Corn- delberger Beilrage zur antiken Kunstgeschichte (1949), pp.
media, p. 220, fig. 16. For satyr dances out of which the 72ff., figs. 2-3. Other replicas: David Robinson. Olynthos,
kordax can have developed, see Weege, op.cit., pp. 105ff., iv (1931), The Johns Hopkins Studies in Archaeology, No.
figs. 138-146, 159, 171. 12, p. 70, text to No. 364, pi. 38.
p. 86f., believes this fat man
39 Agora Museum, Athens, Nos. 49 D. Robinson, op.cit., iv,
S 1025a-c. I owe the
photographs to the kindness of Alison Frantz and Evelyn to be a hermaphrodite. But the flabby breast is that of an
Harrison, who will publish the marble base in her Catalogue older man, not of a woman.
of Sculptures from the Agora. For dedications of choregi 50
See our notes 15, 46, 49. For the seated slave see Win-
see Reisch, Griechische Weihgeschenke, in Abh. epigr. arch. ter, Typen der figiirlichen Terrakotten, Part n, p. 419, figs.
Seminar der Universitat Wien, Heft vm(1890), pp. 116ff. 6-7, and p. 424, fig. 9. See also Higgins, op.cit., p. 200, Nos.
For such of agonotheti, who replaced the choregi in lean 742-743, pis. 98 and 99.
periods, ibid., pp. 90ff. 51 On the Different Comedies (ilepJ dicupopas
Platonius,
40 Mercklin, Rdm.Mitt., 38/9( 1923/4),82f., fig. 7. T.B.L. Kaibel, p. 5, If 11: "The comedy of the middle
Kcofj.udi(vi>) ,

Webster, in Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, 36( 1954), period made a business of ridiculing the stories told by the
585, fig. 3. Brommer, "Kopf iiber Kopf" in Antike und Abend- poets." List of extant titles of mythological plays written
land, iv,42ff., figs. 2-3, note 3. Beazley, in Attic Vase Paint- between 400 and 300 in Meinecke, Comicorum Fragmenta,
ings in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, n,83f., text to pi. pp. 283-284.
Lxn. He believes the heads on top of the real heads to be 52 E. Strong, in JHS, xxm( 1903),356ff. Webster in Stud-
a token disguise rather than masks. ies David Robinson, i, p.
. . . 590f., pi. 55; idem, Studies in
41 Louis Lord, Aristophanes, His Plays and Influence Later Greek Comedy, p. 10f., pi. i; idem, Production, 56, 62,
(1931). Gilbert Murray, Aristophanes, A Study (1933). 69, 119, pi. 16. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 200, fig. 89.
42 Kaibel, Comicorum Graec. Fragmenta, I owe the photograph for Fig. 201 to the generosity of Pro-
p. 5, Platonius.
Dorothy Thompson in Hesperia, xxi( 1952), 144: "The change fessor Webster.
of mask type may also probably be associated with the 53 Bulle, Das Theater zu Sparta, SBMiinch (1937), Heft
enlargement of the auditorium of the theatre under Lykur- 5, pp. 51ff., pi. v. Dugas, Revue Etudes anciennes, 49( 1936),
gus." 226, pi. m,l. Beazley, in JHS, lix(1939), p. 10f., fig. 30.
43 Bibliography in Bieber, The Sculpture of the Hellenistic Papaspyridi-Karouzou, ibid., lxv( 1945 ), 40,42, 5 (draw- pi.
Age, p. 143, note 63. To be added: David M. Robin- ing by Gillieron). Brommer, Satyrspiele, pp. 25ff., figs. 17-
son, AJA, 59 (1955), 25-27, pi. 17, figs. 30-33 (our Figs. 19. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, p. 74; idem,
183a-c). Lippold in Arndt, pis. 1211-1219. Felletti-Maj, Festivals, p. 237. Webster, in CQ, 42(1948), 18f. idem, ;

Museo Nazionale Romano, I Ritratti, p. 22f., Nos. 23-25. B. Ephemeris, 1957, (1953-54), 199f., fig. 4; idem, Production,
Strandman, "The Pseudo-Seneca," Opuscula Academica, 7, 20, 109, pi. 14.
Kunsthistorics Tidsskrift, 19 (Stockholm, 1950), pp. 53-82, 54 Athens, No. 5815 (1931). Korte, in Ath.Mitt., xix
with 6 plates. Cf. Ch. VIII, n. 10. (1894),346ff., and NJb, xlvii( 1921 ),311f. Bieber, Denk-
44 Korte in JdAI, vm(1893), mdler, p. 153, No. 126, pi. 87, 1. Pickard-Cambridge, Di-
p. 69, fig. 1. Bieber, Denk-
mdler, p. 136f., No. 97, fig. 124. Flickinger, Greek Theater, thyramb, p. 269f. Zahn in text to F-R, m,180, note 5, be-
p. 47, fig. 17. Bethe, Griechische Dichtung, pi. vin. Pick- lieves the vase, Fig. 203, to be southern Italian and to rep-
ard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 195f., fig. 80. resent a phlyakes. farce. A. D. Trendall kindly informs me
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTERS III AND IV
that it is not Boeotian but Corinthian red-figure, and takes 1119. Heydemann, Vasensammlung Neapel, No. 3232. Bie-
with it the fragment from Corinth published by Luce, AJA ber, "Die Herkunft des tragischen Kostiims" in ]dAI, xxxh
xxxiv,(1930), p. 342, fig. 6. (1917),62f., figs. 32-33. Beazley, in JHS, lix( 1939),23ff.,
55 Percy Gardner, Catalogue
of Greek Vases in the Ash- fig. 60; 30ff., No. 82-83, on Persian dances, performed on a

rnolcan Museum, p. ISf., No. 262, pi. 26. Bieber, Denk- table by men in Oriental dress and by girls. Idem in Hesperia,
miiler, p. 154, No. 128, figs. 134-135. W. Miller, Daedalus xxiv( 1955),304ff., pi. 85, on Orientals with fiuteplayer.
60 Bulle, Festschrift
and Thespis, Vol. in, p. 657f., fig. 39. P. Wolters and Gerda fur Loeb, p. 28, figs. 14-16.
Bruus, Das Kabeironheiligtum bei Theben, i( 1940),95ff., 01 Exploration arch, de Delos, xii, 38f., pis. 22 and 24.

p. 99 K 19, p. 100 K 21, pi. 27,3. JHS, xni(1893), 77ff., Rumpf in Studies presented to David Robinson (1953),
pi. 4. A. B. Cook, Zeus, in, 160, fig. 70. n,84-89, pi. 30 (Robinson Collection), pi. 31 (Cleveland)
5G Berlin Ms. No. 3284. Bieber, Dcnkrniiler, p. 153f., No. No. 26549=our Fig. 214. For other representations of men in
127, pi. 87,2. Wolters and Bruns, op.cit., p. 100 K 22, pi. women's clothing see Buschor, in JdAI, 38/9( 1923/4), 128-
27,1. 132, fig. 1. Buschor's idea, that these are men celebrating the
Heidelberg Mus. No. B 134. Luschey, Die Welt der
57 skirophoria has been refuted by Deubner, Attische Feste, p.
Griechen (1948), p. 62, No. 16; idem in Ganymed, ed. Her- 49f., 132f., pi. 21,3. Beazley, Attic Red-Figure Vases, Bos-
big (1949), p. 75, fig. 4. Webster, in Festschrift Bernhard ton, n,55ff., No. 99, pi. li. He believes that it means some
Schweitzer, p. 261f., pi. 57,1; idem, Studies in Later Greek sacred not a komos. Cf. also Beazley, Attic Red-Figure
rite,

Comedy, p. llf., pi. u,l; idem, Production, 61, 65, 67, pi. Vase-Painting, p. 123, No. 29; p. 173, No. 11; p. 379, No. 30.
15a. Kraiker, Kat. d. Vasen Heidelberg, p. 239, pi. 48. The vase in the Robinson Collection, formerly in Baltimore,
58 Margaret Crosby, Hesperia, xxrv( 1955), 76-84, pis. 34- now in Oxford, University of Mississippi: CVA, Baltimore,
37. pis. 28 and 28a. Another example in Madrid: Leroux, Vases
59 Athens, Mus. No. 12683. Nicole, Vases d'Athenes, No. Grecs de Madrid, p. 82f., No. 155, pi. xix.

NOTES TO CHAPTER IV. THE DIONYSIAC FESTIVALS

1
Mommsen,
Feste der Stadt Athen, pp. 349ff., 372ff., tlicsteria (1951), pp. 15ff. G. Richter, Handbook of the
384ff., Thraemer, in Roscher, i, 107 Iff. Nilsson, in
428ff. Greek Collection (1953), p. 103, pi. 84c-f.
11 Deubner, JdAI,
JdAI, xxxi (1916, 323ff. Navarre, Theatre Grec (1925) 42 1927 ), 177, figs. 7-9; idem, Attische
(

pp. lOlff. Allen, Stage Antiquities (1927), pp. 31ff. Deub- Feste, pp. 104ff., pi. 11, 2-4. He explains the object carried
ner, Attische Feste (1933), pp. 93ff. Pickard-Cambridge, behind the wedding car wrongly as a stylis. See M. Bieber
Festivals, pp. 1-126 includes all literary and epigraphical in Hesperia, v, Supplement vu( 1949),31ff., pis. 4-5. Pick-
sources. ard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 14f. G. Richter, Handbook of
2 Aristotle, Poetics, m-v, pp. 1448a-1449a. Deubner, the Greek Collection, p. 103f., pi. 84e, "Children imitating
op.cit., pp. 134ff. the ceremonial wedding of Dionysos." G. van Hoorn, op.cit.,
IG" 3090. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 43f. and 54.
3
p. 159, No. 757.
12 Black-figured lekythos in Giessen, now on loan in the
*IG Z 3094-5, 3098. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 45.
5
N. Kyparissis and W. Peck, in Ath.Mitt., 66 ( 1941 ),218ff., Oberhessischen Museum of the city, formerly in the col-
pi. 73. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 44f., fig. 18. Web- lection of the Department of Archaeology of the ( destroyed
ster, "Greek Comic Costume," in Bull. Ryland Library 36 University. A fine lekythos with a bridal procession by the
(1954), pi. 3; Webster, Production, pp. 56, 62, 64-66, 73, Amasis painter has been recendy acquired by die Metropoli-
117, pi. 19; Webster, Studies in Later Greek Comedy, p. 75f., tan Museum.
pi. m. 13 Albert Miiller, Buhnenaltertumer pp. 330ff. Reisch, in
,

6 Bieber, "Eros and Dionysos on Kerch Vases," in Studies Real-Enc, in, s.v. Choregia, pp. 2409ff. Allen, Stage An-
in Honor of T. Leslie Shear, Hesperia, Supplement vn tiquities, pp. 44f. Deubner, Attische Feste, pp. 138ff. Pick-
(1949),31ff. ard-Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 77ff. T.B.L. Webster, Greek
Korte in Real-Enc, xi,1207ff., and 1228ff. Deubner, At-
7 Theatre Production, 29ff.
The Fragments of Athenian
tische Feste, pp. 123ff. Dittmer, 14 Adolf Wilhelm, Urkunden dramatischer
Auffiihrungen,
Comic Didascaliae found in Rome, 1923. Wilhelm, Urkun- pp. 13ff., especially fist on p. 18. Flickinger, Greek Theater,
2
den dramatischer Auffiihrungen, pp. 43ff. E. Capps, "The pp. 318ff., with list, fig. 75, IG No. 2318-2325. Pickard-
,

Roman Fragments Athenian Comic Didascaliae," CP,

of Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 75ff., 103ff.
n(1907),201ff. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 22ff. 15 James Tumey Allen, "On the Program
of the City
sDbrpfeld, Ath.Mitt., xx( 1895),161ff.,368ff., pi. rv; and Dionysia during the Peloponnesian War," in University of
xi.vi(1921),81ff. Ant.Denk., u, pis. 37-38. Frickenhaus, in California Publications in Classical Philology, xn, No. 3
JdAI, xxvn(1912),80ff. idem, 72.BerlWPr, 1912. Judeich,
; (1938), 35-42.
Topographic von Athen, 2nd ed., 1931, pp. 290ff., figs. 36- 16 The odeum has been excavated by the Greek Archaeo-

37. E. Capps, CP, n(1907), 25ff. Anti, Teatri Greci arcaici logical Society. Kastriotes in Arch.-Ephemeris (1914), pp.
(1947), pp. 202ff., pi. v. Bieber, in AJA, 58( 1954),280, pi. 143ff. (1915), pp. 145ff. (1922), pp. 25ff. Orlandos, Prak-
; ;

52, fig. 7. C. F. Russo, "I due teatri di Aristofane," Rendi- tikaArch., 86( 1931 ),25ff.; 87(1932),27f., with ill. Walter
conti, Academia dei Lincei, Serie vxn, Vol. xi( 1956 ), 14-27. Miller, Daedalus and Thespis, i,289ff. James Turney Allen,
9 Photius,
s.v. Arjvatov. Etym.Mag., s.v. iirl Arjvalw. Bekker, "On the Odeum of Pericles and the Periclean reconstruc-
Anecdot. 1, 278. Dorpfeld, in Ath.Mitt., xx( 1895),182ff. tion," University of California Publ. in Classical Archaeol-
Judeich, op.cit., p. 294f., footnotes. ogy, No. 7 (1941), pp. 173ff. Pickard-Cambridge, Thea-
I,
10 See for the Anthesteria: Deubner,
JdAI, xm(1927), ter of Dionysus, p. If., figs. 1-2; Festivals, p. 65f. Dilke in
172ff., and Attische Feste, pp. 93ff. Children's Choes: Deub- ABSA,\xLm(1948),185f. Dinsmoor, in Studies Presented
ner, op.cit., p. 115f., pis. 13, 16, 17, 28-31. Pickard-Cam- to David Moore Robinson (1951), n,309ff., fig. 2.
bridgre, Festivals, p. 10, figs, la-c, 2a-c. P. Karouzou in AJA, 17 See for Figs. 56-58 above, Ch. II, n. 5.

50(1946), 123ff., figs. 1-10. G. van Hoorn, Choes and An- 18 IG, IF, No. 1368. Dinsmoor, Hesperia, xxin( 1954),306f.

281
 NOTES TO CHAPTER V. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEATER BUILDING
IN THE CLASSICAL PERIOD

1
Bequignon, in MonPiot, xxxui( 1933),44ff., fig. 1, pi. vi 24. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 12, fig. 7. Flickinger, Greek Thea-
(our Fig. 220). On bleachers see Frickenhaus, in Real-Enc, ter, p. 65, fig. 32a.
ix(1914), s.v. Ikria. For the collapse of the ikria happening y
D-R, pp. 109ft., fig. 43. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 20, fig.
not in the sacred precinct, but on the agora see Judeich, 13 (our Fig. 231). Fiickinger, op.cit., p. 227, figs. 70-71.
Topographie von Athen (2nd ed., 1931), p. 69 and A. von Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 9ff., pis. 1-2. P.E. Arias, 11 tea-
Gerkan, in his review of Fiechter, Dionysostheater, Gnomon, tro Greco fuori di Atene, pp. 24ft., figs. 6-10. Anti, Teatri
xiv (1938), 238. Greci arcaici, pp. 45ff. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p.
2
B. H. Stricken, "The Origin of die Greek Theater^' 50f., figs. 19-20. A. B. Cook, Zeus, i, 479t., fig. 346. Cook
Journal of Egyptian Archeology 41 ( 1955), 34-47. A. D. Ure, compares Thorikos to the theatrical area and the dancing
"Threshing Floor and Vineyard," CQ, xulx (new series v, ground built by Daidalos for Ariadne in Cnossus (Iliad 18,
1955), 225-230. 591f.).
10
3 See Ch. IV,
p. 51. Fig. 221 from Bieber, "The Entrances See D-R, p.
32f.: the skene is outside of the orchestra
and Exits of Actors and Chorus in Greek Plays," AJA, before old temple. Noack, op.cit., pp. 6ff., fig. 3: die
tiie

58(1954),280f., pi. 52, fig. 8. oldest wooden scene buildings are inside the orchestra. James
4
D-R, pp. 7rf. Wiegand, Archaische Porosarchitektur, T. Allen, "The Greek Theater of the Fifth Century B.C.,"
p. 51. Heberdey, Altattische Porosskulptur, pp. 75ff., fig. 53. op.cit., pp. 28ff., fig. 19 (our Fig. 232), illustrates the dif-
Fiechter, Dionysostheater, 1, p. llf., pi. 2; 3, p. 66f. Svo- ferent theories regarding die position of the early scene
ronos, Das Athener National-Museum, m,673, No. 3131, pi. building. Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 64ff., believes to
ccxxxvi. Svoronos says that it was found in the old temple. have found remains of an old stone skene, but is refuted by
Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, pp. 3ff., fig. 3. Fiechter, Dionysostheater, Part 1, p. 90f.
Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient Greece, p. 89. Dins- 11 Fiechter, Dionysostheater, Part i,
pp. 12ff., 55, 89f.,
moor does not believe that die relief belongs to die temple, 91, No. 2, figs. 6-7, pi. i,3-4; m, p. 68f., pis. 17-18, figs. 30-
as the style is not of the same period and the slope of the 31 (our Figs. 233-236). Allen, op.cit., pp. 31ff.
tympanon too low. 12 Pfulil, Malerei und Zeichnung der Griechen,
pp. 665f.,
5
Fiechter, Dionysostheater, 1 (Heft 5), pp. 38ff., figs. 674, paragraphs 723 and 733. Buile, Untersuchungen, pp.
27-30; 3 (Heft 7), p. 67, fig. 29, pi. 16; 4 (Heft 9), pp. 215ff. G. Richter, "Perspective" in Scritti in onore di No-
7ff., figs. 1-12, pis. 1-5. Flickinger, "The Theater of Aeschy- gara (1937), p. 386, pis. l,1 and leu.
lus," in Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philo- 13 This has been pointed out by Noack, op.cit.,
pp. 29ff.
logical Association, lxi( 1930), 80ft., fig. 8. Anti, Teatri Greci Bulle, Szenenbilder zum griechischen Theater des fiinften
arcaici (1947), pp. 55ff., fig. 17, pi. n. Dinsmoor, The Archi- Jahrhunderts v. Chr. (1950), therefore, is absolutely wrong
tecture of Ancient Greece, p. 119f.; idem in Studies Pre- when he puts a frame consisting of two turrets and a big
sented to David Robinson, pp. 310ff. Pickard-Cambridge, pediment around most of his scenes for the poets of the
Theater of Dionysus, pp. 5ff., figs. 4-6. Ida Thallon Hill, fifth century. His source is the soutiiern Italian terracotta
The Ancient City of Athens (1953), "The Theatre of Dio- model of a stage, our Fig. 480 in Ch. X.
nysus," pp. 113-124. 14 Dinsmoor, hi Studies Presented to David Moore Robin-

6 Rizzo, II teatro Greco di Siracusa,

pp. 33ff., figs. 10-11, son (1951), i,313ff., fig. 2 (our Fig. 237). For the odeum see
13-14, pis. i-n. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 49f., pi. 21. Bulle, Ch. IV, note 16.
15 Bieber, in AJA,
U ntersuchungen, pp. 152ff., dates die koilon in the period 58(1954), 277f., figs. 1-3 on pi. 51 and
of Hieron II (270-215), which would mean diat die oldest fig. 4 on pi. 52. For a good description of a presentation of

form built by die architect Damocopus for Hieron I (478- King Oedipus in ancient Athens, see Navarre, Les repre-
467) has disappeared. Anti, Teatri arcaici, pp. 85ff., pis. sentations dramatiques en Grece (Paris, Les Belles Lettres,
—
m-iv reconstructs for Syracuse as he does for Athens 1929), pp. 34ff. A good reconstruction of a classic Greek
scenebuiiding (our Fig. 239) in D-R, p. 273, fig. 93.
straight seats on diree sides of a rectangular orchestra (see
16 E. Capps, "The Stage in die Greek Theater According
Figs. 228-229).
to Extant Dramas" in Transactions of the American Philo-
7
D-R, pp. 25ff. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 7, fig. 2. James T.
logical Association, xxu( 1891 ), Iff. John White, "The Stage
Allen, "The Greek Theater of die Fifth Century," in The
in Aristophanes" in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology,
University of California Publications in Classical Philology,
n(1891),159ff.,173ff. Sandford, The Stage in the Attic
vii,No. 1 (1920), 20ff., fig. 16 (our Fig. 227, the auditorium
Theater of the Fifth Century (1895), pp. 70ff., 94ff. D-R,
is drawn cf. pp. 1-119, "The Greek Theater
too regularly);
pp. 176ff. Pickard-Cambridge, Theater of Dionysus, pp. 30ff.
of the FifthCentury B.C." ibid., No. 2, pp. 121-128; "The
Bulle, Szenenbilder, makes another great mistake when he
Orchestra Terrace of the Aeschylaean Theater"; ibid., v
places most of the action of die classical plays on a low stage
(1918),55ff., "The Key to the Reconstruction of the Fifth
between the paraskenia.
Century Theater of Athens." Idem, University of
in The 17
Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, pp. 15ff., fig.
California Publications in Classical Archaeology, i, No. 6 7. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient Greece, pp. 208ff.,
(1937),169ff., "On the Adienian Theater Before 441 B.C." fig. 77. Idem, Studies Presented to David Moore Robinson,
Frickenhaus, Die altgriechische Biihne, pp. 74, 84, fig. 25. pp. 315fL, figs. 1 and 2.
Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 75ff., 21 If. Fiechter, Dionysos- 18 Fiechter, Dionysostheater, Part
1, pp. 16ff; 3, pp. 69ff.,
theater, 3, pp. 66ff., 29 and pi. 16 (our Figs. 224 and
fig. figs. 32-34; from these are taken our Figs. 241-242. Mahr,
226). Mahr, Origin of the Greek Tragic Form, pp. ISff ., The Origin of the Greek Tragic Form, pp. 87ff., fig. 22.
65ft., figs. 3-5, 8-10. Anti, op.cit., pp. 55ff., figs. 17-18, pi. h From him is taken our Fig. 240.
19
Broneer, "The Tent of Xerxes and the Greek Theater"
(our Figs. 22S-229).
8 See the cross section: D-R, pi. v,2 (our Fig.
230), Noack, in University of California Publications in Classical Archae-
Skene tragikc, p. 3, fig. 2. Frickenhaus, op.cit., p. 121, fig. ology, i, No. 12 (1944), pp. 305ff.

282
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER V
pp. 27f., and 338,
20 4-12. D-R, p. 151, 35 Bulle, Untersuchungen, 31.
Altertumer von Pergamon, rv,3tf., pis. fig.

fig. 61. Dorpfeld in Ath.Mitt., xxxn( 1907 ),220ft\, figs. 12- Fiechter, Dionysostheater, Part 3, fig. 44. Bulle, Szenen-
14. Bieber,Denkmdler, pp. 37ff., fig. 39, pis. 14-18. Bulle, bilder, fig. on p. 21 and pis. 2-12.
36
Frickenhaus, op.cit., pis. u-m. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw.,
Untersuchungen, p. 256f.
-1
Dinsmooi in Studies . . . Robinson, p. 3281. G. Caputo fig. 63; idem, in Dionysostheater, Part 3, figs. 37 and 42.
37 Fiechter, Dionysostheater, Part
in Dioniso, xm( 1950), 30. 3, fig. 36. This figure,
"Krause and With, Insel Bali, u, pi. 16 (our Fig. 249). and his fig. 37, in their upper parts look more Hellenistic
Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 13, fig. 8. Hielscher, Roumanic than classical.
The inscription belongs to the year 274 B.C. IG, xi,
38
(1933), figs. 188-189.
23 Lchinann-llarUeben in Bulle, Untersuchungen,
p. 611., 2, No. 199 A, 93-94. The reconstruction of Vallois, in Nou-
pis. 6-7. Dinsmoor, in Studies Robinson, p. 328f., fig. 3.
. . . velles Archives des Missions scientifiques, xxn( 1921 ), 213ft".,
Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, p. 191f., fig. 8. repeated in Navarre, he theatre Grec (1925), p. 73, fig. 17,
24 D-R, is based on the inscriptions, not on the actual remains. Cf.
pp. 40ff., pis. i-ii. Judcich, Topographic von
Athen-, pp. 308ff., fig. 39, cf. p. 315. Bieber, Dcnkmider, Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 174ff., for the inscription.
39 D-R,
pp. 14ff., fig. 9. Fliekinger, Greek Theater, figs. 32, 36, 37. pp. 11211., fig. 44. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., pp.
Fiechter, Dionysostheater, Part 1, pp. 76fL, figs. 67-74, pis. 4ff., figs. 6-7. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 20f., figs. 14-15. Frick-

1, 10-11. A. von Gerkan in Gnomon, 14( 1938),232ff. enhaus, op.cit., p. Ill, fig. 14. Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp.
25 Bieber, Dcnkmider, pi. i. Judeich, op.cit., p. 31 If 81ff., pi. 11. P. E. Arias, 11 Teatro greco fuori di Atene, pp.
Fiechter, Dionysostheater, part 1, pp. 62ff., figs. 53-54; 3, 115ff., figs. 77-79. Fiechter, Theaterbauten, vm(1937), figs.
fig. 2, pi. 25. 34-35, pi. 7. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, p.
A. von Salis, JdAl, xxv( 1910),134ff. Bieber, Denk-
26 198f., figs. 64-65. Cf. below, Ch. VI, Figs. 284-288 and
mdler, p. 15. Fiechter, Dionysostheater, Part 3, p. 76. Busch- Ch. IX, Figs. 452-454.
or, in F-R, in, 144f., text to pi. 145 does not believe the 40 Rizzo, 11 Teatro Greco di Siracusa,
pp. 72ff., fig. 31.
vase painters copied the murals. Our Fig. 252 in Ant.Dcnk., Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 152ff. C. Anti, II Teatro antico
1, pi. 36. Pfuhl, Malerei und Zeiclmung, n,586f., §§632f.; di Siracusa (1948), fig. 9 does not assume that there were
in, fig. 581. paraskenia.
27 41 O. Puchstein, Die griechische Buhne,
D-R, p. 373, fig. 93 (our Fig. 239); cf. also pp. 307fL, p. 110f., figs. 31-
figs. 72-73. Color reproduction in Cybulski, Tabulae quibus 33. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 50f., figs. 54-55, pi. 22. Bulle,
Graecae et Romanae illustrantur, fig. 12.
antiquitates Untersuchungen, pp. llOff., pis. 19, 26, 28-29. Arias, op.cit.,
Dunn, Baukunsi der Griechen, p. 470. Allen, "The Greek pp. 143ft"., figs. 95-98. A. von Gerkan, "Zu den Theatern

Theater of the Fifth Century B.C.," pp. 95ff., fig. 23; cf. von Segesta und Tyndaris," in Festschrift Andreas Rumpf,
above note 7. Pickard-Cambridge, Theater of Dionysus, pp. pp. 82fL, figs. 5-6.
75ff., "The Prothyron," figs. 42 Puchstein, op.cit.,
9-29. p. 117f., figs. 34 and 36. Bulle, Un-
2S Lehmann-Hartleben in JdAl, xlh( 1927),30f., figs. 1- tersuchungen, pp. 131ff., pis. 33-34, 38-40. Arias, op.cit.,
2. Untersuchungen, pp. 230ff., fig. 4a; idem, "Eine
Bulle, p. 149f., fig. 99.
Skenographie," 94th BerlWPr (1934), pp. 13ff., fig. 6 (our 43
A. Mau, in Rom.Mitt., xxi( 1906 ), Iff., pi. i. Bieber,
Fig. 253). Fliekinger, in Melanges offerts a Octave Navarre, Denkmdler, pp. 52fL, No. 13., figs. 56-57. Bulle, Unter-
p. 196, fig. 2; idem, in Transactions and Proceedings of the suchungen, pp. 165ff.
American Philological Association, lxi, p. 99f., 10. Pick- 44 Bulle, Eine Skenographie,
fig. pp. 3ff., figs. 1-5, pis. i-n.
ard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, p. 171, fig. 58. Web- Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, pp. 170ff., figs. 55-
ster, CQ, 42 (1948), 16. 57. Ippel, in Studies Presented to David Moore Robinson,
29 Pother, Catalogue des vases antiques du Louvre, m, i,809f., fig. 1. Webster, in CO, 42(1948), p. 15f.; idem, Pro-
pp. 1053ff. Sechan, Tragedie grecque, pp. 38ff. J. T. Allen, duction, 105, pi. 10.
"The Greek Theater of the Fifdi Century B.C.," pp. 43ff. 45 Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., 9ff., idem., Dionysos-
pp.
30 D-R, Mahr,
pp. 59ff., pis. in-iv. Frickenhaus, op.cit., fig. 27. theater, Part 1, p. 23f., figs. 14-15; Part 3, pis. 18-19.
Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 47ff., pis. 3-5. Judeich, op.cit. The Origin of the Greek Tragic Form, pp. 88ff., figs. 22-24.
(2nd ed. ), p. 312f., fig. 40. Fiechter, Dionysostheater, Part 46 Cf. Hesychius and Suidas s.v. Aulaia (av\ala: to ttjs

1, pp. 20ff., figs. 11-20, pis. 1-7; Part 3, pp. 72ff., figs. 36- ctktj^s irapaniTao-na) . Bethe, Prolegomena, pp. 186ff. Bulle,
37, pis. 19-20. Ida Thallon Hill, The Ancient City of Athens: Untersuchungen, p. 159f., note 2. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw.,
Its Topography and Monuments (1953), Ch. XII, "The p. 54.
Theatre of Dionysos," pp. 113ff. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre 47 And, Teatri arcaici,
pp. 202ff., figs. 61-63, pi. v. Bieber,
of Dionysus, p. 155, fig. 52. Schleif, in Arch.Anz. 52(1937), AJA, 58(1954),280f., figs. 7-8 on pi. 52.
gives a good survey of the classical period of the theater of 4 s Fliekinger, CP, xxxv( 1940),71f. His drawing in The

Dionysus, based on the actual remains. Greek Theater and its Drama, p. 89, fig. 44, indicating the
31 D-R, movements
p. 61f., and Reisch, ibid., p. 301. Bulle, Unter- of the actors in the Frogs, is mistaken, because
suchungen, pp. 50ff., is of the opinion that these posts were he adapt them to the large theater of Dionysus Eleu-
tries to
not supports for an upper story, but for shelves, where rolls thereus and disregards the paraskenia, laying the house of
of painted canvases used for scenery were stored. Heracles behind the side door of the palace.
32 Reisch, in D-R, 49 Fiechter,
p. 298f. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre Dionysostheater, Part 1, pp. 62ff.; Part 3, pp.
of Dionysus, pp. 148ff., figs. 46-52. 52f., fig. 37, pi. 25. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Diony-
33 D-R, 34-38. Mahr, The Origin of the Greek
pp. 62ff., figs. 19-22. Allen, "Problems of the sus, pp. 134ff., figs.
Proskenion," in University of California Publications in Clas- Tragic Form, pp. 87ff., figs. 22-24.
sical Philology, vh( 1919-1924 ),206f., fig. 4. Mahr, op.cit., 50 IG, n2 2 No. 3056. Stuart and Revett, Antiquities of
,

pp. 90fF., figs. 23-24.The design by Dinsmoor, unpublished, Athens (1787), n, Ch. rv, pp. 29ff., pis. 1-6. G. Welter, in
I owe to his generosity (Fig. 258). Arch.Anz., Lin(1938), pp. 33ff. Pickard-Cambridge, Thea-
34 Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., 11-13 and 15; ter of Dionysus, p. 169, figs. 53-54. A. H. Smith, British
pp. 9ff., figs.
idem, Dionysostheater, Part 1, pp. 26ff.; Part 3, figs. 36-37, Museum Catalogue of Sculpture, i, 257ff., No. 432. BrBr,
pis. 19-20. pi. 119. G. Becatti, "Attika. Saggio sulla scultura del el-

283
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTERS V AND VI
lenismo," in Rivista del Institute- archeologico, vu(1940), Les Monnaies d'Athenes, pis. 100-102. Bieber, Denkmaler,
20f., fig. 5. Bieber, Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age, p. 66, p. 84f., fig. 87.
54 D-R,
fig. 213. vn and ix. Noack, Die
pp. 120ff., fig. 50, pis. vi,2,
51 D-R, pp. 14-15. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 17,
45ff., figs. Baukunst des Altertums, p. 61f., pis. 81-82. Bieber, Denk-
pis. 4-5. Flickinger, Greek Theater, p. 90, fig. 45. Fiechter, maler, pp. 24ff., No. 5, figs. 19-20, pis. 9-11. A. Fossum,
Dionysostheater, Part 1, pp. 62ff., figs. 54-59; Part 3, p. 51, A] A, xxx 1926 ),70ff., fig. 1. Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp.
(

fig. Sven Risom, in Melanges Holleaux ( 1913), pp. 257fl\,

35. 167ff. Arias, Teatro greco fuori di Atene, pp. 88ff., figs. 58-
pis. viii-xi. Mobius in Ath.Mitt., li( 1926), 120, pi. xx,l. 63. Dinsmoor, The Architecture
of Ancient Greece, pp.
Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, pp. 14111., figs. 244ff., fig. 90, pi. lxii. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dio-
39-41. Theodor Kraus, JdAI, 69(1954), 32-48, figs. 1-6. nysus, p. 204, figs. 70-71. Bieber, "A Free Theater for a
52 Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals,
p. 2731., fig. 206, No. ^ Free People," Theater Arts (1941), pp. 908ff. Professor
pp. 270ff., fig. 205. Benn-
53 Pickard-Cambridge, op.cit., A. von Gerkan informs me, that he is preparing a mono-
dorf, Archaologische Beitrage zur Kenntnis des attischen graph on the theater of Epidauros. He dates it not before
Theaters, pp. 3bff. Svoronos, Journal Internationale d'arche- 300, when the skene, the proskenion with grooves for the
ologie numismatique, i( 1898 ),37ff., pis. A'-Z'; ru(1900), pinakes, the ramps, the parodos-pylons and the lower part
197ff., 322ff., pis. I' and IZ'-IK'; vm( 1905),323ff. Idem, of the auditorium were erected.

NOTES TO CHAPTER VI. SCENERY AND .MECHANICAL DEVICES

1
Vitruvius and Pollux, as well as the extant dramas, are 11 Albert Miiller, op.cit., pp. 157ff. D-R, pp. 255f. Flick-
used for the problems regarding decorations in the classical inger, Greek Theater, pp. 208, 233f. Kelley Rees, "The Sig-
dramas by: Albert Miiller, Buhnenaltertumer, pp. 113ff. nificance of the Parodoi in the Greek Theater," AJP, xxxn
Haigh, The Attic Theater, pp. 179ff. Flickinger, Greek Thea- (1911),377ff. Fensterbusch, in Philologus, lxxxi(1925),
ter, pp. 97ft'., 284ff. Allen, "The Greek Theater of the Fifth 480ff. Warnecke, ibid., lxxxiv( 1928 ),118f. Mary Johnston,
Century B.C.," in University of California Publications in Exits and Entrances in Roman Comedy ( 1933 ) accepts the
Classical Philology, vn( 1919 ),69ff., and Stage Antiquities, view that the Greeks assumed the right entrance to lead to
pp. lOOff. Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 212ff., 294ff. Pickard- the market and the harbor, the left to the country. W. Beare,
Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, pp. 122ff., 234ff. Webster, in CO, xxxii 1938 ),205ff., discusses the same conventional
(

Production, pp. 13f., 27f., 162f. significance to be attached to the side entrances prevailing
2
D-R, p. 204ft. in the theaters ofMagna Graecia. M. Bieber, "Entrances and
3 Anti, Teatri archaici, pp. 85ff., pis. m-rv; idem, II Tea- Exits of Actors and Chorus in Greek Plays," A} A, 58(1954),
tro antico di Siracusa, pp. 37ff., figs. 6-8. 278ff.
12 O. Walter, /OA7, xvm(1915), Beiblatt, 68ff. Fricken-
* Kaibel, Comicorum Graec. Fragmenta, p. 148, No. 3.
Olivieri, Frammenti della Commedia greca, p. 114. Suidas, haus, op.cit., pp. 91ff., fig. 9b. A. von Gerkan, Theater von
s.v. Phormos Syracusios. Aristotle, De Arte Poetica, v, p. Priene, p. 103. Bieber, Denkmaler, pp. 26, 28, fig. 21. Wal-
1449b 6, mentions Phormis together with Epicharmus as a ter, op.cit., and Bulle, Untersuchungen, p. 90 explain these

comic poet. devices as being for the erection of poles.

5 Pfuhl, Malerei und Zeichnung, n,665f., §723 and p. 674 13 D-R, pp. Bohn, Altertumer von Perga-
150ff., figs. 61-62.
§733. Flickinger, Greek Theater, p. 66. Mary Swindler, An- mon, rv,3ff., pi. rv. Dorpfeld, Ath. Mitt., xxxn( 1907),215ff.
cient Painting, pp. 225f., 335. Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 37f., fig. 30, pis. xiv-xvm. Bulle,
215ff. Gisela Richter, in Scritti in onore di Nogara (1937), Untersuchungen, p. 256f. explains these holes in Pergamon
pp. 383ff., pis. li-liii. Curtius, Pompejanische Malerei, pp. as well as those in Elis as contrivances for poles; A. von
121f., 182f. Beyen, Die Pompejanische Wanddekoration, i, Gerkan, Theater von Priene, p. 101f., for wing decorations
Art Bulletin, xix( 1917),485ff.
96ff., 352ff. Little, in arranged obliquely as side closings of the logeion.
6 Buhnenaltertumer, pp. 116ff. D-R, pp.
Albert Miiller, 14 Bulle, Untersuchungen,
p. 77f., pi. 6, figs. 12-14. Fiech-
210ff. Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 214ff. Pickard-Cambridge, ter, Dionysostheater, m,23f., fig. 12. Both believe the stones
Theatre of Dionysus, pp. 122ff. to have been used for turning masts. Bulle thinks this might
7
Beside Athenaeus, xin, 587b see Harpokration s.v. Nan- have been the crane or the flying machine.
nion, and Servius, note to Vergil, Georgica, in, 24. Cf. D-R, 15 Furttenbach, Mannhafter Kunstspiegel (1663). Ham-

p. 214f. Puchstein, Die griech. Buhne, p. 88. Bulle, Unter- mitzsch, Der moderne Theaterbau (1906), p. 30, fig. 13.
suchungen, p. 290f. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Diony- Michael, Deutsches Theater (Jedermanns Biicherei, 1923),
sus, p. 157f. p. 18, fig. 75.
8 Anti, Teatri archaici, pi. vi. 16D-R, pp. 234ff. Bethe, Prolegomena, pp. lOOff. Flick-
» D-R, pp. 133ff., figs. 54-55. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 27f., inger, Greek Theater, pp. 284ff. Mahr, The Origin of the
figs. 22-23. Fiechter, Antike griechische Theaterbauten, iv, Greek Tragic Form, pp. lOlff., fig. 27 a-b (our Fig. 280 a-b).
Das Theater von Megalopolis, 1931. Bulle, Untersuchungen, His simple designs are better than the attempts by Fricken-
pp. 97ff., pis. 17-18. P. E. Arias, II Teatro Greco fuori di haus, Die alt griechische Biihne, pp. 7ff., pi. in, to give an
Atene, pp. lOOff. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient idea of the appearance of the eccyclema. W. Miller, Daedalus
Greece, pp. 249f., and 307. Pickard-Cambridge, The Theatre
and Thespis, i, 315ff. Flickinger, in Melanges Navarre
of Dionysus, pp. 199ff., figs. 66-67.
(1935), pp. 196-206. Pickard-Cambridge, Theater of Dio-
Albert Miiller, Buhnenaltertumer, pp. 122f., 161. D-R,
10
nysus, pp. 100-122, gives all the ancient sources.
pp. 210 and 255. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., p. 116f. Frick- 17 D-R,
p. 247f. Kelley Rees, "The Function of the
enhaus, Die altgriech. Buhne, pp. 50 and 95, as well as
Prothyron ( irpodvpov ) in the Production of the Greek Plays,"
Bulle, Untersuchungen, p. 286f., consider the periaktoi to
CP, x(1915),117ff. C. Fensterbusch, Die Buhne des Aris-
be from the Hellenistic period. Cf. also: Beyen, Die pom-
pejanische Wanddekoration, i,145f., note 4, and p. 279f. W. tophanes (1912); idem in Bursians Jahresbcrichte, 1930, p.
Miller, Daedalus and Thespis, i, Architecture ( 1929), p. 325. 81. M. Bieber, "The Entrances and Exits of Actors and
Pickard-Cambridge, Theater of Dionysus, pp. 126 and 234- Chorus in Greek Plays," AJA, 58( 1954),279f., pi. 52, figs.

238 considers the evidence skeptically. 5-6.

284
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTERS VI AND VII
isD-R, pp. 227ff. Bethe, Prolegomena, pp. 142ff. W. 23 Fiechter, Das Theater in Eretria, pp. 25ff., figs. 21
Miller, Daedalus and Thespis, i,326ff. Bulle, Untersuchungen, and 25.
p. 291f.;idem, Szenenbilder zum griechisclien Theater des 24 Flickinger, in
CJ, xxxiv( 1939),355fF.
5.Jahrhunderts v. Chr. (1950), pp. 47ff., pis. 10, 12, 14, 15. 25
R. Stillwell, Corinth, u, The Theatre (1952), p. 10f.,
Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, pp. 41, 55f., 61f., 39f., 134f., figs. 26, 33-34.
68, 127f. 20 E. Buschor, "Feldmause," in SBMiinch (1937), pp. 22-
19 M. Bieber, in A J.A,
58( 1954),279ff., pi. 52, figs. 5-6. 34.
20 See above, Fig. 27
237, and Dinsmoor, in Studies Presented Fiechter, Dionysostheater, m,69f., figs. 33-34.
to David M. Robinson ( 1951 )i,329ff., fig. 2. 23 Against Wilamovvitz, Aeschylus-Interpretationen, pp.
21 Messerschmidt, in Rom. Mitt., and
Noack, Skene Tragike, Eine Studie iiber die
47( 1932),138ff., figs. 5-7. 6ff.,
Curtius, in Scritti in onore di Nogara (1937), pp. 105fT., scenischen Anlagen auf der Orchestra des Aischylos und der
note 1. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, p. 100, figs. anderen Tragiker (1915), rightly Bethe, Prolegomena, pp.
30-31. Gisela Richter, The Met. Mns. of Art, Handbook of 89ff., and Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 214 and 222.
the Greek Collection, p. 116, pi. 96c. 29 Hcdwig Kenner, Das Theater und der Realismus in der
22 Fossum in AJA, 2ndseries, n( 1898),187ff. D-R, pp. griechisclien Kunst (Wien, 1954), pp. 65-188, makes a
113ff., figs. 44-45. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 20f., No. 3, figs. valiant attempt to collect all the material for the scenery and
14-15. Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 81ff., 226ff. Fiechter, properties used in plays acted in the classical period. Her
Baugesch. Entw., pp. 4ff., 70f., 6-8. Idem
figs. in Antikc main source, the Pompeian wall paintings, can, however, be
griechische Theaterbautcn, vnr, Das Theater in Eretria used only with great caution. Consequently I have used them
(1937), p. 38, pi. 8. Flickinger, Greek Theater, pp. 104ff., mostly in my later chapters. See my review in Gnomon,
figs.53-55, 72. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, p. 28 (1956), 127-134.
198f., figs. 64-65.

NOTES TO CHAPTER VII. THE EVOLUTION OF THE ART OF ACTING

1 The Poems and Fragments, ed. R. C. Jebb,
Bacchylides, wissenschaft, Vol. 253 ( 1936),36ff. Todd, in CO, xxxn
pp. No. xvn. Comparetti, Melanges Weil, p. 23.
230ff., ( 1938),30ff., reaffirms the rule of the three actors. See for
Pickard-Cambridge, Dithyramb, p. 43f., and Festivals, pp. the number of actors and the distribution of parts ( roles )

I27ff. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 137ff.

2
Flickinger, Greek Theater, p. 165f. Cf. Ch. V, figs. 224, 12 O'Connor, Chapters in the History of Actors and
238, 281. Acting in Greece, p. 113, No. 307.
3 Vita Aeschylus 13 Aristotle, Poet. 1449b,5. Second Argument to Aris-
3; Vita Euripides; Scholion to Aristopha-
nes, Nubes, line 1266. Aristotle, Rhetor., ni,l, p. 1403f. tophanes, Peace. Suidas, s.v. Chionides. IG, n,2 2 No. 2319. ,

4 Haigh, The Attic Theatre,

pp. 57ff. Flickinger, Greek Wilhelm, Urkunden dramatischer Auffiihrungen, pp. 147ff..
Theater, pp. 162ff., 183ff. O'Connor, Chapters in the History 168f., 187f., 252ff. Haigh, op.cit., pp. 6f., 26f., 355f.
of Actors and Acting in Ancient Greece (1908), p. Ill, No. Flickinger, Greek Theater, p. 54f. O'Connor, op.cit., pp.
292; p. 117f., No. 351; p. 135, No. 467. 47ff., 51f., 64-66. Bulle, Festschrift fiir James Loeb, p. 7.
5 Allen, "Greek Acting in the Fifth Century," in Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 125f.
J. T.
14 M. Bieber, Skenika,
University of California Publications in Classical Philology, p. 1 If., fig. 6. A. Rumpf, "Mimus
n,No.l5( 1916), 279-289. Anna Spitzbarth, Untersuchungen und Logos," Festgabe Niessen, pi. vii, figs. 1 and 3. Neuge-
zur Spieltechnik der griechischen Tragbdie (Zurich, 1946). bauer, Die griech. Bronzen der klassischen Zeit und des
Famec Lorene Shister, "The Portrayal of Emotion in Trag- Hellenismus, Staatliche Museen Berlin (1951), No. 71.
edy," AJP, lxvi( 1945), 377-397; ibid., lxix( 1948), 229-231. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 153ff., 185, figs. 49-52.
Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 153ff. Fig. 290 from Amisus (Samsun) at the Black Sea in the
6 Wilhelm, Urkunden dramatischer Auffiihrungen, pp. Louvre, CA 1784. Fig. 291 in Vienna, Austria, Mus. No.
34ff., 52ff., 187ff. IG, n,2 2 Nos. 2319-2325. O'Connor,
, Terracottas 175, Inv. No. 1564 from Myrina, and Fig. 292
op.cit., pp. 26f., 45ff.; 107ff., No. 274; 114, No. 321. from Asia Minor in Athens: Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 121f.,
7 Wilhelm,
op.cit., pp. 137ff., 147f., 170f. O'Connor, Nos. 56 and 58, pi. 61, 1 and 3. The Viennese terracotta has
op.cit., pp. 27, 46f., 61f. Flickinger, Greek Theater, p. 183. traces of light violet on the chiton and red on the border of
Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 114. ff. the mantle. Fig. 293 from Rheneia in the Museum of Athens.
8 Haigh, op.cit.,
p. 57. Flickinger, op.cit., p. 184f. Wilhelm, Fig. 294 said to be from Pergamon in the Berlin Mus. No.
op.cit., p. 26, 28, 40ff. O'Connor, op.cit., p. 73f., No. 13; 7635, Rayet, Monuments de I'art, n, pi. 43. Winter, Typen
p. 103, No. 239; p. 119f., No. 359; p. 141, No. 535. der Terrakotten, n,426, No. 3.
9 Haigh, The Attic Theatre, 15 Fig. 295: bronze statuette in Florence, Museo Archeo-
pp. 234ff. Flickinger, Greek
Theater, pp. 174ff., 182, 186f. Kelley Rees, "The Meaning logico, No. 2327, L. A. Milani, Museo archeologico di
of Parachoregema ," CP, n( 1907),387ff. Firenze, n, Tav. cxxxix,3. Procacci, in Dioniso, v( 1935), Iff.,
10 Devrient, Das Kind Fragment of a similar figure in terracotta in Boston,
auf der antiken Biihne ( 1904). Wil- fig. 2.
liam Nickerson Bates, Euripides, Student of Human Nature found Smyrna, head, arms, legs missing. Fig. 296: Terra-
in
(1930), pp. 42ff. cotta statuette from Tarentum. Fig. 297: Boston, No. 01.7679,
pp. 230ff. Rees, The So-called Rule of
11 Haigh, op.cit.,
found in Myrina. Dorothy Burr, Terracottas from Myrina in
the Three Actors in the Classical Greek Drama (1908). List- Boston Museum of Fine Arts, No. 113, pp. 76f., pi. xlii,2;
mann, Die Technik des Dreigesprdchs in der griechischen left arm and fingers of the right hand are missing. The object
Tragodie (1910). Kaffenberger, Das Dreischauspielergesetz attached to the left breast seems to be a wineskin which
in der griechischen Tragodie (1911). Flickinger, Greek was carried on the left shoulder. Traces of red on the face
Theater, pp. 173ff., 180, fig. 67. C. Fensterbusch, in Bursians and neck, yellow on hair and beard, orange-red on the tights,
] ahresberichte iiber die Fortschritte der klassischen Altertums- light yellow on the chiton. Fig. 298: Athens, National Mu-

285
 NOTES TO THE TEXT CHAPTERS VII AND VIII
seum, No. 5055. Probably from Myrina. Robert, Masken, No. 421. Schede, in Ath. Mitt., 44 (1919), pp. 16ff., and in
p. 70f., fig. 89. Fig. 299: Vienna, Austria, Mus. No. 176, Amtliche Berichte aus den Kunstsammlungen (Berlin, 1919),
Inv. No. 1567. Found in Smyrna. Good work. For other pp. 121ff. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 167 and 174.
29 Haigh, op.cit.,
figures of comic actors see Ch. Ill, figs. 133-179. Bieber, pp. 74ff. O'Connor, op.cit., p. 114, No.
Denkmaler, pis. 67-74, 89-102. 319. Flickinger, Greek Theater, p. 191. D. L. Page, Actors'
16 See Pottier et Reinach, La Necropole de Myrina, Interpolations in Greek Tragedy (1934).
pp.
30 Liiders, Die Dionijsischen Kiinstler
468-472, pi. xlv, figs. 1, 4, 7-9. (1873). P. Foucart,
17 Wallpainting in Naples: Mus. No. 9036; Helbig, Wand- Les Associations religieuses chez les Grecs: Thiases, Frames,
gemdlde, No. 1457; Curtius, Die Wandmalerei Pompejis, p. Orgeoni (1873); idem, De collegiis scenicorum artificium
273, fig. 162; Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 85, fig. 44. (1873). F. Poland, Geschichte des griechischen Vereinswes-
Relief in Lyme Park: Webster, Studies . Robinson, pp..
. . ens (1909), pp. 129ff .; idem in Real-Enc, second series,
590ff., pi. 55; Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 200, fig. 89." v,2473ff., s.v. Technitai. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States,
Relief in Vienna: Kunsthistorisches Museum. Relief in v,146ff., note 104. C. Fensterbusch, Bursians Jahresberichte,
Naples: Nat. Mus. No. 6700. For poets studying their Vol. 253 ( 1936),22ff. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 286ff.
masks, see Kriiger, Ath. Mitt., xxvi( 1901 ),126ff., pi. vi. Daux, Delphes au II.-I. Siecle (1936), pp. 350ff.
17a A colossal bronze tragic mask was found in 1959, in 31 See above, note 18.
32 Das Dresdner Schauspielerrelief (with plate);
the remains of a warehouse at the Piraeus which was prob- Bieber,
ably burnt at the time of Sulla's attack in 86 b.c. I owe the idem, Denkmaler, p. 110f., No. 45, pi. 55,1. Sieveking in
photograph to the kindness of Professor J. Papademetriou, BrBr, Pi. 628. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 226ff., fig.
the ephor of Attica and the head of the Department of An- 193. Bulle, Festschrift fur Loeb, pp. 13ff., 37f., figs. 27
tiquities. and 27a-b. Bulle and Schweitzer, Die Bildniskunst der
18 Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 110, No. 44, pi. 55,2. Mus. No. romischen Republik (1948), p. 64, see in the portrait that
9019. Helbig, op.cit., No. 1460. Bulle, Festschrift fur Loeb, of a Roman actor like Quintus Roscius Gallus, whose portrait
pp. 10ff., figs. 2-5. Wiegand, Antike Fresken (1943), pi. ix, was made by Pasiteles in the period of Sulla. Old drawing
in color. Other colored reproductions in Enciclopedia dello by Pietro Santi Bartoli in Buonarroti, Medaglioni antichi,
Spettacolo, Vol. I, and Maiuri, Roman Painting (Skira, p. 446f.
1953), p. 92f. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 184, fig. 43. 33 Schreiber, in Abh. sdchs. Ges. d. Wiss., xxn(1909),
Herrmann-Bruckmann, Denkmaler der Malerei des Alter- XLvr-XLvm.
761ff., pis. i-m; Hellenistische Reliefbilder, pis.
tums, pi. 3. Copies in Naples, Museo Nazionale, and in Rome. Stuart
19 Alda Levi, Le Sculture nel Palazzo ducale di Mantova Jones, Sculptures of the Municipal Collections of Rome,
(1931), p. 21f., No. 11, pi. xxvi. Arndt-Amelung, No. 9. Museo Capitolino, p. 270, Sala dei Filosofi, No. 118, pi. 61;
Bieber, JdAI, xxxn(1917), 79f., fig. 45. Palazzo dei Conservatori, p. 89f. Galleria No. 26a, pi. 31.
20 Lippold, Skulpturen des Vatikanischen Museums, in,21ff. Bulle, Das Theater zu Sparta, pp. 91ff., fig. 4, pis. vi-vn.
Sala delle Muse, pi. 4, No. 499. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 122, Pickard-Cambridge, Theater of Dionysus, p. 196, fig. 62.
No. 60, pi. 62,1. 34 Haigh, op.cit.,
pp. 278ff.
21 Bulle, Festschrift 35 Liiders,
fur James Loeb, pp. 6ff., figs. 1, la, 2, op.cit., pp. 65ff., 74ff. Pickard-Cambridge,
6, pi. 11. E. Langlotz, Griechische Vasen in Wurzburg, p. Festivals, pp. 298ff., and Appendix, pp. 315ff., for the in-
148f., No. 832, pi. 240. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. scriptions related to the guild of Teos.
36
181, figs. 34-35. Webster, Art and Literature, p. 19, pi. 3a. Rudolf Herzog, in Philologus, lx( 1901),440ff. O'Con-
22 F. Poulsen, Catalogue
of Ancient Scidpture in the Nt/ nor, op.cit., p. 80, No. 40. Flickinger, Greek Theater, p. 191f.
Carlsberg Glyptotek (1951), p. 173, No. 233. Billedtavler, 37 See note 14.

pi. xvn. Not a muse, but an actor. 38 See note 15.

23
J.
T. Allen, "Greek Acting in the Fifth Century B.C.," 39 O'Connor, op.cit., pp. 39ff. On the mimic art of die
in Universitt/ of California Publications in Classical Philology, actors see B. Wernicke, article "Mimik," in Real-Enc, 15
n(1916),279ff. Flickinger, Greek Theater, p. 190. Bulle, (1932), pp. 1715-1725.
Festschrift fur Loeb, pp. 8ff. 40 Berlin, Inv. No. 8328. Furtwangler, Arch. Anz., vm
24 Haigh, The Attic Theater,
pp. 281ff. O'Connor, op.cit., (1893), 95, No. 24 (with fig.).
41 Altmann, Ath. Mitt., xxix(
pp. 82ff., No. 62 and p. 103, No. 239. Bulle, op.cit., p. 9. 1904), 179, fig. 18 and pp.
Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 286ff. 192ff., figs. 27-28. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 124f., No. 69, fig.
25 Haigh, op.cit., 118. The mask of the cook of comedy (Fig. 380), ibid., p.
p. 42f. Bulle, Festschrift fur Loeb, p. 9f.
26 O'Connor, op.cit.,
p. 5f., p. 46. Pickard-Cambridge, 169, No. 166, pi. civ, fig. 3. Winter, Die Skulpturen von
Festivals, p. 294. Pergamon, vn, 2, pp. 314ff., figs. 404a-e.
27 Wilhelm, Urkunden dramatischer Auffiihrungen, p. 40. 42 Hermann Reich, Der Mimus, pp. 19ff., 231ff., 331, 360ff.
Haigh, op.cit., pp. 96ff. O'Connor, op.cit., p. 119. IG, n,2 2 ,
Herzog-Crusius, Die Mimiamben des Herondas (1926) pp.
No. 2320. 40ff., 51ff. Cf. below, Ch. VIII, fig. 414-415 and Ch. XV,
28 Haigh, op.cit., Figs. 783, 786, 825-829.
p. 256f. O'Connor, op.cit., pp. 128ff.,

NOTES TO CHAPTER VIII. NEW COMEDY • MENANDER

1 Legrand, "Daos, Tableau de la Comedie Grecque pend- Simon, Comicae Tabellae, Die Szenenbilder zur griechischen
ant la Periode dite nouvelle" in Annales de I'Universite de Neuen Komodie, in Schaubiihne, Quellen und Forschungen
Lyon, n, Droit et Lettres, Nouvelle Serie, Fasc. 22(1910), zur Theatergeschichte, ed., C. Niessen and A. Kutscher, Vol.
translated into English and rightly shortened to about two- 25(1938). T.B.L. Webster, "The Masks of Greek Comedy,"
thirds of the original length by James Loeb, The New Greek Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, Vol. 32 ( 1949-50), 97-
Comedy (1917). Bieber, Denkmaler, pp. 155ff. Alfred Korte 133, figs. 1-8; idem, Studies in Later Greek Comedy (Man-
in Real-Enc, xi, pp. 1266ff. Robert, Masken. Antonia K. H. chester University Press, 1953). A useful list of masks of

286
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER VIII
New Comedy in idem, Production, 186-192. Before the origi- Vergil-Problem," in Rom. Mitt., lix( 1944),78ff., fig. 1, pis.
nal Menander was known, most authors had attributed many 13-14; Rhys Carpenter, in MAAR
(1941), pp. 96ff. G. ;

features belonging to Latin comedy to the unknown Greek Hafner, Spiithellcnistische Rildnisplastik (1954), pp. 93ff.,
models. pis. 33-34, A 30. G. Richter, Greek and Roman Antiquities
2 See Korte in
Real-Enc, xi, p. 1268f. Maidemont, in CO, in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection, presents all the evidence
xxix (1935) ,1-24. for both sides and remains undecided.
3
Menander, The Principal Fragments, with an English 10 R. Kekule, Akadcmisches Kunstmuseum Ronn, p. 144,
translationby Francis G. Allison, The Locb Classical Library No. 688, pi. 2. Bernoulli, op.cit. i,174f., figs. 34-35. Arndt,
(1921). C. R. Post, Three Plays by Menander (1929); re- Portrats, pi. 124. R. Paribeni, Notizie degli Scavi (1929),
printed in Oates and O'Neill, The Complete Greek Drama, 16-17; idem, Ritratto, pi. lxiv. M. Bieber, in
pp. 351ff., pi.
h(1938). Gilbert Murray, Two Plays of Menander (1945). Rom. Mitt., 32(1917), 129, pi. 7, and Sculpture
of the Hell.
Ida L. Ehrlich, The Girl from Samos, reconstructed from Age, 142, figs. 596-597. F. "Iconographic
Poulsen,
p.
the fragments of Menander (1955). She has blended to- Studies," Coll. Ny Carlsberg, i( 1931 ),26ff., fig. 21; m( 1942),
gether the preserved scenes and important characters found 98f. Crome, op.cit, pp. 14, 21ff., figs. 1-4. R. and E. Boehr-
in the fragments and made them into a fine New Comedy. ingcr, Homer, Rildnisse und Nachweise, pp. 68ff., Nos.
The manuscript of the Dyskolos of Menander recently was xiii-xvi, pis. 37-42. Laurenzi, Ritratti, p. 139, pi. xlvii B,4.
found and is now in a private collection in Geneva, Switzer- Pace, Dioniso, vm( 1940), 50-87 and fig. to p. 4; and Arte e
land. Published in Papyrus Bodmer, TV, Mcnandrc, he Civiltd della Sicilia, m( 1945),339ff., figs. 70-71, calls the
Dyscolos, Geneva, 1958. Translated under the name of head Epicharmos. G. Richter, "Greek Portraits," Coll.
Curmudgeon by Gilbert Highet, in Horizon i, 1959, pp. Latumus, xx( 1955 ),31ff., doubts that the "Pseudo-Seneca"
78-89.
is Aristophanes. Cf. Ch. Ill, no. 43.
4 Ursinus, Imagines
(1570), p. 33. G. Kaibel, Epigram- 11 A. Michaelis, Ancient Marbles,
p. 557, No. 66. Crome,
mata Graeca ex Lapidibus conlecta, p. 490, No. 1085. A. op.cit., p. 19, figs. 41-43; Restored: eyebrows, left part of
Korte, "Homer und Menander," Hermes, 71 ( 1936),221f. forehead, nose, mouth, bust. Crome, fig. 43 shows the head
F. Poulsen, Coll. Ny Carlsberg, m( 1942),98f. The transla- without the restoration, but with the modern bust.
tion by A. M. Friend, in Antioch-on-the-Orontes, ni,251.
is 12 A. E. Kontoleon, in Ath. Mitt., xrv (
1889), 130. Ernest
5 Teofil Ivanov, Une Mosa'ique Romaine de Ulpia Oescus,
Noir, in Societe Royale d'Archeologie d'Alexandrie, Rulletin,
Monuments de l'Art en Bulgarie, n (Sofia, 1954). In Bul- 32-33(1938), N.S. 10, p. 157, fig. 1. Herbig, op.cit., p. 87,
garian with French resume. Bieber, AJA, lx, 1956, p. 80f. fig. 4.
6 Nauck, Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta,
pp. 161-164, 13 The mosaic (Treves): Ant. Denk., i, pi. 48.
in Trier
Nos. 138-152. Crome, op.cit., 61. The mosaic in Princeton:
57f., fig.
p.
7 E. Loewy, Inschriften griechischer Bildhauer, No. 108.
Stillwell, Antioch-on-the-Orontes, m, The Excavations, 1937-
IG, ed. min., m,l, No. 3777. F. Studniczka, Das Rildnis
1939, p. 185f. No. 131, pi. 63. A. M. Friend, ibid., "Me-
Menanders, reprinted from NJb, xli( 1918 ),3f., fig. 1. nander and Glykera in the Mosaics of Antioch," pp. 248ff.
8 Reisch, Griechische Weihgeschcnkc, Abb. des arch.-epigr.
The upper part of both heads, also with the wreaths, are
Seminars der Universitat Wien, Heft vni(1890), p. 54f. Sie- preserved in another mosaic, ibid., p. 176, No. 110, pi. 50.
veking in BrBr, pi. 626. Schreiber, Hellenist ische Relief- Doro Levi, Antioch Mosaic Pavements, pp. 201ff.
bilder, pi. 84. Bernoulli, Griechische Ikonographie, pi. xv. 14 A. Maiuri, Casa di Menandro,
pp. 106ff., figs. 50, 52,
Hekler, Rildniskunst, pi. 108. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 156f.,
53, pi. xii in color. Schefold, op.cit., p. 164f., No. 1. Herbig,
No. 129, pi. 88; idem, Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age, p. 53; op.cit., p. 79, fig. 3. The height of the figure is 1.08 m.
idem, Festschrift Rumpf (1951), pp. 14-17, pi. v. Webster, 15 T. Campanile in Rolletino communale, liv( 1928 ) ,187ff.,
in Rulletin of the John Rylands Library, xxxii( 1949 ) ,102ff. Crome, op.cit., 15f., 18, 21, 35, figs. 5-15, 22-24, 44.
pis. i-n.
Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 201, fig. 93. Buckler, in Journal of the Royal Society, xiv( 1924), 46, pi.
9 Studniczka, Das Rildnis Menanders, reprint from NJb, vn. Schefold, op.cit., pp. 114, 116f., fig. 2. Laurenzi, op.cit.,
xli( 1918), Iff. Bernoulli, Griechische Ikonographie, n,103ff., p. 139f., pi. xlvii, fig. 1.
pi. Hekler, Rildniskunst, pis. 105-8. Delbriick, Antikc
xrv. 16 Studniczka, op.cit., pp. 6, 9, llf., 14, pi. 4, figs. 1-3;
Portrats, xxxrvf., pi. 20. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 83f., No. 30, pi. 7, fig. 2; pi. 8, fig. 2. Bernoulli, op.cit., n,105f., fig. 8.
fig. 86, pi. 47; idem, Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age, pp. Poulsen, in Arndt- Amelung, Nos. 3113-4. Crome, op.cit.,
51ff., figs. 150-157. Arndt, pis. 1217-1221. Felletti Maj,
pp. 29ff., 34f., pi. 20, figs. 45-47. Herbig, op.cit., pp. 80ff.,
Museo nazionale Romano. 7 Ritratti, Nos. 21, 26-28. Vagn pi. 13. Bieber, Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age, pp. 51ff.,
Poulsen, Les Portraits Grecques (Copenhagen 1954), No. 41. figs. 150 and 152.

J. F.
Crome, in Atti e Memorie, Reale Accademia Virgiliana "Heron de Villefosse, MonPiot, v( 1899),64ff.,224ff., pi.
di Mantova, xxrv( 1935),28ff., figs. 2-47. Crome's attempt to vn. Crome, op.cit., pp. 166f., 216.
interpret this portrait as Vergil has been refuted by Poulsen, 18 Robert, Masken. Bieber, article, "Maske" in Real-Enc,
in Gnomon, xii( 1936), 90-95; and David Robinson in Pro- xrv,2076ff.,2093ff. O. Navarre, "Lesmasques et les roles de
ceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 83(1940), la comedie nouvelle," Revue des etudes anciennes, xvi
No. 3, pp. 465ff. pis. i-rcr, figs. 1-4, 10-13. The interpretation (1914), 1-40. T.B.L. Webster, "The Masks of Greek Com-
of Menander is accepted by Schefold, Rildnisse, p. 114f., edy," Rulletin of the John Rylands Library, 32( 1949),3ff.;
fig. 3 and p. 216; L. Laurenzi, in La Critica d'Arte, xix-xx Webster, "Note on Pollux List of Tragic Actors," Festschrift
(1939)28ff., pis. xvi-xix; idem, Ritratti greet (1941), pi. Andreas Rumpf (1951), pp. 141-150. Webster, Production,
xlvtt, fig. 5. David M. Robinson, "A New Marble Bust of pp. 73-96, 186-192. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 177ff.,
Menander, Wrongly Called Vergil," Proceedings of the 194ff.
American Philosophical Society, 83 ( 1940 ) ,465ff. The Theater 19 Ruesch, Guida del Museo di Napoli, No. 575, Sandrart,

in Ancient Art, An The Art Museum, Princeton

Exhibition, Teutsche Academic, n(1679), second part, p. 14, pi. 113.
University, 1952, figs. 57-61. The interpretation of Vergil is Schreiber, Hellenistische Reliefbilder, pi. 83. Sieveking, in
accepted by Lippold, Portratstatuen, pp. 89ff.; idem in Rom. BrBr, pi. 630a. Robert, Masken, p. 61f., fig. 85. Bieber,
Mitt., xxxn(1918),96ff., pi. 30; Herbig, "Zum Menander- Skenika, 75. Programm zum Winckelmannsfest (Berlin,

287
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER VIII

1915), p. idem, Denkmaler, p. 157, No. 130, pi.

9f., fig. 4; Burr, Terracottas from Myrina in the Museum of Fine Arts,
89. Spinazzola, Arti decorative in Pompei, pi. 74. Pickard- Boston, p. 77, No. 114, pi. xlh. Face orange-red, hair dark
Cambridge, Theater of Dionysus, p. 219, fig. 77; idem, Festi- red, wreath green. The marble mask, British Mus. No. 2440:
vals, p. 201, fig. 94. Webster, Bulletin Rylands Library, xxxn(1949), fig. 1;
20 Cabinet des Medailles, No. 122. Bieber, Denkmaler, Webster, Studies in Later Greek Comedy, p. 119, pi. rva.
p. 163, No. 140, pi. 95,1. Jean Babelon, Choix de Bronzes et Pickard-Cambridge, op.cit., p. 205, fig. 116.
Terres cuites des Collections Janze et Oppermann (1929), 38 Bieber and Rodenwaldt, in JdAI, xxvi(
1911), Iff., figs.
p. 23, No. 10, pi. ex. Height ca. 40cm. The hair of the ex- 1-2. Ruesch, Guida del Museo di Napoli, Nos. 167 and 169.
cited man is red, his mantle has traces of pink. Mus. Nos. 9985 and 9987. Hermann-Bruckmann, Denkmaler
21 Museo Borbonico, i, pi. 20. Wieseler, Buhnengebaude,
der Malerei, pp. 30ff., pis. 106-7. Rodenwaldt, Die Kunst der
pi. 11, No. 3 (with an inexact drawing). Helbig, Wandge- Antike, p. 490, pi. xxxrv and Curtius, Pompejanische Wand-
malde Campaniens, No. 1470. Bulle, op.cit., p. 280f., fig. 13t* malerei, pp. 340ff., pi. ix-x, have colored reproductions.
Simon, Comicae Tabellae, pp. llff., No. 7, pi. n and pp. Bieber, Denkmaler, pp. 159ff., Nos. 135-6, pis. 92-93.
166ff. Bieber, Denkmaler, pi. 91,1. Pickard-Cambridge, Festi- Fiechter, Baugesch. Entw., figs. 52-53. Pfuhl, Malerei und
vals, p. 202, fig. 101. L. Richardson, MAAR, xxiii( 1955), 153, Zeichnung, n,848ff.; m, figs. 684-5. Rizzo, La Pittura El-
pi. LI,2. lenistico-Romana, 67f., pis. cxliv-v. Spinazzola, Arti
p.
22 Naples, Museo Nazionale, No. 9035. Helbig, Wand- decorative in Pompei, pi. 198. Simon, Comicae Tabellae,
gemdlde, No. 1471. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 158f., No. 133, pi. pp. US., No. 8; 20ff., No. 10; pp. 157ff., 169f. Pickard-
91.1. Simon, Comicae Tabellae, pp. 7ff., No. 5, and pp. Cambridge, Theater of Dionysus, p. 223f., figs. 85-86; idem,
145ff. Rizzo, La Pittura Ellenistico-Romana, p. 68, pi. Festivals, p. 201, Maiuri, Roman Painting (Skira,
fig. 95.
cxLvm,2. Richardson, op.cit., p. 155, pi. lii,2. 1953), pp. scene in color). Pernice and Winter,
94ff. (street
23 Found on the Aventine. Fine technique. Stuart Jones,
Hellenistische Kunst in Pompeji, Pavimente und figiirliche
Sculptures of the Museo p. 134, Sala delle
Capitolino, Mosaiken, p. 169ff., pis. 70-71 (colored). Lippold, Antike
Colombe, No. 37A, Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 162, No.
pi. 35. Gemaldekopien, Abh. Miinchener Akademie der Wiss., N.F.
137, pi. 91,2. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 210, fig. 158. 33(1951),139ff. Webster, Production, pp. 23, 87, 90, 162;
24 Found in Pompeii. Now in Dresden, Staatliche Museen.
pis. 21-22. Against his interpretation of Fig. 347 as Me-
P. Herrmann, Skulpturensammlung Dresden, Verzeichnis der nander's Women at Breakfast, see Bieber, in AJP 78(1957),
Bildwerke, No. 224. Treu, in Mitteilungen aus den sach- 209.
sischen Kunstsammlungen (1911), p. 164f., fig. 5. 39 Museo Nazionale, Naples, No. 9034. Guida Ruesch,
No.
25 Athens, Nat. Mus. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 168, No. 162, 1805. Bieber and Rodenwaldt, JdAI, xxvi( 1911 ),13, fig. 5,
pi. 103,1. Robert, Masken, p. 18, fig. 37. Pickard-Cambridge, and p. 19. Herrmann-Bruckmann, Denkmaler der Malerei,
Festivals, p. 204, fig. 107.
pp. 134ff., fig. 36 in text to pi. 106. Bieber, Denkmaler,
28
Robert, op.cit., p. 20, figs. 43-45. Pickard-Cambridge, p. 161.
204, fig. 105, in Dresden, found in Boeotia.
op.cit., p. 40 Cf. note 38. Colored photographs made for
me by
27 Thismask, together with the whole collection of Greek Joseph Young of Los Angeles, California, bring out the
minor arts, was given in 1933 by the author to the dealer lively colors of the two mosaics which have been recently
Bernhard Wohlgemut in Berlin, who is said to have sold it cleaned. They will be published in the Encyclopedia
in Berlin, but never paid the owner. He is said to have been Hebraica, Jerusalem.
deported in 1943 to Theresienstadt, and has not returned. 41 Robert, Masken,
p. 46, fig. 82. Bieber, Denkmaler, p.
The name of the buyer is not known to me. 169, No. 171, pi. 107,3. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 209,
28 Alda Levi, Catalogo delle Sculture Greche e Romane
fig. 146.
del Palazzo Ducale di Mantova, p. 47, No. 80, pi. Lib. Traces 42 Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 168, No. 159, pi. 101,3-4.
of yellow in hair, brows, and beard. 43 Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 169f., No. 172, pi. 107,4.
29 In the storerooms of the National Museum at Athens, 44 Robert, Masken,
p. 46f., figs. 83-4. Pickard-Cambridge,
No. 1754. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 169, No. 168, pi. 105,3. Festivals, p. 210, fig. 147. Another good example in the
30
Athens, National Museum, No. 5045. Robert, Masken, British Museum: Webster, Studies in Later Greek Comedy,
p. 80, fig. 98. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 163, No. 141, pi. 95,2.
p. 119, pi. rvc.
Cf. also Pottier et Reinach, Necropole de Myrina, pp. 468ff., 45 Berlin, Altes Museum, Antiquarium, No. 7401. Bieber,
pi. xlv,1. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 205, fig. 113. Denkmaler, No. 156,
p. 167, pi. 100,4.
31 Bieber, in Arndt-Amelung, No. 4746.
32 Berlin, Altes
46 British Museum Terracottas, E 31. Pickard-Cambridge,
Museum, Antiquarium, No. 6623. Bieber,
Festivals, p. 209, fig. 144.
Denkmaler, p. 124, No. 67, pi. 65,2. There wrongly used for 47 Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 167, No. 158, pi. 101,1. Berlin,
the tragic delicate youth. Webster, in Bulletin Rylands Li-
Altes Museum, Antiquarium, No. 6901.
brary, 32 (1949), 34, No. 12, has rightly interpreted it as 48
Robert, Masken, p. 70, fig. 88.
comic, probably the curly (ovXos) youth of Pollux, iv,147.
49 Bieber, Denkmaler,
Some traces of red in face, light blue in eyes, black on onkos. p. 170, No. 175, pi. 106,3. Robert,
33 Berlin, Altes Museum, No. 7969. Bieber, Denkmaler, Masken, p. 37, fig. 63. Naples, Museo Nazionale, No. 6612.
Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 210, fig. 152.
p. 163, No. 142, pi. 96,1. Robert, Masken, p. 66f., fig. 87.
50 Bieber, Denkmaler,
Lietzmann, Bilderanhang zu Wendland, Hcllenistische- p. 168, No. 160, pi. 102,1. Cf.
romische Kultur, p. 420, pi. m,3. Pickard-Cambridge, Festi- Robert, Masken, p. 39f., fig. 68, and p. 74f.
61 Bieber, Denkmaler,
vals, p. 205, fig. 114. p. 170, No. 173, pi. 106,1. Robert,
34 Athens, National Museum, No. 5060. Bieber, Denk- Masken, p. 81, fig. 99. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 210,
maler, p. 167, No. 155, pi. 100,3. fig. 148.
35 Bieber, Denkmaler,
p. 169, No. 164, pi. 103,3-4. Pickard- Munich, Glyptothek No. A 357, formerly Collection
52

Cambridge, Festivals, p. 205, fig. 115. Paul Arndt. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 168, No. 161, pi. 102,2.
se Louvre, Salle B, No. CA, 1958. 53 Athens, National Museum No. 5032. Robert, Masken,

87 Boston Museum of Fine Arts, No. 01.7752. Dorothy pp. 37ff., figs. 64-65, wrongly interpreted as the gossiping

288
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER VIII

wife of a burgher. Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 167, No. 157, pi. tisch-rbmische Kultur, p. 420, pi. in,2. Pickard-Cambridge,
101,2. Dithyramb, fig. 44; Festivals, p. 207, fig. 124.
54 Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 170, No. 174, pi. 106,2, Naples, "Altmann, in Ath.Mitt., xxix(1904),192ff., fig. 28. Win-
Museo Nazionale, No. 6625. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, ter, Altertiimer von Pergamon, vu,2, p. 315, fig. 404d. Rob-

p.210, fig. 153. ert,Masken, p. 15, fig. 28. Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 169, No.
" Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 170, No. 176, pi. 106,4. Naples, 166, pi. 104,3. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 186, fig. 53.
74 Formerly Collection Lecuyer. Cartault, Coll. Lecuyer,
Museo Nazionale, No. 6616. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals,
p. 210, fig. 154. pi. l,2. Robert, Masken, p. 15, fig. 29. Pickard-Cambridge,
56
See note 32. Berlin, Altes Museum, Antiquarium, No. Dithyramb, p. 279, fig. 46; Festivals, p. 200, fig. 92.
75 Munich: Antikensammlungen, Inv. No. 6928. Palermo:
6622. Simon, op.cit., p. 113, pi. vi,2.
57 Boston Museum of Fine Arts, No. 01.7753. Dorothy Bieber, Skenika, p. 19ff., fig. 13; Denkmiiler, p. 158, No. 131,
Burr, Terracottas from Myrina in the Museum of Fine Arts, pi. xc,l. Simon, Comicae Tabellae, p. 9ff., No. 6, p. 147ff..

Boston, p. 77f., No. 115, pi. xlii,3. pi. I.

76
ssAmelung, n,512, Galleria dei Busti, No. 313, pi. 72. Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 168, No. 163, pi. 103,2. Robert,
Robert, Masken, p. 37, pi. i. Bieber, Denkmcilcr, p. 170, Masken, p. 27, fig. 55.
77 Leipzig, Kunstgewerbemuseum. Bielefeld in Wiss. Zeit-
No. 177, pi. 107,1-2. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 210,
fig. 156. schrift Univ. Greifswald, 'Analecta arch.' (1954/5), pp. 100f..
59 Louvre, Salle B, CA. 1958. figs. 11-12.
eo Bieber, 78 Louvre, No. 199. Bieber, Denkmiiler, 164, No. 146,
Denkmiiler, p. 170, No. 178, pi. 107,5-6. p.
Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 207, fig. 126. Munchen, pi. 97,4. Robert, op.cit., p. 16, fig. 33. Pottier et Reinach,
Antiquarium. Sieveking, Miinchener Jahrbuch (1916), 153, Necropole de Myrina, p. 475, pi. 46,4. Pickard-Cambridge,
No. 5 (111.); Arch. Anz., xxxn( 1917),30f. Nos. 5-6. Festivals, p. 203f., fig. 106. Mask found in Priene, now in
61 Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 164f., No. 147-8, pi. 98,1-2. A Berlin: Robert, Masken, p. 16f., fig. 30. Zahn in Wiegand-

replica of the soldier was formerly in the possession of Schrader, Priene, p. 361, fig. 447.
79 Boston, No. 87 399. Said to be from Myrina or South-
Hartwig, said to be from Tarentum.
62 Bronze from the Agora: Shear, Hesperia, vi( 1937), 351, ern Italy. Messerschmidt, in Rbm.Mitt., 46(1931),60, fig. 6a;
cf. p. 64. Similar mask on fragmentary statuette bought in
fig. 15. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 210, fig. 161.
63 Walters, Cat. Terracottas British Museum, C 827: Myrina, now in Heidelberg: Luschey, Ganymed, p. 78f.,
figs. 9-10.
Webster, "The Masks of Greek Comedy," Bulletin of the John
80 Conze, Altertiimer von Pergamon,
i,2, p. 260f., No. 20.
Rylands Library, 32( 1949),8f.,37, No. 27, i c. He explains
Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 169, Nos. 168-169, pi. 105, Nos. 2-3.
the mask as that of a servant. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals,
81 Bieber, JdAI, 32 ( 1917),76f., fig. 43. For the loss of
p. 208, fig. 138, names him a soldier slave(?). Bieber, A]A,
explains him as a warrior.
tins mask, together with the whole collection of Greek minor
60(1956), 172, fig. 8,
64 arts of the author, see note 27.
Helbig, Wandgemdlde, No. 1468. Museo Borbonico,
82
Bruckner and Bieber, Skenika, p. 9f., pi. n.
rv, pi. Robert, Masken, pp. 5, 22f., figs. 7-9. Bieber,
18.
83 Berlin,
Altes Museum, Antiquarium No. 6957. Robert,
Denkmiiler, p. 159f., No. 134, fig. 136. Simon, Comicae
Masken, p. 27f., fig. 57. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p.
Tabellae, pp. 28ff., No. 14 and pp. 165f. Rumpf, "Mimus
207, fig. 127.
and Logos," Fine Festgabe fur Carl Niessen, pp. 163-170. 84 The
replica from Herculaneum has been found to-
Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 202, fig. 98. Mrs. Simon
gether with the slave and fluteplayer (our Fig. 328). Pitture
and Rumpf have interpreted the two main figures of this d'Ercolano, iv,159, pi. 33. Museo Borbonico, rv, pi. 33.
wall-painting as slaves, but a slave would not hold a spear,
Ruesch, Guida di Napoli, p. 388, No. 1803, Mus. No. 9037.
and the fawning attitude of the bowing man is that of a para- Bieber-Rodenwaldt, JdAI, 26(1911), 11, fig. 4. Robert, Mas-
site. Bieber, A] A, 60 ( 1956), 172, fig. 6, returns to the ex- ken, p. 42f., 72. Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 158, No. 132, pi.
fig.
planation as a braggart warrior. 90,2. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 202, fig. 97. The paint-
65 Robert, Masken,
pp. 22ff., figs. 48-52; p. 95, fig. 110. ing in Pompeii, our Fig. 395: Maiuri, Pompeii, Musei e Mon.
Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 164, No. 144, pi. 97,1-2. Pickard- d'ltalia,No. 3, p. 63.119, pi. xxxrv, fig. 63; idem, in Notizie
Cambridge, Festivals, p. 206, fig. 120. degli Scavi (1929), pp. 410ff., pi. xxrv. Rizzo, Pittura El-
66 Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 169, No. 165, pi. 104,1-2. lenistico-Romana, p. 68, pi. cxlvo. Maiuri, Les Fresques de
67 Bieber, Denkmiiler,
p. 164, No. 145, pi. 97,3. Berlin, Pompei, Encyclopedie Alpina, pi. xxxvn; idem, Roman
Antiquarium, No. 7395. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. Painting (Skira, 1953), pp. 94ff. in color.
85 Athens Museum, No. 5057. Robert, Masken,
206, fig. 119. p. 71, fig.
68
Replica in Munich, Antiquarium, No. 5395. Another 90. Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 167, No. 153, pi. 100.1.
86 See Ch. VII,
replica was formerly in the possession of Hartwig, perhaps p. 81.
87 Athens, National Museum, No. 5058. Robert, Masken,
from Tarentum. Another replica said to be from Megara,
p. 14, fig. 27. Cf. Pottier et Reinach, La Necropole de My-
now in the Louvre. Froehner, Terres cuites d'Asie Mineure
rina, p. 471f., pi. xlv, fig. 1. Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 166, No.
de la Collection Greaux, p. 85, pi. 110,1. Cf. Robert, Masken,
154, pi. 100,2. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 207, fig.
p. 68f.
69 Berlin, No. 7397. Replica formerly Hartwig said
129. See also Figs. 297 and 299.
to be 88 Berlin, Altes Museum, No. 7078. Kekule and Pemice,
from Tarentum.
Ausgewiihlte Terrakotten, p. 27, pi. 36,3. Bieber, Denkmiiler,
70 Formerly Collection Tandolo in Palazzo Borghese. Mes-
p. 134, No. 88, pi. 73,3. Replicas are in Vienna, Austria:
serschmidt in Rbm.Mitt., 46 ( 1931 ),56ff., fig. 5. Robert von Schneider, in Arch. Anz., vn( 1892 ), 119, No. 153,
71 Fig. 376 kindly given to me by Professor Seyrig of Bei-
and in the South Kensington Museum of London, No. 617.84.
rut. Fig. 377 I owe to Professor Dinsmoor. 89 Robert, Masken, pp. 10ff., fig. 23. Bieber, Denkmiiler,
72 Berlin, Altes Museum, Antiquarium, No. 7953. Robert,
p. 166, No. 150, pi. 98,4. Pottier et Reinach, Necropole de
Masken, p. 14, fig. 26. Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 163, No. 143, Myrina, p. 471f., pi. xlv,8.
pi. 96,2. Lietzmann, Bilderanhang zu Wendland, Hellenis- 90 Athens, National
Museum, No. 5055. Probably also,

289
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTERS VIII AND IX
like Fig. 399, from Myrina. Robert, Masken, p. 70f., fig. gos," Eine Festgabe fur Carl Niessen (1952), p. 167f., pi.
89. vn. Particularly lively is the seated slave in the terracotta:
91 Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 135, No. 89d., pi. 73,4. Found Necropole de Myrina, p. 471f., pi. xlv,8.
tomb near the armorv of Tarentum. Notizie degli Scavi 105 Robert, Masken. M. Bieber, article, 'Maske,' in Real-
in a
(1897), p. 216, fig. 37. Enc, xiv( 1930),2093ff. O. Navarre, Revue des Etudes an-
92 Ruesch, Guida del Museo di Napoli,
p. 495, No. 2041. ciennes, xvi( 1914), Iff. T.B.L. Webster, "The Masks of
Mus. No. 6146. Simon, Comicae Tabellae, p. 24f., No. 11, Greek Comedy," Bulletin of the John Rylands Library,
pi. in and p. 152f. Pemice in Winter, Hell. Kunst in Pom- xxxn(1949),126ff. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 190-
peii, vi( 1938), 172, pi. 72,1. 193, 202-212. Gisela Krien, "Der Ausdruck der antiken Thea-
93 Munich, Antikensammlungen, formerly collection Arndt, termasken nach Angaben im Polluxkatalog und in der pseu-
A379. Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 165f., No. 149, pi. 98,3. doaristotelischen Physiognomik," JOAI, xlh( 1956 ), 84-1 17.
04 Catalogo del Museo Teatralc alia Scala (Milano, 1914)," 106 M. Bieber, in Festschrift Andreas Rumpf
(1952), pp.
p. 49, No. 18. Bieber, in Bulletin of the Princeton Museum 14ff. AJP, lxxv( 1954), 311.
;

107 Hermann Reich, Die altesten berufsmassigen Dar-

of Historical Art, ix( 1951 ),4-12, fig. 4.
95 I owe the photographs to the kindness of Professor stcller des griechisch-italischen Mimus, Programm des K6-
Seyrig. They were made in the Bibliotheque Nationale at nigsberger Gymnasiums, 1896/7. Idem, Der Mimus, ein
Paris, numbers A7633-7635. literarisch-entwicklungsgeschichtlicher Versuch (1903). J.
9(3
British Museum Catalogue of Bronzes, No. 1626. Horowitz, Spuren griechischer Mimen im Orient (1905). M.
97 Museo archeologico, No. 2325. L. A. Milani, II Museo Bieber, ih JdAI, 32(1917), 61-64, fig. 31-33; idem, Denk-
archeologico di Fircnze, n,30, pi. 140,1. maler, pp. 175ff. Saglio in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire
08 Berlin, Altes Museum, Antiquarium, No. 323. Robert, des Antiquites, i,1078ff. Wiist in Real-Enc, xv(1932), 1727-
Masken, p. 10, fig. 20. Arch. Zeitung, xn(1854), pi. 69, figs. 43, s.v. Mimus. Olivieri, Frammenti della Commedia greca
21-22. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 207, fig. 126. He e del Mimo nella Sicilia e nella Magna Grecia (1930), pp.
follows Robert's identification as the curly-haired slave. 167ff. Herzog-Crusius, Die Mimiambcn des Herondas ( 1926).
1)9
Louvre, No. 293. Bieber, "The Statuette of an Actor Pace, in Dioniso, i( 1929), 224-230. Kaibel, Comicorum Grae-
of New Comedy," Bulletin of the Princeton Museum of His- corum Fragmenta, pp. 154-181 (Sophron).
108 Olivieri, op.cit.,
torical Art, rx( 1951), 4-12, fig. 5. p. 197f., fig. 15. Rizzo, in Dedalo,
100 Bieber, in Bulletin of the Princeton Museum of His- vn-,1926, pp. 402-417. Pace, Arte e Civiltd della Sicilia,
torical Art, rx( 1951), 4-12, figs. 1-2. ra, p. 344f., fig. 72; idem, Dioniso i(1929), 224-230.
101 Cf. British Museum Terracottas, D
322. Pickard-Cam- 109 See Ch. Ill, note 53.

bridge, Festivals, p. 207, fig. 130; and for the crossed hands, 110 Grenfell, Alexandrian Erotic Fragment and other Greek

ibid., fig. 133, Copenhagen Mus. No. 1067. Pottier-Reinach, Papyri (Oxford, 1896). Crusius, Die Mimiamben des He-
Necropole de Myrina, p. 475f., pi. xlvi,5. rondas, 5. ed., 1914, pp. 124ff. U. von Wilamowitz, "Des
p. 10, fig. 21. Athens, National Mu-
102 Robert, Masken, Miidchens Klage" in Gottinger Nachrichten, phil.-hist-Klasse
seum, No. 5030. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 207, fig. 1896, pp. 209ff. Beare, The Roman Stage, 2nd. ed. 1955,
125. p. 229 and Appendix L, text and translation.
103 Hartford, Wadstcorth Athenaeum Museum Bidletin 111 Watzinger, Ath.Mitt., xxvi( 1901 ), Iff., pi. i. Crusius,

(1924), p. 10. Formerly in the Morgan Collection. Salomon Festschrift fiirGomperz (1902), pp. 381ff. R. Herzog in
Reinach, Repertoire de la Statuaire, v,l, p. 537,6. Philologus, Lxu(1903),35ff. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 176f.,
104 Berlin Bronzen, Inv. No. 8937. Pemice, Arch. Anz. No. 187, fig. 142. Olivieri, op.cit., p. 184f., fig. 14.

(1904), p. 37, No. 13. Robert, Masken, p. 82f., fig. 103. Translation of Herondas, Mime 2, in Higham
112 and
Neugebauer, Bronzen der klassischen und hellenistischen Bowra, The Oxford Book of Greek Verse, p. 556.
Zeit (Berlin, 1951), No. 71. A. Rumpf in "Mimus und Lo-

NOTES TO CHAPTER IX. THE HELLENISTIC THEATER BUILDING

1 Shaw, ed. Tauchnitz, vol. 4555, p. 121f.; ed. Brentano 105-133, 142-291. Vallois, Revue des etudes anciennes
(New York, 1919), "The Author's Apology for Great (1928), pp. 171-179. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dio-
Catherine," p. 129. nysus, pp. 241f., 169f., 206-209. Dilke, ABSA, 45( 1950),59f.
2 Cf. Bieber, Gnomon, vra( 1932),478ff. Dinsmoor, op.cit., pp. 298ff. Webster, Production, pp. 146-
3 A. von Gerkan, Das Theater von Priene, als Einzelanlage 155. Vallois, L' Architecture hellenique d Delos, i(1944),
und in seiner Bedeutung fiir das hellenistische Biihnenwe- 220-246.
sen (1921). Bieber, Denkmaler, pp. 29ff., No. 8, pi. xm, *IG, xi,2, No. 161. Durrbach, op.cit., No. 125, p. 249f.
figs. 27-38. Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 250ff. Fensterbusch, Bulle, op.cit., p. 175.
Bursians Jahresber., 227 ( 1930), 35ff. Dinsmoor, The Archi- p. 176f., pp. 182ff. The
9 7G, xi,2, 199 A. Bulle, op.cit.,

tecture of Ancient Greece (1950), pp. 301ff., fig. Ill, pi. expressions "skene" and "paraskenion" are used sometimes in
lxix. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, pp. 202ff., the singular, sometimes in the plural, and often in an in-
figs. 68-69. Bieber, AJA 58( 1954),280, pi. 53, fig. 11a. exact manner either for a part of the building or for the
4 The instructive reconstruction of the undecorated thea- paintings on the pinakes or canvases.
ter by Fiechter, published by Frickenhaus, in Bonner Jahr- io Chamonard, BCH, xx( 1896),279ff. Bulle, op.cit.,
pp.
bucher, 125( 1919), 200, pi. xxxvn,l. Bieber, Denkmaler, 177ff., 186ff.

p. 35, fig. 35. From it is taken Fig. 424. nHomolle, BCH, xvin( 1894), 165, No. 11. Bulle, op.cit.,
5
Von Gerkan, op.cit., p. 70, pis. xxxi and xxxvi. p. 180, vn and p. 191.
6 12
IG, vn,423; D-R, pp. 100ff., figs. 35-42, pi. vi,l. Fiech-
Bulle, Untersuchungen, p. 251f.
7 Chamonard, BCH
Homolle, BCH, xviii( 1894 ),162ff.; ter,Baugesch.Entw., pp. Iff., figs. 1-5, 64a-b. From his figs.
xx( 1896),281ff. Durrbach, Choix d'lnscriptions de Delos l-2a and 64 are taken our Figs. 427 and 429. Fiechter, Thea-
(1921), p. HOf. Bulle, op.cit., pp. 174-192. IG, xi,2, Nos. terbauten, I, Das Theater von Oropos, pp. 15ff., figs. 4-11.

290
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER IX
From fig. 11 and pi. 8 are taken our Figs. 426 and 428. The Entw., pp. 28ff. Fiechter, Dionysostheater, ni, pp. 76ff.,
remodeled drawing for Fig. 427 has been made by Miss fig.38, pi. 21; Cf. note 51. Bulle, op.cit., pp. 234ff. Bulle,
Elizabeth Wadhams. as always, dates the new form too early, into the fourth
13 Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 303ff. He sees the same century B.C. Cf. Chamonard, BCH, xx( 1896),256ff., espe-
spirit which created the proskenion with engaged columns cially 291ff., "La question du Logeion." Bieber, Denkmaler,
as merely decorative supporting wall, in the wooden sar- pp. 29, 33ff., 73f. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient
cophagi from Abukir and in the house sarcophagi from the Greece, pp. 298ff.
27 Cf. Vitruvius,
Crimea related to the Saitic wooden sarcophagi. It seems to V, 5, 7, and the tale in Plutarch, Moralia,
me possible, however, that the sarcophagi from the Crimea 1906 B (Disputatio qua docetur ne suaviter quidem vivi
may follow a tradition from Asia Minor living on in Mile- posse secundum Epicuri decreta, "On ovde fijv eanv jjotus
tus, the mother city of the colonies in Southern Russia. Stud- Kar' 'EiriKovpov). When Alexander the Great wanted a bronze
niczka (Abh. Sachs. Akad., xxx( 1914 ),66ff., No. 2, pis. 1- proskenion in Pella, the architect did not allow it, because
2) was right when he supposed the symposium tent of Ptol- it would spoil the sound of the actor's voice.
28 Athenaeus, xin,587b.
emy II, as described by Callixenus, to have had low See Ch. VI, note 7.
29 Von Gerkan supposes that there was but one door.
colonnades attached as porches on three sides before the cen-
tral main buildinsr. Bulle, op.cit., p. 251f., on the other hand, assumes that there
14 Berlin, Vordcrasiatisches Museum, Room 13. Walter were three doors from the very beginning.
Andrae, Archaischer Ischtar Tempel in Assur (39. Wissen- 30 Clarke-Bacon-Koldewev, Investigations at Assos, pp.
schaftliche Veroffentlichung der deutschen Orientgesell- 121ff. Puchstein, op.cit., pp. 57ff., fig. 12. D-R, pp. 148ff.,
schaft, 1922), pp. 34ff., figs. 5-6. Andrae, Das Gotteshaus fig. 60. Frickenhaus, Altgriech. Biihne, pp. 36, 99, figs. 1-3.
und die Urformen des Battens im Alten Orient (1930), pp. Bulle, Untersuchungen, p. 253.
31 Heberdey-Niemann-Wilberg, Forschungcn in Ephesos,
67ff., pi. rv.
15 Franz Oelman, "Hilani und Liwanhaus," Bonner Jahr- n(1912), pp. Iff. Bieber, Denkmaler, pp. 38ff., No. 10, figs.
biicher, 127( 1922),189ff. Figs. 432a-g are taken from his
;
40-51, pis. xix-xx and A] A 58(1954), 281, pi. 53, fig. lib.
figs. 9b-c, 15-17. von Gerkan, op.cit., p. 90f. Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 253ff.
16 Oelman, op.cit., 32 Bulle, Untersuchungen,
p. 21 If., fig. 21. The late Professor Herz- p. 247: "Flachwandtypus."
feld, of Princeton University, kindly confirmed this fact. 33 Wiegand, Priene, fig. 229. A. von Gerkan, op.cit.,
p.
17 Flinders-Petrie, Gizeh and Rifch, British School of 75f., pis. vn,3; vra, xxxn, xxxm,2. Bieber, Denkmaler, p.
Archaeology in Egypt and Egyptian Research Account, thir- 31, fig. 27. Frickenhaus, Altgriech. Biihne, pp. 36, 99, fig. 1.

teenth year, 1907, pp. 14ff., especially p. 17f., pis. xv-xvin; 34 Chamonard, BCH, xx( 1896),281ff., pis. xix-xx. D-R,
particularlv good is pi. xvm A. Baldwin Smith, Egyptian pp. 144ff., figs. 58-59. Dorpfeld's design of the upper story
Architecture, p. 199, pi. lxtv, 8-9. Our Figs. 433-434 cor- with only one door in the front is probably wrono;. Puch-
respond to Nos. 21 and 93 therein. stein, Die griech. Biihne, pp. 53ff., figs. 10-11. Frickenhaus,
18 Cf. op.cit., pp. 192ff., figs. 1-2. From it is
Oelman, op.cit., fig. 3. Bieber, Dcnkmiiler, p. 28f., No. 7, figs. 24-26,
taken Fig. 432a. Here also are open terraces in front of the pi. 12. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, pp. 206ff.,
upper story between the side wings which are built like figs. 74-75.
turrets. 35 For Leonidaeum see note 19. For the ship of Ptolemy IV
19
Olvmpia, Leonidaeum: Dorpfeld, Olympia II, Die Bau- see note 13. The tent of Ptolemy: Caspari, in JdAI, xxxi
denkmaler von Oh/mpia, pp. 83ff., pis. 62-63. Dinsmoor, (1916), Iff., figs. 10-14.
The Architecture of Ancient Greece, p. 251, fig. 44l on p. 114. 36 Fossum-Capps, Papers the American School at
of
20 Southeast building in Olvmpia: Dorpfeld, op.cit., Athens, vi( 1897),76ff.,135ff., pis. 4, 12-15, D-R, pp. 113ff.,
pp.
73ff., figs. 55-56, pis. 52-54. figs. 44-45, pi. 12. Puchstein, op.cit., pp. 94ff., fig. 25. Fiech-
21 Maiuri, La villa dei Misteri, pp. 46ff., fig. 13, pis. B,D, ter, Baugesch.Entw., pp. 4ff ., 70ff., figs. 6-8. Frickenhaus,
and E. Bieber, in Review of Religion, n(1937),4, fig. i. op.cit.,pp. 40, 43, 48, figs. 10, 14. Flickinger, Greek Thea-
Maiuri, Pompeii, 93 (our Fig. 435).
fig. ter,pp. 104ff. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 20C No. 3, figs. 14-
22 Swoboda, Romische Pulaste, p. 14f., figs. 6-7; p. 24, 15, pi. vm. Bulle, op.cit., pp. 81ff., pi. 11. Fiechter, Das
fig. pp. 29ff., pis. i-vn. M. Rostovtzeff, in JdAI, xix
13; Theater in Eretria, in Theaterbauten, vm(1937), pp. 34ff.,
(1904),103ff., pis. v-vr. Rostovtzeff, Rdm.Mitt., xxvi(1911), figs.32-35, pis. 7-9. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient
figs. 56-57, pis. vi, 1, vn,2. Herrmann-Bruckmann, Malerei. Greece, p. 300, fig. 110, p. 305f. See above, Ch. V, Figs.
pi. 163. Swindler, Ancient Painting, fig. 548. Mau, Pompeji, 263-265 and Ch. VI, Figs. 284-288.
pp. 350ff., figs. 187-188. Mau-Kelsey, Pompeii, p. 358f., 37 Fossum, AJA, ix( 1905),263ff., pis. 8-9. Bulle, op.cit.,
fig. 177 (our Fig. 436). Thedenat, Pompei, p. 163, fig. 121. pp. 192ff. Fiechter, Das Theater von Sikyon, in Theaterbau-
Cf. Noack and Lehmann-Hartleben, Baugeschichtliche Un- ten, m(1931). Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, pp.
tersuchungen am Stadtrand von Pompeji (1936), pp. 193ff., 204ff., fig. 73.
pis. 1, 4, 7, 10, 21, 22, 24. 38 Puchstein, Die griechische Biihne, frontispiece. Cf.
23
Wallpainting in Naples from Stabiae, Inv. No. 9409. above, Ch. V, Figs. 271-274.
Swoboda, op.cit., p. 53, pi. ma. Rostovtzeff, in Rdm.Mitt., 39 Powell in AJA, vra ( 1904) ,174-201. Flickinger, Greek

xxvi(1911), pi. vm,2. Theater, p. 61, fig. 25. Bulle, op.cit., pp. 91ff., 255Cpls. 14-16.
24 D-R,
pp. 379ff. Dorpfeld in Ath.Mitt., xxvui(1903), Fiechter, Die Theater von Oiniadai und Neu-Pleuron,
383, 411ff. and xlix( 1924),50ff.
; Theaterbauten, n(1931), pp. 7ff., figs. 1-4, pis. 1-6. Arias,
25 A. von Gerkan, Theater von Priene,
pp. 73ff. Fricken- II teatro greco fuori di Atene, pp. 46-57. Pickard-Cam-
haus in Real-Enc, m
A, pp. 484 and 492, agrees with him. bridge, Theatre of Dionysus, p. 209.
Cf. the critical remarks of James T. Allen, "Problems of the 40 StiUwell, Corinth, n, The Theater, pp. 15ff., 133ff., pi.

Proskenion," in University of California Publications in ra (plan), pi. vma (restoration of the proskenion with
Classical Philology, vn( 1923),197ff. His attempt to date the ramps).
form of the proskenion as an independent building (fig. 4) 41 Das Theater von Priene, p. 93f. Dorp-
A. von Gerkan,
back to the fifth centurv is not acceptable. 47(1922), p. 28 and 49; (1924), p. 90f.
feld, in Ath.Mitt.,
26 Bethe, Prolegomena,
pp. 230ff. Fiechter, Baugesch. Bieber, Denkmaler, pp. 21ff., No. 4, figs. 16-18. Pickard-

291
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTERS IX AND X
Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, p. 204, fig. 72. Dinsmoor, 470 is based on his fig. 12. Cf. Bieber-Rodenwaldt, in JdAI,
The Architecture of Ancient Greece, p. 305, fig. 112. xxvi(1911),3ff.
42 Ch. V, Figs. 243-247, note 20. Dinsmoor, the Architec- A.M.G. Little, "Scaenographia," The Art Bulletin, xvm
58

ture of Ancient Greece, pp. 307, 316, 331, fig. 121, pi. lxxi. (1936), 407ff., figs, i-vhi; xix(1937), pp. 487ff., figs. 3-12.
43 Koldewey, Das wiedererstehende Babylon* (1925),
pp. Beyen, Die pompejanische Wanddekoration vom zweiten bis
293ff., figs. 248-254. Frickenhaus, op.cit., p. 44, fig. 17. zum vierten Stil, i(1938), pp. 89ff. and 352ff. Little, "A
Bulle, Untersuchungen, p. 246. Roman Sourcebook for the Stage" AJA, 60 ( 1956),27ff.,
44 Herzog and Ziebarth, in Ath.Mitt., xxm( 1898),314ff., pi. 20.
pis. xii and xn A. Bulle, op.cit., pp. 242ff., fig. 5. Fiechter, 59 Barnabei, La Villa di Boscoreale, pp. 71ff., pis. 9-10.
Die Theater von Oiniadae und Neu Pleuron, in Theaterbau- Fiechter, Die Baugesch.Entw., pp. 42ff., figs. 43-45. Bulle,
ten, n(1931), pp. 19ff., figs. 5-6, pis. 7-12. Untersuchungen, pp. 273ff., figs. 9-10. Swindler, Ancient
45 D-R, Painting, p. 327. Pfuhl, Malerei und Zeichnung der Griechen,
pp. 97ff., fig. 34 (from here is taken Fig. 463).
Puchstein, Die griech. Biihne, pp. 105ff., figs. 27-28. Bulle, ii, pp. 810ff., 868f., §953; m, fig. 707. Curtius, Pompejani-

op.cit., p. 203f. Frickenhaus, op.cit., pp. 43, 113, fig. 16. sche Malerei, pp. 114ff. Friend, Art Studies, vn( 1929 ),9ff.,
Fiechter, Das Theater im Piraeus, Theaterbauten, ix(1950), pi. v, fig. 10; pi. vi, fig. 13. Beyen, op.cit., pp. 141ff., figs.
pp. 35ff., Figs. 15-17, pi. 6. Arias in Dioniso, rv( 1934), 93-99, 56-65. Little, AJA, 39(1935), 370ff., and 49 ( 1945),135ff.
figs. 1-3, compares the theater of Thera ( Dorpfeld in Hiller Art Bulletin, 18 ( 1936), 41 Iff., and 19(1937), 491. Spinaz-
von Gaertringen, Thera, m,249) with the theater in the zola, Arti decorative in Pompei, pi. 93. Gisela Richter, Hand-
Piraeus. Itwas also built in the 2nd century B.C. book of the Classical Collection (1930), pp. 218ff., fig. 155
46
Pansanias, vm,32,l. D-R, pp. 133ff., figs. 54-55. Bieber, and in Scritti in onore di Bartolomeo Nogara (1937), pp.
Denkmaler, p. 27f., figs. 22-23. Fiechter, Das Theater von 382ff., pis. li-lh. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus,
Megalopolis, Theaterbauten, rv(1931). Bulle, Untersu-
in pp. 227ff., figs. 89-92, 94. Phyllis Williams Lehmann, Ro-
chungen, pp. 17-18. Arias, II teatro fuori Atene,
97ff., pis. man Wall Paintings from Boscoreale in the Metropolitan Mu-
pp. lOOff., figs. 67-68. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of An- seum of Art, Monograph on Archaeology and Fine Arts, v
cient Greece, p. 249f. and 307. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre (1953),82ff., pis. x-xxxra. Bieber, AJA, 57( 1953),239.
of Dionysus, pp. 199f., figs. 66-67.
60 The translations of Vitruvius are those by M. H. Mor-
47 Woodward, in ABSA, 26(1923/4),
27(1925), 119ff. ;
gan in Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, pp. 150ff.,
175f., pis. xxvu-xxx; 28(1926), 3ff.; 30(1928/30), 151ff. 211.
61
Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 108ff. Bulle, "Das Theater zu Fiechter, in Frickenhaus, Altgriechische Biihne, pi. i.

Sparta" in Sitzungsber. Bayer. Akad. (1937), Heft 5, pp. Iff. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 44, fig. 47. Friend, in Art Studies, vn
pis. i-vn. Dinsmoor, op.cit., pp. 307f., 310. (1929),21, pi. vm, fig. 17.
48 A. von Gerkan, Das Theater von Priene, pp. 49 and 85. 62 See for the programs of the festivals in the Hellenistic
4 9Picard, BCH, 45( 1921 ),108ff., fig. 9; and 47(1923), period, Bethe, Prolegomena, pp. 244ff. Pickard-Cambridge,
336f., pis. 7-8. Bulle, Untersuchungen, p. 205f. Theatre of Dionysus, pp. 240ff.; Pickard-Cambridge, Dithy-
50 See note 45. ramb, pp. 61ff. Dinsmoor, Hesperia, xxxin( 1954),306f.
03 Cf. Dorpfeld, "Das griechische Theater Vitruvs," in
51 Lehmann-Hartleben and Bulle, op.cit.,
pp. 24ff. and
45ff., pi. 5, Map 5, pis. 8-10. Fiechter, Dionysostheater, i Ath.Mitt., xxn ( 1897 ),439ff.; xxra( 1898),326ff.; xxvm
(1935), pp. 20ff., 28f., pis. i, v, vi, and vn; m(1936), pp. (1903),383ff. Bethe, "Das griechische Theater Vitruvs,"
38 and pis. 4,21; rv(1950), p. 28, fig. 10;
15, 41, 76ff., fig. Hermes, xxxm( 1898),313ff. Flickinger, Greek Theater, pp.
75ff. Fensterbusch, in Bursians Jahresberichte, 227(1930),
p. 45, fig. 19. A. von Gerkan, in Gnomon, 14( 1938),241f.
Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, pp. 175ff., fig. 58ff. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient Greece, p. 313,

59. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient Greece, pp.

fig. 114.
64
Bethe, in Hermes, xxxvi( 1901 ),597ff. Fensterbusch,
298ff.
52 3- "2/cr?f77bei Pollux" in Hermes, lx(1925), 112ff.
Fiechter, Dionysostheater, iv(1950), pp. 1 Iff figs.
65 Puchstein, Altgriechische Biihne,
p. 46f., was the first to
4. See Ch. V, note 51.
recognize that Vitruvius is in accord with the Hellenistic stage
" A. Lesky, Hermes, 72( 1937),l23ff. Bieber, AJA, 58
buildings, D-R, pp. 158ff., figs. 67-71. Choisy, Vitruve,
(1954), 281, pis. 52-53, figs. 9-10. The sketches Figs. 468-
i, pp. 197ff.; iv, pis. 48-52. Prestel, Architektur des
469 were drawn for me by Penelope Dimitriou and redrawn
Vitruv, v, pis. XLvm-ix. Capps, "Vitruvius and the Greek
by Elizabeth Wadhams. Stage," in University of Chicago Studies in Classical Philol-
54 Wiegand-Schrader, Priene, fig. 257. A. von Gerkan,
ogy, i(1895),93ff. Flickinger, Greek Theater, pp. 75ff., fig.
Das Theater von Priene, p. 85, pi. xxvi,6. Bieber, Denk- 43. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., pp. 59ff., figs. 54-57. From
maler, fig. 33. him are taken our Figs. 475-476.
5r>
Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 175, 181, 186. 66
O.A.W. Dilke, "The Greek Theater Cavea," ABSA,
56 See Ch. V, note 46.
43(1948),125ff. "Details and Chronologv of Greek Theater
;

57 Untersuchungen, pp. 277ff., figs. 11-15. Our Fig.

Bulle, Caveas," ibid., 45( 1950),56ff., figs. 15-16, pis. 1-5.

NOTES TO CHAPTER X. ITALIAN POPULAR COMEDY (THE PHLYAKES)

1 Rizzo, II teatro Greco di Siracusa (1923), p. 5f. Anti, a writer. One of his plays was named Kepheus or Perseus;
Teatri Greci archaici (1947), pp. 85ff., pis. in-rv; Guida del cf. 202 in Ch. III.
Fig.
3
Teatro antico di Siracusa (1948), pp. 37ff., figs. 4-8. Pace, Vogel, Szenen Euripideischer Tragbdien in griechischen
Arte e Civilta della Sicilia, n(1938), pp. 303ff., pi. vi, figs. Vasengemalden (1886). Huddilston, Greek Tragedy in the
271-274. Light of Vase Paintings (1898). Sechan, Trazedie grecque,
p. 148. Kaibel has drawn pp. 231ff. Bulle, Skenographie, 94. Berliner Winckelmanns-
2 Kaibel, Comic. Graec. Fragm.,

from the ancient sources the conclusion that Phormis had programm (1934). Trendall, Paestan Pottery, p. 32. Pickard-
invented the coulisses; cf. Ch. VI, note 4. Phormis was also Cambridge, Festivals, pp. 218ff., figs. 169-189.

292
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER X
* Cf. Ch. II, pp. 31ff. and Ch. V, pp. 66ff.; especially the ter, pp. 50ff., illustrations on pp. 51, 71, 164. Joseph Quin-
Medea vase in Munich with the central hall (figs. 121-122), cy Adams, Shakespearean Playhouses, pp. 166ff. (The Swan
F-R, pi. 90; the crater in the Louvre with scenes from the Playhouse in London, 1596).
Iphigenia in Tauris, after Euripides (Fig. 115). Lehmann- 1 2 Bethe, JdAl, xv( 1900),59ff. Dorpfeld, ibid., xvi(1901),

Hartieben, in JdAl, xlii( 1927 ),30f., figs. 1-2. Bulle, Unter- 22if., opposes this opinion. Cf. C. Fensterbusch, Bursians
suchungen, p. 230f., fig. 4a; Bulle, Skenographie, pp. 13ff., Jahresbericlite, 227 ( 1930),65f. Trendall will discuss the dif-
fig. 6, and the fragment in Wiirzburg with a scene from a ferent forms of the stage in Sicily and southern Italy in his
drama of the daughters of Pelias (Fig. 266). Bulle, Skeno- forthcoming book on the phlyakes vases.
grapliie, figs. 1-4, pis. i-h for paraskenia. Webster, Produc- 13 HBr, pi. 14. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw.,
p. 46f., fig. 51.
tion, pp. 97ff. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 95f., No. 35, pis. 49-50.
5 The fragments have
been collected by Kaibel, op.cit., 14 British Museum Cat. of Vases, iv, p. 72, F 149; cf. p.

pp. 183-197. Olivieri, Frammenti della commedia greca e 99, F103. CVA, iv,Ea, pis. 6-7. Hauser in F-R, in, pp. 58ff.,
del mirno nclla Sicilia e nella Magna Grecia ( 1930; second figs. 27-28. Patroni, Ceramica antica nell'Italia meridionale,
edition 1947). Olivieri, E. della Valle, e A. Colonna, in pp. 65ff.,fig. 40. Murray in JHS, xi( 1890),225ff., pis. 6-7.

Dioniso, vm
(1940), 3-39 with bibl. Hoppin, Handbook of Blackfigured Vases, p. 452f. Swindler,
6 The phlyakes vases have been collected by: Heyde- Ancient Painting, p. 295, fig. 473. Zahn, in Antike, 7(1931),
mann, in JdAl, i( 1886 )260ff. Bieber, Denkmaler, pp. 138ff., 88, fig. 10. Trendall, Paestan Pottery, pp. 56ff., pi. xv. Zahn
Nos. 101-125, pis. 76-86. Wiist, article "<S>\va.Kes" (Phlyakes) and Trendall date Assteas and Python to the middle and
in Real-Enc., xx(1940), pp. 392ff. (88 numbers). Bieber, third quarter of the fourth century, thus earlier than Rhin-
ibid., s.v. Maske, pp. 2088-2593. Catteruccia, Pitture vasco- thon.
lari italiote di soggetto teatrale cotnico (1951). His fist, 15 See Fig. 540, note 90 at the end of this chapter.
which is closely based on that by Wiist with a few addi- 16 Overbeck-Mau, Pompeji, pp. 266 and 476.
tions comprises over 100 vases. Cf. also for the phlyakes 17 Overbeck-Mau, Pompeji,
pp. 249, 265-266. Della Corte,
vases: Bethe, Prolegomena, pp. 278ff. Romagnoli, Nel regno in Notizie degli Scavi (1929), p. 395f., fig. 23. Mau, Pom-
di Dioniso" (1923). O. Navarre, in Daremberg-Saglio, Dic- peji, figs. 129-130. Maiuri, in Bolletino d'Arte,
pp. 255ff.,
tionnaire des Antiquites, iv,435ff. Zahn, in F-R, ni,180f., to ser. 2, vm(
1928/9), 512f. (Fullonica Stephani). Maiuri,
pi. 150,2; Zahn in Die Antike, 7 (1931), 70ff. Bulle, in Fest- Pompeii, in Musei e Monum. d'ltalia, No. 3, p. 125, pi. xv,
schrift jiir Loeb (1930), pp. 29ff., figs. 17-20 (Gnathia fig. 72 (Via dell' Abbondanza). Maiuri, Ercolano, p. 56 (Ca-
vases). Allardyce Nicoll, Masks, Mimes and Miracles, pp. sa del Tramezzo di Legno) and 68 (Casa dei Cervi); Mai-
50ff. Pace, Arte e Civiltd della Sicilia antica, ni(1945), pp. uri, Herculaneum, Guide Book, n.d., p. 86, pi. xrv, fig. 24
313tf. Chapter on "Epicharmo e il teatro Siceliota." D'Ami- (Casa del Tramezzo di Legno); ibid., p. 94, pi. xxu, figs.
co, Storia del Teatro dramatico, i, Chs. 6-9. T.B.L. Webster, 39-40 (Samnitic House); Maiuri, Herculaneum (1932), p.
"South Italian Vases and Attic Drama," in CQ, 42(1948), 56, fig. and pi. (Casa del Tramezzo di Legno), and p. 59,
15-27. Webster, "Masks on Gnathia Vases," JHS, 71(1951), fig. (Samnitic House).
222-232. Webster tries to explain die phlyakes vases from 18 See the House on Abbondanza Street: Ippel, Pompeji,

Attic comedy. Trendall, Paestan Pottery, pp. 14f., 26, 36ff., p. 51, fig. 47. Maiuri, Pompeii (1929), figs. pp. 98-99;
63, 65, 69f., 92f., 111. Trendall, PBSR, xx( 1952), 1-53. Maiuri, Pompeji (1940), figs, on pp. 104, 105, and 107.
Trendall, Catalogue of Phlyax Vases, Institute of Classical 19 Bulle, Untersuchungen,
pp. llOff., pis. 23-25. Cf. Ch.
Studies, London (1959), discusses about 165 vases. XIII, Figs. 601-602.
7
British Museum, F 157 (237). F-R, u, p. 263, pi. 110. 20 Leningrad, Hermitage, No. 1115
(1777). Romagnoli,
Trendall, Friihitaliotische Vasen in Beazley-Jacobsthal, Bilder Nel Regno di Dioniso, p. 23f., Fig. 26. Olivieri, op.cit., p.
griechischer Vasen, Vol. 12, No. 237, p. 18, pi. 14a. 127f., fig. 3. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 141f., No. 105, pi. lxxix.
8 Korte, in Real-Enc,
A, p. 843f., article "Rhinthon."
I Trendall, Paestan Pottery, p. 37f., fig. 16. Hauser in F-R,
Kaibel, ibid., "Epicharmos," pp. 34-41; Kaibel,
vi, article n, p. 261f., pi. 110,3. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 25f., No. 10,
Comicorum Graec Fragm., pp. 183-189. Olivieri, op.cit., pp. pi. n.
122-137. 21 On Atellan masks see Marx, in Real-Enc, n, s.v. Atel-
9 Alvarez-Ossorio, Vasos griegos en el Museo arch. Madrid,
lanae Fabulae, p. 1918f. Bethe, Prolegomena, pp. 297ff.
pp. 22 and 41f., No. 11094, pi. xxu. Leroux, Vases grecs et Wiist, op.cit., in Real-Enc, xx(1941), p. 294f., has misun-
italo-grec du Musee arclxeol. de Madrid, pp. 205ff., No. 369, derstood my assertion, that we have here the forerunners of
pi. xlv. Bethe, in JdAl, xv ( 1900),59ff., fig. 1; Arch.Anz., the typical Atellan masks, as if I had explained the Lenin-
ibid., p. 224. Bieber, Denkmaler, pp. 107ff., No. 43, figs. grad vase as an Atellan farce.
107-10S. Hoppin, Handbook of Greek Blackfigured Vases, 22 Leningrad, Hermitage, No. 1775. Bieber, Denkmaler,

p. 438f. Patroni, Ceramica antica nell'Italia meridionale, in p. 140f., No. 102, pi. 77. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 19f., No. 2.
Memorie della real Accademia di archeologia di Napoli, Romagnoli, Nel Regno di Dioniso, p. 22, fig^ 24. Rader-
xrx( 1897/98), pp. 37ff., fig. 30. Pickard-Cambridge, Thea- macher, "Zur Geschichte der griechischen Komddie," in
tre of Dionysus, p. 221f., figs. 83-84. Trendall, Paestan Pot- Sitzungsberichte der Akad. d. Wiss. Wien, Vol. 202 (1924/
tery, pp. 31ff., pi. vn, H. Kenner, Das Theater und der Rea- 5), 17-19.
lismus in der griechischen Kunst, pp. 150-152, fig. 28. 23 Found in Bitonto, in Bari, No. 2970. Romagnoli, Au-
10 Petersen, Rom.Mitt., xn( 1897),140ff., fig. 11. Bethe, in
sonia, n( 1907),245ff. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 141, No. 103,
JdAl, xv(1900),59ff., figs. 2 and 8. Fiechter, Baugesch. pi. 78. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 21, No. 4, pi. n. Romagnoli,
Entw., pp. 102 and 110, fig. 98. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 76f., Nel Regno di Dioniso, p. 17f ., fig. 18. A. B. Cook, Zeus,
No. 23, fig. 80. Alda Levi, Le Terracotte Figurate del Mu- in,1078f., fig. 864.
seo Nazionale di Napoli (1926), pp. 173ff., No. 773, fig. 24 Vatican Mus. No. 121. Gabrici, Ausonia, v(1910),
p.
134. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, p. 220f., fig. 59f., fig. 1. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 140, No. 101, pi. 76. Ro-
82. Trendall, Paestan Pottery, p. 32 with note 41, fig. 12. magnoli, Nel Regno di Dioniso, p. 21., fig. 23. Zahn, in Die
11 See Hauser, in F-R, m, 62. Sieger, Shakespeare
und Antike, vm( 1931 ),82ff., fig. 17; Zahn, in F-R, in, pp. 182,
seine Zeit, p. 40. M. Hammitzsch, Der moderne Theaterbau, 189-190, fig. 95. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 18f., No. 1, pi. i.
pp. 56ff., figs. 32-33. A. H. Thorndike, Shakespeare's Thea- Trendall, Paestan Pottery, p. 39, pi. ixc; Trendall, Vasi lta-

293
 XOTES TO THE TEXT CHAPTER X
lioti ed Etruschi a figure rosse, in Vasi Antichi Dipinti del 35 Museo di Villa Giulia, Xo. 50279. Gabrici,
in Ausonia,
Yaticano, i, \"asi Proto-Italioti, Pestani e Campani. Vasi v( 1910), 56-68, pL m. Bieber, Denkmaler. p. 146f., Xo.
Apuli fino a circa il 375 A.C., p. 27f., No. U19, pL vn,6. 112, fig. 129. Rizzo, in Rdm.Mitt., xl( 1925) ,217-239, pi.
Beare, Roman Stage, 2nd ed., 1955, pi. to p. 46. Rumpf, Mal- xv and supplementary pis. v-vn. Romagnoli, Xel regno di
erei und Zeichnung, in Handbuch der Archaeologic, rv Dioniso, p. 26, fig. 33. Olivieri. Frammenti della Commedia,
( 1953), 140f., pi. 45,5. A. B. Cook, Zeus, m,734f., fig. 534. p. 155, fig. 6. Zahn, in F-R, m,194f., fig. 98, pi. 150,2; Zahn,
25 British Museum Catalogue
of Vases, rv,122, F 269. in Die Antike, vn(1931),84ff., fig. 8. Hoppin, Handbook A
British Museum Guide to the Exhibitions Illustrating Greek of Greek Blcckfigured Vases, p. 440f. Pfuhl, Malerei und
and Roman Life (190S), pp. 52ff., fig. 33; 3rd ed. (1929), Zeichnung, n\71Sr\; m,360, fig. 803. Trendall, Paestan Pot-
pp. ISoff., fig. 206. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 141f., Xo. 104, tery, pp. 2Sff., fig. 13, pL via. CVA, Villa Giulia, in-rv, pi.
fig. 126. Olivieri, op.cit., p. 135, fig. 5. Pace, Arte e civik* 12; n, 1-4. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 37f., Xo. 30, pi. vn.
della Sicilia antica, m,328f., fig. 68. Pace, in Dioniso, vm 33 Louvre, Salle K Xo. 523. Encyclopedie Phot., m, fig.

(1940), 72ff., fig. 3. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 26f. :

Xo. 11, 37d. Wieseler, AdI (1S59), p. 3S4f. Monlnst., vx, pi xxxv 2 ;

pi. m. Romagnoli, Xel regno di Dioniso, p. 25f., fig. 31. Pace, Arte
--Rizzo, in Rdm.Mitt., xv( 1900),26Sf., fig. 2. Bieber, e civiltd della Sicilia ant., m, p. 324f., fig. 64. Pace, in Dio-
Denkmaler, p. 143, Xo. 107, fig. 127. Catteruccia, op.cit., niso, vm, 1940, pp. 73ff., fig. 5. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 3-5,
p. 22f., Xo. 6, pi. i ill- from pbotograpb).
v. Pace, Arte e Xo. 27, pL vi. A. B. Cook, Zeus, m. pp. 291ff.
Civiltd della Sicilia, n,472, fig. 342. Libertini, II Museo Bis- 37 Tisehbein, Vases du Cabinet Hamilton, rv, pi. 57. Wie-

cari, p. 175, Xo. 735, pi. S3. seler, Theatergebaude, pi. rx,4. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 148,
27 Tillvard, The Vases, Hope Xo. 220, pi. 31. Cat- Xo. 114, Sg. 131. Frammenti Commedia,
p. 117, Olivieri, della p.
teruccia, op.cit., p. 69, Xo. A, pi. v. 166, fig. 12. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 64, Xo. 75, pi. xrv. Mar-
2s Berlin Xo. 3046. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 143, Xo. 106, garet Crosby, Hesperia, xxrvi, 1955 ',S2f., fig. 2. She doubts
pL lxxx.1. Olivieri, Frammenti della Commedia, p. 156, mv on an Attic vase of about 400
interpretation, because
rig. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 23f., Xo. 7, pi. v. Romagnoli,
7. ( her 37 ) a man seated on a fish is rowing, and thus the
pi.
Xel Regno di Dioniso, p. 29f., fig. 38. story must be Athenian.
29 Lentini (Leontini), Palazzo comunale. Stephani, Mon. 3S Bulle, in Festschrift fur Loeb,
p. 37. Ducati, Storia
Inst., r%aS44-48), pi. 12. AdI (1844), pp. 245ff. Rizzo, della Ceramica Graeca, p. 450.
Rdm.Mitt., x\-a900),261ff. Betbe, JdAI, xv( 1900),67f., 39 Xaples Mas. Xo. 3368. Romagnoli, Xel Regno di Dio-

6-7. Olivieri, Frammenti della Commedia, p. 158, fig.

figs. niso, p. 18f., fig. 19. Catteruccia, op.cit. , p. 42, no. 35.
Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 144f ., Xo. 108, fig. 128. Webster,
8." 40 Bari, Museo Provinciale, Xo. 4073. Zahn in Die Antike,

CQ, 42U94S),21. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 21f., Xo. 5, pi. vn(1931), p. 90f., figs. 12-13. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 55,
m. Elena Zevi Fiorentini, in Memorie della Pontificia Ac- Xo. 59, pi. x.
cademia Romana di Archeologia, Serie m, Vol. vi, Xo. n 41 Svracuse, Mus. Xo. 47039. Cultrera in Dioniso, v
(1942), 39-52, pis. i-n, figs. 1-5. I owe the photograph (Fig. ( 1935^36 ),199ff., figs. 1-5. Horn in Arch.Anz. (1936), pp.
488a) to Professor Rizzo. 536ff., figs. 34-37. CVA, Siracusa, i, rv E, pi. 3,4. Libertini,
30 Museo teatrale della Scala in Milano, Xo. 12. Rizzo, Bolletino d'Arte (1950), p. 107, fig. 13. Catteruccia, op.cit. ,

loc.cit., pi. vi; he suggested the Alcestis story. Catalogue des p. 48f., Xo. 46, pL xi.
de Theatrale de Jules Sambon 42 G. van Hoom, Choes end Anthesteria,
antiquites la Collection p. 183, Xo. 920
(1911), p. 6, Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 144, Xo.
Xo. 33, pi. il bis, fig. 411. Giglicli. Archeologia Classica 4( 1952),98f., pi.
108, pi. SI. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 24f., Xo. 9, pi. n. Pace, xxvm.2.
op.cit., n, 473, fig. 343. Fiorentini, op.cit., p. 46 fig. 6. 43 British Museum Catalogue
of Vases, rv 64. F 124. ?

44 British Museum Catalogue

31 Found probably in Sant "Agata dei Goti, formerly in
of Vases, rv,73f. F 150.
Coll. Raimone. Gerhard, Antike Bildtcerke, i (1827-37), pi. Rizzo, in Dedalo, vn- 1926/7 ),411f. Trendall, Paestan Pot-
73. Romagnoli, Xel regno di Dioniso, p. 28f., fig. 36. Bieber, tery, p. 39f., pi. rxd. CVA, British Museum, rv Ea, pL 11,
Denkmaler, p. 147f., Xo. 113, Sg. 130. Catteruccia, op.cit., 1, a-b.
p. 36f., Xo. 29, pi. xrv.
45 Formerlv Forman Collection, now in Boston, Museum
32 British Museum Catalogue
of Vases, rv, p. 74f.. F 151. of Fine Arts! Xo. 00.363. Bulle, in Festschrift Loeb, p. 31,
Romagnoli, in Ausonia, n( 1907-8), 166,172, fig. 24. Buschor, fig. 19b. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 64f., Xo. 77, pi. xn. These

Griechische Vasenmalerei (second edition 1914), p. 215f., authors did not realize that the vase is in Boston. Frances
fig. 159. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 145, Xo. 109, pi. S2. Romag- F. Jones,The Theater in Ancient Art, An Exhibition in the
noli, Xel regno di Dioniso, p. 27f., fig. 35. Catteruccia, Art Museum, Princeton, 1952, Xo. 33.
op.cit., p. 33?., Xo. 25, pi. vi. Ch. Picard, in Comptes ren- 46 The fragment has a white wash. The hps are painted

dus de YAcad. des Inscr. (1950), 273-276: he suggests the red.

47 Collection
interpretation of Chiron departing; for the hereafter (l'au- Jatta in Ruvo. Xo. 901. Hauser, in F-R.
dela). n,261, pi. 110,2. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 150. Xo. 120, pi.
33 Bari. Museo Provinciale. Romagnoli. Ausonia. n(1907-' S4 2. Romagnoli, Xel Regno di Dioniso, p. 29, fig. 37. Cat-
?

S .251ff., figs. 6, S-10. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 145, Xo. 110, teruccia, op.cit. p. 32, Xo. 23, pi. v. The explanation by
,

pi. S0,2. Pfuhl, Malerei und Zeichnung, n, p. 718; m. p. 361, Hauser as Kirke threatened by Odvsseus and Elpenor is im-
fig. 805. Romagnoli, Xel regno di Dioniso, p. 24f., figs. 27- possible, as Elpenor was still a pig. before Odysseus forced
29. Catteruccia^ op.cit., p. 33f., Xo. 31, pi. vt A. B.'Cook, the sorceress to give him back his human form.
Zeus, nr,73S, fig. 535. Beazlev, Etruscan Vase-Painting, 43 Moscow. Mus. Xo. 735. Romagnoli, Xel Regno di Dio-
pp. 39ff.. discusses the many vases with the birth of Helen. niso, p. 26f.. fig. 34. Blavatski. Moscow Museum Bulletin
See particularlv the vase in Xaples: Trendall. in PBSR, (1930), p. 45, fig. 1. Blavatski. History of Ancient Figured
20(1952), p. 17, Xo. 363, pi. xvib. Pottery (in Russian^, p. 234 (ill.). Trendall, Paestan Pot-
34 Berlin Xo. 3045, bought in Xaples. Studniczka, in tery, p. 92, fig. 57. Catteruccia. op.cit. p. 36, Xo. 28, pi.
,

JdAI. xxvul911),93, fig. 28. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 145f., vi. The explanation by Blavatski of the slaves as warriors
Xo. 111. pi. 83,1. Romagnoli, Xel regno di Dioniso, p. 26, with shields or luggage and the return of Briseis to Aga-
fig. 32. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 33, Xo. 24, pi. v. memnon does not fit the picture.

294
 NOTES TO THE TEXT - CHAPTER X
Crater in the Kunsthistorische Museum Vienna, Austria,
49 Bethe, JdAI, xv(1900),73, fig. 11. Bieber, Denkmdler, p.
No. 466 (formerly 714). Jahn, Arch. Zeitung (1855), p. 150, No. 119, pi. 85,2. Romagnoli, Nel Regno di Dioniso,
541"., and Wieseler, ibid., pp. 88ff., pi. 78,3. Catteruccia, p. 13, fig. 12. Trendall, Paestan Pottery, p. 70, pi. xxud.
op.cit., p. 53f., No. 54, pi. x. CVA, British Museum, n, rv, Ea, pi. 11,2. Catteruccia,
50 Jacobsthal, Gdttinger Vasen, p. 26, No. 48, pi. xvm, op.cit., p. 53, No. 53, pi. ix. Webster, CQ, 42 (1948), 24;
Fig. 51. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 58f., No. 65, pi. xvm. he interprets it as a master leading his slave.
si
Naples Mus., No. 118 333. D-R, p. 323, fig. 79. Fiech- 63 Heidelberg Mus. No. U 8. Bieber, Denkmdler,
p. 149,
ter, Baugesch. Entw., p. 37, fig. 35. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. No. 117, pi. 85,3. Olivieri, Frammenti della Commedia, p.
48, No. 45, pi. xrv. Webster, CQ, 42(1948),22. 162, fig. 10. Neutsch in Die Welt der Griechen ( Heidelberg,
"Berlin No. V. 3044. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 148f., No. 1948), p. 61, No. 13, fig. 32. Catteruccia, op. cit., p. 57, No.
116, pi. 84,1. Patroni, Ccramica antica, pp. 38ff., figs. 32-33. 62, pi. ix.
Rizzo, Tcatro di Siracusa, p. 85f., Eg. 36; Rizzo, in Rdm.Mitt., 64 Bari, Museo Provinciale No. 2795. Romagnoli, in Au-
.\L(1925),224f., figs. 4-5. Zahn
F-R, m,178ff., figs. 93-94,
in sonia, n ( 1907/8 ),243ff.,
Romagnoli, Nel Regno di
fig. 2;
pi. 150,2; Zahn, in Die Antike, vn( 1931 ),70ff., figs. 1-3, ex- Dioniso, p. llf., fig. 11. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 149, No.
cellent colored Plate 6. Olivieri, Frammcnti dclla Commedia, 118, pi. 85,1. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 56, No. 60, pi. ix. Old
pp. 160f., fig. 9. Trendall, Paestan Pottery, p. 26, pi. vb. men are excellently rendered and contrasted with their
Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 43f., No. 38, pi. vn. On the reverse servants on fragmentary vases found near Gela and Man-
of this vase is the scene of Dionvsus followed by a satyr. fria: Orlandini, Bollctino d'Arte, 4th Series, 38(1953),
53 Overbeck-Mau, Pompeji,
pp. 248, 334, 425. Thedenat, 155ff., figs. 1-4.
Pompei, p. 71, fig. 17. Mau, Pompeji, p. 238, fig. 121. Mau- This crater with gossiping women in Heidelberg U 6
65

Kelsey, Pompeii, p. 255, fig. 120. Gisela Richter, Ancient was acquired in 1900 from Hartwig. Catteruccia, op.cit.,
Furniture, p. 143f., fig. 341. Pernice and Winter, Die Helle- p. 59, No. 66. Neutsch, Die Welt der Griechen (1948), p.
nistisclie Kunst Pompeji, 5. Tische
in Alttire tind Truhen
. . . 61, No. 12.
66 Vienna, Austria, Mus. No. 928. Very colorful: chiton
(1932), pp. 70ff., figs. 33-35, pis. 50-58.
54 Fonnerly in the Collection Caputi in Ruvo. Heydemann, white; mantle yellow with brown shading; face, arms, and
Vase Caputi, in 9. Hallisches Winckelmanns-Program (1884), legs flesh colored. Zahn, Arch. Zeitung (1855), p. 55, pi.

pp. 3ff., pis. i-n. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 150f., No. 121, fig. 77,2. Laborde, Coll. Lambert, i,67. G. von Liicken, Gricchi-
132. Rcmagnoli, Nel Regno di Dioniso, p. 16, fig. 16. Catte- sche Vasen, pi. 120. Bulle, in Festschrift fur Loeb, p. 34,
ruccia, op.cit., p. 41, No. 34, pi. xiv. The reverse of this vase fig. 24. Webster, JHS, 71 ( 1951 ),224, No. 42.
67 Langlotz, Griechische
has the scene of Heracles carrying the world, mocked by Vasen in Wiirzburg (1932), p.
satyrs (above Fig. 43). 147, No. 283a, pi. 239. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 66, No. 81.
55 Berlin No. F 3047. Romagnoli, in Ausonia, n(1907), Zahn, in Die Antike, vn(1931),94f., fig. 14.
164 and 169, fig. 21; Romagnoli, in Nel Regno di Dioniso, 6S Naples, Museo Nazionale, No. 1782. Romagnoli,
Nel
p. 16, fig. 17. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 151, No. 122, pi. 86,1. Regno di Dioniso, p. 7f., fig. 6. Bulle, Festschrift Loeb,
Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 51f., No. 50, pi. vm. G. von Liicken, p. 31f., fig. 20. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 60f. No. 68, pi. xn.
Greek Vase Paintings (1921), pi. 59. Webster, loc.cit., No. 43.
56
Leningrad, Hermitage. Inv. No. 2074. Bieber, Denkmd- 69 Drago
in lapigia, vn( 1936),377ff. Catteruccia, op.cit.,
ler, p. 151f., No. 123, pi. 86,2. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 49f., p. 66f., No. 85, pi. xn. Horn, in Arch. Anz., 52(1937),443ff.,
No. 47, pi. vm. Margaret Crosby, Hesperia, xxrv(1955), fig. 34. Webster, loc.cit., p. 223, No. 41.

80f., pi. 36c. She compares it to an Attic vase (our Fig. 209) 70 Bulle, Festschrift Loeb,
p. 29f., fig. 18. Romagnoli, Nel
and explains it as men carrying a large cake baked on a spit. Regno di Dioniso, p. 10, fig. 10. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 62,
37 G. Richter, in BMMA, xxii( 1927),56ff., fig. 1. Messer- No. 71. Hedwig Kenner, in CVA, Vienna, Sammlung Matsch,
schmidt in Rdm.Mitt., 47(1932), pp. 134ff., fig. 4. His in- pp. 25ff., pi. 18. Metropolitan Museum, No. 51.11.2. BMMA
terpretation of the picture as a scene from Middle Comedv (October 1954), p. 64. Webster, loc.cit., p. 223, No. 39, and
seems impossible to me, for the latter was already a comedv p. 232. Very colorful; tights fleshcolored, tunic bluish white,
of manners, not a tragicomoedia. Trendall, Fruhitaliotische mantle purple red.
Vasen, in Bilder griechischer Vasen, ed. Beazley and Ja- 71 Boston Museum
of Fine Arts, No. 13.93.
72 British Museum Catalogue
cobsthal, p. 25f., No. B 75, pi. 28b. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. of Vases, rv, 225, F 543.
50f., No. 48, pi. vm. Webster in Festschrift Bernhard Bulle, Festschrift Loeb, p. 29, figs. 11 and 17. CVA, British
Schweitzer, p. 260f. For die inscriptions see Beazlev, AJA Mus., i, iv D c, pi. 2,2. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 63, No. 73.
56(1952),193ff., figs. 1-2, pi. 32. Webster, loc.cit., No. 38. Mingazzini, Archeologia Classica
58 Berlin No. 3043. Bieber, Denkmdler,
p. 152, No. 124, 6 (1954), 294, pi. cxv,2.
pi. 85,4. Oli vieri, Frammcnti della Coinmedia, p. 164f., fig. 73 Louvre, Salle K, No. 244. Trendall, Paestan Pottery,

11. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 43, No. 37, pi. ix. p. 69, pi. xxii c. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 30, No. 17. On the
59 Leningrad, Hermitage, other side of the crater are Dionysus and another small altar.
No. 1779. Hauser, in F-R, n,
261, pi. 110,1. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 148, No. 115, pi. 83,2. 74 See Bulle, Festschrift Loeb,
p. 26, figs. 11a and 12.
Pfuhl, Malerei und Zeichnung, n,718; m,361, fi<j. 804. Ro- Webster, "Masks on Gnathia Vases," JHS, lxxi(1951),
magnoli, Nel Regno di Dioniso, p. 19, fig. 20. Pace, Arte e 222ff., figs. 1-5, pi. xlv.
civiltd della Sicilia antica, m, p. 329f., fig. 69. Catteruccia, 75 Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 139f., Nos. 98-100, pis. 75, 3-7;
op.cit., p. 46f., No. 41, pi. vm. cf. p. 192, bibl. Catteruccia, op.cit., pp. 75ff., pi. xm, 1-3.
60 Louvre Room KNo. 18. Wieseler, in Arch. Zeitun" 76
Webster, CQ, XLn(1948),19ff.; Webster, JHS, lxxi
(1885), pp. 48ff., pi. 5,1. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 52f., No. (1951),229ff. Webster, Bulletin of the John Rylands Li-
;

52. Webster, CO, 42(1948), 24, gives a different interpreta- brary, xxxn(1949),lllff., and xxxvi( 1954),563ff.
tion: marketing with a big basket. 77 Trendall, Vasi Italioti del Vaticano, p. 64f., U. 49,
. . .

61 Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, AP xix d-f. Trendall, PBSR, xx(1952),7 and 31f., No. 78,
486, No. 03.831. pi.
Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 59, No. 66 bis, pi. xi. Frances F. pi. rx b.
Jones, op.cit., No. 31. 78 Frances Jones, Record of the Art Museum, Princeton
62 British Museum Catalogue
of Vases, rv, p. 97f., F 189. University, xi( 1952),29ff., fig. 1; Jones, The Theater in An-

295
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTERS X AND XI
cient Art, An Exhibition, Princeton University, 1951-52, on a vase in Sydney: Nicholson, collection in the Univer-
fig. 32. sity Museum, Handbook, sec. ed., pi. 11. Trendall, op.cit.,
79 Trendall, Paestan Pottery, pi. xxib (Los Angeles) and p. 68, pi. xxd. See also Trendall, p. 69f., pis. xxna-b and
c (Louvre). xxina; and next note.
80
Trendall, Vasi italioti del Vaticano, p. 33, U 18, pi.
. . .
84 Trendall, Paestan Pottery,
p. 62, No. 113, pis. xvin
x. Trendall, Paestan Pottery, pis. xxna-b and xxina. Cat- and xixc, Supplement No. 148; Trendall, Vasi italioti . . .

teruccia, op.cit., p. 29, no. 15, illus. on title-page. See for a del Vaticano, p. 29f., No. ADl, pi. vm. Greifenhagen, Griech.
similar vase with a phlyax standing before Dionysus: Leroux, Vasen auf Bildnissen, p. 205f., pis. i-n. Zahn, in F-R, in,
Vases de Madrid, p. 222, no. 386, pi. xlix. pp. 183 and 192f., figs. 96-97.
80a Crater in Museo Eoliano, Lipari, Sicily, Inv. No. 927. 85 Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 200, fig. 91a.
Dionysus and two phlyakes watch a female tumbler; in two 80 Marx, in Real-Enc, n, 1914-1921, s.v. Atellanae fabu-
windows women (wearing white masks?) look down. At- lae. Dieterich, Pulcinella, pp. 84ff. Cornford, The Origin of
tributed to Assteas, ca. 350 b.c. Bernabo Brea, 11 Castello Attic Comedy, p. 183f. Little, A]A, xlh( 1938),129f.
di Lipari, pi. 79 (in color). Trendall, Catalogue of Phlyakes 87 British Museum Catalogue
of Vases, rv,113, F 233.
Vases, London (1959), No. 74, pi. me. Bieber, Denkmdler, p. 152f., No. 125, fig. 133. And, Monu-
81 British Museum Catalogue
of Vases, rv,97, F 188. Tren- menti dei Lincei 26( 1920),527ff., fig. 12. Anti considers
dall, Paestan Pottery, p. 38, fig. 15. CVA, British Museum 2, die statuette of Heracles to be a copy of die Heracles of
iv Ea, pis. 2-3. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 29, No. 15, pi. iv. Polyclitus. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 62, No. 72, pi. x. CVA,
A. B. Cook, Zeus, m,2, p. 1000, fig. 810. rv, Ea, pi. xi,17, fig. 18a-b. Romagnoli, Nel Regno di Dio-
82 Trendall, PBSR,
p. 5 and 27f., No. 43, pi. v c. Ruvo, Col- niso, p. 7, fig. 5.
lection Jatta No. 1402. Romagnoli, Nel Regno di Dioniso, 8S Bieber, Denkmdler,
p. 142 text to No. 105; Bieber, in
p. 1, fig. in frontispiece, cf. p. 20. Jatta, in lapigia, m(1932), Real-Enc, xrv,2088ff. Zahn, in F-R, m,183f. and 191, text
253ff., figs. 36-37. Catteruccia, op.cit., p. 28, No. 13, pi. to pi. 150,2.
iv. Next to the satyr dances a nude old woman with gro- 89 D-R, pp. 31 Iff. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., pp. 37ff.,
tesque features. figs. 28-41. Trendall, Paestan Pottery, p. 26f., pis. 6-7, and
83 Cf. the pictures from the back of the Assteas vase in
in his forthcoming book on the phlyakes vases.
Madrid, Alvarez-Ossorio, op.cit., pi. xxn,2 and in Berlin, 90 Drerup, in Ath.Mitt., xxvi( 1901 ,9ff.,25ff. Bulle, Un-
)

Hoppin, Handbook of Blackfigured Vases, 347b and 439b: tersuchungen, pp. 159ff., pi. 47, figs. 3-4. Rizzo, II teatro di
Dionysus riding on a panther among his thiasus. Picture Siracusa, pp. 77ff. Anti, Teatro antico di Siracusa (1948),
from the back of the Assteas crater in Berlin (Fig. 508), pp. 73ff., fig. 11. Rizzo and Anti do not believe diat this
see note 52. Patroni, op.cit., p. 43, fig. 33. Hoppin, op.cit., wooden stage was built especially for the Syracusan Rhin-
p. 436f. Rizzo, in Rdm.Mitt., xl( 1925),225, fig. 5. Zahn, thon, but agree that his hilarotragedies were performed on
in F-R, m,178f., fig. 94; Zahn, in Die Antike, vn( 1931 ),73, it.

fig. 3: Dionysus and satyr. Trendall, Paestan Pottery, p. 39f., 91 Stillwell, Corinth, II, The Theater, pp. 78ff., 135, pi. va.
fig. ixa, Madrid; ixb, Oxford, Ashmolean Museum. A phlyax 02 Bedie, Prolegomena,
pp. 293ff., was die first to empha-
mask hangs over Papposilenus playing the flute for Dionysus size this importance of die wooden southern Italian stage.

NOTES TO CHAPTER XI. THE ROMAN PLAYS AT THE TIME OF THE REPUBLIC
1 Cf. for this chapter in general:
J.
W. Duff, A Literary pis. 114-115. Stryk, Etruskische Kammergraber, p. 132f.
History of Rome from the Origins to the Close of the Golden Gladiators: Korte, Urne etrusche, m, pi. 128.
Age2 (1910), pp. 156ff. Teuffel-Kroll, Geschichte der rdmi- 4 Weege, op.cit., pis. 90, 94-95. Ducati, op.cit., i,225f.;
schen Literatur 7 (1920). Schanz, Geschichte der rbmi- n, pi. 79. F. Poulsen, Etruscan Tomb Painting, p. 12f., figs.
schen Literatur8 (1927). Bayet, Litterature latine (1934). 4-6. Altheim, Archiv fiir Religious-Wissenschaft, xxvii
W. Beare, "The Italian Origin of Latin Drama," Herma- (1929),35ff., pi. i. Pallattino, op.cit., p. 40f. G. Becatti e F.
thena, xxiv( 1939), 30-53; Beare, The Roman Stage, A Short Magi, La Pittura Etrusca, Tarquinii, 1-42, figs. 10-12, pis.
History of Latin Drama in the Time of the Republic ( 1950; i, v, vn, vm, x, xi, xv, xvi.
second edn., 1955). Habel in Real-Enc, Supplement, Vol. 5
Ducati, op.cit., pp. 415ff., pis. 184, No. 467; p. 435f.,
v, pp. 608ff., s.v. Ludi publici. M. Hadas, A History of La- pi. 200, No. 503 (terracotta mask from Orvieto). Messer-
tin Literature (1952), pp. 15ff., Chs. n, m. Ribbeck, Scae- schmidt, Rdm.Mitt. 45(1930), pi. 57f. Giglioli, L'Arte Etrus-
nicae Romanorum poesis Fragmenta 3 ( 1897-98). E. Paratore, ca, pis. 258, 1, 2, 4 and 330. Pallottino, op.cit., pp. 115ff.
Storia del Teatro Latino (1957). Our Fig. 545 is in Rome, Villa Giulia.
Bayet, op.cit., pp. 30ff., 40ff. Wissowa, in Real-Enc,
2 6
Lafaye, in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire des Antiqui-
vi, p. 2222, s.v., Fescennini versus. tes grecques et romaines, s.v. Satura. Kroll in Real-Enc,
3 Weege, Etruskische Malerei, supplementary, pi. I; pis. s.v. Satura, second series, Vol. n, A, pp. 192ff. He denies

3-6, 14, 19, 21, 27, 31-33, 36-39, 45, 68, 74-75, 86-90; the existence of a dramatic satura. W. Beare, The Roman
Weege, JdAI, xxxi( 1916),105ff., figs. 5, 7-9, pis. 11-12. Stage, p. 13f., with note on Livy, vn,2.
7 Weege, Etruskische Malerei, supplementary pi. n, and
Ducati, Storia dell'Arte etrusca, n, pis. 77, 86-87, 89; cf. i,
pp. 224 and 235f. Ducati in Dioniso, i( 1929), 170-171, figs. in JdAI, xxxi( 1916),122ff., supplementary pis. 1-2. Poulsen,
1-2. Prentice Duell, "The Tomba del Triclinio at Tarquinia," Etruscan Tomb Painting, p. 24f., fig. 19. Beare, op.cit., fig.
MAAR, vi(1927),19ff., pis. 2-3. Pallottino, Etruscan Paint- opposite p. 10.
8 E. Marx, in Real-Enc, n,2,
ing (1952), pp. 38f., 43ff., 65f., 68f., 73ff. (colored repro- pp. 1914-1921, s.v. Atellanae
ductions). For athletic games see Weege, Etruskische Ma- fabulae, especially p. 1918f.
lerei, pis. 91-97, and supplementary pi. n; Weege, JdAI, 9 Ch. X, note 87.

xxxi( 1916),122ff., supplementary plates 1-2 and pi. 8. Du- 10

Ch. X, note 21.
cati, op.cit., pis. 78, 84-85, 133-134. Pallottino, op.cit.^ p. "
Berlin No. 4715. Robert, Masken, p. 83f., figs. 104-105.
38f. Dances on cinerary urns: Ducati, op.cit., pi. 24, fig. 79, Bieber, Skenika, 75. BerlWPr, p. 22f., fig. 15. Verpus is a

296
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER XI
castrated man
in Juvenal and Martial, thus a virgus or in Harvard Si dies of Classical Philology, xiv(1903),37ff.
i,

male See Beare, op.cit., p. 20. A similar statuette with

virgo. I, nti Codex Ambrosianus H. 75, Praefatus E. Bethe, ed.,
r<

youthful mask on the seat: Breccia, Alexandrea at Aegyp- de Vries, 1903. Codex Parisinus 7899, Manuscrit Latin de
tum, p. 252, fig. 153. la Bibliotheque nationale. Omont, Comedies de Terence,
12 Terracotta statuettes in Naples, Nos. 22248-9, found in Bibliotheque nationale (1907). J. von Wageningen, Album
Pompeii. Ruesch, Guida del Museo di Napoli, Nos. 446-7. Terentianum (1790). Codex Vaticanus Latinus 3868, praef.
Rohden, Terrakotten von Pompcji, pp. 22, 46f., pi. xxxv. G. Jachmus, ed. Ehrle (1908). G. Jachmann, Geschichle des
Deonna, Les Statues de Terre cuites dans I'Anticpiite, p. 203, Terenztextes (1923/24), p. 12f. ( Rektoratsprogramm Rob- ) .

figs. 18-19. Alda Levi, Catalogo delle terrecotte del Museo ert, Masken, pp. 87ff., figs. 107-124. Bieber, Denkmiiler,

di Napoli, p. 202f., No. 872, pi. xiv; 2/3 lifesize, H. pp. 170fL, Nos. 179-182, figs. 137-140. L. Webber Jones,
1.13 m. For the arrangement of the pallium see L. Wilson, "The Archetypes Terence Miniature" in Art Bulletin,
of the
The Clothing of the Ancient Romans (1938), pp. 78ff., x(1927),103fl. L. W. Jones and C. R. Morey, The Minia-
figs. 49-51 and 148ff., Fig. 102. tures of the Manuscripts of Terence Prior to the Thirteenth
13 Fig. 550: Naples, Mus. No. 5615. Ruesch, Guida, No. Century (1931). Jones and Morey give reasons against the
793. Found in Herculaneum. Bronzi di Ercolano, n,79. dependence of the miniatures on actual stage representa-
14 Terracotta statuettes from Canino in the British Mu- tions, pp. 42ff., 113fL, 195ff., 203ff. I cannot see, however,
seum, Catalogue of Terracottas, p. 342f., D 223-227. The how a purely literary creation based on reading could give
Catalogue calls them actors of the palliata and explains to all characters, in most cases, the right theatrical masks,
them as being a parasite, a miser, and a thief or money garments, and outfits. See particularly Robert, Masken. Cf.
lender. Allardyce Nicoll, The Development of the Theater, also C. Fensterbusch in Bursians Jahresberichte, No. 253,

p. 78, figs. 68-69; Nicoll, Mimes, and Miracles

Masks, 1936, pp. 44ff. Duckworth, The Nature of Roman Comedy
(1931), p. 49, fig. 36, names British Museum D 224 a illustrates his book with Terentian miniatures.
'"mimic fool." A similar figure in Ficoroni, De Larvis Sceni- 27 Terentius
Afer Codex Vaticanus Latinus, 3868, pis. 35
cis, pi. ix. and 65. K. Weitzmann, Illustrations in Roll and Codex, A
" Cf. Wilson, op.cit., pp. 36ff., and 87ff. Study of the Origin and Method of Text Illustrations (1947),
16 George E. Duckworth, The Nature of Roman Comedy, pp. 73, 87, 109f., 158f., figs. 59, 69, 95. Cf. also Codex La-
A Study in Popidar Entertainment (1952), pp. 40ff. W. tinus, Paris 7899, figs. 150 and 153.
Beare, The Roman Stage, A Short History of Latin Drama 28
Costume in Roman Comedy ( 1909). Beare,
C. Saunders,
in the Time of the Republic ( 1955 ) pp. 23ff , pp. 173ff. A good example of a comic actor in a pal-
op.cit.,
17 Cf. Leo, Plautinische Forschungen, 2nd ed. (1912),
pp. lium is a marble statuette in Herculaneum, found in In-
82ff. Little, "Plautus and Popular Drama," in Harvard Stud- sula IV 1-2 (plan in Maiuri Ercolano, p. 27, fig. 3), in
ies in Classical Philology, xlix( 1938),209ff. Beare, The glass case of the Atrium. An old man with bald pate is hold-
Roman Stage, pp. 35ff. Duckworth, op.cit., pp. 49ff. ing a scroll, like the advocati (lawyers) in Terence's Phor-
18 The bronze statuettes of master and slave were bought mio, w. 446ff. See also Bieber, "Romani Palliati," Proceed-
in 1917, Metropolitan Museum, Inv. Nos. 17.229.28 and ings, American Philosophical Society 103, 1959, pp. 381ff.,
17.230.28. The bronze statuette in Cassel: Bieber, Skulptu- figs. 7-8.
ren und Bronzen in Cassel, p. 74, No. 238, pi. 45. The statu- Donatus, De Comoedia, vi, 3. Kaibel, Gr. Com. Fragm.,
29

ette in Baltimore: Inv. 54.746. Dorothy Hill, Catalogue of i, p. 68f. Saunders, "The Introduction of Masks on the Ro-

Classical Bronze Scidpture in the Walters Art Gallery, p. man Stage," AJP, xxxn( 1911), 58-73. Gow, "The Use of
71, No. 150, pi. 32. Masks in Roman Comedy," in Journal of Roman Studies,
"Vatican, Galleria dei Candelabri, Nos. 60, 71. Lippold, n(1912),65ff. Beare, op.cit., pp. 182ff. and 293ff. Duck-
Skulpturen des Vaticans, m,2, pp. 322f., 329f., pi. 148. Brit- worth, The Nature of Roman Comedy, pp. 92ff.
30 Naples, Nos. 6619 and 6633. Cf. Ruesch, Giuda
ish Museum, Catalogue of Sculpture, in, p. 166, No. 1767. di Na-
Both in Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 166, Nos. 151-152, pi. 99. poli, p. 166, No. 559. Schreiber, Hellenistische Reliefbilder,
See our Figs. 406-413 in Ch. VIII. pi. 99 (our Figs. 562 and 563). Pi. 98 has a similar com-
2° See Ch. X, Fig. 504, note 47. bination of comic masks in high relief on one, and tragic
21 Ch. X, note 24. T. B. L. Webster, Studies in Greek Com- masks in low relief on the other side. The preference for
edy, pp. 87-97, assumes as the original of Amphitruo an comedy shows in the fact that the comic masks are in high
unknown Greek Middle Comedy written soon after 330 B.C., relief on the front, the tragic in low relief in die back. Ame-
thus before the time of Menander as well as of Rhinthon. lung, Skulpturen des vatikanischen Museums, i, p. 376, Mu-
The originality of Plautus is underestimated by Webster. seo Chiaramonti, No. 106, pi. 39. Robert, Masken, p. 7f.,
See in contrast: Beare, The Roman Stage, pp. 56-59, and fig. 14. Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 162, Nos. 138-139, pi. 94.

Duckworth, op.cit., p. 394: "Plautus' own contributions to Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 210, figs. 159-160. Web-
the genre should not be underestimated."
. . . ster, inBulletin of the John Ryland Library, 32(1949/50),
22 Cf. Eduard Frankel, Plautinisches in Plautus (1922).
p. He
sees in the mask behind the delicate youth not
15.
The Captivi was produced in 189 b.c. at the Ludi Romani. a satyr but a "wavy-haired boy." For the decoration with
Wellesley, "The Production Date of Plautus' Captivi," AJP, such masks in the Gasa degli Amorini Dorati see Sogliano,
lxxvi(1955), 298-305. Notizie degli Scavi (1907), pp. 549ff., figs. 1-5, 8, 10-12,
23 Beare, op.cit.,
pp. 209-222. 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 28, 29.
24 On dramatic performances in the time of Plautus and 31 Beare, The Roman Stage,
pp. 89f., 94f.
Terence, see Lily Ross Taylor, in Transactions of the Ameri- 32 Bieber, Skulpturen und Bronzen in Cassel,
p. 45, No.
can Philological Association, lxviii( 1937),284ff. Beare, 88, pi. xxvrn.
33 Mus. No. 9991. Ruesch, Guida,
op.cit., p. 152f. p. 57, No. 179. Bieber-
25
For Terence see Gilbert Norwood, The Art of Terence Rodenwaldt, in JdAI, xxvi( 1911 ),14, fig. 6. Pernice in Win-
(1923) and recently Duckworth, op.cit., pp. 56ff., and ter, Hellenistische Kunst in Pompeji, vi(1938), Pavimente
Beare, op.cit., pp. 81ff., with a good explanation of con- und Mosaiken, p. 158f., pi. 59. See also the similar gar-
taminatio on pp. 300-303. land with masks around the mosaic with doves, ibid., p.
26 K. E. Weston, "The Illustrated Terence Manuscripts," 164, pi. 64.

297
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTERS XI AND XII
"Naples, No. 6634. Ruesch, Guida, p. 168, Nos. 571- Mau, Pompeji, p. 275, fig. 142; sec. ed., p. 303, fig. 158.
574; p. 166 on similar oscilli. Bieber, Skenika, p. 10, fig. 5. Leonhard, Mosaikstudien zur Casa del Fauno in Pompeji,
25 he Case ed Monumenti di Pompei,
Niccolini, i iv,l, p. 3. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 112, fig. 117; p. 124, No. 68.
pi. xxxv,3-4. Bieber, Skenika, p. 13, Fig. 8; Bieber, Denk- Bieber, in Rdm.Mitt., 60/61(1953/54), pp. 102, pi. 35,1.
maler, p. 12, Nos. 65-66, pi. 65. Pickard-Cambridge, Fes- 42 Curtius, Die Wandmalerei
Pompejis, p. 83, fig. 57; cp.
tivals, p. 187, figs. 58-59, 62-63. the whole walls, figs. 56, 58, 59. Phillies Williams Leh-
36 Found in Pompeii, in Naples, No. 6621. Ruesch, Guida, mann, Wallpaintings from Boscoreale, pp. 19ff., figs. 17-18.
43 Ruesch, Guida,
p. 551, No. 560. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 122f., No. 61, pi. p. 167, Nos. 564-565.
Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 187, fig. 60. 44 Mus., No. 6637. Cf. Ruesch,
63,1. Guida, p. 168, Nos. 571-
37
Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 123, No. 62, pi. 64,1. Pickard- 574.
Cambridge, Festivals, p. 187, fig. 61. 45 British Museum,
Catalogue of Sculpture, m, p. 375,
38 Robert, in Archdologischc Zeitung, xxvi( 1878 ,13ff., No. 2454, fig. 58.
)

pi. 3; Robert, Archdologische Hermeneutik, p. 196f., fig. 152. 46 Cf. Ch. VIII,
notes 107-112. Beare, op.cit., pp. 139ff.
Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 189, fig. 71. Other painted 47 Bulle,
Festschrift fur Loeb, p. 28, figs. 14-16. Cf. Le-
mask groups in Robert, Arch. Zeitung, loc.cit., pis. 4-5. roux, Vases Grecques et Italo-Grecs du Musee archeolo-
39 Naples, Mus. Nos. 6631 and 6638 (our Fig. 572). gique de Madrid, p. 308f., No. 596, pi. uv; here another
Ruesch, Guida, p. 166f., Nos. 562 and 564. woman, walking on her arms, is holding a small ball in her
40 Mariani, in Bulletino cotnunale Romano (1902), hand.
pp.
20ff. Mustilli, II Museo Mussolini, p. 51f., Nos. 8-11, pis. 48 Beare, op.cit., pp. 133ff.
xxxv, 146; xxxvi, 148. 49 Beare, op.cit., pp. 118ff., 254ff.
41 Museo di Napoli, No. 9994. Ruesch, Guida, No. 182.

NOTES TO CHAPTER XII. THE ART OF ACTING AT ROME

1
B. Warnecke, "Gebardenspiel und Mimik der romisehen geschenke, p. 142. Amdt-Amelung, No. 3. Schreiber, Brun-
Schauspieler," in NJb, xxv( 1910),580ff. Idem in Real-Enc, nenreliefs Grimani, p. 96, No. 66; and Hcllcnistische Relief-
vm,2116ff., s.v. Histrio. Navarre, in Daremberg-Saglio, Dic- bilclcr, pi. lxxxv.
11 D-R,
tionnaire des antiquites, ni,210ff ., s.v. Histrio. Gow, in JRS, figs. 82-3. Puchstein, Die griech. Biihne,
pp. 328ff.,
n(1912),72. p. Rhoden-Winnefeld, Architektonische Tonre-
26f., fig. 4.
Warnecke, "Die biirgerliche Stellung der Schauspieler
2 liefs der Kaiserzeit, p. 143f., figs. 266-267. Fiechter, Bau-
im Rom" in NJb, xxxm( 1914 ,95ff.
alten )
gesch.Entw., p. 101, fig. 96. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of
3
Catherine Saunders, Costume in Roman Comedy, 1909. Dionysus, p. 219f., figs. 78-79.
G. E. Duckworth, The Nature of Roman Comedy, pp. 88-94, 12 Lippold, Die Skulpturen des
Vat. Mus., m,2, pp. 322f.,
"Costume and Mask." No. 60; 329f., No. 71, pi. 148.
4 Bronze statuette in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts 13 Rizzo, in JOAI, vm( 1905),203ff., pi. v. Rhoden-Win-
M 1704. H. without base, 0.09; with base 0.105. Bluish color nefeld, op.cit., pp. 143ff., 280, pi. 81. Bieber, Skenika,
like many
bronzes from Herculaneum. BerlWPr (75), pp. 15ff., fig. 9; and Denkmaler, pp. lllff.,
5 I owe the photograph for Fig. 581 to Eduard Schmidt, No. 46, 109, pi. 56. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., p. 101,
fig.

who took the photograph when the statuette was offered for fig. 97. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, p. 220,
sale in Munich. fig. 80; and Festivals, p. 186, fig. 57.
Museo Na- 14 Otto Jahn, in Abh. Munchener Akad., vm( 1858),231ff.,
6
Terracotta lamp in the Antiquario of the
zionale Romano delle Terme in Rome, Inv. No. 62462. Mes- pi. iv. Samter, in Rdm.Mitt., vm( 1893 ) ,105ff.,119f., No. 4.
serschmidt in Rdm.Mitt., 45( 1930),182ff., pis. 63-4. The Hiilsen, ibid., pp. 145ff. Bendinelli, in Rizzo, Monumenti
lamp has black varnish, and details of the figures are in red. della Pittura in Italia (Roma, Sezione in), Fasc. v, p. 15f.,
7
Marble statuette in Villa Albani, No. 647. Arndt-Ame- pi. vm,3. Length of the frieze 0.95, height, 0.18 m. The
lung, No. 4135. The head does not belong and the hand date is probably the late first century b.c.
15 Lateran, Mus. No.
with mask is modern. 1063. Visconti, AdI (1866), pp.
8 Constantinople (Istanbul) Museum, No. 1768. Mendel, 312ff. Mon.Inst., vm,28,3. Maximilian Maver in Roscher,
Catalogue des Sculptures, Constantinople, n,283, No. 560. n,1570f., fig. 18. A. B. Cook, Zeus, m,934f., fig. 779. No-
Traces of red on face and mantle, blue for the beard on gara, Le Nozze Aldobrandini e altrc Pitture antiche, p.
the mouthpiece of the mask. 63ff., fig. 2, pi. xlvA, Amelung-Helbig. Fiihrer durch
9 British Museum, Catalogue of Bronzes,
p. 130, No. 742. Rom, 3rd ed., No. 1239. Bieber, Skenika, pp. 17ff., fig. 11.
Cf. for similarly constructed handles: Ducati, Storia del I,;
Mus. No. 9563. Ruesch, Guida del Museo di Napoli,
Arte Etrusca, i, 440ff. n, pis. 207, 238, 240, Nos. 513, 583,
p. 307, No. 1306. Carl Robert, Kentaurenkampf und Tra-
;

585. A. della Seta, Museo di Villa Giulia, i,399ff., pi. lx.

gddienszene, 22. HallWPr (1898), pp. 14ff., pi. n. Robert
Gisela Richter, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Catalogue of
believed the original of the painting to be a votive tablet
Bronzes, pp. 77f. Nos. 122-124; figs, on p. 79, and Hand-
of the choregus for the victory with Euripides Hippolytus
book of the Etruscan Collection, p. 51f., figs. 155-6. Dorothy
in 428 b.c. This is, for reasons of style and costume, quite
Hill in Studi etruschi, xi( 1937),121ff., pis. xiv, xvi, 3. The
impossible. Bieber, Skenika, pp. 14ff. and Denkmaler, p.
name Etruscan cistae ought to be dropped for these recep-
tacles found in Latin territory, probably freed from Etrus- 112f., fig. 110, No. 47. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p.
189, fig. 70.
can domination at the same time as Rome, although in both
17 Bulle in Festschrift fur Loeb, pp. 37ff.,
Rome and Praeneste Etruscan influence continued for a long figs. 27 and
time. The date of all cistae to me seems later than the fifth, 27 a-b. Bieber, in Real-Enc, xrv, s.v. Maske, p. 2082f. Cf.
and of most, later than the fourth centuries. Ch. VII, p. 84.
10 Verona, Museo lapidaria. Diitschke, Antike Bildwerke 18 Ruesch, Guida del Museo di Napoli, No. 929. Arndt,

in Obcritalien, iv,203, No. 462. Reisch, Griechische Weih- pis. 457-458. Hekler, Bildniskunst, p. xxixf., No. 130. Kluge

298
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTERS XII AND XIII

and Lehmann-Hartleben, Antikc Grossbronzen, n,4, fig. 1. 1727ff., and ibid., xvm,3( 1949), ed. Kroll-Ziegler, pp. 833-
Bieber, Denkmiiler, p. 177f. No. 190, pi. 109. Goethert, 869.
Zur Kunst der romischen Rcpublik, p. 23f. Brendel, in Die Mus. No. 1128. Two of four small pictures on the up-
20

Antike (1933), p. 138f. Cnrtins, in Rdm.Mit., 50(1935), p. per Lessing-Mau, Wand und Deckcnschmuck eines
left wall.

302, note 2. Eugenie Sellers Strong, in Cambridge Ancient Houses bet der Farnesina, pi. 7. Mon.Inst., xn,8, Nos. 4-5
History, vol. of plates, iv,162b. F. Poulsen, "Probleme der and 22, Nos. 2-3; our Fig. 593 is the same as 22, No. 2.
rbmisehen lkonographie" in Archaeologisk-Kunsthistorische Helbig-Amelung, Fiilirer dutch Rom, 3rd ed., p. 209, No.
Meddelelser, ii,1(1937), p. 22, No. 4, fig. 49. Vessberg, 1479. Birt, Ruchrolle, p. 141, fig. 78.
Studien zur Kunstgeschichte der romischen Rcpublik, p. - 1
Naples, Mus. No. 12733. I owe the photograph for
228f. West, Romische Portratplastik, i, 44f., pi. ix, fig. 30. Fig. 594 to the kindness of Professor Amadeo Maiuri.
Schweitzer, Rildniskunst der romischen Rcpublik, pp. 79ff., 22 von Wilamowitz-Mollendorf, "Der Timotheos-Pa-
U.
figs. 99 and 103. Paribeni, // Ritratto nell'Arte Antica, pi. pyrus, gefunden bei Abusir, 1902," in Wissenschaftliche
98. Veroffcntlichungcn der deutschen Orientgescllschaft, Heft 3
19 Cf. Robert, "Pantomimen im griechisehen Orient," in (1903), p. lOf. and idem, Timotheos, Die Perser, p. 27,
Hermes, 45 ( 1930),106fF. Wiist, in Real-Enc., xv,2(1938), lines 241-248, pp. 55ff.

NOTES TO CHAPTER THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEATER BUILDING

XIII.

DURING THE REPUBLICAN PERIOD

1
See Ch. XI, note 7. richte, 227( 1930),48ff. Anderson-Spiers-Ashby, The Archi-
- The mistaken idea had to listen to the
that the public tecture of Rome, p. 91, pi. xlvh. Maiuri, "L'ultima fase edi-
plays standing, has been refuted by Beare, The Roman Stage lizia di Pompei" in lnstituto di Studi Romani, Sezione Cam-

(1955), pp. 231-237; and A. Rumpf, in Mitteilungen des pana 1942, xx, pp. 77-80; Maiuri, Introduzione alio studio
Deutschen Archaeologischcn Instituts, m( 1950),40ff. di Pompei (1943), pp. 34ff.; Maiuri in Notizie degli Scavi,
3 The phlyakes stage of Syracuse discovered by Drerup v (Serie vm, 1951), pp. 126-134, figs. 1-6; Maiuri, Pompei
(Ath.Mitt., xxvi [1 902 ],9ff,26ff.) was denied by Rizzo (II (1951), p. 26, figs. 36-37.
Teatro Greco di Siracusa, pp. 77ff. ) who considered the 10 Mazois and Gau, Les Ridnes de Pompei, rv,55-60, pis.

traces to be a channel for the curtain. Bulle (Untersuchun- xxvn-xxix. Niccolini, he Case ed i Monumcnti di Pompei,
gen, pp. 152, 159ff., pi. 47, figs. 3-4) has, however, proved tv, 2, pi. xix (restoration), xx (view). See pis. xxi and K

that there was a stage for the phlyakes plays. He dates it for a view of the theatrical area. Overbeck-Mau, op.cit.,
in the same period as die proskenion, after 238 B.C. See pp. 171ff., figs. 97-101. Mau, op.cit., pp. 140ff., figs. 66-70.
Anti, Guida del Teatro antico di Siracusa (1948), pp. 79ff. Mau-Kelsey, op.cit., pp. 153ff., figs. 66-71. Thedenat, op.cit.,
4 Puchstein, Die griecliische Ruhne,
pp. llOff., figs. 31- pp. 82ff., fig. 43. Bieber, Denkmiiler, pp. 52ff., No. 13, fig.
33. Hittorf and Zanth, Recueil des monuments de Segeste, 56, pi. 25. Fiechter, Raugesch.Entw., p. 78, fig. 66. Bulle,
pis. 7-10. Strack, Theater gebdude, pis. 1 and vi,6. Bulle, Untersuchungen, p. 205f., pi. 46. Robertson, Greek and Ro-
Untersuchungen, pp. llOff., pis. 19-32. Bieber, Denkmalcr, man Architecture (2nd ed., 1943), p. 273f., fig. 114. An-
p. 50f., No. 12, figs. 54-55, pi. 22. Arias, II Teatro Greco derson-Spiers-Ashby, op.cit., p. 91, pis. xlvi-vii. Maiuri,
fuori di Atene, pp. 143ff., figs. 95-98. Pace, Arte e artisti Pompei, p. 26f., fig. 38-39, 41. Spano, "Osservazioni intorno
dclla Sicilia antica, n,314ff., figs. 275-277 Pierro Marconi, '. al theatrum tectum di Pompei," in Annali del 1st. Sup. S.
Dioniso, i( 1929 ) ,8-14. A. von Gerkan, Theater von Priene, Chiara, i(1949). Homer Thompson, in Hcsperia, xix(1950),
p. 106; and in Festschrift Andreas Rumpf (1950), pp. 82- 90f.
fig. 5. 11
For odea see Dunn, Raukunst der Griechetr, pp. 487ff.,
92,
5Strack, op.cit., pi. vi. Puchstein, op.cit., pp. 117ff., figs. fig.433. Cagnat et Chapot, Manuel d'archeologie romaine,
34-36. Bulle, op.cit., pp. 131ff., pis. 33-41. Pace, op.cit., n, pp. 190ff., figs. 101-102.
318ff., fig. 279. Gerkan, in Festschrift Rumpf, pp. 88ff., fig. 12 Odeum of Taormina: Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 62, pi.
6. Arias, op.cit., p. 149f. 28,2.
6Bulle, op.cit., p. 130f. Marconi, Notizie degli Scavi, 1929, 13 Gabrici, "Contributo archeologico alia topografia di Na-
pp. 295ff., pis. xiv-xv. Bieber in Gnomon, 8(1932),474. poli," in Monumenti Antichi (1951), pp. 656 and 674, pi.
Professor Meritt and Professor Rudolf Herzog gave me their IV.
opinions orally. 14 Homer Thompson, in Hespcria, xix( 1950) ,31ff., pis.
7
Bulle, op.cit., pp. 126f., 147ff. Gerkan, Festschrift An- 16-60.
dreas Rumpf, p. 86f.
O. Broneer, The Odeum, Corinth, Results- of the Ex-
15
8
Stuart Jones, Catalogue of Sculptures of the Museo Capi-
cavations by the American School of Classical Studies at
tolino, pp. 22 and 25, Cortile Nos. 5 and 23, pi. 2, Phot.
Athens, n(1932).
Anderson 1776-1777.
9 Mazois, Les Ruines de Pompei, rv,61-70, pis. xxx-xxxrv.
l6 Kawadias, Praktika (1904), pp. 49-51, pi. A. Durm,
op.cit., p. 489f., fig. 434. Hanson, Roman Theater-Temples,
Overbeck-Mau, Pompeji, 4th ed., pp. 156ff., figs. 88-94.
p. 97, fig. 48.
Mau, Pompeji, 2nd ed. (1908), pp. 129ff., 64-65. Mau-
figs.
17 Mazois, Niccolini,
Kelsey, Pompeii, pp. 141ff., map in, figs. 64-71. Mau, in
op.cit., pp. 77-86, pis. xliii-xlviii.
op.cit., pis. xvii (restoration), xvm and i (views). Over-
Rom. 'Mitt., xxi (1906), Iff., 1-10, pi. i. Thedenat, Pom-
figs.
pei, pp. 78ff., fig. 42. Puchstein, Die griech. Ruhne, pp. 75ff., beck-Mau, op.cit., pp. 176ff., figs. 102-114. Mau, op.cit.,

fig. 19; and in Arch.Anz., xxi( 1906 ) ,301ff. Byvank, in Rom.- pp. 196-209, figs. 96-102, pi. vi. pp. Mau-Kelsey, op.cit.,

Mitt., XL(1925),107ff., figs. 1-6, Beilage n. Bieber, Denk- 212ff. Thedenat, pp. 94ff., figs. 52-54. Maiuri, Pom-
op.cit.,

miUer, pp. 52ff., No. 13, figs. 56-57, pis. 23-25. Bulle, Unter- pei, pp. 27-30, figs. 42-43. Ippel, Pompeji, pp. 62ff., figs.
suchungen, pp. 165ff., pi. 13. Fiechter, Raugesch.Entw., 58-61. Colin, "Nouveaux graffites de Pompei," in L'Antiquite
pp. 76ff., figs. 66-69. Fensterbusch, in Rursians Jahresbe- classique, xx( 1951 ) ,136-139. Girosi, "L'anfiteatro di Pom-

299
 NOTES TO THE TEXT CHAPTER XIII
Memorie Accad. di Archeologia di Napoli, v 29 Noack, Baukunst des Altertums,
pei," in R. pp. 68ff., pi. 94. Dins-
(1936),34f. moor, The Architecture of Ancient Greece, pp. 295ff., figs.
See for the amphitheaters of Capua and Puteoli: Dunn,
18 108-109. See Ch. XIV, note 66.
Handbuch der Architektur, n,685f., figs. 752-753. Drexel, 30 Caputo, op.cit.,
p. 16.
3 iD-R,
in Friedlander, Sittengeschichte, iv(9th ed., 1921), p. 209f. pp. 333f., fig. 84. Benndorf, in JOAI, v(1902),
List of about 80 other amphitheaters, ibid., pp. 205-240. 188fL, figs. 53-55. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., p. 102, fig. 99.
Friedlander, Roman Life and Manners, trans, by Gough Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 76, No. 22, pi. 40, No. 1. Pickard-
(1913) iv,193-255.
,
Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, p. 220, fig. 81.
19Naples, Mus. No. 112222. A. Sogliani, Pitture Murali, 32 Serradifalco, Antichitd della Sicilia, v, pis.
pp. 36ff.,
No. 604. Niccolini, op.cit., pi. xxxi (in color). Mau, op.cit., xxi-xxn. Noack, Baukunst des Altertums, p. 66, pi. 90.
fig. 101. Ippel, op.cit., p. 4, fig. 4. Durm, Handbuch der Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., pp. 86 and 115, fig. 76. Bieber,
Architektur, u,2, second ed. Die Baukunst der Romer, p. 681, Denkmaler, p. 61f., No. 15, figs. 63-64, pis. 27-28a. Pace,
fig. 749. Arte e Civiltd della Sicilia, n, pp. 323ff., figs. 282-285. Ca-
20 A. Maiuri, Gli Scavi di Pompei (1951), pp. 22-25, pi. ristie, Monuments antiques d Orange, p. 56, pi. xxxrv, fig.

hi. vr, and pi. xli. Guido Libertini in Dioniso, n( 1930), 111-
C. Robertson, Greek and Roman Architecture, pp. 279ff.,
21
121, figs. 1-3. M. Santangelo, Taormina e Dintorni (1950),
on the contrivance for supporting awnings in theaters, and pp. 34-57. A. W. van Buren, A/A 60( 1956),397, pi. 134,
283ff., in amphitheaters. For die awnings in the theater at figs. 28j29 (new reconstruction).
Pompeii, cf. Mazois, Ruines de Pompei, rv, pi. xx. Over- 33 Inscriptions on the Acti ludorum saecularum in 17 B.C.

beck, Pompeji, p. 164, fig. 89. Mau, op.cit., p. 132f., fig. and a.d. 204: Mommsen and Hiilsen, in Ephemeris Epi-
65. Mau-Kelsey, op.cit., p. 145, fig. 65. Lily Ross Taylor, graphica, vin( 1891 ),225ff.,274ff. Dorpfeld in Ath.Mitt.,
"Lucretius on the Roman Theatre," in Studies in Honour of xxii ( 1897 ),446f. D-R, p. 279. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw.,
Gilbert Norwood, ed. Mary White (1952), pp. 147-155. p. 81. Dessau, Inscriptiones hat. sel., No. 5050. CIL, vi,
22 Forschungen in Ephesos, n, p. 162, No. 39, fine 4 and No. 32323, 32326-32334. Romanelli, Notizie degli Scavi,
No. 40, fine 6. vn(1931),313ff.,325ff. Lily Ross Taylor in AJP, lv(1934),
23 Mazois, Ruines de Pompei, iv,64, pis. 33 and 36. Over- lOlff.
beck, Pompeji (3d ed., 1875), p. 140f., figs. 89-90. Mau, 34 Lanciani, Ruins and Excavations
of Ancient Rome, pp.
Pompeji, p. 134. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., p. 120f., figs. 119- 493. Jordan-Hiilsen, Topographie, i,3, p. 519. Platner-Ashby,
120. Noack, Die Baukunst des Altertums, p. 64, pi. 86a. Mai- Topographic Dictionary of Rome, p. 513, s.v. theatrum Balbi.
uri, Pompei (1951), fig. 37. 85 Serlio, Architettura, in,47, after Peruzzi; ibid.
(1566),
24 Drerup in Ath.Mitt., xxvi(1901),29ff. Rizzo, II Teatro p. 69f., and Tutte le opera d' Architettura (1584), p. 70f.
di Siracusa, p. 64, fig. 27, p. 73, fig. 30, No. 3; p. 78, fig. Jordan-Hiilsen, op.cit., i,3, pp. 515ff. Streit, Das Theater,
32c; pp. 49ff. Anti, Guida del Teatro di Siracusa, pp. 98- pp. 52ff., fig. Denkmaler, p. 58f., fig. 61,
12, pi. vii. Bieber,
101, 104. pi. 26. Durm, Baukunst der Romer, p. 653, fig. 729. Noack,
25 On aulaeum see: Formige, Memoires presentes a VAca- Baukunst, p. 102, pi. 135. Platner-Ashby, op.cit., pp. 513ff.,
demie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, 1st series, xm s.v. theatrum Marcelli. G. Lugli, Roma Antica. II centro
(1914) ,34(58)ff., and xni, 2 (1923), 35ff. Boeswillwald, monumentale (1946), pi. ix. Our Fig. 641 is a drawing by
Timgad, p. 107f. Daremberg-Saglio s.v. Aulaeum. Stillwell, Miss E. Wadhams, remodelled from Streit.
in Corinth, n, The Theater, p. 78, fig. 67. Beare, The Ro- 36 Piranesi, II teatro di Ercolano (1783). Mazois, Les
man Stage, Appendix E, pp. 257-264, reprinted from Herma- Ruines de Pompei, rv( 1812), 71-76, pis. 35-41. Walston,
thena, lviii, pp. 104-115. See also Ch. XIV, note 23. Herculaneum, pis. 12-13. Mau, Pompeji, pp. 540ff., figs.
26 Umberto Ciotto, "Relievo Romano e plutei mediovali 297-8. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., p. 85, fig. 73, Maiuri, Er-
retrovati a Castel S. Elia," in Bolletino d'Arte, Serie iv, Vol. colano, pp. 27ff.; Maiuri, Herculaneum, English and French
35(1950), pp. Iff., figs. 1.5-6. C. Anti in Festschrift Rudolf editions (1932), pp. 27-29; Maiuri, Herculaneum, trans, by
Fgger (1952), pp. 189-205, figs. 1-2, from Beitrage zur Priestley (1937), pp. 61-65, fig. 6, pi. xl; figs. 71-72; Mai-
alteren europiiischen Kulturgeschichte I. G. Traversari, "Mo- uri, Pompei e Ercolano (1950), p. 240, pi. xrx; Maiuri,
nete Commemorative dei Ludi saeculares Septimi con Scena Ercolano (1946), pp. 69ff., fig. 6; p. 120, pi. xl, figs. 71-72.
Teatrale a Siparia," in Revista Italiana di Numismatica, iv, Hanson, op.cit., p. 74f., fig. 41.
serie quinta, lviii( 1956), 1-10, pi. ix,4. He compares with 37 Prestel, Architektur des Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, pp.
the relief of S. Elia coins of Septimius Severus with siparia 218ff., pis. xlv-l. Choisy, Vitruve, 1,197-208, rv, pis. 48-52.
above the scene for the secular plays given by die Emperor, Morris H. Morgan, Vitruvius' Ten Books on Architecture,
pi. ix,l-3. pp. 137ff. Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 270ff. Durm, Bau-
27 Jordan, Forma Urbis Romae, pp. 22ff., 30, pi. iv. Jor- kunst der Romer, p. 646f., figs. 724-726. Flickinger, Greek
dan-Hiilsen, Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum, 1,3, Theater, p. 75f., fig. 42. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of An-
pp. 524ff. Streit, Das Theater, pp. 46ff., pi. vi. Fiechter, cient Greece, p. 316, fig. 115.
38 C. Anti, "L'acustica fattore determinante della storia dei
Baugesch.Entw., pp. 79ff., fig. 70a. Bieber, Denkmaler, pp.
56ff., figs. 58-59. Bulle, Untersuchungen, p. 271f. Platner- teatri greci e romani," Atti della Accademia Patavina di
Ashby, Topographic Dictionary of Rome, pp. 515ff., s.v. Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, lxiv( 1951-52), 5-27.
theatrum Pompei. A. Rumpf, in Mitteilungen des Deutschen 39 D-R, pp. 386ff., figs. 96-99, pi. vm.
40 Fiechter, 104 and
archdologischen Instituts, m( 1950), 40-50. Caputo, in Dio- Baugesch.Entw., pp. lOOff., especially

niso, xvn ( 1954), 11-17 (an excellent summary of the article 108f.
41 Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 260ff.
of Rumpf). Hanson, op.cit., pp. 43-55, figs. 15-19.
28 Rumpf, op.cit., pp. 48ff.

300
 NOTES TO CHAPTER XIV. ROMAN THEATER BUILDINGS IN ITALY AND THE
PROVINCES DURING THE EMPIRE

pp. 41ff., pi. i and

1 See the lists in Drexel, Vol. iv(1921) of Friedlander, 10 For the coins see Maffei, op.cit.,

Appendix xvi, pp. 205-240,

Sittengeschichte, 9-10. edition, Appendix, pp. 410-412. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Em-
amphitheaters; pp. 240-242, circus buildings; pp. 243-257, pire in the British Museum, II, Vespasian to Domitian, pp.
theater buildings. I can, of course, illustrate and discuss lxxvi and 262, pi. 50,2, No. 190.
only the most important ones. 11Maffei, op.cit., p. 372.
-Ostia: Fiorelli, in Notizie degli Scavi (1881), pp. 109ff., 12Maffei, op.cit., transl. by Gordon, 1730, pp. 315ff., pis.
pi. i. D'Espouy-Joseph, Architcktonisclie Einzclhciten, pi. xiv-xv. Gnirs, in JOAI, xv(1912), Beiblatt, pp. 239ff.; xvm
100. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 58, figs. 60-61. Vaglieri, Ostia (1915), Beiblatt, pp. 163ff.; Gnirs, Fuhrer durch Pola, pp.
(1914), pp. 72ff., No. 28. G. Calza, Ostia, Guida storico 33ff., 104f., 11 If.
monumentale, pp. 102ff., fig. 31; cf. p. 23, fig. 5; Calza, Ostia, 13 R. Peyre, Nimes, Aries, Orange, Saint-Remy (nouvelle
Historical Guide to the Monuments (trans, by R. Wceden- ed.,1910), pp. 6ff. A. Halleys and R. Peyre, he Midi de
Cook), pp. llOff., fig. 31; cf. p. 23, fig. 5; Calza, 7/ Teatro France et ses villes d'Art, pp. 6ff. J. Sautel, Les Villes Ro-
Romano di Ostia (1927); Calza in Capitolium, v(1927), maines de la Vallee du Rhone (1926), pp. 122ff.
14 Peyre, op.cit., and Halleys-Peyre, op.cit.,
74-84. Gismondi in Anthemon, Scritti in onore di Carlo pp. 74ff. Durm,
Anti, pp. 293-308, pis. xxviii-xxxi. I owe the photographs, Baukunst, pp. 696ff. Sautel, Les Villes Romaines de la Vallee
Figs. 648-649 of the newly-reconstructed theater to the du Rhone, pp. 20ff.
15 Aries: Caristie, Notice sur Vetat actuel des thedtres an-
kindness of Raissa Calza. Hanson, op.cit., p. 95f., fig. 45.
3 E. Strong, Roman Sculpture, tiques d'Orange et d'Arles, pp.
pp. 24ff., pis. Lxxin-Lxxiv. 21ff., pis. vi-ix; Caristie,
4 Minturnae:
Jodiam Johnson, Excavations at Minturnae, Monuments antiques d Orange, p. 47, pi. xxxiv, No. 2, and
i(1935), p. 2, fig. 1 (plan); pp. 6ff., fig. 2 (aerial photo); pi. xli, No. 3. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., p. 86f., fig. 77, and
pp. 57ff., fig. 29 (view). Johnson in Real-Enc, Suppl. Vol. p. 121f., fig. 121. Peyre, op.cit., pp. 78ff., with 2 figs. For-
vn, s.v. Minturnae. S. Aurigemma and A. de Sanctis, Gaeta, mige, "Remarques diverses sur les Theatres Romains a pro-
Formia, Minturno, Itinerari dei Musei e Mon. d'ltalia, No. pos de ceux d'Arles et d'Oranges," in Memoires presentes
92(1955), pp. 38ff., figs. 6-8, pi. xxvra. par divers savants d V Academie des Inscriptions et Belles
5
See Ch. XIII, note 26. Lettres, xm,l(1923), pp. 25E, pi. i and xm,2; pp. 40ff.,
6 Fiesole: Galli, "Fiesole, Gli Scavi," in Piccolo Cicerone figs.6-7 and 9; pp. 58ff., figs. 11, 14-16. Sautel, Les Villes
moderno, n, 32ff., figs. 16-27; pp. 123ff., figs. 109-119. A. Romaines de la Vallee du Rhone, pp. 26ff.
16 E. Strong, Roman Sculpture,
J.
Rusconi, Italia Artistica, No. 109, "Fiesole," pp. 23ff., p. 62f., pi. xix. Gonse,
with 5 figs. Broneer, in Corinth, x, The Odeum, p. 26, fig. Les Chefs-d'oeuvre des Musees de France, p. 68. Formige,
17. Pericle Ducati in Dioniso, i( 1929), 188-190, fig. 6. Min- "L'autel aux cygnes d'Arles et la thymele dans les theatres
to in Dioniso, vi( 1937), 4-7, figs. 5-12. Hanson, op.cit., pp. greco-romaines." Revue arch., xxi( 1944), 21-34.
76, 99, figs. 43, 53. A similar early theater on Etruscan soil 17 Formige, Le Theatre Romain de Vienne (1950). See
is in Ferento near Viterbo. Pietro Romanelli, in Dioniso, the restored plan, fig. 30, and for the temples on top of the
i( 1929), 260-266, with 4 figs. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., cavea pp. 9-11. Wuiileumier, Les Thedtres de la Gaule. Le
p. 86, fig. 75. Theatre de Vienne. Wuiileumier, "Les Theatres Romains
7 Scipione Maffei, Verona Illustrata, rv( 1826),63ff. S. de la Region Lyonnaise," Revue d'Histoire du Thedtre, i
Ricci, in Notizie degli Scavi (1894), pp. 223ff. and II Teatro (1948), 49f. Formige, Melanges Picard, i( 1949), 382-386.
Romano di Verona, i(1895). G. Ghorardini, in Notizie degli 18 Sautel, Les Villes Romaines de la Vallee du Rhone,
p.
Scavi ( 1905 ) pp. 259ff Giani, L'antico teatro di Verona
,
. 104f. Sautel, "Le Theatre de Vaison et les Theatres Ro-
(1908), with 19 plates. G. Biadego, Verona (1914), pp. mains de la Vallee du Rhone," in Etudes et Documents sur
17-28. Vaison-la-Romaine, m( 1946 ) ,37-47; and xi( 1951 ), 44-47
8 Maffei, Degli amfiteatri e singolarimente del Veronese (bibliography for theaters in the Rhone Valley). Dioniso,
(1728), trans, by Gordon as Complete History of the An- vi (1937-38 ),176f., fig. 3 (model). Sautel, Vaison la Ro-
cient Amphitheaters, more particularly regarding the archi- maine (10th ed., 1951), pp. 6-8. Sautel, Vaison dans VAn-
tecture of those buildings, and in particular that of Verona, tiquite, i, pp. 253-254; m, pis. 89-93.
1730, pp. 74ff., 138ff., 190ff., pis. in, v-xm (1730). Drexel, 19 Wuiileumier, in Gallia, "Compte rendu des fouilles," vn

in Friedlander, Sittengeschichte, rv(9-10. ed., 1921), 216; ( 1948), 225-227. Wuiileumier, Les Fouilles de Fourviire d
cf. n, 109f. G. Biadego, Verona (1914), pp. 13-17. A. Gu- Lyon (11th ed., 1952), pp. 6-10, figs. 1-10. Wuiileumier,
erinet, Verone, Padoue, Milan, Vicence, pi. i. Lyon, Metropole des Gaules (1953), pp. 1-117, figs. 1-12.
9
Colosseum: Maffei, op.cit., trans, by Gordon (1730), 20 Orange: Caristie, Notice sur Vetat actuel des thedtres

pp. 57ff., 202ff., pi. rv. Desgodetz, Les edifices antiques de ant. d'Orange et d'Arles, pp. 10ff., pis. i-v. Caristie, Monu-
Rome mesures et dessines (1682), p. 246. Canina, Edifizi, ments antiques d'Orange, Arc de Triomphe et thedtre ( 1856),
rv, pis. 164-177. Due, Monuments antiques, n,2. Jordan- pp. 33-86, pis. xxx-li. Peyre, Nimes, Aries, Orange (nou-
Hiilsen, Topographie von Rom, 1,3, pp. 282ff. Kiepert-Hiil- velle ed., 1910), pp. 149ff. Hallays and Peyre, Le Midi de
sen, Formae Urbis Romae, 2nd ed., p. 48f. O. Richter, la France et ses villes d'art (1931), pp. 115ff. Formige,
Topographie der Stadt Rom, in Iwan Miillers Handhuch der "Remarques diverses sur les theatres romaines," in Memoires
Altertums-Wissenschaft, pp. 167ff., figs. 15-16. Durm, Bau- presentes par divers savants a V Academie des Inscriptions et
kunst der Rbmer, in Handhuch der Architektur, n,2, pp. Belles Lettres, xin( 1923), 25-90, figs. 1-18, pis.
1st series,
669ff., figs. 742-747. Cagnat et Chapot, Manuel d'Arche- i-rv. "Note sur scene du theatre d'Orange," ibid., xn,
la
ologie romaine, i( 1916),196ff., figs. 104-105. Noack, Bau- 2 (1933), 697-712. Durm, Baukunst der Rbmer, p. 651f., fig.
kunst des Altertums, pp. 103ff., pis. 136-138. Lugli, La Zona 727; p. 656, fig. 732; p. 659, fig. 735. Fiechter, Baugesch.
archeologica di Roma (1924), pp. 119ff., fig. 27. Gall, in Entw., p. 87, fig. 78. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 65f., No. 17,
Real-Enc, vn, pp. 2516ff. Friedlander, Sittengeschichte, n, fig. 69, pis. 32-33. Noack, Baukunst des Altertums, p. 65f.,

llOff. pis. 88-89. Sautel, Les Villes Romaines de la Vallee du

301
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER XIV
Rhone, pp. 95-100. D. S. Robertson, A Handbook of Greek scoperte," in Africa Italiana, vi( 1935 ) ,92-103. "II teatro di
and Roman Architecture (1929, second ed. 1943), p. 279f., Leptis Magna," in Rivista Italiana del Dramma (1940), pp.
pi. X. Bachy, "Un theatre romain, Orange," in Phoibos, m- 202-212. "Architettura del teatro di Leptis Magna," in Dio-
rv( 1948-1950), 97-109, figs. 1-15. niso, xm( 1950), 164-178, figs. 1-6. For some details, cf. ibid.,
21 Caristie, Monuments antiques a Orange, pis. xliv and xii (1949), 83-91 and 214f; xx( 1957), 3-7. "Principali restauri
li, p. 66f., and p. 79f., fig. 32. monumentali e lavori di protezione nel triennio 1946-8 in
22 Caristie, op.cit., reconstruction on pi. L. Sabratha e Leptis Magna," in Reports and Monographs,
23 the Roman curtain, see Formige, op.cit., xm(1932),
On Department of Antiquities in Tripolitania, n( 1949) ,15-19.
40ff., figs. 6-7 and 9; pp. 58ff., figs. 11, 14-16. Wuilleumier, Cf. also Caputo in Arch.Anz. (1939-1941), pp. 717 and 726,
"Theatres et Amphitheatres romains de Lyon," in Annales note 2. Bieber in Rdm.Mitt., 60/61(1953/54), pp. 104f., pi.
de Gand, i( 1937),151ff. Beare, op.cit., 5th edn., pp. 257flv 41, fig. 1. I owe the photographs published there and those
See also Ch. XIII, n. 25. for our Figs. 696-699 to the great kindness and generosity
24 Drexel, op.cit., pp. 222ff. of Professor Caputo. Hanson, op.cit., pp. 59f., 90, 95, figs.
25 Drexel, op.cit., p. 253f. 21-22. Caputo, II teatro di Leptis Magna. Monografie di
26 Merida: Jose Ramon Melida, Monumentos romanos di Archeologia libica VI, Rome, i'Erma di Bretschneider, in
Espaiia, pp. 17ff., pis. 24-26; Melida, II Teatro Romano de the Press.
35 A. Reifenberg, "Caesarea," in The Israel Exploration
Merida (1915). Cf. Arch.Anz., 1912, p. 456f., and 1914,
Journal, j,i( 1950-51 ),24ff. Drexel, in Friedlander, Sittenge-
pp. 317ff. Melida in Art and Archeology, xxv( 1928),30ff.
Bieber, "Wurden die Tragodien des Seneca aufgefuhrt?" in schichte, rv,237. Otiier amphitheaters in Asia, ibid., pp. 232-
Rdm.Mitt., 60/61(1953/54), pp. 100ff., pi. 40,1-2; the il- 238.
36 Texier,
Description d'Asie mineure (1849), i, p. 168,
lustrations used there and our Figs. 681-684 were given to
me by Emeline Hill Richardson. pi.62; in, pis. 232-241. Lanckoronski, Stddte Pamphyliens
27Drexel, op.cit., pp. 227 and 254f. und Pisidiens (1890), i, 85, 91, 102-120, 144f., figs. 74,
28Drexel, p. 228f. Cagnat et Chapot, Manuel d'Arche- 81-120, xx-xxvu. Durm, Baukunst der Griechen,
pis. xvi,

ologie Romaine, i( 1916),193fF., fig. 103. Cagnat, Les Villes p. 468f., fig. Durm, Baukunst der Romer, p. 654,
421a-b;
d'Art celebres, Carthage, Timgad, Tebessa, p. 31. fig. 730. Noack, Baukunst des Altertums, p. 106f., pi. 142.

29 Timgad: Gsell, Monuments antiques de I'Algerie, i, Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., pp. 95, 123ff., figs. 91-92, 123.
197ff., fig. 65, pi. l. Ballu, Les Ruines de Timgad (1891), Bieber, Denkmdler, pp. 68ff., No. 19, figs. 73-74, pis. 36-39.
Les Ruines de Timgad Decouvertes (1903-1910), Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 267f. D. S. Robertson, A Hand-
pp. 153ff.;
p. 16f.; (1911), p. 17f. Cf. plan on Map No. 18. Boeswill- book of Greek and Roman Architecture (2nd ed., 1943),
wald-Cagnat-Ballu, Timgad. Une cite Africaine (1905), pp. pp. 276ff., figs. 116-117. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of
93-120, figs. 42-52, pis. xm-xv. Cagnat, Carthage, Timgad, Dionysus, p. 254, note 1, fig. 131. Dinsmoor, The Architec-
Thcbessa, pp. 88-90. Bieber, Denkmdler, pp. 62ff., figs. 65- ture of Ancient Greece, p. 310f.
37 Puchstein, in Wiegand, Palmyra, Ergebnisse der Ex-
68, pi. 29. Durm, Die Baukunst der Romer, p. 660f., fig.
736. Fiechter, Entwicklungsgeschichte, pp. 88 and 122, figs. peditionen von 1902 und 1917 (1932), pp. 41ff., pis. 11, 19-
82 and 84. Frezouls, Dioniso, xv( 1952), 90-94, pi. i,l. 23.
so Djemila: Gsell, op.cit., 1,186-189, figs. 61-62, pis. xltv- 38 A. Schenk, Graf von Stauffenberg, Die rbmische Kaiser-

v. Boeswillwald-Cagnat-Ballu, op.cit., p. 105f., fig. 45. Ballu, geschichte bei Malalas (1931), p. 46. I owe the reference
Guide illustre de Djemila (1926), pp. 42 and 46. Fiechter, and information to the late Professor Friend of Princeton.
39 Lanckoronski, op.cit., i,98-102, figs. 77-80, pis. xvin-
op.cit., p. 87, figs. 79 and 83. Bieber, Denkmdler, pp. 62ff.,
fig. 67. Allais, Djemila (1938), pp. 15f., 52-54. Leschi, XIX.
Djemila (1938), p. 22. Frezouls, op.cit., pi. i,2.
40 Amman: Howard Crosby Butler, Syria, Princeton Uni-
31 Dugga: Carton, "Le Theatre romain de Dougga," in versity Expedition to Southern Syria
Syria, Sect. II A,
Memoires presentes a L'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles (1919), pp. See also Baal-
34f., 47f., 275, figs. 31-33, pi. rv.

Lettres, xi,l( 1902),1-117 and xi,2( 1904), 79-191, pis. i- beck in Syria, Th. Wiegand, Baalbek, Ergebnisse der Aus-
xviii. Carton, Dougga (2nd ed., 1922). Boissier, L'Afrique grabungen und Untersuchungen, 1898-1905 (1921-1925),
romaine (1909, 4th ed.), p. 230. Fiechter, op.cit., pp. 87 i,42, fig. 20.
41 Donald N. Wilber, in Antioch-on-the-Orontes, ed. Still-
and 122, figs. 80 and 122. Cagnat, Carthage, Timgad, The-
bessa, pp. 90ff. Noack, Baukunst des Altertums, p. 64f., pi. well, ii (1938), 57-94, Schenk, op.cit., p. 260.
pis. v-vii.

86,b. Homer F. Pfeiffer, in MAAR, ix( 1931 ),145-156,

42 Bosra: De Vogue,
Syre centrale, pi. 5. Brlinnow and
frontispiece and pis. 11-15. Bieber, Denkmdler, pp. 62-64, Domaszewski, Provincia Arabia, in,47ff., pis. 50-51, figs.
fig.66, pis. 30-31. Caputo, in Dioniso, n.s., ix(1942), 12; 928-982. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., p. 95f., fig. 93. Durm,
x( 1947), 5-23. Baukunst der Romer, p. 652, fig. 728; pp. 661ff., figs. 737-
32
Sabratha: Giacomo Guidi, in Africa Italiana, ra(1930), 739. H. C. Butler, op.cit., p. 274f., figs. 241-242, pls."xrv-xv.
43 Es-Suhba: Briinnow und Domaszewski, op.cit., pp.
1-52, figs. 1-42, pis. i-ii; vi(1935),30ff. Giuseppe Caputo,

in Dioniso, i, No. 2, 1937 (publ. 1939), pp. 3ff., pis. i-vni. 169ff., pi. 52, figs. 1059-1067. Butler, Architecture and other
Giuseppe Gullini, in Bulletino delta Commisione archeo- Arts, pp. 390ff.,fig. 135. Fiechter, op.cit., p. 96, fig. 94. Cf.

logico, Bulletino del Museo dell Impero Romano, lxxi also, 95, Gerasa, with a similar straight scaenae
ibid., fig.

(1945), 21-34. Cf. also Mariani, "Del teatro Romano di frons. P. Coupel et E. Frezouls, Le theatre de Philippopolis
Sabratha al teatro Olympico di Vicenza," in Rivista Italiana en Arabie ( 1956).
44 Theater of Herodes Atticus: Stuart and Revett, Antiqui-
del Dramma, i,3, pp. 294-302. Caputo, II teatro di Sabratha.
Monografie di Archeologia libica III, Rome, L'Erma di ties of Athens, II, pis. i-n; III, pi. n; IV, pi. rv. Judeich,
Bretschneider, in the Press. Topographic von Athen, 2nd ed., pp. 326ff. Versakis, Ephem-
33 Christian Hiilsen, Das Septizonium des Septimius Seve- eris arch. (1912), pp. 161ff., pis. 8-12. Fiechter, Baugesch.
rus, 46th BerlWPr (1886). Giuseppe Spano, in Memorie Entw., pp. 88f., 122, 124, fig. 85; Fiechter, Dionysosthea-
della Accademia dei Lincei, cccxlvi( 1950), Serie vin, Vol. ter, m,80f., note 2, fig. 50. Bieber, Denkmdler, pp. 67f., No.
m,3, pp. 179ff., fig. 3. 18, fig. 72, pis. 34-35. Picard, L'Acropole d'Athenes, p. 82,
34 Leptis Magna: G. Caputo and Giorgio Levi della Vi- fig. 75, pis. 83-85. Broneer, AJA, xxxn( 1928),447ff.

da, "II teatro augusteo di Leptis Magna secondo le ultime

302
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER XIV
43 D-R, pp. 27-32. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 18f.,
82ff., figs. xxvi,6. Fiechter, op.cit., p. 91f., 87. Bieber, Denkmaler,
1
fig.
fig. Untersuchungen, pp. 16f., 19 and 80.
12, pis. 6-7. Bulle, pp. 34 and 36, fig. 36.

Fiechter, Theaterbauten, Hefte 5-7 and 9, Das Dionysos- 7

Niemann, Hcberdey, and Wilberg, Forschungen in
r'

theater, pp.
i, 31-42; pp. 62ff., figs. 53-55;
32ff., 41ff., figs. Ephcsos, n, Das Theater ; n Ephesos, pp. 30ff., figs. 3-4, 6-9,
p. 73f., figs. 61-63; in, pp. 25ff., figs. 13-16, pi. 11; pp. 56f., 15, 31, 57-99, pis. l-n, iv-ix. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., p.
78ff., figs. 45-49, pis. 22-23; iv, Nachtrage, pp. 17ff., fig. 90f., fig. 86 and p. 113f. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of
5, pis. 3-5. Schleif, in Arch.Anz., 52(1937), p. 26f., figs. 4- Ancient Greece (1951), pp. 308 and 311, fig. 113, pi.
5. A. von Gerkan, "Die neronischc Scaenae Frons des Dio- lxix,2. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, p. 254,
nysostheaters in Athen," in JdAI, 58 ( 1941 ) ,163ff., figs. 1-5. note 1, fig. 130. Hormann, in JdAI, 38/9( 1923/4 ),275ff.
Dinsmoor, Architecture of Ancient Greece, p. 309f. Flickin- Beilage vi-viii (reconstruction of the scaenae frons).
ger, Greek Theater, p. 72f., figs. 39-41. Pickard-Cambridge, 58 Th. Wiegand, "Dritter vorlaufiger Bericht iiber Milet,"

Theater of Dionysus, pp. 247ff., figs. 122-129. Ida Thallon in Sitzungsberichte, Berliner Akadcmic der Wissenschaften
Hill, The Ancient City of Athens ( 1953 ) pp. 113-124. A , (1904), pp. 76-85, figs. 2-6. A. von Gerkan, in Wiegand,
general view of die Graeco-Roman Athenian theater ean be Milet, n,3, Die Stadtmauern (1935), p. 88f., fig. 57. Noack,
seen on a coin of the second century a.i>.: British Museum Baukunst, p. 65, pi. 87. F. Kraus, in Bericht iiber den VI.
Cat. of Greek Coins, Attica, pi. xix, fig. 8. Internationalen Kongress fiir Archaologie (Berlin, 1939),
40 Bulle in Fiechter, Dionysosthcater, in,60ff., 41-43.
figs. pp. 387ff., pis. 36-37. Kraus is preparing a full publication.
IG, n.m9 No.
, 3182. 59 Termessus: Texier, Description d'Asie mineure, m, pis.
47 Das Athener Nationalmuseum (1908), pp.
Svoronos, 173-179. Lanckoronski, op.cit., n,92ff., figs. 50-55, pis. x-
232ff., 61-64 was the first to recognize the reliefs as
pis. xm. Chamonard, BCH, xxx( 1896),304ff. Dorpfeld, Ath.
those from an altar dedicated to Dionysus. Cook, Zeus, I Mitt., xxii ( 1897), 442ff., Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., pp.
pi. x.
( 1914),708ff., annexed pi. xl. Quilling, Die Jupitcrsaule des 60, 92f., figs. 59, 89. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 70f., fig. 75, pi.
Samus und Scvcrus, pp. 44, 143f., note 10, fig. on p. 144. 40,2. Bulle, Untersuchungen, p. 262, fig. 7, and pp. 267ff.
Picard, L'Acropolc, pp. 75ff., pi. 74. Graindor, Athenes sous Dinsmoor, Architecture of Ancient Greece, p. 309.
I lad ricn, p. 277; Graindor, Athenes de Tibere a Trajan, pp. 00 Sagalassus: Lanckoronski, op.cit., ii,152ff., figs. 127-
199ff. Herbig, in Fiechter, Dionysosthcater, n, Die Sktdptu- 137, pis. xxvi-xxx. Fiechter, op.cit., pp. 31, 60, 93f., 114,
ren, pp. 36ff., pis. 9-16. Josephine Shear, Hesperia, v(1936), figs. 60 and 90. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 71, figs. 76-77. Bulle,
324. These three authors date the reliefs in the period of op.cit., p. 267f.
Hadrian. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus, pp. 261ff., 61 Dorpfeld, xxn( 1897),439ff., especially pp.
Ath.Mitt.,
figs. 135-138; his figs. 133 and 134 do not belong to the Against his theory see Dinsmoor, The
442ff., figs. 1-2, pi. x.
bema reliefs, but to a big series of fragments found by me Architecture of Ancient Greece, p. 308, note 1, and p. 310,
in the storerooms of the Museum and recently by the Ameri- note 4.
can excavators on the Agora. 62 Aezani: Texier, op.cit., i, pis. 40-45. Caristie, Mon. ant.
48 G. Traversari, "Tetimimo e Colimbetra," in Dioniso, a Orange, pp. 55 and 66f., pi. xxxi and xliv, No. 5, fig. 4.
xra( 1950), 3-20. Gismondi, "Colimbetra di Ostia, in Anthe- Dunn, Baukunst der Griechen, p. 466f., fig. 420. Fiechter,
mon, Sritti in onore di Carlo Anti, pp. 293-308, pis. xxvin- Baugesch.Entw., p. 91f., fig. 88. Bieber, Denkmaler, p.
XXXI. 66f., figs. 70-71. Dinsmoor, Architecture of Ancient Greece,
49
Th. L. Shear, AJA, 32 ( 1928),447ff. Richard Stillwell, pp. 311 and 320.
Corinth, The Theatre, Results of Excavations conducted by 63 Pessinus: Caristie, op.cit.,
p. 66f., pi. xltv, fig. 3. Texier,
the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, n(1952), op.cit., i, 168, pi. 62. Durm, Baukunst der Griechen, p.
41-105, figs. 2, 4, 76-94, pis. i, vn, vmb. 494f., fig. 439. Dinsmoor, op.cit., p. 320.
50 Traversari, op.cit. in Dioniso, xin(1950). Cf. Ch. XV, 64 Butler, Syria, n,50ff., figs. 34-35. Lanckoronski, op.cit.,

Fig. 784. i,135 (L in plan of Aspendus, facing p. 128); n,43, 98-100,

si Sparta: Woodward, ABSA, 26 ( 1923-25 ), 11 9ff. 27 ; figs. 56-62, pi. xiv (Termessus); p. 134 (Sagalassus). Wuil-
( 1925-26 ),175f., pis. xxvu-xxx; 30 ( 1928-30 ),151ff. Bulle, leumier, Les Fouillcs de Fourviere (1952), pp. 6-10, figs.
Untersuchungen, pp. 108ff.; Bulle, "Das Theater in Sparta," 7-12. Formige, Le Theatre de Vienne, p. 10f., figs. 1 and 7.
in Sitzungsberichte der Bayr. Akad. d. Wiss. ( 1934, Heft 65 Homer A. Thompson, "The Odeion in the Athenian

5), pp. Iff., pis. 1-3. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of An- Agora," Hesperia, xix( 1950),31-141, figs. 1-21, pis. 16-80.
cient Greece, pp. 307f., 310. 66 Wiegand, Milet, i,2, Knackfuss, Das Rathaus von Milet
52 Stobi: E. Weigand, Arch. Jahrb., xxix ( 1914),37ff.; (1908), pp. 25ff., figs. 1-88, pis. i-xrv. Corrections in i,
Weigand, Wiener Jahrb. fiir Kunstgeschichte, v( 1928),71ff. 7(1924), 279f. Durm, Die Baukunst der Griechen, p. 544f.,
Saria, in Arch. Anz., liii( 1938),71ff. Dinsmoor, op.cit., p. fig. 494. Dinsmoor, Architecture of Ancient Greece, p. 296f.,

310. Bulle, Das Theater in Sparta, p. 46f., note 2. fig. 109. Thompson, op.cit., p. 90, pi. 41. D. S. Robertson,
53 Collard, "Le Theatre de Philippes," BCH,
lii(1928), A Handbook of Greek and Roman Architecture (2nd ed.,
74ff., pis. n-v; Collard, Philippes. Villes de Macedoine 1943), pp. 178ff., figs. 79-80.
(1937). 67 Wiegand and Schrader, Priene, pp. 219ff., figs. 210-
54 Magnesia: Dorpfeld, Ath.Mitt., xix( 1894 pis. 223. Schede, Ruinen von Priene, pp. 63ff., fig. 76. Dinsmoor,
) ,65ff.,
1-4. D-R, pp. 153ff. Puchstein, Griech. Btihne, pp. 59ff., op.cit., p. 295f., fig. 108. D. S. Robertson, op.cit., p. 176f.,
figs. 13-14. Bulle, Untersuchungen, pp. 261ff., fig. 6a-b. figs. 78 and 84, pi. vn.
(Our Fig. 730 is his fig. 6b). Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., 68 W. A. McDonald, The Political Meeting Places of the

pp. 21, 60, 72f., 91, figs. 25 and 58. Dinsmoor, Architecture Greeks (1943). The Johns Hopkins University Studies in
of Ancient Greece, p. 250. Archeology, No. 34(1942), pp. 170ff., pi. rv (Athens); pp.
55 Kern, in Ath.Mitt., xix( 1894 ) ,96ff. Kern, Inschriften
; 87ff., figs. 9-10, pi. vi(Priene); pp. 21 Iff., figs. 22-23, pi.
von Magnesia, No. 88. Pickard-Cambridge, Theater of Dio- xrv Caputo, Anthcmon, Scritti in onore di
(Miletus). C.
nysus, p. 243f. Carlo Anti, pp. 280ff., p. 289, fig. 1 ( bouleuterion of Ptole-
36 Th. Wiegand,
in Wiegand-Schrader, Priene, Ergebnisse mais), pi. xxvn ( ecclesiasterion of Cyrene).
der Ausgrabungen, pp. 253ff., figs. 254-257. A. von Gerkan, 69 Lanckoronski, op.cit., n,98ff., figs. 56-62, pi. xrv.

Das Theater von Priene, pp. 50, 57f., 83ff., figs. 9-10, pi. 70 Durm, Baukunst der Romer,
p. 665f., figs. 740-741.

303
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTERS XIV AND XV
Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., p. 85f., fig. 74. Carducci, "Teatri 82 Herbig, in Fiechter, Theaterbauten, Das Dionysosthea-
del Piemonte Romano," in Dioniso, vi( 1937-38), 297-303, ter in Athen, n,14f., pi. 5, 1-2. Bieber, Denkmciler, p. 18f.,
with 8 figures. Rosi, "II teatro di Aosta," in Rivista Italiana pis. 6-7.
del Dramma, i( 1937 ), Iff. Raissa de Chirico (Calza) in Arch. 83 Stuart
Jones, Sculptures of the Palazzo dei Conservatori,
Anz., 52(1937),350ff., has about 3500 seats. Lugli,
fig. 1. It p. 104, Giardino, No. 104, pi. 87.
in Archeologia classica, i( 1949), 158, pi. xlvi,2. 84
Greifenhagen, in Rdm.Mitt., 45( 1930), 156f., fig. 8.
71 Walden, The Universities 85
of Ancient Greece, pp. 83ff. Herbig, op.cit., p. 9f., fig. 1, pi. i.
Oliver, in Hesperia, m( 1934),191ff. 86 Herbig, op.cit.,
pp. 10ff., figs. 3-9, pis. 2-4. Pickard-
72 Kavvadias in Praktika Cambridge, Theater of Dionysus, p. 263f., fig. 141.
of the Arch. Society (1904), pi.
A'. Durm, Baukunst der Griechen, p. 489f., fig. 434; cf. p. 87 Herbig, op.cit,
p. 16, figs. 13-14, pi. 6. Pickard-Cam-
498f., figs. 441-442. bridge, op.cit., p. 263, figs. 139-140.
73 Lanckoronski, op.cit., i,70f., 88 Broneer, Corinth, The
p. 90, plan of Sylleum, fig. Odeum, pp. 117-123, figs. 111-
51K. 113, pis. xv-xvr. Broneer, AJA, 32(1928), 466-468, fig. 8,
74 Oscar Rroneer, in A]
A, 32 ( 1928),447ff., pis. vr-vn; pi. VI.
Rroneer, Corinth, x, The Odeum. 89 Homer Thompson,op.cit., p. 78, S 531, pi. 51.
75 Luigi M. Ugolini, in Dioniso, m( 1931-32), 7-12, figs. 1-
90 Stillwell,
Antioch-on-the-Orontes, n( 1938 ) ,173f., Nos.
4; Ugolini, II teatro di Butrinto, in Albania antica, Vol. rv. 161-168, pis. 13-14; cf. BrBr, pis. 731-732. Joseph Sautel,
I owe the photograph for Fig. 750 to the kindness of Sig- Vaison rlans VAntiquite (1926), n,198, No. 412 m, pi.
nor Ugolini. xlix, masks of a tragic hero and a heroine. Paul Collart,
76 Pernier, in Annuario dclla R. Scuola di Archeologia di BCH, 52(1928),92ff., figs. 9-10, masks as decorations in
Atene, vm-ix( 1925-26), Iff., pi. 5. Philippi and other theaters.
77
Heberdey, JOAI, xv(1912), Beiblatt, pp. 167ff., figs. 01 See above, notes 82-84
for satyrs. Picard, in Anthemon,
132-133. Keil, Fiihrer durch Ephesos, p. 92f., figs. 53-54. pp. 273-280, pi. xxrv for caryatids.
78 Butler, Syria, n, A, 34-35. 92 Sautel, Le theatre de Vaison
p. 50f., figs. J. (1951), p. 4ff., figs.
79 Lanckoronski, op.cit., n, and 125,
99, 101, fig. 59. Cf. 1, 4, 7, 8, 23.
for other Odea in Pamphilia and Pisidia, ibid, see above, 93 Bulle, Untersuchungen, p. 259. Leveque, BCH, 75
Figs. 745-746, note 64. (1951 ),247ff., pis. xxvn-xxix; Fouilles de Delphes, rv, pi.
80 Bieber, in AJA, 58(1954), 280ff., pi. 54, figs. 12-15. Lxxn. These friezes in Delphi, formerly dated in the Hel-
81 Rodenwaldt, Die Kunst der Antike, pi. 482. Napp, lenistic period, now are rightly put in the early second
Bukranion und Guirlande, Diss., Heidelberg (1930), p. 6. century a.d. The friezes in Corinth will be published by
Cf. the altar from Ostia, above, note 3, and from Aries, Edward Capps, Jr.
Strong, Roman Sculpture, pi. xix.

NOTES TO CHAPTER XV. PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE • SENECA

1 Friedliinder, Sittengeschichte (9th ed.), n,lff.,10ff.,21ff., Skenika, pp. 18ff., fig. 12; and Denkmciler, p. 117, No. 50,
50ff.,77ff.,92ff.,112ff. ; Drexel, ibid. (10th ed.), iv,205ff., pi. 57. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 190, fig. 76. Bieber
268ff.; A. B. Gough, Roman Life and Manners under the in Rdm.Mitt. 60/61(1953/54), p. 102f., pi. 35,2.
Early Empire (1913), translated from Friedlander, Sitten- 9 Helbig, op.cit., No. 1465. Naples, No. 9039. Ruesch,
geschichte, in 4 vols., Freese and Magnus in 3 vols., n,lff. Guida, No. 1802. Bieber, Skenika, p. 20f., fig. 14; and
(circus, 19ff.; amphitheater, 40ff.; gladiatorial games, 41ff.; Denkmciler, p. 117, No. 51, pi. 58. Pickard-Cambridge,
animal baitings, 62ff.; naumachiae, 74ff.; theater, 90ff.; Cf. Festivals, fig. 77. Rizzo, op.cit., pi. cxlvhi. Richardson, in
also Appendix, pp. 148ff.; 255). Albert Muller, "Das Biihnen- MAAR, xxxm(1955),153f., pi. li,1.
wesen in der Zeit von Constantin dem Grossen bis Jus- 10 See Ch. VIII, fig. 383. Bieber, Skenika,
p. 19f., fig. 13;
tinian," in NJb, 12(1909),36ff. J. W. Duff, A Literary His- and Denkmciler, p. 158, No. 131, pi. 90.1. Pickard-Cam-
tory of Rome in the Silver Age, from Tiberius to Hadrian bridge, Festivals, p. 201f., fig. 96.
11 E. Loewy, in JdAI, xxxxrv(
(1927), pp. 157ff., 247ff. Habel, in Real-Enc. s.v. Ludi 1929), 102f., pi. i. Rizzo,
publici, Supplement, Vol. v, pp. 608ff. La Pittura Ellenistico -Romano (1929), p. 15, pi. xxv, F.
2
Birt in Dieterich, Pulcinella, pp. 290-301. Wirth, Romische Wandmalcrci (1934), p. 33, pis. 4-5. Spi-
3 Beyen, Pompejanische Wanddekoration, 23 nazzola, Arti decorative in Pompei, pi. 119. Pickard-Cam-
p. 141, fig.

( Boscoreale ) . Naples, Museo nazionale, Nos. 9804-6, 9838, bridge, Theatre of Dionysus, p. 232, fig. 115.
9850, 9898. 12 Helbig, Wandgemalde, No. 1333. Herrmann, Denkmaler
4 Mon. Inst., xi, pis. 30-32; Maas, AdI (1881), pp. 109ff. der Malcrei, 115-116. Rizzo, op.cit., pis. 77-78. O. Elia,
pis.
Bieber, Denkmciler, pp. 115ff., No. 49, figs. 112-114; and Le Pitture della Casa del Citarista, in Monumenti dclla
Skenika, p. 8, fig. 3. Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 189f., pittura antica scoperti in Italia, m, Pompeii, I, pis. A and
figs. 72-75. Dieterich, Pidcinella, pis. i-m. M. Bieber, "War- vi. M. Gabriel, Masters of Pompeian Painting, pis. 25-26.
den die Tragodien des Seneca in Rom aufgefiihrt?" in Rom. Richardson, "The Casa dei Dioscuri and its Painters," in
Mitt., 60/61(1953/54), 103, 37,2 and 38.1. pis. MAAR, xxm(1955), 136, pi. xxxrv.
5 Maiuri, Notizie degli Scavi 13
Cube, "Romische Scaenae frons in den pompejanischen
(1929), pp. 404ff., figs. 29
and 31, pis. xxm-xxrv. Rizzo, La Pittura Ellenistico-Romana Wandbildern IV. Stils," in Beitrage zur Bauwisscnschaft,
p. 68, pi.cxLvn. Bieber, op.cit., pi. 37,1. vi( 1906),28ff., pis. n-vn. Fiechter, Baugesch.Entw., pp.
6
See Ch. VIII, Fig. 395. Replica from Herculaneum in 106ff., figs. 104-106. Bieber, Denkmciler, pp. 77ff., Nos. 24-
Naples, Museo Nazionale, Inv. No. 9037, Ruesch, Guida, 26, figs. "81-83, pi. 41. Friend, in Art Studies, vn(1929),9,
No. 1803. 17ff.,27f., pi. xn, fig. 39. Beyen, Die pompejanische Wand-
7
Dieterich, Pulcinella, pp. Iff., 182ff., pis. n-rrr. Robert, dekoration, i(1938),126f., figs. 44-45. A.M.G. Little, "A Ro-
Masken, pp. 18f., 24f., 36, 63, 70, figs. 39, 53-54, 61, 86, 88. man Sourcebook for the Stage," AJA, 60( 1956),28ff., pis.
8 Helbig, Wandgemaldc Campanicns, No. 1467. Bieber, 21-22.

304
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER XV
u J. W. Duff, A Literary History of Rome in the Silver figs. 2ff. ;
26. Pace in Anthemon, pp. 312-317,
pp. 323ff., fig.

Age, from Tiberius to Hadrian (1937), pp. 247ff. Best Eng- pi. xxxii. A. W. van
Buren, AJA, 56( 1952), 139, pi. 23B. G.
lish prose translation by F. J. Miller, The Loeb Classical Falzoni in Le Vie d'ltalia ( 1951 ), pp. 88-93. B. Pace, I Mo-
Library (1929), 2 vols., with useful comparative analysis of saici di Piazza Armerina (1955), pp. 77-91, pis. xrv-xvi (in
the difference in plot and structure between the Greek plays color). Gentili, The Imperial Villa of Piazza Amerina ( 1956).
and their Senecan descendants. Duckworth, The Complete Traversari, Memorie della Accademia Patavina, lxix ( 1956-
Roman Drama, 2 vols. (1943), Introduction, i, xxxviff. T. S. 7), 3-14,figs. 1-6. Traversari explains the girls as athletes, the
Eliot, Introduction to Seneca, His Tenne Tragedies, Tudor "umbrella" as the wheel of a circus chariot.
translations (1927). M. Hadas, A History of Latin Litera- 28 Pickard-Cambridgc, Festivals,
pp. 306-315.
ture (1952), pp. 248ff. Bieber, Rdm.Mitt., 60/61(1953/4), 29 Giacomo Guidi, Africa Italiana, m( 1930),29ff., figs. 25-

pp. 100-106, pis. 35-41. Mendell, Our Seneca, p. 88, and 26 and 40; cf. pp. 2ff., fig. 1.
Beare, The Roman Stage, pp. 226f., believe that Seneca 30 See also Juvenal, Satire VI, vv. 41-44. R. W. Reynolds,

wrote his tragedies for recitation only, not for production "Adultery Mime," CQ, xl( 1946), 77-84.
on the stage. 31 Pacho, Relations d'un voyage dans la Marmarique, La
15 Ficoroni, De Larvis Scenicis,
p. 102, pi. lxxix. Wie- Cijr&naique, etc., pis. 49-50. Wieseler, Theatergeb dude, p.
seler, Theatergebdude und Denkmaler des Biihnenwesens, 99f., pi. xm,2. Piekard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus,
p. 110, No. 24, suppl. pi. A, No. 24. Messerschmidt, "Trago- p. 245, fig. 120.
dienszenen auf romischen Lampen." Rdm.Mitt. 44(1929), 32 Lippold in Arndt-Amelung, Einzelaufnahmen ant. Skulp-
40-42, pi. 7b. Fig. 779 from Phot. Faraglia with the permis- turen, No. 2366. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 120f., No. 55, pi.
sion of the directors of the Museo Nazionale Romano. Bie- 59,3.
ber, Rdm.Mitt., 60/61(1953/4), p. 103f., pi. 36,2. 33 Vatican, Ambulacra superiore del Nuovo Ingresso. A.
16 Arndt, Portrdts, pi. 1200. Bliimel, Katalog Berlin, R6- L. Millin, Description d'une mosa'ique du Musee Pio-Cle-
mischc Bildnisse, p. 44, R 106. mentine a Rome, representant des scenes de tragedies
17 Sala delle Muse No. 516. Helbig-Amelung, Fiihrer (1829). Wieseler, Denkmaler, pp. 48ff., pis. vn-vin. Nogara,
durch Rom, 3rd ed., No. 263. Lippold, Skulpturen des Vati- Mosaici del Vaticano, pp. 27ff., pis. 56-66. Amelung, Skulpt.
caniscJien Museums, m,i, pp. 60ff., pis. 6-7. Vat. Mus., ii, 401ff. Helbig, Fiihrer dnrch Rom, 3rd ed., by
18 Cohen, Medailles imperials, 2nd ed., i, No. 197. Rizzo, Amelung, 1,116. Bieber, Denkmaler, pp. 118ff., No. 54, figs.
in Bulletino comunale di Roma, lx(1933),59. 115-116, pi. 60. Piekard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 190, figs.
19 Suetonius, Nero, liv; Macrobius, Sat., v, 17.5. 78a-h.
20
Duff, op.cit., p. 273f. Miller, op.cit., n,401ff. 34 A. Pasqui, in Notizie degli Scavi (1906), pp. 357ff.,
21
U. Ciotti, "Rilievo romano a plutei medioevali ritro- 368f., figs. 10-11. Bieber, Skenika, 75. BerlWPr (1915), pp.
vati a Castel S. Elia," in Bolletino d'Arte, Serie IV, Vol. 35 3ff., pi. and Denkmaler, p. 118, No. 52, pi. 59,1. Piekard-
i,

(1950), Iff., figs. 1,5. C. Anti, "Rilievo teatrale Romano de Cambridge, Festivals, p. 187, fig. 65. Raissa Calza, II Museo
Castel S. Elia," in Beitrage zur lilteren europdischen Kultur- di Ostia, p. 17. Maria Squarciapino, "Forme Ostienes,"
geschichte, I, Festschrift fiir Rudolf Egger, (1952), pp. Archaeologica classica, vi( 1954 ) ,83-99, pi. xvm. The moulds
189-205, figs. 1-2. with circus plays: Notizie (1906), pp. 359ff., figs. 1-3;
22 Cf. for the pantomime: Albizzati, "Pantomimus" in Squarciapino, pi. xviii,6, xix,l-2. Animal baitings: Notizie,
Rendiconti dclla Pontificia Accademia Romana, v( 1926/27: pp. 362ff., figs. 4-8; Squarciapino, pi. xix,3-6. Single ani-
1928), pp. 27ff., pi. i c. Butler, Post-Augustan Poetry, pp. mals: Notizie, p. 370f., figs. 12-15; Squarciapino, pi. xx,l-6.
26ff. Weege, Der Tanz, pp. 104f., 156ff. Louis Robert, "Pan- I cannot accept her assumption that the moulds served for
tomimen im griechischen Orient," Hermes, lxv( 1930) ,106ff. wax ex-votos.
Robert deals with inscriptions of pantomimes in Greece 35
Drexel, "Crustulum et mulsum," Romisch-germanisches
and Asia Minor, which, in his opinion, prove that the panto- Korrespondenzblatt, ix( 1916),17ff.
mime is of Greek origin. I interpret them as a proof of the 36 British Museum
Catalogue of Terracottas, E70. Athens,
Roman influence penetrating the Greek East as early as the Agora Excavations, No. T 2404, L. 0.08. Found in a
Inv.
period of Sulla. E. Wiist, s.v. "Pantomimus" in Real-Enc, burnt layer in front of the Middle Stoa. Will be published
xvra,3(1949),847ff. by Claireve Grandjouan in the Agora Publication Roman
23 Sandrart, Teutsche Academic, n,1679, second part, p. Terracottas.
14, pi. n,l. Dutschke, Antike Bildwerke in Oberitalien, m, 37 Bieber, Skenika, pi. lb; and Denkmaler, p. 118, No.
166f., No. 335. It belongs to the late Antonine period. The 53, pi. 59,2. Messerschmidt, RomMitt. 44 (1929), 39, pi. 7a.
tombstone of another choraules with the name of Ruphus, Squarciapino, op.cit., p. 118, pi. 59b.
of the third century, born in Mylasa in Asia Minor, found in 38 Dresden, formerly Museum Albertinum, Katalog der

Cologne, has been erected by his relative Dionysius Asclepi- Skulpturen, p. 2600. Mus. No. L 373. Stamped avcend, see
ades from Alexandria. Klinkenberg, Kunstdenkmdler der CIL, xv, 6326. Cf. for the same potter Walters,-Cafa Togue of
Stadt Koln, i, parts 1-2. Das romische Koln, p. 285. Lamps in the British Museum, No. 527, which was found
24 Base for Aurelius Apolaustus in the garden
court of in the harbor of Alexandria.
the Museo Nazionale Romano delle Terme. R. Paribeni, Le 39 M
on. Inst., xi, pi. xm. Collection Dutuit (1897), No.
Terme di Diocleziano (4th ed., 1922), No. 439. Base for 126, pi. 114. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 122, No. 59, pi. 62,2.
Aurelius Pylades in Naples, Museo Nazionale No. 121523. Petit Palais Mus. No. 181. Piekard-Cambridge, Festivals,
New Guida Ruesch, No. 8. p. 187, fig. 66. For the fact that this costume is by no means
25 Strygowski,
"Hellenistische und Koptische Kunst in that of the actors of the fifth century, see James Turney Al-
Alexandrien," Bulletin de la Societe d'Alexandrie, v(1902), len, CO, i (1907), 226-228.
53f. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 125f., No. 70, pi. 63,2. Delbriick, 40 Casa della Gran Fontana.
Maiuri, Pompeji, p. 64. Ippel,
Consular-Diptychen, pp. 29, 36ff., 67ff. Allardyce Nicoll, Pompeji, pp. 109 and 111, fig. 102. Spinazzola, Arti decora-
Masks, Mimes and Miracles (1931), p. 132, fig. 97. tive in Pompei, pi. 194 (illustration of the fountain).
26 Traversari in Dioniso,
N.S., xm( 1950), 18ff., xv(1952), 41 Mendel, Sculptures du Musee de Constantinople, n,87f.,

3ff. No. 328; BCH, xxvm (1904), 71, pi. vi.

27 G. V. Gentili in Notizie degli Scavi (1950), pp. 291ff., 42 Nogara, Mosaici del Vaticano e Laterano,
pp. 3ff., pis.

305
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER XV
5-6. Helbig (3rd ed., by Amelung), Fiihrer durch Rom, n, mus," Philologus (1903), pp. 35ff. E. Wust, s.v. "Mimos"
49f., No. 1231. in Real-Enc, xv,2( 1932),1727ff. Warnecke, ibid., pp. 1749E.
43 Bieber, Rdm.Mitt., 60/61(1953/54), 102, pi. 36, 1. Boissier, in Daremberg-Saglio, s.v. "Mimus," m,1903ff.
44 Louvre, Salle d'Afrique, No. 1836. Heron de Villefosse,
Friedlander, Sittengeschichte, n,113ff. Friedlander, trans-
Musee Africain du Louvre, p. 6, pi. x,4. Musee de I'Algerie lated by Gough-Freese-Magnus, Roman Life and Manners,
et de la Tunisie, p. 14. n,91ff. Nicoll, Masks, Mimes and Miracles, pp. 47ff., 83ff.,
4r>
Calza, II teatro Romano di Ostia, fig. on p. 32; Calza, 136f. Beare, op.cit., pp. 138ff., 229, and 304ff. The Oxyrhyn-
Capitolium, v( 1927), 81ff., fig. on p. 84. chus mime printed and translated in his Appendix L is
46 Berlin, Beschreibung der antiken Skulpturen 1891 ), p. ( particularly sordid in subject-matter and indecent in lan-
342, No. 857. Cf. masks over garlands: J. Toynbee, The Ha- guage.
drianic School, pp. 205-210, pis. xlui,2-3; xlv,1-3. 66 Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 177, No. 189, pi. 108,4. Nicoll,
47 Duckworth, The Complete Roman Drama, n,891ff.
op.cit., p. 47, fig. 33. Other similar figures wearing loin-
48
Maiuri, Ercolano, p. 43f., pi. xx, fig. 35. cloth and cap only, see Dieterich figures on pp. 143, 160f.,
49
A. Adriani, "Minturno. Catalogo delle sculture negli and 181. Nicoll, op.cit., p. 19, fig. 2, and p. 79, fig. 77. Zahn,
anni 1931-1933," Notizie degli Scavi, (1938), p. 193, No.
Kto-Chro, Glasierter Tonbecher im Berliner Antiquarium,
39, fig. 23.
81. Winckelmanns-Programm, Berlin (1923), pp. 6 and 9,
50 Amelung, Skulpt. Vat. Mus., n,725a. Helbig, op.cit.,
fig. 2, pis. n-m. Weege, Der Tanz, p. 11, fig. 9, and
p. 158f. Nogara, Mosaici, pp. 16ff., pi. 28. pp.
51 Vatican, Galleria Geographica, No. 890. Pistolesi, 7/
168ff., fig. 238. T. L. Shear, A]A, 42( 1938 ),7f., fig. 8b;
Lehmann, ibid., p. 83, pi. xv Goldman, A/A, xlvti
B. Hetty
Vaticano, vi, pi. cn. Lippold, Skulpt. Vat. Mus., ni,2, pp.
478f., No. 47, pi. 213. Gisela Krien, "Die Angleichung der (1943),22ff., and Tarsus, i,349, No. 318, pi. 237. Bendi-
tragischen und komischen Theatermasken in der spatromi- nelli, Le Pitture del Colombario di Villa Pamphili, in Monu-
schen Zeit," in Maske und Kothurn, Vierteljahrsschrift fur menti delta Pittura antico in Italia, m, fasc. V. Maiuri, in
Theaterwissenschaft, Universitat Wien, i( 1955 ) ,82f., fig. 4. Rdm.Mitt., 60-61 ( 1953-54), 92-99, pis. 31,2-3; 32-33.
67 Bieber, Denkmaler,
G. Krien emphasizes the fact that, in the late Roman period, p. 177, No. 188, pi. 108,5. Nicoll,
tragic as well as comic masks were adapted to the Roman op.cit., p. 47, fig. 31.

inclination for pathos, exaggerated stylization and decora- 68 Milani, Museo archeologico di Firenze, n,30,
pi. 140,3.
tive usage. Therefore, the sharp division between tragic Dieterich, Pulcinella, p. 169. Reisch, Mimus, i,258. Nicoll,
and comic masks of the classical Greek period was disre- op.cit., p. 91.
garded. 69
See Reisch, Mimus, pp. 448 and 579. Dieterich, op.cit.,
"Bieber, Skenika, 75th BerlWPr (1915), 9f., pi. n.
pp. 153ff. Nicoll, op.cit., p. 88.
53 Bruckner, in Skenika, 75th BerlWPr (1915), pp. 32ff., 70 Lillian M. Wilson, The Clothing
of the Ancient Ro-
pis. rv-vi. mans, pp. 87-92, figs. 52-54, pis. xjlvi-xlvii.
54 Benndorf, Archaologischc Beitrage zur Kenntnis des 71 Our vm( 1939), 243, fig. 45.
Fig. 827: Shear, Hespcria,
Theaters, pp. 36ff. Bieber, Denkmaler, p. 85f., figs. 89-90.
See Johannes Schmidt s.v. Telesphoros I in Roscher, Lexikon
Pickard-Cambridge, Festivals, p. 274f., fig. 206, Nos. 9-10.
r
der Mythologie, Vol. v, pp. 309ff., figs. 1-10. The mimes
5
Rizzo, 7/ teatro greco di Siracusa, pp. 46ff. Anti, Teatro
• '

from the Agora will be published by Claireve Grandjouan

antico di Siracusa, p. 88. 7G, xrv, 3.
56 Dieterich, Pulcinella,
in die Agora Publication Roman Terracottas. I owe the
pp. 150ff. Gisela Richter, Bronzes
photographs for our Figs. 827-828 to Miss Lucy Talcott.
of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, pp. 81ff., No. 127; 72 Mus. No. 2321.
A. Milani, op.cit., 30, pi. 140, 2. Dieter-
Richter, A] A, xvn( 1913 ) ,149ff., pis. v-vi; Richter, Hand-
ich, op.cit., fig. on p. 166; cf. p. 171f.
book of the Classical Collection (1930), p. 196f., fig. 135;
73 Bieber, "Mima saltatricula,"
Handbook of the Greek Collection (1953), p. 126, fig. 105a. AJA, 43 ( 1939), 640-644,
fig. 1. Now in the Art Museum, Princeton University.
A.. Nicoll, Masks, Mimes, and Miracles, p. 48, fig. 32.
74 Berlin, Mus. No. 8327. Furtwangler, in Arch. Anz.,
57 Bonn, Rheinisches Landesmuseum No. 15752. Lehner,

Fiihrer durch das Provinzialmuseum (1915), p. 68. Bieber, vni ( 1893), 95, No. 23. Koster, Die griechischen Terrakotten,
Denkmaler, p. 174, No. 183, pi. 108,3. Nicoll, op.cit., p. 72, p. 89f., pi. 101.
fig. 70.
75 Louvre Ma 501. Clarac pi. 113, 3= S. Reinach, Re-
58 Diitschke, in Bonner Jahrhiicher, 78 ( 1884 ) ,126ff. pertoire de la Statuaire, i,3, fig. 3. Large parts of the curtain
59 Bieber, JdAl, 32 ( 1917),72ff. are restored.
so
Bieber, JdAl, 32 ( 1917), 76, fig. 42. Louvre Ma 3192-3. I owe the photographs for Figs.
76
61 G. Richter, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Greek,
831-832 to the kindness of the Director of Antiquities
Etruscan, and Roman Bronzes (1915), p. 138, No. 276. in the Louvre, Professor Charbonneaux.
62 Landesmuseum Bonn No. 2877. Museum Wallraf- 77 R. Delbriick, Die Consular-Diptychen
(1929), pp. 78ff.;
Richartz, Cologne, No. 3851. Diitschke, Bonner Jahrbiicher, Dieterich, Pulcinella, p. 220f. Nicoll, Masks, Mimes and
78( 1884), 126f., pi. n. Lehner, Fiihrer durch das Provinzial- Miracles, pp. 135ff.
museum (1915), p. 67f. Klinkenberg, Die Kunstdenkmalcr 78 Inventory No. Byzanz 85/11. Delbriick, op.cit., p. 280f.,
der Stadt Koln, i,l, p. 371f., fig. 180, pi. cxna; cf. p. 259.
pi. N53.
Bieber, JdAl, 32( 1917 ) ,72ff., figs. 40-41; Bieber, Denk- 79 Dieterich, op.cit., fig. on p. 221. Delbriick, op.cit., pp.
maler, p. 174f., Nos. 184-185, pi. 108,1-2. Nicoll, Masks,
78f., 131f., No. 21.
Mimes and Miracles, p. 70, figs. 66-67. 80 Delbriick, op.cit.,
63 The reconstruction, Fig. 823 has been made in the pp. 79 and 125f., N. 18. Nicoll,
Masks, pp. 142ff., fig. 99. H. Peirce and R. Tyler, L'Art
Museum of Mainz. I owe the photograph to Professor Behn,
now in Leipzig.
Byzantine (1934), n, pi. 13c.
64 Historical Museum in Frankfurt, No. 83. The theater
81 Delbriick, op.cit.,
pp. 127ff., figs. 1-2 20. Peirce- N
in Heddernheim was destroyed in a.d. 120. Tyler, op.cit., n, pi. 30a. A. Nicoll, op.cit., frontispiece.
65 Ribbeck, Comicorum Romanorum Fragmenta (3rd ed.,
82 Delbriick, op.cit, pp. 79 and 126f. 19. N
1898), pp. 339-385. R. Herzog, "Zur Geschichte des Mi- 83 Delbriick, op.cit.,
pp. 75-78, N
9-12, 20, 21, 58, 60.

306
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTERS XV AND XVI
84 On gladiatorial fights, see Friedlander, Sittengeschichte, pp. 87ff., figs. 76-83. The drawings of the now destroyed
ii, 9th ed., pp. 9th ed., pp. 258ff.; translated by
50ff.; iv, paintings were made by Josephine Shear-Harwood.
Gough and Freese-Magnns, Roman Life and Manners, n, 89 Cf. D-R, pis. in and x. Bulle, Untersuchungen,
pp. 19
41ff.; rv,166ff. and 80. Fiechter, Diontjsostheater i,61; ni,82. ,

On 90 Stillwell, Corinth, n, The Theater,

85 animal baiting, see: Friedlander, op.cit., n,77ff.; pp. 84-98, pi. vnB.
iv,268ff., trans, by Gough and Freese-Magnus, n,62ff.; iv, C. W. Blegen, Troy, i(1950), fig. 122. For other theaters
181fiF. Delbriick, op.cit., pp. 75ff., HOff., pis. N 9-12, 20, the orchestra of which was made into an arena: Stobi, Phi-
21, 37, 57-8, 60. lippi, and Kourion on the island of Cyprus, see Stillwell,
86 Museo teatrale alia Seala in Milano, Mus. No. 123. For- op.cit., p. 96.
merly in the Collection theatrale de Jules Sambon. Cf. 01 On naval show battles ( naumachiae ) see Friedlander,
,

Rohdcn-Winnefeld, Terrakotta-Reliefs dcr rbmischen Kai- Sittengeschichte, n,92ff., trans, by Gough and Freese-Mag-
serzeit, p. 312; others, ibid., p. 141f., and 276f., pi. lxxiv. nus, n,74ff.
Cf. also the marble relief, Torlonia, Man. Inst., ill, pi. G. Traversari, Dioniso, xm( 1950), 18ff., and xv(1952),
92

xxxvin. 3ff.,figs. 2-3. Traversari, "Venationes con bestie di terra e

87 On circus races, cf. Saglio in Daremberg-Saglio, Dic- d'acqua in bacini occasionali e tcatrali," Atti delta Academia
tionnaire des Antiquites, i,2( 1887 ) ,1187-1201. Friedliinder, Patavina di scienze, Lettcre et Arti, lxv( 1952-53 ) ,3ff. For
op.cit., n.21-50. F. G. Moore, The Roman's World, pp. 138- the water basin in Corinth, see Stillwell, op.cit., p. 98, fig.
143. Delbriick, op.cit., p. 74f. 6 and 56. N 84, pi. iv.
ss Shear, A] xxx 93 Cf. Friedlander and Gough,
A, xxix( 1925),382ff., figs. 1-4; ibid., op.cit., passim. Delbriick,
(1926),440ff., figs. 4-7. Stillwell, Corinth, n ; The Theater, op.cit., pis. N 9, 37, 58, 60.

NOTES TO CHAPTER XVI. THE INFLUENCE OF THE ANCIENT THEATER ON THE

MODERN THEATER
1
C. C. Coulter, the "Terentian Comedies of a Tenth Our Seneca (Yale University Press, 1941), pp. 189-200.
Century Nun," Classical Journal, 24(1928-29), 515-529. Highet, pp. 207-209. Bieber, Rdm.MiU., 60/61(1953/
op.cit.,
2
For mediaeval Terence manuscripts see Ch. XI, Figs. 54), 106. Sheldon Cheney, The Theatre (New York, 1935),
559-561, note 27. p. 181f.
3 Tunison, Dramatic Traditions in the Dark Ages, 12
Newton, The Tenne Tragedies, 1581, republished by
J. S.
Chicago, 1907. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage, Oxford, T. Eliot, Seneca, His Tenne Tragedies, with an intro-
S.
1903. Hermann Reisch, Die altestcn herufsmiissigen Dar- duction (London, 1927).
stcller des griechisch-italischen Mimus, 1897; idem, Der Mi- 13 Kernodle,From Art to Theater, pp. 160ff., fig. 48. Ni-
mus, 1903. Horowitz, Spuren griechischcr Mimen im Ori- coll, World Drama, p. 178f.
ent, Berlin, 1903. 14
Furttenbach, Architectura recreationes (1640), pp. 64-
4 G.
Jacob, Geschichte des Schattentheaters, 2nd ed., 70, pis. 22-23. Hammitzsch, Der moderne Theaterbau I.
Hanover, 1924; Jacob, Karagoz, Tiirkische Schattenspiele, Der hofische Theaterbau (Berlin, 1907), p. 30, fig. 13. Ker-
edited, translated, and explained by Hellmut Ritter (1924), nodle, op.cit., pp. 107f., 183f. Vignola, Le due regole delta
i, pis. 1-8. prospcttiva pratica (1583).
5
Smith, The Commedia dell'Arte, New York, 1912.
W. 15 Highet, op.cit., p. 129f. Allardyce Nicoll, World Drama
P. L. Duchartre, La comedie italienne, Paris, 1924; Constant from Aeschylus to Anouilh, pp. 254ff. Hammitzsch, Der mo-
Mic, La Commedia dell' Arte, Paris, 1927. Dieterich, Pulci- derne Theaterbau I. Der hofische Theaterbau, pp. 57ff., fig.
nella, pp. 233ff. Allardyce Nicoll, Masks, Mimes and Mira- 32 (Swan Theater); fig. 33 (Red Bull, 1662).
cles, pp. 83ff., 135ff, 290ff. idem, World Drama from 16 Kernodle in a letter of 1943 pointed out to me the
;

Aeschylus to Anouilh, p. 197f. Mario Apollonia, "Arlechino," possibility that the facade and rear balcony of the type of
in Enciclopedia dello Spcttacolo (Roma, 1954), i,3-9, pis. the Assteas stage was taken over from the theater by artists
15-16. Here good colored illustrations of the patchwork- and handed down through both the Byzantine and Caro-
costume, which Pulcinella and Harlequin have inherited lingian traditions. Late mediaeval and early Renaissance
from the centunculus of the late Roman mime; cf. above Ch. paintings and sculpture have upper balconies on the scene
XI, Figs. 542-543, and Ch. XV, Fig. 829. The Etruscan- of the same basic pattern as Assteas and the stages he
Roman Charun, Ch. XI, Figs. 544-545, became the mediae- From Art to Theater, p. 14 If.
copied. Cf. also, Kernodle,
val devil. See above, Ch. X, Figs. 479-480, note 14 on the Assteas
6 Dieterich, Pulcinella, pp. 266ff. stage.
7
K. von Reinhardstoettner, Plautus. Spatere Rearbeitun- 17 Nicoll, op.cit., plate facing p. 193. Mariani,
p. 179,
gen plautinischer Lustsjnele. Duckworth, The Nature of "Del Teatro Romano di Sabratha al teatro Olympico di
Roman Comedy, pp. 397ff. Vicenza," Rivista Italiana del Drama, i,3, pp. 294-302.
8
Duckworth, op.cit., pp. 402ff. Martin Hammitzsch, Der moderne Theaterbau (1906), pp.
9 Duckworth, op.cit., 15ff., figs. 5-6. For the scenes painted by Serlio according
pp. 408ff.
"Gilbert Highet, The Classical Tradition, pp. 197ff., to Vitruvius in 1545 see Kernodle, From Art to Theater,
214. Duckworth, op.cit., pp. 412ff. J. W. Draper, "Falstaff p. 181, fig. 52. Lukomski, I Maestri delta Architettura clas-
and the Plautine Parasite," Classical Journal, 33(1937/8), sica da Vitruvio alio Scamazzi, translated by Lino Cappuc-
390-401. cio (Milano, 1933), pp. 113, 119, 121, designs of 1521-
11
J.
W. Cunliffe, The Influence of Seneca on Elizabethan 1556. Hammitzsch, op.cit., pp. 23ff., figs. 9-10.
Tragedy (London, 1893). F. L. Lucas, Seneca and Eliza- 18 Nicoll, op.cit., plate facing
p. 224. Hammitzsch, op.cit.,
bethan Tragedy (Cambridge, 1922). Duckworth, The Com- p. 36f., figs. 15-16.
pleteRoman Drama, i,xli-xlvi. T. S. Eliot, Selected Essays, 19
Joseph Furttenbach, Architectura recreationis (1640),
1917-1932 (New York, 1932), pp. 51-88, 107-112. Mendell, pp. 64ff., figs. 22-23. Mannhafter Kunstspiegel (1663), fig.

307
 NOTES TO THE TEXT • CHAPTER XVI
12a-b (our Fig. 840a-b). Hammitzsch, Der moderne Thea- 44 Sapori, Rassegna d'Arte, vni(
1921 ),101ff., report on
terbau, p. 30, fig. 13. Michael, Deutsches Theater (Jeder- presentations in Syracuse.
manns Biicherei, 1923), p. 18, fig. 75. Cf. above, Ch. VI. 45 Mary Dietrich played the parts
of heroines in the Max
20 Furttenbach, op.cit., fig. 12a. Nicoll, op.cit., p. 178f., Reinhardt presentations in Berlin. Unfortunately she died
plate facing p. 256. young.
21 Highet, op.cit., pp. 142f., 298f. Nicoll, op.cit., p. 180. 46
Bieber, AJA, Lvm(1954),277f., pi. 51, figs. 1-3.
22 Katherine Lever, "Greek Comedy in the Sixteenth Cen- 47 I
owe the photograph for Fig. 857 to the photographer
tury English Stage," Classical Journal, 42(1946-47), pp. Hermann Landshoff. It is reprinted from Mademoiselle,
169-174. Street and Smith Publications, Inc., 1955.
23 R. R. Bolgar, The Classical Heritage ( Cambridge, 48 Herald, Das grosse Schauspielhaus;
Heinz Reinhardt
1954), p. 495f. und seine Buhne (1919). Oskar Fischel, Das Moderne Biih-
24 Duckworth, pp. 423-431.
op.cit., nenbild, p. 25, fig. 11. Kenneth Macgowan, Theater of To-
25 Kernodle, op.cit., morrow, pp. 191-200. Macgowan and Melnitz, The Living
p. 168.
26 Curt Sachs, Our Musical Heritage. A Short History Stage, fig. on p. 446. Cf. M. L. Barstow, " 'Oedipus Rex': A
of
Music, pp. 196ff., 207ff. P. H. Lang, Music in Western Typical Greek Tragedy," The Greek Genius and Its Influence,
Civilization, pp. 334-344. E. Dickinson, The Study of the ed. Lane Cooper. Sheldon Cheney, The Theatre, pi. opposite
History of Music, p. 67. Allen, op.cit., p. 181f. p. 519 (Oedipus in a circus by Orlik). Hamlin, Forms and
27 Justi, Winckelmann und sein Jahrhundert, i( 1898 ) ,202f. Functions (1952), m,412ff., figs. 278-281 (similar theaters in
Highet, op.cit., pp. 356ff. New York )
28 Lessing, Brief e die neueste Literatur betreffend No. 17, 49 See Theatre Arts,
October 1951, p. 30f.
February 1759. 50 Dionisio, xix
(1956), 172-185, with illustrations.
29 W. Keller, Goethe's Estimate of the Greek and Ro- 51 See on open air theaters: Sheldon Cheney,
J. The Open
man Writers (Madison, Wisconsin, 1916). Gassner, Masters Air Theatre, 1918.
of the Drama (1954), pp. 317ff. Goethe as Orestes with 52 For the Festival Theater
at Bayreuth see Hamlin and
Corona Schroter as Iphigenia: cut by G. M. Kraus, Goethc- Lee Simonson, Forms and Functions, iii,409, fig. 274. For
Gedenkblatter, ed. Goethe National Museum in Weimar the Munich Art Theater ( Kiinstlertheater ) ibid., p. 410, fig.
,

(3rd ed.,1925), p. 82 and fig. on p. 86. 275; cf. also Littmann's theater in Stuttgart, ibid., p. 411f., fig.
30 Highet, op.cit., 276. For the Munich Theater see also Sheldon Cheney, The
p. 425f.
31 Highet, ibid., Theatre,
pp. 466ff. fig. opposite p. 457.
32 Highet, ibid., 53
p. 419. N. I. White, Portrait of Shelley See note 48.
(New York, 1945), p. 465. 54 See above Ch. VI. Bulle, Untersuchungen, p. 288f., fig.
33 Nietzsche, Die Geburt der Tragodie aus dem Geist der 18.
Musik (The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music). 55 Alexander Bezanet, he Theatre au Japon ( Paris, 1901 )
34 See similar stories in Highet, op.cit.,
pp. 491ff. p. 268. Macgowan and
Melnitz, op.cit., pp. 319, 442, 444, 451,
35 See Bibliography, XI. English Translations. 495. Walter Renee Fuerst and Samuel J. Hume, Twentieth
36 Gassner, Masters
of the Drama, pp. 643, 655, 657ff. Century Stage Decoration, pp. 87ff., figs. 17-22.
56 Edward Gordon Craig, On the Art
Highet, op.cit., p. 526. of the Theatre ( Chi-
37 Gassner, op.cit., cago 1911), plate facing p. xiv. It is a very impressive back-
p. 715f. Highet, ibid., p. 538f.
38 Allardyce Nicoll, World Drama from Aeschylus to ground indeed.
57 Hamlin, op.cit., m,436f., fig. 288. Burris-Meyer and
Anouilh, pp. 914-918. Highet, op.cit., p. 527. Gassner, op.cit.,
p. 71 If. Katharine Cornell misinterpreted the tragic conflict Edward Cole, Theatres and Auditories. Progressive Architec-
of Antigone as one between "the spirit and the flesh." ture Library (New York, 1949), p. 212.
39 Nicoll, op.cit., 58 Allardyce Nicoll, Masks, Mimes and Miracles,
pp. 916f. Highet, op.cit., p. 524. Gass- p. 348.
59 See National Geographic Magazine (May
ner, op.cit., p. 739f., pi. 14. 1956), pp.
40 See the introduction to the plays of Plautus by Duck- 666ff. The commentator Eugene D. Kammerman, manages to
worth, The Complete Roman Drama, i,6f., Amphitruo; p. make three mistakes in one sentence: "Where togaed Romans
118, Aulularia; p. 438f., The Twin Brothers Menaechmi. once played the farces of Terence and Plautus." 1 ) Terence
Allen, Stage Antiquities, pp. 166ff. Highet, op.cit., p. 353. and Plautus wrote comedies, not farces; 2) these republican
Duckworth, The Nature of Roman Comedy, p. 431f. playwrights were not performed in the imperial theaters of
41 Oates-O'Neill, The Complete Greek Drama, frontispiece, the provinces; 3) they were played in the Greek pallium, not
production of Prometheus Bound at Delphi, 1930. in the Roman toga. For Taormina see Holiday magazine
42 Prometheus in Syracuse: see Holiday magazine, May (May, 1956), p. 48.
1956, p. 49. 60 See National Geographic Magazine (May 1956),
pp.
43 Guido Calza, Capitolium, v( 1927),81ff., on 672ff. for the bloodless bullfights.
figs, p. 84f.

308
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES
Fig. A, frontispiece. Colossal Tragic Mask, Bronze, Hellenistic Period. Found, 1959, in a
warehouse in the Piraeus, probably burnt during Sulla's attack in 86 B.C., see Fig. 301
Fig. B, pp. iv-v. Theater at Taonnina, see Fig. 636
Fig. C, p. xi. Aristophanes' The Birds, Berlin, 1935, see Fig. 843a
Fig. D, xvi. Actors celebrating, see Fig. 538

CHAPTER I. THE RISE OF THE SATYR PLAY AND OF TRAGEDY

Fig. 1. Relief of Archelaus of Priene Fig. 28 a-c. Satyrs and Flute Player, fragments, Bonn
Phot. Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum Phot. Akademisches Kunstmuseum, Langlotz
Fig. 2. Relief of Archelaus, detail, lower register Fig. 29. Satyr, Vase Fragment, formerly Collection Arndt,
Fig. 3. Citharist, Vase in Vatican now Allard Pierson Museum, Amsterdam
Phot. Alinari 35813 Phot. Stichting
Fig. 4. Citharist and Victory, Athens Fig. 30. Cyclops and Satyrs, Cook Collection, Richmond
Phot. Alinari 35726 Trendall, Friihitaliotische Vasen, pi. 12b
Fig. 5. Anacreon, lekythos from Gela Fig. 31. Saytr Play Vase in Naples
Monumento antichi dei Lincei, xn (1908), pi. 3 Phot. Alinari 11286
Figs. 6, 7. Alcaeus and Sappho, Attic Vase, Munich Figs. 32-33. Drawings from Fig. 31
Phot. Gesellschaft fur Wissenschaftliches Lichtbild, Figs. 34, 35. Fragments of Vase from Tarentum, Wurzburg
Miinchen Phot. Courtesy Professor Moebius
Fig. 8. Youth with Lyre, New York Fig. 36. Mosaic Showing Preparation for a Satyr Drama,
Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art Naples
Fig. 9. Flute Player, London Phot. Alinari 12056
Phot. Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum Fig. 37. Silenus before Sphinx, Naples
Figs. 10, 11. Greek School Vase by Duris, Berlin Trendall, Paestan Pottery, pi. xxia, no. 118
Furtwangler-Reichhold, Vasenrnalerei, pi. 136 Fig. 38. Papposilenus fluteplaying, Ruvo Jatta Collection
Fig. 12. Choral Dance on Early Attic Vase Phot. Jatta
Weege, Der Tanz, fig. 73 Fig. 39. Prometheus and Satyr Chorus, Gotha
Fig. 13. Chorus of Girls, Villa Giulia AJA 43 (1939), pi. xrv
Furtwangler-Reichhold, Vasenrnalerei, pi. 17 Fig. 40. Jason and Dragon, by Duris, Vatican
Fig. 14. Theseus Leading a Chorus Dance, Francois Vase Seltman, Attic Vase-Painting, pi. 27b
Furtwangler-Reichhold, Vasenrnalerei, pi. 13 Fig. 41. Jason and Dragon, New York
Fig. 15. Satyrs Assembling a Couch Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Phot. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Fig. 42. Jason Played by a Satyr, and Dionysus
Fig. 16. Flute Player and Panes. Pandora and Gods Bearing Corpus Vasorum Bologna, pi. 24
Gifts, Crater Fig. 43. Heracles as Atlas with Satyrs, Private Collection,
Phot. Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum South Italy
Fig. 17. Satyrs with Citharas, Vase by Polion Phot, kindly loaned by Professor A. D. Trendall
Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art Fig. 44. Papposilenus, Allard Pierson Museum, Amsterdam
Fig. 18. Dionysus, Satyrs, and Sea Robbers, Frieze from Phot. Arndt
Monument of Lysicrates Fig. 45. Papposilenus Accompanying Dance of Maenads,
Brunn-Bruekmann, Denkmaler, pi. 488 Late Attic Vase
Fig. 19. Dionysus with Satyrs and Maenads, Vase by the JdAI, xxxii (1917), 50f., fig. 22
Methyse Painter Fig. 46. Papposilenus, with Child Dionysus, Athens
Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
JdAI, xxxn (1917), 80, fig. 46
Fig. 20. Maenad, by the Brygus Painter Fig. 47. Statue of Papposilenus, from Rome, in Berlin
Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
VVieseler, Denkmaler, pi. vi,l.
Figs. 21-24. Maenads, by the Cleophrades Painter
Fig. 48 a-b. Satyrs Attacking Hera and Iris, by the Brygus
Phots. Gesellschaft fur Wissenschaftliches Lichtbild,
Painter
Miinchen
Fig. 25 a-b. Lenaea Vase, Naples
Phot. Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum
Furtwangler-Reichhold, Vasenrnalerei, pi. 36 Fig. 49. Satyr Chorus, psykter by Duris
Fig. 26. Rhyton with Satyr and Maenad Furtwangler-Reichhold, Vasenrnalerei, pi. 48
Phot. Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum Fig. 50. Goat with Human Face, Lekythos, Berlin
Fig. 27. Vase with Satyr in Loincloth and Flute Player, Blurnel, Antike Kunstwerke, No. 9
Athens Figs. 51-52. Dancers from Bali
Phot. German Institute, Athens Krause, Bali, pis. 17, 18a-b

CHAPTER II. ATTIC TRAGEDY

Fig. 53. Stage Front, Theater of Dionysus, Athens Fig. 55. Dionysus Enthroned at Athens
Phot. Alinari 24566 Phot. Alinari 24571
Fig. 54. Dionysus Visits Icarius, Relief, Athens Figs. 56-58. Blackfigured Vases with Carrus Navalis. 56, 57,
Phot. Alinari 24571a British Museum; 58, Bologna
JdAI, xxvn (1912), supplementary pi. I

309
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES
Fig. 59. Cup by Exekias, Munich Fig. 93. Same as Fig. 92, replica in Princeton
Vasenmalerei, pi. 42
Furtwangler-Reichhold, Phot. Courtesy The Art Museum, Princeton University
Figs. 60-61. Cup by the Briseis Master, New York Fig. 94. Papposilenusand Cothurnus, Athens
Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art Phot. German Arch. Institute, Athens
Fig. 62. Detail of mosaic in Fig. 36, Preparation for a Fig. 95. Nude Satyr Wearing Cothurnus, Vase from Ruvo,
Satyr Drama Naples
P ig. 63 a-b. Portrait of Aeschylus, Capitoline Museum Phot. Alinari 11300b
Phot. Edizione inalterabile, 742, xvin Fig. 96. The Eumenides by Aeschylus, Crater, Louvre
Fig. 64. Statue of Aeschylus, Vatican Furtwangler-Reichhold, Vasenmalerei, pi. 120,3
Phot. Anderson 1373 Fig. 97. Aeschylus' Eumenides, British Museum
Fig. 65. Bronze Head of Aeschylus. Museo Archeologico, Trendall, Paestan Pottery, pi. xvn
Florence Fig. 98. Sophocles, Bronze Head, Florence
Phot. Alinari 31135 Phot. Alinari 31134
Figs. 66-69. Punic Masks from Carthage, Musee du Bardo Fig. 99. Sophocles, Head, British Museum
JdAI, xxxu (1917), figs. 36-39 Hekler, Portrats, pi. 97a
Fig. 70. Mycenaean Gem with Animal-Headed Demons Fig. 100. Old Sophocles, Head, British Museum
Evans, Palace of Minos, rv,2, p. 453, fig. 378 Phot. Karl Lehmann
Fig. 71. Mycenaean Fresco with Animal-Headed Demons Fig. 101. Head of Sophocles, detail of Fig. 102, before
Evans, Palace of Minos, fig. 366 Restoration
Fig. 72. Dionysus Holding Mask, with Thiasus, Bari Pfuhl, Anfdnge der Bildniskunst, pi. i,l-2
Phot. Jatta Fig. 102. Statue of Sophocles, Lateran
Fig. 73. Masks on Post, Blackfigured Lekythos, Athens Brunn-Bmckmann, Denkmaler, pi. 113
Phot. German Archaeological Institute Fig. 103. Seated Sophocles, Relief, Paris
Fig. 74. Boy Holding a Mask, Athens Phot. Giraudon 16251
Hesperia, vni (1939), 267, fig. 1 Fig. 104. Thamyras, Hydria, Oxford
Fig. 75. Head, Terracotta, Olympia JHS, xxv (1905), pi. i,l
Olympia, Ausgrabangen, in, pi. vn Fig. 105. Tereus, Fragment of Vase, Dresden
Fig. 76. Archaistic Marble Head from Delos Phot. Dresden Museum
Phot. Alinari 24232 Fig. 106 a-b. Euripides, Head, Mantua
Fig. 77. Head from Double Herm, Stadion, Athens Arndt, Portrats, pis. 35-36
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Ath. Var. 238 Fig. 107. Euripides, Herm Found in Rieti, Copenhagen
Fig. 78. Archaistic Head from Pompeii, Naples Hekler, Portrats, pi. 89
Phot. Alinari 19052 Fig. 108. Euripides, Lost Statue
Fig. 79 a-b. Eleusinian Vase, Lyons JHS 43 (1923), 64, fig. 8
Schefold, Kertscher Vasen, pi. 35 Fig. 109. Euripides and Skene, Relief, Istanbul
Fig. 80. Dionysus and Thiasus. Blackfigured Vase, Bonn Phot. Mus. Istanbul, No. 527
Phot. Akademisches Kunstmuseum Fig. 110. Andromeda Crater, Berlin
Fig. 81. Dionysus on Archaistic Vase, Naples JdAI, xi (1896), pi. 2
Phot. Alinari 11186 Fig. Ill a-c. Details of Fig. 110
Fig. 82. Dionysus on Base, Praeneste Phots. Berlin Museum
Phot. Moscioni 9061 Fig. 112. Andromeda Vase, British Museum
Fig. 83. Dionysus on Tripod Base, Athens Phot. Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum
Phot. Alinari 24231 Fig. 113. a. Relief from the Piraeus
Fig. 84. Dionysus, or Priest, on Base, Rome b. Detail Showing Masks
Phot. Museo Nazionale Romano Phots. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Nat. Mus. 610, 611
Fig. 85. Dionysus Riding a Panther, Vase from Thebes Fig. 114. Raving Agave, Stucco Relief, Rome
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Nat. Mus. 1086 Phot. German Arch. Institute, Rome
Fig. 86. Dionysus Visits a Mortal, Relief, Louvre Fig. 115. Iphigenia According to Euripides, Vase, Louvre
Phot. Giraudon 1056 Phot. Musee du Louvre
Fig. 87. Woman Sacrificing to Dionysus, Wall Painting, Fig. 116. Iphigenia According to Euripides, Vase, Ruvo
Naples Furtwangler-Reichhold, Vasenmalerei, pi. 148
Phot. Losacco Fig. 117. Antigone According to Euripides, Vase, Ruvo
Fig. 88. Dionysus Covered with Grapes, Wall Painting, Robert, Oedipus, fig. 51
Naples Fig. 118. Philoctetes According to Sophocles, New York
Phot. Losacco Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Fig. 89. Dionysus and Lycurgus, Mosaic, Naples Fig. 119. Philoctetes According to Euripides, Syracuse
Phot. Brogi 11886 Sechan, Tragedie grecque, fig. 144
Fig. 90. Actors Dressing, Vase, Boston Fig. 120. Antiope According to Euripides, crater found in
Phot. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Palazzuolo, Berlin
Fig. 91. Bronze Statuette of Dionysus, Louvre Sechan, Tragedie grecque, fig. 88
Studniczka, Kalamis, pi. 7a Fig. 121. Medea, Vase, Munich
Fig. 92. Satyr Putting Cothurnus on Infant Dionysus, sar- Furtwangler-Reichhold, Vasenmalerei, pi. 90
cophagus, Capitoline Museum Fig. 122 a-c. Details of Fig. 121
Phot. German Institute, Rome Phots. Munich Museum

310
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES
CHAPTER III. OLD COMEDY AND MIDDLE COMEDY
Fig. 123. Dancers Dressed as Birds, Vase, British Museum Figs , 157-158. Kitchen Slaves, Berlin, Mus. Nos. 7603, 7604
Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum
Pliot. Phot. Berlin Museum
Fig. 124. Men in Masks of Cocks, Berlin Fig. 159. Kitchen Slave, Bronze, Olynthus
Phot. Courtesy of Berlin Museum Phot. Courtesy Professor D. Robinson
Fig. 125 a-b. Kylix with Riders on Dolphins and Ostriches Fig. 160. Laughing Girl, Boston, Mus. No. 01.77.72
Phots. Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Phot. Courtesy of Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Fig. 126. Knights on Horses, Berlin Fig. 161. Weeping Girl, British Museum
Phot. Courtesy of Berlin Museum Phot. Courtesy The Trustees of the British Museum
Figs 127-129. Masks of Parrots, Frogs, and Bull on the
. Fig. 162. Wailing Woman, Athens, Mus. No. 13015
Island of Bali Phot. German Arch. Institute, Athens
20-21
kr.uise, Bali, pis. Fig. 163. Old Woman, Berlin
Fig. 130. Return of Hephaestus, Corinthian Vase, Athens Phot. Berlin Museum
Ath. Mitt. (1894), pi. vm Fig. 164. Old Harridan, New York
Fig. 131. Corinthian Dancers, Kylix, New York Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Phot. Courtesy Metropolitan Museum of Art Fig. 165. Nurse with Baby, Rostock
Fig. 132. Punishment of Wine Thieves Phot. Collection University of Rostock
Bieber, Dcnkmtiler, fig. 123 a-b Fig. 166 a-c. Man and Woman, Wiirzburg
Fig. 133. Angry Man, Terracotta, Berlin Phots. Courtesy Professor Moebius
Phot. Berlin Museum Fig. 167. Man and Woman, Louvre
Fig. 134. Two Drunkards, Terracotta, Berlin Phot. Archives photographiques
Phot. Berlin Museum Fig. 168. Old Woman with Mask of Youth, Vienna
Fig. 135. Fat Old Man, Boston Phot. Mus. Vienna
Phot. Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Fig. 169 a-b. Hero from Dodona
Fig. 136. Sphenopogon, Rostock Phot. German Arch. Institute, Athens
Phot. Archaeological Collection, University of Rostock Fig. 170. Heracles, Boston, Mus. No. 8014
Fig. 137 Sphenopogon, Boston, Mus. No. 017758 Phot. Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Phot. Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Fig. 171. Heracles, Berlin
Fig- 138. Sphenopogon, British Museum, No. C239 Phot. Berlin Museum
Phot. Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum 1' >g- 172. Odysseus, Louvre
Figs 139. Man Carrying a Basket on His Head, Boston Phot. Musee du Louvre
Phot. Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Fig. 173. Odysseus, Munich
Fig. 140. Man
Carrying a Basket on His Head, Louvre Phot. Hirmer Verlag, Munich
Phot. Archives photographiques Fig. 174. Cadmus, Louvre
Fig. 141. Man Carrying Basket on His Head, from Olynthus Phot. Musee du Louvre
Phot. Courtesy Professor D. Robinson, University of Fig. 175. Cadmus, Louvre
Mississippi Phot. Musee du Louvre
Fig. 142. Man with Basket in His Hand, Boston Fig. 176 a-b. Hero with Pestle, Munich
Phot. Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Phots. Hirmer Verlag, Munich
Fig. 143. Man with Basket in His Hand, Louvre Fig. 177. Hero, Louvre
Phot. Archives photographiques Phot. Archives photographiques
Fig. 144. Man Carrying a Calf, Terracotta, Princeton Fig. 178. Telephus, Munich
Phot. Courtesy The Art Museum, Princeton University Phot. Hirmer Verlag
Fig. 145. Man Carrying a Calf, Terracotta, Berlin Fig. 179. Tympanon Player, Louvre
Phot. Berlin Museum Phot. Archives photographiques
Fig. 146. Man Carrying a Calf, Terracotta, Munich Fig. 180. Kordax dancers, Vase in Corneto
Phot. Hirmer Verlag, Munich Bieber, Denkmaler, fig. 141
Fig. 147. Man Carrying Bedsack and Basket, Munich Fig. 181 a-d. Comic Chorus from the Agora
Phot. Hirmer Verlag, Munich Phot. Alison Frantz
Fig. 148. Man whose Ears Have Been Boxed Fig. 182. a-b. Chorus with Flute Player, Blackfigured Vase,
Phot. Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum Rome, Museo artistico industriale
O 149. Man with Hands Bound behind Back, Louvre
Fig. Phot. German Arch. Institute, Rome
Phot. Archives photographiques Fig. 183 a-c.Head of Aristophanes, Robinson Collection,
Fig. 150. Man
with Purse in His Hand, Louvre University of Mississippi
Phot. Archives photographiques Phot. Courtesy Professor D. Robinson
Fig. 151. Reclining Man, Rostock Fig. 184. Actors of Middle Comedy, Vase, Leningrad
Phot. Collection of the University of Rostock Bethe, Griechische Dichtung, pi. vin
Fig. 152. Man Carrying a Baby, Bonn Figs. 185-191 and 192-198. Two Groups of Actors of Middle
Phot. Akademisches Kunstmuseum, Bonn Comedy
Fig. 153. Warrior, Berlin, Mus. No. 6892 Phots. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Phot. Berlin Museum Fig. 199. Weeping Man, Olynthus
Fig- 154. Warrior, Berlin, Mus. No. 7820 Phot. G. Forbes, Courtesy Professor D. Robinson
Phot. Berlin Museum Fig. 200. Water Carrier, Palermo
Fig. Tarentum
155. Cook, Phot. Palermo Museum
Phot. Museum Tarentum Fig. 201. Poet with Two Comic Masks, Relief, Lyme Park
Fig- 156. Cook, Berlin, Mus. No. 7042a Phot. Courtesy Professor T.B.L. Webster
Phot. Berlin Museum

311
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES
Fig, 202. Actor Dancing as Perseus, Oinochoe, Collection Fig. 208. Dancing Couple, Crater, Heidelberg
Vlastos, Athens Phot. Mus. Heidelberg
Drawing by Gillieron Figs 209-210. Popular Enter tainment, Glazed Vases Found
Fig. 203. Cooks and Geese, Boeotian Vase on the Agora, Athens
Phot. German Arch. Institute Hesperia, xxiv (1955), pis. 35a, 37a
Fig. 204. Odysseus and Circe, Vase from the Kabeirion Fig. 211. Oriental Dancer on Table, Athens
Phot. Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum Pliot. German Arch. Institute
Fig. 205. Odysseus and Circe, Oxford Fig. 212. Nude Girl Performing on Table, Vase, Naples
Gardner, Catalogue of Vases of the Ashmolean Museum, Phot. Sommer 11061
pi. xxvib Fig. 213. Man in Woman's Dress, Robinson Collection,
Fig. 206. Odysseus on Raft, Oxford University of Mississippi
Gardner, Catalogue of Vases of the Ashmolean Museum, Phot. Courtesy Professor D. Robinson
pi. xxvia Fig. 214. Men in Women's Dresses, Cleveland
Fio-. 207. Cadmus, Berlin Museum Phot. Courtesy the Cleveland Museum of Art, A. W.
Bieber, Denkmaler, fig. 135 Ellenberger, Sr. Collection

CHAPTER IV. THE DIONYSIAC FESTIVALS

Fig. 215. Stele from Aixone, Acropolis Museum, Athens Fig. 218 a-b. Children's Oinochoe with Wedding of Dionv
Ath. Mitt., 66 (1941), pi. 73 sus ( Archon Basileus ) and Ariadne ( Basilinna
Fig. 216. Plan of Lenaion Sanctuary Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Dorpfeld, Ath. Mitt., 20 ( 1895), pi. iv Fig. 219 a-b. Wedding Car, Blackfigured Lekythos
Fig, 217. Reconstruction of the Lenaion Theater Phots. Metzger, Giessen
Anti, Teatri archaici, pi. iv

CHAPTER V. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEATER BUILDING

IN THE CLASSICAL PERIOD

Fig. 220. Spectators on Vase of Sophilus Fig. 234. Front View of the Reconstructed Scene Building
MonPiot, xxxiii (1933), fig. 1 Fiechter, Dionysostheater,
fig. 31

Fig. 221. Attempted Plan of Aristophanes' Frogs Fig. 235. Rear View of the Reconstructed Scene Building
Drawing by Dimitriou-Wadhams Fiechter, Dionysostheater, fig. 30
Fig. 222. Bacchic Dance, Poros Relief Fig. 236. Plan of Scene Building, Third Period
Heberdey, Porosskulptur, fig. 53 Fiechter, Dionysostheater, pi. 18
Fig. 223. Athens, Plan of Sacred Precinct of Dionysus Eleu- Fig. 237. Plan of the Theater of Nicias and Odeum of
thereus Pericles
Flickinger, Greek Theater, fig. 32 (after Dbrpfeld-
Dinsmoor, "The Athenian Theater of the Fifth Cen-
Reisch
tury," in Studies Presented to David Moore Robinson,
Fig. 224. Athens, Plan of the Precinct of Dionysus Eleu-
fig. 2
thereus, Oldest Period
Fig. 238. Plan for Oedipus by Sophocles
Fiechter, Dionysostheater, hi, pi. 16
Drawing by Penelope Dimitriou ( redrawn by Elizabeth
Fig. 225. View of the Theater of Syracuse
Wadhams) for Bieber
Phot. Alinari 19816
Reconstruction of Fig. 239. Early Classical Structure of Scene Building
Fig. 226. Athens, Theater of Dionysus,
Orchestra and Temple
Dorpfeld-Reisch,Das Griechische Theater, fig. 93
Fiechter, Dionysostheater, m, fig. 29 Fig. 240. Attempt on Temporary Scene Building
Fig. 227. Athens, Theater of Dionysus, Model of Theater, Mahr, Origin of the Greek Tragic Form, fig. 22
Orchestra and Temple Figs. 241-242. Possibilities of Temporary Scene Buildings

Phot. Allen, University of California Fiechter, Dionysostheater III, figs. 32-34

Fig. 228. Athens, Theater of Dionysus, Plan of the Oldest Fig. 243. Pergamon, General View of Theater
Theater Phot.German Arch. Inst., Athens, Perg. 250
17
Anti, Teatri archaici, fig. Fig. 244. Pergamon, Auditorium and Orchestra
Fig. 229. Athens, Theater of Dionysus, Reconstruction of Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Perg. 1142
the Oldest Theater Fig. 245. Pergamon, Terrace
Anti, Teatri archaici, pi. n Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Perg. 932
Fig. 230. Athens, Theater of Dionysus, Cross Section of Fig. 246. Pergamon, Pavement with Stones for Timber
Temple and Orchestra Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Perg. 945
Dorpfeld-Reisch, Das Griechische Theater, pi. v,2 Fig. 247. Pergamon, Plan of Orchestra and Stage Building
Fig. 231. Plan of Theater of Thorikos
Ath. Mitt. 32 (1907), 224, fig. 14
Bieber, Denkmaler, fig. 13
Fig. 248. Dance of Roumanian Peasants
Fig. 232. Possibilities for Positions of the Skene
Hielscher, Roumanie, pi. 189
Allen, Greek Theater, fig. 19
Fig. 233. Plan of the Scene Building, Second Period Fig. 249. Dance in Bali

Fiechter, Dionysostheater, in, pi. 17 Krause, Rali, pi. 16; Phot. Folkwang Mus.

312
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES
Fig. 250. Plan of Sacred Precinct of Dionysus, Athens, Fig. 263. Eretria, Plan of Oldest Stone Building
Fourth Century Bulle, Untersuchungen, pi. 11
Dorpfeld-Reisch, Das Griechische Theater, pi. n Fig. 264. Eretria, Reconstructed Plans of Fifth and Fourth
Fig. 251. View of Auditorium of Theater of Dionysus Century Buildings
Phot. Alinari 24567 Fiechter, Eretria, pi. 7
Fig. 252. Return of Hephaestus, Vase, Bologna Fig. 265. Eretria, Reconstructions of Fifth and Fourth Cen-
Antike Denkmaler, i, pi. 36 tury Buildings
Fig. 253. Iphigenia in Tauris, Vase, Paris Fiechter, Eretria, figs. 34-35
Bulle, Eine Skenographie, fig. 6 Fig. 266. a. Wooden
Skene, Vase, Wiirzburg
Fig. 254. Theater of Dionysus, Actual Remains of Stage b. Drawing, Reconstruction
Building and Orchestra Bulle, Skenographia, pis. i-ii
Fiechter, Dionysostheater, i, pi. I. Fig. 267. Throne of Priest of Dionysus and neighboring
Fig. 255. Theater of Pericles, Plan (after Fiechter) seats
Fiechter, Dionysostheater, m, pi. 19 Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Ant. Baut. 63
Fig. 256. Plan of Lycurgean Skene and Theatron (after Fig. 268. Throne of Priest of Dionysus, front view
Fiechter) Phot. German Arch. Athens, Ant. Baut. 469
Inst.,

Fiechter, Dionysostheater, m, pi. 20 Fig. 269. Throne of Priest of Dionysus, side view
Fig. 257. Theater of Dionysos, Plan of Lycurgean Skene Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens
Drawing by Dorpfeld in Frickenhaus, Die alt griechische Fig. 270. Greek Theater Tickets
Buhne, fig. 23 Bieber, Denkmaler, fig. 87
Fig. 258. Theater of Dionysus, Plan of Orchestra and Skene, Fig. 271. Epidaurus, Plan of Theater
with Paraskenia Bieber, Denkmaler, fig. 19
Dinsmoor, unpublished drawing Fig. 272. Epidaurus, General View and Surroundings
Figs. 259-260. Theater of Dionysus, Plan and Reconstruction Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Epid. 85
Mahr, Origin of the Greek Tragic Form, figs. 23-24 Fig. 273. Epidaurus, General View
Fig. 261. Theater of Dionysus, Reconstruction of Paraskenion Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Epid. 68
Theater Fig. 274. Epidaurus, Orchestra and Auditorium
Fiechter, Dionysostheater, in, fig. 36 Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Epid. 55
Fig. 262. Theater of Dionysus, Plan of the Breccia Founda- Fig. 275. Epidaurus, Parodos Gate
tion Phot. Messbildanstalt
Fiechter, Dionysostheater, i, fig. 15

CHAPTER VI. SCENERY A D MECHANICAL DEVICES

Fig. 276. Megalopolis, Plan with Skenotheke for Scaena Duc- Fig. 283. Hypnos and Thanatos Carrying Sarpedon through
tilis the Air
Bieber, Denkmaler, fig. 22 Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Fig. 277. Elis, Plan of Stage Building with Periacti Fig. 284. Eretria, View of Orchestra with Charonian Stair-
Bieber, Denkmaler, fig. 21 case
Fig. 278. Athens, Stone for Insertion of Pole, drawing Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Eret. 47
Bulle, Untersuchungen, pi. 6, figs. 12-14 Fig. 285. Eretria, Plan of Actual Remains
Fig. 279. Athens, Stone for Insertion of Pole, drawing Fiechter, Eretria, pi. 1
Fiechter, Dionysostheater, ra, fig. 12 Fig. 286. Eretria, Plan of Remains Restored
Fig. 280 a-b. Possible Forms of the Eccyclema Fiechter, Eretria, pi. 7
Mahr, Origin of the Greek Tragic Form, fig. 27 a-b Fig. 287. Eretria, Plan of Old and Later Theater
Fig. 281. Plan for the Hippolytus by Euripides
Flickinger, Greek Theater,
fig. 53
Drawing for Bieber by Penelope Dimitriou and Eli-
Fig. 288. Eretria, Cross Section of Old and Later Theater
zabeth Wadhams
Flickinger, Greek Theater, fig. 54
Fig. 282. Sections for Hippolytus with Eccyclema and Deus
Fig. 289. The Ghost of Aeetes, Medea Vase, Munich
ex machina
Phot. Mus. Munich
Drawing for Bieber by Penelope Dimitriou and Eliza-
beth Wadhams

CHAPTER VII. THE EVOLUT ON OF THE ART OF ACTING

Fig. 290. Tragic Actor as Heracles, from Amisus (Samsun), Fig. 295. Comic Actor, Bronze Statuette, Florence
Louvre Phot. Mus. Arch., Florence
Phot. Archives photographiques Fig. 296. Excited Comic Actor, Terracotta Statuette from
Fig. 291. Youth of Tragedy, from Myrina, in Vienna Tarentum
Phot. Frankenstein Phot. Mus. Tarentum
Fig. 292 a-b. Youth from Asia Minor, in Athens
of Tragedy, Fig. 297. Running Comic Actor, Boston
Phots. German Arch. AthensInst., Phot. Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Fig. 293. Tragic Traveler, from Rhenaia, in Athens Fig. 298. Angry Slave of Comedy, Athens
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens Phot. German Arch. Inst., Ath. Nat. Mus. 7123
Fig. 294. Tragic Messenger, from Pergamon, in Berlin Fig. 299. Running Old Slave of Comedy, Vienna
Phot. Berlin Museum Phot. Frankenstein

313
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES
Fig. 300a. Actor Studying His Mask, Wall Painting, Naples Fig. 307. A Leader of a Guild, Relief, Dresden
Phot. Losacco Phot. Mus. Dresden
Fig. 300b. Actor Studying His Mask, Relief, Vienna Fig. 308. Satyr Play Relief, Naples
Fig. 301. Tragic Mask, Piraeus. See frontispiece Phot. Sommer 1511
Phot. Frankenstein Fig. 309. Terracotta Mask of Old Man, Berlin
Phot. V. and A. Tombazi, Courtesy of Dr. Papa-
J. Phot. Berlin Museum
demetriou
Fig. 310. Old Priam, Terracotta Mask, Berlin
Fig. 302. Actor Dedicating His Mask, Wall Painting, Naples
Phot. Alinari 12010
Phot. Berlin Museum
Fig. 311. Mask of Heracles, Marble Frieze, Pergamon
Fig. 303. Muse Melpomene with Mask, Mantua
Phot. Prem, Mantua
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Perg. 582
Fig. 304. Detail of Fig. 303 Showing Mask
Fig. 312. Mask of Old Woman, Marble Frieze, Pergamon
Phot. Prem, Mantua Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Perg. 580
Fig. 305. Melpomene with Mask in Hand, Vatican Fig. 313. Mask of Young Woman, Marble Frieze, Perga-
Phot. Anderson 1417 mon
Fig. 306 a-b. Actor Holding His Mask, Wiirzburg Phot. Gennan Arch. Inst., Athens, Perg. 584
Phot. Mus. Wiirzburg

CHAPTER VIII. NEW COMEDY

Fig. 314. Epigram on Menander by the Grammarian Aris- Fig. 332. Old Man in Himation, Terracotta Statuette
tophanes, Herm, Turin Phot. Mus. Vienna
Ursinus, Imagines (1570), p. 33 Fig. 333. Mask of Angry Father, from Pergamon, formerly
Fig. 315. Menander, Achaioi, Mosaic, Bulgaria Collection Bieber
Ivanow, Mosa'ique de Ulpia, pis. 8-9 Phot. M. Bieber
Fig. 316. Menander and Masks of New Comedy, Relief, Fig. 334. The Muse Thalia with Mask of Father of Comedy,
Princeton Louvre
Phot. Courtesy The Art Museum, Princeton University Phot. Alinari 22783
Fig. 317. a. Menander and Masks of New Comedy, Relief, Fig. 335. Mask Showing Alternating Mild and
of Father
Lateran Angry Face, Relief, Mantua
b-c. Details of Head in 317a Phot. Mus. Mantua
a. Phot. Anderson 1836; b-c. Phots. German Arch. Inst., Figs. 336-337. Masks from the Stoa of Attalus
Rome, 1418-19 Phots. German Arch. Inst., Athens
Fig. 318. Head of Menander, Boston Fig. 338. Statuette of Youth
Phot. Coolidge Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens
Fig. 319 a-b. Head of Menander, Robinson Collection, Uni- Fig. 339. Mask of Serious Youth, Collection Vollmer, New
versity of Mississippi York
Phot. Schaefer, Baltimore Arndt-Amelung, Photo graphische Einzelaufnahmen an-
Fig. 320. Theater Ticket, Alexandria tiker Shulpturen, 4746
Bulletin Societe d'Archeologie Alexandrie 32/33 (1938), Fig. 340. Disk with Mask of Youdi, from Selymbria
157, fig. 1 Phot. Berlin Museum
Fig. 321. Menander, Muse, and Glycera, Mosaic from An- Fig. 341. Youth Playing the Cithara, from Myrina
tioch-on-the-Orontes Phot. Berlin Museum
Phot. CourtesyThe Art Museum, Princeton University Fig. 342. Musician Playing the Cymbala
Fig. 322. a. Menander, Painting in Pompeii Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens
b. Detail of Head Fig. 343 a-b. Mask of Youth, Munich
c. Detail of Scroll Phot. Piehler, Mus. Munich
Maiuri, La Casa di Menandro, figs. 50, 52, 53 Fig. 344. Mask of Youth, from Amisus, Louvre
Fig. 323 Menander, Bust, Venice
a-b. Phot. Archives photographiques
Bulletino comunale di Roma 56 (1938), pis. i-ii Fig. 345. Mask of Youth from Myrina, Boston
Fig. 324. Comedy Scene, Relief, Naples Phot. Courtesy Museum
of Fine Arts, Boston
Phot. Sommer 1566 Fig. 346. Musicians, Mosaic of Dioscurides, Naples
Figs. 325-326. Bourgeois Men, Terracotta Statuettes, Paris Phot. Sommer 6505
Cabinet des Medailles, Bibliotheque Nationale Fig. 347. Women, Mosaic of Dioscurides
Phots. Giraudon
Phot. Mus. Naples
Fig. 327. Epitrepontes (?), Wall Painting from Casa dei
Fig. 348. Mask ofOld Woman, Terracotta, Berlin
Dioscuri, Pompeii, Bonn
Phot. Berlin Museum
Phot. Akademisches Kunstmuseum
Fig. 349. Procuress. Statuette, Munich
Fig. 328. Old Man Spying on Slave and Flute Player, Wall
Phot. Hirmer Verlag, Munich
Painting, Naples
Phot. Mus. Naples
Fig. 350. Mask of Fat Woman, Bonn
Fig. 329. Masks of Slave and Flute Player, Mosaic, Capito-
Phot. Akademisches Kunstmuseum, Bonn
line Museum Fig. 351. Old Nurse, Terracotta Relief, Florence
Phot. Anderson 1745 Phot. Mus. Arch., Florence
Fig. 330. Mask of Father, Marble, Found in Pompeii Fig. 352. Old Nurse, Mask, Berlin
Phot. Mus. Dresden Phot. Berlin Museum
Fig. 331. Mask of Baldheaded Father, Athens Fig. 353. Elderly Lady from Capua, Berlin
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens Phot. Berlin Museum

314
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES
Fig. 354. Elderly Lady, Statuette, British Museum Fig. 386. Procurer, Statuettefrom Myrina, Louvre
Phot. Courtesy the Trustees of the British Museum Necropole de Myrina, pi. 46,4.
Pottier,
Fig. 355. Bourgeois Lad)', Berlin Fig. 387. Procurer, Mask from Priene, Berlin
Phot. Berlin Museum Phot. Werkstatt, Berlin Museum
Fig. 356. Mask of False Virgin, Naples Fig. 388. Mask of Leading Slave, Terracotta Disk
Phot. Losacco Phot. Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Fig. 357. Concuhine, Terracotta Statuette, Munich Fig. 389. Mask of Leading Slave, from Pergamon, Collec-
Phot. Hirmer Verlag, Munich tion Humann
Fig. 358. Elderly Courtesan, Mask from Corneto, Berlin Bieber, Denkmaler, pi. 105,2.
Phot. Berlin Museum Fig. 390. Mask of Leading Slave, from Melos, Berlin
Fig. 359. Young, Impertinent Courtesan, Statuette, Munich Bieber, Denkmaler, pi. 105,3
Phot. Hirmer Verlag, Munich Fig. 391. Mask of Leading Slave, from Naples, fonnerly
Fig. 360. Young Courtesan in Peplos, Statuette, Athens Collection Bieber
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens Phot. M. Bieber
Fig. 361. Girl with Fillet tied in a Bow, Marhle Mask. Fig. 392. Mask of Leading
Slave, formerly Collection Vogell
Naples Phot. Mus. Kassel
Phot. Losacco Fig. 393. Marble Mask from Porta Salaria, Rome
Fig. 362. Girl with Kerchief, Mask, Naples Phot. Faraglia
Phot. Losacco Fig. 394. Mask of Slave with Festival Wreath, Berlin
Fig. 363. Girl with Sphendone, Disk from Selymbria, Ber- Phot. Berlin Museum
lin Fig. 395. Leading Slave and Pair of Lovers, Wall Painting
Phot. Berlin Museum in Casa di Casca Longo
Fig. 364. Girl with Broad Fillet, Terracotta Mask, Boston Phot. Alinari 43168
Phot. Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Fig. 396. Running Slave, Statuette, Athens
Fig. 365 a-b. Mask of Golden Courtesan, Vatican Phot. German Arch. Inst., Adiens
Phots. German Arch. Inst., Rome Fig. 397. Running Slave, from Smyrna (?), Athens
Fig. 366. Lampadion, Mask from Amisus, Louvre Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens
Phot. Archives photographiques Fig. 398. Slave with Traveling Bedsack, Berlin
Fig. 367 a-c. Maidservants, Masks from Apulia, Munich Phot. Berlin Museum
Phots. Munich Mus. Fig. 399 a-b. Dancing Slave, Statuette, Athens
Fig. 368. Soldier and Pair of Lovers, Munich Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens
Phot. Munich Mus. Fig. 400. Slave Holding a Baby, Tarentum
Fig. 369. Soldier, Bronze Statuette found on Agora, Athens Phot. Mus. Tarentum
T. L. Shear, Hesperia, vi (1937), 351, fig. 15 Fig. 401. Slave Discovering a Baby, Mosaic, Naples
Fig. 370. Soldier with Flat Hat, Statuette, British Museum Phot. Losacco
Phot. Courtesy the Trustees of the British Museum Fig. 402. Leading Slave with Folded Hands, Statuette,
Fig. 371. Soldier and Parasite, Lost Wall Painting, Drawing Munich
Bieber, Denkmaler, fig. 136 Phot. Hirmer Verlag, Munich
Fig. 372 a-b. Parasite, Statuette found in Myrina Fig. 403. Slave with Folded Hands, Bronze Statuette, Milan
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens Phot. Museo Teatrale
alia Scala
Fig. 373 a-b. Parasite, Mask, Berlin Fig. 404 Slave with Folded Hands, Statuette, Collec-
a-c.
Phots. Berlin Museum tion Seyrig
Fig. 374 a-b. Parasite, Statuette from Capua Phot. Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris (A7636)
Phots. Berlin Museum Fig. 405. Slave with Folded Hands, from Myrina, Louvre
Fig. 375 a-b. Parasite with Squint, Mask, formerly in Rome Pottier, Necropole de Myrina, pi. 64,4
Phots. German Arch. Inst., Rome Fig. 406. Seated Slave, Bronze Statuette, British Museum
Fig. 376. Parasite, Upper Part of a Statuette from Beirut, Phot. Courtesy the Trustees of die British Museum
Lebanon Fig. 407. Seated Slave, Terracotta, Louvre
Phot. Courtesy Professor Seyrig Phot. Archives photographiques
Fig. 377. Coarse-faced Parasite, Mask, Tarentum Fig. 408. Seated Man with Wreadi, from Vulci, Berlin
Phot. Courtesy Professor W. B. Dinsmoor Phot. Berlin Museum
Fig. 378. Cook Holding a Fish, Tarentum Fig. 409. Seated Slave with Wreath, Terracotta, Louvre
Phot. Mus. Tarentum Phot. Archives photographiques
Fig. 379. Cook Preparing a Dish, from Myrina, Berlin Fig. 410. Seated Slave on Altar, Bronze Statuette, Princeton
Phot. Berlin Museum Phot. Courtesy The Art Museum, Princelon University
Fig. 380. Mask of Cook, Marble Frieze in Pergamon Fig. 411. Slave Taking Refuge on Altar, British Museum
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Perg. 581 Phot. Courtesy the Trustees of the British Museum
Fig. 381. Mask of Cook from Pergamon, Berlin Fig. 412. Slave on Round Altar, Bronze, Hartford, Conn.
Phot. Berlin Museum Phot. Hartford Wadsworth Athenaeum
Fig. 382. Cook with Basket, Statuette, Munich Fig. 413. Slave on Altar, Bronze Figurine from Egypt, Ber-
Phot. Munich Mus. lin
Fig. 383. Lady and Cook, Wall Painting, Palermo Phot. Berlin Museum
Phot. Losacco Fig. 414. Tuna Fisherman and Customer, Vase, Collection
Fig. 384. Peasant, Mask from Kyme, Collection Lecuyer Mandralisca
Bieber, Denkmaler, pi. 103,2 Dedalo, vn (1926), 402
Fig. 385. Peasant with Short Cropped Hair, Leipzig Fig. 415. Actors of the Mime "Hecyra," Lamp, Athens
Phot. Bielefeld Bieber, Denkmaler, fig. 142

315
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES
CHAPTER IX. THE HELLENISTIC THEATER BUILDING
Fig. 416. Theater of Priene, View of Actual Remains Fig. 444. Ephesus, Elevation of tire Stage Building
Gerkan, Das Theater von Priene, pi. n Heberdey-Niemann, Forschungen in Ephesos, u, fig. 56
Fig. 417. Priene, Plan of Actual Remains Fig. 445. Ephesus, Reconstruction
Gerkan, Das Theater von Priene, pi. rx Fiechter, Entwicklungsgeschichte, fig. 65
Fig. 418. Priene, Plan of Earlier Theater Reconstructed Fig. 446. Ephesus, Reconstruction by Bulle
Gerkan, Das Theater von Priene, pi. xxx Frickenhaus, Die altgriechische Buhne, pi. i
Fig. 419. Priene, Scene Building Reconstructed:
Earlier Fig. 447. Ephesus, Reconstruction, Model in Stuttgart
Front, Side, Section, Plan Phot. Fiechter
Gerkan, Das Theater von Priene, pi. xxxi Fig. 448. Ephesus, Rear of Stage Building with Colon-
Fig. 420. Priene, Plan of Later Theater, Reconstructed nade, Model in Stuttgart
Gerkan, Das Theater von Priene, pi. xxxn Phot. Fiechter
Fig. 421. Priene, Reconstruction of Later Scene Building: Fig. 449. Delos, Plan
Front, Side, Section Dorpfeld-Reisch, Das Griechische Theater, fig. 58
Gerkan, Das Theater von Priene, pi. xxxm Fig. 450. Delos, Reconstruction
Fig. 422 a-b. Priene, Pilasters of Proskenion, Outer and In- Dorpfeld-Reisch, Das Griechische Theater, fig. 94
ner Views Fig. 451. Delos, View of the Ruins
Gerkan, Das Theater von Priene, pi. vn,l-2 Phot. Messbildanstalt, Berlin
Fig. 423. Priene, Earlier Scene Building, Reconstruction with Fig. 452. Eretria, Plan of Actual Remains
Pinakes Fiechter, Das Theater in Eretria, pi. 8
Gerkan, Das Tlieater von Priene, pi. xxxvi Fig. 453. Eretria, Reconstruction of Third Rebuilding
Fig. 424. Priene, Later Scene Building, Model in Stuttgart Fiechter, Das Theater in Eretria, fig. 33
Phot. Fiechter Fig. 454. Eretria, Section and Reconstruction of the Hel-
Fig. 425. Priene, Later Scene Building, with Pinakes and lenistic Building
Auditorium, Drawing Fiechter, Das Theater in Eretria, pi. 9
Gerkan, Das Theater von Priene, pi. xxxv Fig. 455. Sicyon, Elevation and Sections
Fig. 426. Oropus, Elevation with Inscriptions Fiechter, Das Theater in Sikyon, pi. 5
Fiechter, Oropos, fig. 11 Fig. 456. Epidaurus, Reconstruction of Stage Building
Fig. 427. Oropus, Plan and Section Puchstein, Die griechische Buhne, frontispiece
Fiechter, Die baugeschichtliche Entwicklung des an- Fig. 457. Oiniadae, Plan
tiken Theaters, figs. 1 and 2a (redrawn by Elizabeth Fiechter, Das Theater von Oiniadai, pi. i

Wadhams Fig. 458. Oiniadae, Plan and Elevation of Stage Building

Fig. 428. Oropus, Reconstruction Fiechter, Das Theater von Oiniadai, pi. rv
Fiechter, Oropos, pi. 8 Fig. 459. Oiniadae, Reconstruction of Stage Building and
Fig. 429. Oropos, Reconstruction with Pinakes Orchestra
Fiechter, Die baugescJiichtliche Entwicklung . . .
, fig. Bulle, Untersuchungen, pi. 16
64a Fig. 460. Corinth, Hellenistic Theater
Figs. 430-431. Terracotta Altars in Shape of Houses Stillwell, Corinth, n, The Theater, pi. vma
Phots. Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin Fig. 461. Pergamon, View of Terrace and Orchestra
Fig. 432 a-g. Plans of Tombs (a), Temples (b, c, d), and Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Perg. 1150
Palaces (e, f, g) Fig. 462. Pergamon, View of Terrace
Oelmann, in Bonner Jahrbiicher 127 (1922), figs, lb, Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Perg. 251
2b, 9b-c, 15-17 Fig. 463. Theater in the Piraeus, Plan
Fig. 433. Egyptian Soul House, Boston Dorpfeld-Reisch, Das Griechische Theater, fig. 34
Phot. Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Fig. 464. Athens, Plan of the Hellenistic Theater by Fiechter
Fig. 434. Egyptian Soul House, New York Fiechter, Das Dionysostheater in Athen, in, pi. 21
Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art Fig. 465. Athens, Plan of the Hellenistic Theater by Mahr
Fig. 435. The Villa of Mysteries Mahr, The Origin of the Greek Tragic Form, fig. 29
Maiuri, Itinerari di Musei d'ltalia, No. 3, Pompeii, fig. Fig. 466. Athens, First Reconstruction of Hellenistic Scene
93 Building
Fig. 436. Villa of Diomedes Fiechter, Das Dionysostheater in Athen, m, fig. 38
Mau-Kelsey, Pompeii, fig. 177
Fig. 467. Athens, New Reconstruction of Hellenistic Scene

Roman Wall Painting from Stabiae, Naples Building

Fig. 437. Villa,
Fiechter, Das Dionysostheater in Athen, rv, fig. 19
Swoboda, Rom. Palaste, pi. ma
Fig. 468. Performance of Menander in Athens ca. 300 B.C.,
Fig. 438. New Pleuron, Plan of Theater
Plan
Fiechter, Das Theater in Neu-Pleuron, pi. 8
Drawing by Penelope Dimitriou and Elizabeth Wad-
Fig. 439. New Pleuron, Reconstruction
hams for Bieber
Fiechter, Das Theater in Neu-Pleuron, fig. 6
Fig. 469. Plans and section for Performance of Menander
Fig. 440. Assos, Plan
in the East, ca. 200 b.c.
Clarke, Bacon, Koldeway, Assos, p. 123
Drawing by Penelope Dimitriou and Elizabeth Wad-
Fig. 441. Ephesus, Plan of Actual Remains hams for Bieber
Heberdey-Niemann, Forschungen in Ephesos, u, fig. 14 Fig. 470. Sketch of Setting inside a Thyroma
Fig. 442. Ephesus, Plan of the Hellenistic Theater Drawing for Bulle, redrawn for Bieber
Heberdey-Niemann, Forschungen in Ephesos, n, fig. 15 Figs. 471-472. Scenery for Tragedy, Wall Paintings from
Fig. 443. Ephesus, Plan of the Hellenistic Stage Boscoreale
Heberdey-Niemann, Forschungen in Ephesos, u, fig. 30 Phots. Courtesy of die Metropolitan Museum of Art

316
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES
Fig. 473. Scenery for Comedy, Wall Painting from Bos- Figs. 475, 476 a-c. The Theater of Vitruvius Compared with
coreale Priene, Ephcsus, and Delos
Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art Fiechter, Die baugcschichtliclie Entwicklung des an-
Fig. 474. Scenery for Satyr Play, Wall Painting from Bos- tiken Theaters, figs. 54-57
coreale Fig. 477. The Theater in Delphi, Auditorium
Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art Phot. Professor Benjamin Hunningher

CHAPTER X. ITALIAN POPULAR COMEDY (THE PHLYAKES)

Fig. 478. Dolon Caught by Odysseus and Diomedes, Early Fig. 501. A Lover Climbing a Ladder, Vase, British Mu-
South Italian Crater seum
Trendall, Friihitaliotisclie Vasen, pi. 14a Phot. Courtesy the Trustees of the British Museum
Fig. 479 a-b. Heracles, Vase, Madrid Fig. 502 a-b. Old Lover Bringing Apples to Young Woman,
a. Mon. Inst., vm, pi. x; b. Trendall, Friihitaliotisclie Crater, Boston
Vasen, pi. vm Phots. Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Fig. 480. Stage Model, Terracotta Relief, Naples Fig. 503. Old Man and Young Woman, Terracotta Frag-
Alda Levi, Catalogo delle Terracotte di Napoli, fig. 134 ment, Tarentum
Fig. 481. Heracles Angers Apollo, Vase, Leningrad Phot. Mus. Tarentum
Phot. Mus. Leningrad Fig. 504. Father and Son Fighting Over a Woman, Crater,
Fig. 482. Heracles Angers Zeus, Vase from Ruvo Ruvo
Phot. Mus. Leningrad Phot. Jatta
Fig. 483 a-b. Visitors to Zeus Ammon, Vase, Bari Fig. 505. Two Slaves Leading a Woman, Crater, Moscow
Phots. Jatta Phot. Moscow Museum
Fig. 484. Zeus Visits Alcmene, Vatican Fig. 506. Woman Feeding a Man, Vase, Gottingen
Phot. Faraglia Phot. German Arch. Inst., Rome
Fig. 485. Ares and Hephaestus Fight Before Hera Fig. 507. Young Couple with Baby, Drawing from Crater
British Museum, Guide to Greek and Roman Life, fig.
in Naples
33 Dorpfeld-Reisch, Das Griechische Theater, fig. 79
Fig. 486. Heracles Brings Monkeys Eurystheus.
to From Fig. 508. Charinus and Thieves, Crater by Assteas, Berlin
Camarina, Museo Civico, Catania
Phot. Berlin Museum
Bieber, Denkmaler, Fig. 127
Fig. 509. Nibbling of Dainties, Vase, Private Collection,
Fig. 487. Heracles Knocks at a Door, Berlin
Milan
Phot. Berlin Museum
Fig. 488. a. Old Man, Detail of Vase in Lentini 488b
Phot, kindly loaned by Professor A. D. Trendall
b. Heracles as Libertine, Drawing of Vase in 488a Fig. 510. Slave with Wine Jar Pursued by Old Woman,
a. Phot. Rizzo; b. Bieber, Denkmaler, fig. 128 Vase, Berlin
Fig. 489. Hermes and Heracles with Woman, Vase from Phot. Berlin Museum
Centuripe, Milan Fig. 511. Slaves with Wine Pail and Roast Following Flute
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Rome Player, Vase, Leningrad
Fig. 490. Parody of Antigone Phot. Mus. Leningrad
Bieber, Denkmaler, fig. 130 Fig. 512. Policeman, Thief, and Old Woman, Vase, New
Fig. 491. Servants Helping Cheiron up Steps on Journey York
to a Spa, Vase from Apulia Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Phot. Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum Fig. 513. Thrashing of a Slave, Vase, Berlin
Fig. 492. Birth of Helen, Vase, Bari Phot. Berlin Museum
Phot. Jatta Fig. 514. The Farmer in the City, Vase, Leningrad
Fig. 493. Priam and Neoptolemus, Vase, Berlin Phot. Mus. Leningrad
Phot. Berlin Museum Fig. 515. Seller of Birds, Vase, Louvre
Fig. 494. Ajax and Cassandra in Sanctuary of Athena, Vase, Phot. Archives photographiques
Rome, Villa Giulia Fig. 516. Two Boxers, Campanian Hydria, Boston
Ausonia, v (1910), pi. m Phot. Courtesy the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Fig. 495. Odysseus with King and Queen of the Phaiakes,
Fig. 517. Father Leading Drunken Son, Crater, British Mu-
Campanian Vase, Louvre
seum
Phot. Archives photographiques
Phot. Courtesy the Trustees of the British Museum
Fig. 496. Phlyax Riding a Tuna Fish, Drawing from Lost
Fig. 518. Discussion between Wise Old Man and Excited
Vase
Friend, Fragment from Tarentum, Heidelberg
Bieber, Denkmaler, fig. 131
Phot. Arch. Inst. Heidelberg
Fig. 497. Warriors and Dog, Vase, Naples
Phot. Gisela Kries Fig. 519. Master and Slave, Vase, Bari
Fig. 498. Sappho and Alcaeus, Vase, Bari Phot. Jatta
Phot. Jatta Fig. 520. Two Women Gossiping, Vase, Heidelberg
Fig. 499 a-b. Love in the Balance, Vase, Syracuse Phot. Arch. Inst. Heidelberg
a. CVA, xvn: Museo Archeologico Nazionale
Italia, fasc. Fig. 521. Timid Old Man, from Lecce, Vienna
di Siracusa. Fasc. 1, Rome, 1941, rv e, Tav. 3 Phot. Frankenstein
b. Phots. German Arch. Inst., Rome Fig. 522. Old Man Leaning against a Column, Fragment
Fig. 500. Lovers at a Door, Vase, British Museum from Tarentum, Wiirzburg
Phot. Courtesy the Trustees of the British Museum Phot. German Arch. Inst., Rome

317
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES
Fig. 523. Caricature of an Augur, Naples b. Silenus and Dionysus, Paestan Vase, Louvre
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Rome Trendall, Paestan Pottery, pi. xxi c
Fig. 524. Fat Torchbearer, Tarentum Fig. 533. Phlyax and Dionysus, Paestan Vase, Vatican
Phot. Mrs. D. Beazley
J. Trendall, Paestan Pottery, pi. xxn a
Fig. 525. Young Torchbearer or Augur, Calyx Crater, (for- Fig. 534. Phlyax and Dionysus, Paestan Vase, Liverpool
merly Vienna) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New Trendall, Paestan Pottery, pi. xxm a
York Fig. 535. Dionysus and Phlyakes Watching an Acrobat,
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Rome Crater. Attributed to Assteas, Museo Eoliano,
Fig. 526. Running
Slave, Jug, Boston Lipari, Sicily
Phot. Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Phot. Courtesy Dr. Frances Jones
Fig. 527. Slave Carrying a Table with Cakes, Vase from Fig. 536. Phlyax Dancing before Dionysus, Paestan Vase,
Egnazia British Museum
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Rome Phot. Courtesy the Trustees of the British Museum
Fig. 528. Slave Carrving a Basket to an Altar, Vase, Louvre Fig. 537. Phlyax Dancing between a Satyr and a Maenad,
Phot. Archives photographiques Askos, Ruvo
Fig. 529. Man and Woman, Terracotta Figurines Phot. Jatta
Phot. Mus. Syracuse Fig. 538. Three Actors, Farce Masks, and Papposilenus
Fig. 530. Three Slaves, Terracotta Figurines .Sleeping, Crater by Python, Vatican
Phot. Mus. Syracuse Phot. Alinari 35756
Fig. 531. Phlyax Lighting Fire on an Altar, Campanian Fig. 539. Actor as Santia, Wine Jug, British Museum
Crater, Princeton Phot. Courtesy the Trustees of the British Museum
Phot. Courtesy The Art Museum, Princeton University Fig. 540. Plan and Reconstruction of a Phlyakes Stage
Fig. 532 a. Silenus and Dionvsus, Paestan Vase, Los Angeles Drawing by Wirsing in Bulle, Untersuchungen, pi. 47,
Trendall, Paestan Pottery, pi. xxi b figs. 3-4

CHAPTER XI. THE ROMAN PLAYS AT THE TIME OF THE REPUBLIC

Fig. 541. Etruscan Dancers, Wall Painting Fig. 557. Slave Seated on Altar, Marble Statuette, Vatican
JdAI, xxxr (1916), pi. 12 Phot. German Arch. Inst., Rome
Fig. 542. Phersu, Tomba degli Auguri Fig. 558. Slave Seated on Altar, Marble Statuette, British
Weege, Etruskische Malerei, pi. 95 Museum
Fig. 543. Phersu, Tomba del Pulcinella Phot. Courtesy the Trustees of the British Museum
Weege, Etruskische Malerei, pi. 90 Fig. 559. Speaker of Prologue to Hecyra (Ambivius Tur-
Fig. 544. Charun, The Demon with a Hammer, Tomba del pio ) Terence MS
,

Oreo Terence, Codex Vaticanus Ambrosianus, 76 r

Poulsen, Etruscan Tomb Painting, fig. 35 Fig. 560. Shrine with Masks
Fig. 545. Charun, Terracotta Head, Villa Giulia, Rome Codex Vaticanus 3868
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Rome Fig. 561 a-c. Scenes from the Adelphi
Fig. 546. Tribune Games, Wall Painting,
for Spectators of Codex Vaticanus 3868
Tomba Corneto
Stackelberc;, Fig. 562. Mask Relief from Pompeii, Naples
JdAI, xxxi (1916), suppl. pi. 2 Phot. Alinari 3310
Fig. 547. Old Slave with Mask of Virgo, Terracotta Statu- Fig. 563. Mask Relief from Pompeii, Naples
ette, Berlin Phot. Losacco
Phot. Berlin Museum Fig. 564. Mask Relief from Ostia, Vatican
Fig. 548. Youth, b. Courtesan, Statuettes from Pompeii.
a. Phot. Anderson 23699
Naples Fig. 565. Mask of a Girl, in Garland Surrounding Mosaic
Alda Levi, Catalogo delle Terracotte di Napoli, pi. xrv with Genius of Autumn, Naples
Fig. 549. Mask of Gay Youth with Fillet and Garland, Ta- Phot. Losacco
rentum Fig. 566. Relief Masks from Pompeii, Medallion, Naples
Phot. Mus. Tarentum Phot. Losacco
Fig. 550. Roman in Toga, Bronze from Hereulaneum, Na- Fig. 567. Mask of a Heroine, Naples
ples Phot. Losacco
Bronzi di Ercolaneo, n, 79 Fig. 568. Mask of Hero with Long Curled Hair, Naples
Fig. 551. Potter, Terracotta Statuette Phot. Losacco
Phot. Courtesy the Trustees of the British Museum Fig. 569. Masks of Heracles, Deianeira, and Iole, Relief
Fig. 552. Moneylender, Terracotta Statuette from Pompeii
Phot. Courtesy the Trustees of the British Museum Phot. Losacco
Fig. 553. Politician, Terracotta Statuette Fig. 570. Masks of Perseus and Andromeda, Relief, Mu-
Phot. Courtesy the Trustees of the British Museum nich
Fig. 554. a. Slave, b. Father of Comedy, Bronze Figurines, Phot. Mus. Munich
(formerly Rome) Metropolitan Museum of Art Fig. 571. Masks of Perseus and Andromeda, Wall Painting,
Phot. Faraglia Pompeii
Fig. 555. Slave of Comedy, Bronze Statuette, Baltimore Archaologische Zeitung, xxvt (1878), pi. m
Phot. Courtesy Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore Fig. 572. Archaistic Masks and Flaming Altar, Relief,
Fig. 556. Slave Seated on Altar, Marble Statuette, Vatican Naples
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Rome Phot. Losacco

318
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES
Fig. 573 a-b. Mask Reliefs from the Quirinal Fig. 577. Male Mask with Waved Hair and Beard, New
Phot. Moscioni 11636 York
Fig. 574. Mask in Mosaic on the Threshold of the Casa del Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Fauno, Pompeii Fig. 578. Masks of Dionysus, a Satyr, and Two Maenads,
Phot. Brogi 6501 Relief, British Museum
Fig. 575. Tragic Mask, Medallion from Pompeii, Naples Phot. Courtesy the Trustees of the British Museum
Phot. Losacco Fig. 579. Female Acrobats on Southern Italian Vases
Fig. 576. Male and Female Tragic Masks, Medallion from Bulle, Festschrift fiir Loeb, figs. 14-16
Pompeii, Naples
Phot. Losacco

CHAPTER XII. THE ART OF ACTING IN ROME

Fig. 580. Actor, Bronze Statuette, Boston Fig. 589. Tragic Scene from Columbarium of Villa Doria-
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Phot. Courtesy Pamphili, Museo Nationale Romano delle Terme,
Fig. 581. Actor, Bronze Statuette, Rome Rome
Phot. Eduard Schmidt Phot. Faraglia
Fig. 582. Slave and Courtesan, Lamp, Rome Fig. 590. Tragic Scene, Wall Painting from Ostia in the
Phot. Faraglia Lateran
Fig. 583. Running Slave, Marble Statue, Villa Albani Phot. Anderson24215
Phot. Alinari27539 Fig. 591. Phaedra and Nurse, Painting on Marble from Her-
Fig. 584. Pensive Slave, Marble Statuette, Istanbul culaneum, Naples
Phot. Mus. Istanbul Robert, Kentaurenkampf, pi. n
Fig. 585. Comic Actors on Cover of Praenestine Cista, Brit- Fig. 592. Portrait of the Mime Player Norbanus Sori.x,
ish Museum Naples
Phot. Courtesy the Trustees of the British Museum Arndt, Griechische und rbmische Portrdts, pi. 457, Phot.
Fig. 586. Two Actors, Relief, Verona Alinari
Arndt-Amelung, Photographische Einzelaufnahmen an- Fig. 593. Reciter Declaiming a Comic Subject, Rome
tiker Skulpturen, No. 3 Phot. Faraglia
Fig. 587. Scene of Comedy, Terracotta Relief, Recon- Fig. 594. Victorious Poet or Reciter of a Tragic Monologue
structed Appearing in the Door of a Scenae Frons, Naples
Puchstein, Die griechische Biihne, fig. 4 Phot. Museo di Napoli, Courtesy Professor Maiuri
Fig. 588. Scene of Tragedy, Terracotta Relief from Tomb
of Numitorius Hilarus, Rome
Phot. Faraglia

CHAPTER XIII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROMAN THEATER

BUILDING DURING THE REPUBLICAN PERIOD
Fig. 595. Syracuse, View of the Stage Building Fig. 608 a-c. Pompeii, Large Theater, Plans of Successive
Phot. Crupi Stage Buildings
Fig. 596. Segesta, View of the Theater Bieber, Denkmaler, fig. 57
Phot. Alinari 19662 Fig. 609. Pompeii, Inscription of Holconii
Fig. 597. Segesta, Plan of Actual Remains Old Phot., Source Unknown
Wirsing, in Bulle, Untersuchungen, pi. 19 Fig. 610. Pompeii, Large Theater, View of Scaenae Frons,
Fig. 598. Segesta, Plan of Stage Building Stage and Orchestra
Bieber, Denkmdler, fig. 54 Maiuri, Pompeii, pi. 36
Fig. 599. Tyndaris, Plan of Stage Building Fig. 611. Pompeii, Large Theater, View of Stage from the
Wirsing, in Bulle, Untersuchungen, pi. 34 Side
Fig. 600. Segesta, Reconstruction, General View Maiuri, Pompeii, pi. 37
Wirsing, in Bulle, Untersuchungen, pi. 25 Fig. 612. Pompeii, Large Theater, View of Outside of Stage
Fig. 601. Segesta, Reconstructed Stage Building Building
Wirsing, in Bulle, Untersuchungen, pi. 23 Phot. Alinari 11404
Fig. 602. Tyndaris, Reconstructed Stage Building Fig. 613. Pompeii, Small Theater, General View
Wirsing, in Bulle, Untersuchungen, pi. 37 Phot. Alinari 11403
Fig. 603. Segesta, Remains of a Pan in the Paraskenion Fig. 614. Pompeii, Small Theater, Orchestra
Bulle, Untersuchungen, pi. 28d Maiuri, Pompeii, pi. 39
Fig. 604 a-b. Pans from the Theater of Pompey, Rome Fig. 615. Pompeii, Small Theater, Telamon
Jones, Stuart, Catalogue of Sculptures, Mus. Capit., pi. 2 Maiuri, Pompeii, pi. 41
Fig. 605. Pompeii, Plan of Theater District Fig. 616. Taormina, Odeum
Mau, Pompeii, pi. m Phot. Alinari 19777
Fig. 606. Pompeii, View of Large Theater Fig. 617. Athens, Odeum of Agrippa
Phot. Alinari 34528 Plan of Ground Level
a.

Fig. 607. Pompeii, Plan of Large Theater Plan of Level of the Top of the Cavea
b.
Maiuri, Notizie degli Scavi (1951), p. 128, fig. 2 Thompson, Hesperia, xix (1950), pi. 17 a-b

319
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES
Fig. 618 a-b. Athens, Odeum of Agrippa, Restored Sections Section and Outside South Reconstruction
b.
Thompson, Hesperia, xix (1950), pis. 18, 19 Outside East Reconstruction
c.

Fig. 619 a-b. Athens, Odeum of Agrippa, Reconstructions Knackfuss, Das Rathaus von Milet, pi. rv
Thompson, Hesperia, xix (1950), pis. 20a, 60 Fig. 634. Model of Roman Stage, Museo Nazionale, Rome
Fig. 620. Syracuse, Odeum Phot. Faraglia
Phot. Alinari 19806 Fig. 635. Taormina, Plan
Fig. 621. Epidaurus, Odeum Serradifalco, Antichita della Sicilia, v, pi. 21
Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art Fig. 636. Taormina, View of Scaenae Frons
Fig. 622. Pompeii, Amphitheater, General View Phot. Alinari 19771
Phot. Alinari 11340 Fig. 637. Taormina, Detail of Scaenae Frons
Fig. 623. Pompeii, Entrance Staircases to the Amphitheater Phot. Alinari 19774
Maiuri, Pompeii (1951), pi.42b Fig. 638. Taormina, Auditorium
Fig. 624. Pompeii, Amphitheater, Wall Painting, Naples Phot. Alinari 19773
Phot. Alinari 12004 Fig. 639. Taormina, Corridorbehind the Stage
Fig. 625. Pozzuoli, Amphitheater Phot. Alinari 19776
40699
Phot. Alinari Fig. 640. Theaters of Pompey and Marcellus, Plans
Fig. 626. Capua, Amphitheater Jordan, Forma Urbis Romae, Nos. 28, 30
Phot. Alinari 11531 Fig. 641. Theater of Marcellus, Reconstructed Plan
Fig. 627. Capua, Subterranean Passages Stre*it (after Peruzzi), Das Theater, pi. vn; redrawing
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Rome (No. 2974) by Miss Wadhams
Fig. 628. Pompeii, Gladiatorial Helmet Fig. 642. Theater of Marcellus, Exterior View
Phot. Rrogi 12475 Phot. Anderson 542
Fig. 629. Relief, Castel San Elia, Showing Scenic Plays and Fig. 643. Theater of Marcellus, Exterior View, after Resto-
Circus Races ration
Bolletino d'Arte 35 (1950), 1 ff., fig. 1 Phot. German Arch. Inst., Rome
Fig. 630. Theater of Pompey, Ancient Plan Fig. 644. Theater of Herculaneum, Model
Hanson, Roman Theater-Temples, fig. 15 Maiuri, Ercolano, p. 27
Fig. 631. Theater of Pompey, Renaissance Reconstruction Fig. 645. The Roman Theater According to Vitruvius
Bieber, Denkmaler, fig. 59 Morgan, Vitruvius, fig. on p. 147
Fig. 632. Theater of Pompey, Plan with Colonnades behind Fig. 646. Difference between Plans of Greek and Roman
the Scenebuilding Theaters
Reconstruction by Bohnert Dorpfeld-Reisch, Das Griechische Theater, fig. 99
Fig. 633 a-c. Bouleuterion of Miletus
a. Plan of Assembly Hall

CHAPTER XIV. ROMAN THEATER BUILDINGS IN ITALY AND THE PROVINCES DURING
THE EMPIRE
Fig. 647. Ostia, Plan of Theater and Square Fig. 661. Verona, Side View with Parodos
Bieber, Denkmaler, fig. 60 Phot. Alinari 39071
Fig. 648. Ostia, Interior View Fig. 662. Verona, Amphitheater, Interior
Phot. Direzione Scavi Ostia Antica Phot. Anderson 12358
Fig. 649. Ostia, Exterior View Fig. 663. Verona, Amphitheater, View of Exterior and In-
Phot. Direzione Scavi Ostia Antica terior
Fig. 650. Ostia, Reconstruction Phot. Grafia, Rome (No. 65922)
D'Espouy-Joseph, Architektonische Eirizelheiten, pi. 100 Fig. 664. Verona, Amphitheater, Exterior
Fig. 651. Minturnae, Original Plan Phot. Anderson 12341
Phot. Courtesy The University Museum, Philadelphia Fig. 665. Verona, Amphitheater, Vaulted Corridors
Fig. 652. Minturnae, Plan of Later Period Phot. Anderson 12342
Phot. Courtesy The University Museum, Philadelphia Fig. 666. Rome, Colosseum, Exterior
Fig. 653. Minturnae, View of Orchestra and Scene Building Phot. Anderson280
Phot. Courtesy The University Museum, Philadelphia Fig. 667. Rome, Colosseum, Plan
Fig. 654. Minturnae, View of Cavea, Entrances, and Stage Bohnert, pi. xn
Building Fig. 668. Rome, Colosseum, Section
Phot. Courtesy The University Museum, Philadelphia
Marzi, Rome
Fig. 655. Fiesole, View of Cavea and Orchestra
Fig. 669. Rome, Colosseum, Interior of Vaulted Corridor
Phot. Alinari 17015
Phot. Anderson 4781
Fig. 656. Fiesole, Orchestra and Stage
Fig. 670. Coin of Titus Showing the Colosseum
Phot. Alinari 3293
Fig. 657. Fiesole, Side Entrances to Stage and Orchestra
Mattingly, Catalogue of Coins in the British Museum;
Phot. Courtesy Dr. Gerd Muehsam Roman Empire, n, pi. 50, 2

Fig. 658. Verona, Cavea with Church Fig. 671. Aries, General View of Theater

Phot. Alinari 39073 Phot. Courtesy Dr. Gerd Muehsam

Fig. 659. Verona, Orchestra and Cavea Fig. 672. Vaison, General View of Theater
Phot. Anderson 19030 Phot. Courtesy of Professor Benjamin Hunningher
Fig. 660. Verona, Vaulted Entrance to Staircase Fig. 673. Lyon, Large and Small Theaters
Phot. Alinari 39075 Phot. Courtesy of Professor Benjamin Hunningher

320
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES
Fig. 674. Lyon, Model of Large Theater Fig. 705. Aspendus, Scaenae Frons, Reconstruction
Phot. Courtesy of Professor Benjamin Hunningher Lanckoronski, Pamphylien, i, pi. xxvii
Fig. 675. Orange, Flan of the Theater Fig. 706. Aspendus, Detail of Entablature
Fiechter, Entwicklungsgeschichte, fig. 78a Lanckoronski, Pamphylien, i, pi. xxvi
Fig. 676. Orange, Interior Fig. 707. Palmyra, Scaenae Frons, Elevation and Plan of
Phot. Courtesy of Ruth Stearns Stage
Fig. 677. Orange, Exterior Wiegand, Palmyra, pi. 23
Memoires Academie des Inscriptions, xu (1923), pi. n Fig. 708. Amman, Auditorium
Fig. 678. Orange, Theater and Circus Combined Phot. Courtesy Professor Kahane
Caristie, Monuments antiques d Orange, p. 79, fig. 32 Fig. 709. Amman, View through Scenae Frons
Fig. 679. Orange, Scenae Frons, Reconstruction Phot. Arab Information Center
Caristie, Monuments antiques d Orange, pi. xlvi Fig. 710. Bosra, Plan of the Theater
Fig. 680. Merida, Plan of the Theater Fiechter, Entwickhingsgeschichte, fig. 93
Melida, Monumentos Romanos di Espana, pi. 24 Fig. 711. Es-Suhba, Plan of the Theater
Fig. 681. Merida, Orchestra Fiechter, Entwicklungsgeschichte, fig. 94
Phot. Emeline Hill Richardson Fig. 712. Athens, Theater of Herodes Atticus, Plan
Fig. 682. Merida, Scenae Frons Ephcmeris (1912), pi. 8
Phot. Emeline Hill Richardson Fig. 713. Athens, Theater of Herodes Atticus, Exterior View
Fig. 683. Merida, Arched Entrance to Staircase Phot. Phato Sphinx, E.A.H. 19/948
Phot. Emeline Hill Richardson Figs. 714 a-b. Athens, Theater of Herodes Atticus; Stage
Fig. 684. Merida, Colonnaded Court behind Stage Building and Versura
Phot. Emeline Hill Richardson Phot. Messbildanstalt, Berlin
Fig. 685. Timgad, Plan of Theater Fig. 715. Athens, Theater of Herodes Atticus, Reconstruc-
Boeswillwald, Timgad, pi. xrv, 1 tion by Fiechter
Fig. 686. Timgad, View of Interior Fiechter, Dionysostheater, iv, fig. 50
Phot. Lehnert and Landrock 4106 Fig. 716. Athens, Theater of Herodes Atticus, Reconstruc-
Fig. 687. Timgad, Plan of Provision for Curtain tion by Versakis
Boeswillwald, Timgad, pi. xrv, 2 Ephemeris (1912), pi. 12
Fig. 688. Djemila, Remains of Proscaenium Fig. 717. Theater of Dionysus, View of Orchestra
Gsell, Monuments antiques de VAlgerie, i, pi. xlv Phot. Alinari 24566
Fig. 689. Dugga, Plan of the Theater Fig. 718. Theater of Dionysus, Orchestra and Stage
Memoirs American Academy Rome (1931), pi. 11 Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Ant. Baut. 119
Fig. 690. Dugga, View of the Stage from the Cavea Fig. 719. Theater of Dionysus, Plan, Period of Nero
Phot. Service des Antiquites, Tunisia, Memoirs American Fiechter, Dionysostheater, m, pi. 22
Academy in Rome, pi. 3 Fig. 720. Theater of Dionysus, Plan, Latest Period
Fig. 691. Dugga, Reconstruction of Scaenae Frons Fiechter, Dionysostheater, m, pi. 23
Memoirs American Academy Rome (1931), frontispiece Fig. 721. Theater of Dionysus, Reconstruction of the Ne-
Fig. 692. Dugga, Stage and Hyposkenion ronic Stage
Carton, Dugga, pi. xrv b Fiechter, Dionysostheater, m, fig. 43
Fig. 693. Dugga, Reconstruction of the Stage Fig. 722. Theater of Dionysus, Reconstruction of the Ne-
Carton, Dugga, pi. xrv a ronic Stage, Later Attempt
Fig. 694. Sabratha, Plan of the Theater Fiechter, Dionysostheater, rv, pi. 5
Giacomo Guidi, Africa Italiana, m
(1930), pi. I Fig. 723. Theater of Dionysus, Scaenae Frons, Side View,
Fig. 695. Sabratha, Reconstructed Stage with Scaenae Frons Reconstruction bv von Gerkan
JdAI 51 (1936), p. 558, fig. 45 JdAI 56 (1941), p. 177, fig. 5
Fig. 696. Leptis Magna, Orchestra and Auditorium Fig. 724 a-b. Theater of Dionysus, Provision for Curtain
Archivio fotografico della Libia occidentale (No. 433); (a. photograph; b. cross-section drawing)
Phot. De Liberali, Tripoli, Courtesy Professor Caputo Fiechter, Dionysostheater, m, figs. 41, 49
Fig. 697. Leptis Magna, Additus Maximus and Tribunal Fig. 725. Theater of Dionysus, Parapet and Seats of Honor
Archivio fotografico della Libia occidentale (No. 407); Phot. Messbildanstalt
Phot. De Liberali, Tripoli, Courtesy Professor Caputo Fig. 726. Corinth, Restored Plan of Roman Theater
Fig. 698. Leptis Magna, Scaenae Frons Stillwell, Corinth, n, The Theater, pi. vna
Archivio fotografico della Libia occidentale (No. 404); Fig. 727. Corinth, Restored Plan of the Arena
Phot. De Liberali, Tripoli, Courtesy Professor Caputo Stillwell, Corinth, n, The Theater, vnb- pi.
Fig. 699. Leptis Magna, Regia Fig. 728 a-b. Corinth, Views a) from South, b) from North-
Archivio fotografico della Libia occidentale (No. 403); west
Phot. De Liberali, Tripoli, Courtesy Professor Caputo Stillwell, Corinth, n, The Theater, figs. 1, 2
Fig. 700. Aspendus, Plan of the Theater Fig. 729. Corinth, Scenae Frons, Reconstruction
Lanckoronski, Pamphijlien, i, pi. xxi Stillwell, Corinth, n, The Theater, pi. vmb
Fig. 701. Aspendus, General View Fig. 730. Magnesia, Plan of the Theater
Lanckoronski, Pamphylien, i, pi. xx Bulle, Untersuchungen, fig. 6b
Fig. 702. Aspendus, Exterior View Fig. 731. Magnesia, Plan Compared to Vitruvius
Lanckoronski, Pamphylien, i, fig. 74 Fiechter, Entwicklungsgeschichte, fig. 54
Fig. 703. Aspendus, Sections Fig. 732. Priene, Roman
Plan
Lanckoronski, Pamphylien, i, pi. xxn Fiechter, Entwicklungsgeschichte, fig. 56
Fig. 704. Aspendus, Scaenae Frons, Sketch of Actual State Fig. 733. Ephesus, Plan of Roman Period
Lanckoronski, Pamphylien, i, pi. xxv Heberdey, Niemann, Ephesos, n, fig. 5

321
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES
Fig. 734. Ephesus, Section Fig. 746. Termessus, Odeum, Exterior
Heberdey, Niemann, Ephesos, n, fig. 96 Lanckoronski, Pamphylien, n, pi. xrv
Fig. 735. Ephesus, Scaenae Frons, Reconstruction by Nie- Fig. 747. Aosta, Odeum, Exterior
mann Phot. Bassani 1570
Heberdey, Niemann, Ephesos, n, pi. vni Fig. 748. Corinth, Odeum, Plan
Fig. 736. Ephesus, Scaenae Frons, Reconstruction by Hor- Broneer, The Odeum in Corinth, pi. i
mann Fig. 749. Corinth, Odeum, View from the North
JdAI 38/9 (1923/24), Suppl., pi. vra Broneer, The Odeum in Corinth, pi. vn
Fig. 737. Miletus, View from Side Fig. 750. Butrinto, Odeum, General View
Noack, Baukunst, pi. 87 Phot. Courtesy of Professor Ugolini
Fig. 738. Miletus, View from Above Fig. 751. Cretopolis, Odeum, Plan and Section
Krauss, in Bericht des Internationalen Kongress fiir
Lanckoronski, Pamphylien, n, fig. 58
Archaologie, Berlin, 1939, pi. 36a Fig. 752. Altar in Sanctuary of Dionysus
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens, Var. 260
Fig. 739. Miletus, Scaenae Frons, Plan
Fig. 753. Kneeling Silenus, Louvre
Krauss, in Bericht des Internationalen Kongress fiir
Phot. Archives photographiques
Archaologie, Berlin, 1939, pi. 37a-b
Fig. 754. Kneeling Silenus, Capitoline Museum
Fig. 740. Termessus, View of the Stage
Phot. Anderson 1792
Lanckoronski, Pamphtjlien, n, pi. xm
Fig. 755*. Colossal Silenus, Athens
Fig. 741. Sagalassus, Plan of the Theater
Phot. German Arch. Athens
Inst.,
Lanckoronski, Pamphtjlien, n, pi. xxvi Fig. 756. Fragment Large Silenus, Athens
of a
Fig. 742. Sagalassus, Reconstruction of the Stage Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens
Lanckoronski, Pamphylien, n, pi. xxvra Fig. 757. Head of Silenus, Athens
Fig. 743. Aizani, Plan of Theater and Circus Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens
Caristie, Monuments antiques a Orange, pi. xliv Fig. 758. Lower Part of Colossal Female, Perhaps Tragodia,
Fig. 744. Aizani, View of the Ruins Athens
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Adiens (Aizani 116) Phot. German Arch. Inst., Athens
Fig. 745. Termessus, Odeum, Section Fig. 759. Archaistic Statue of Athena, Corinth
Lanckoronski, Pamphylien, n, fig. 57 Broneer, The Odeum in Corinth, pi. xvi

CHAPTER XV. PLAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Fig. 760. Mask of Andromeda, Wall Painting from Pompeii Fig. 772. Hero and Messenger, Tragic Scene, Palermo
Phot. Losacco Phot. Mus. Palermo
Fig. 761. Mask of Youth of Tragedy, Wall Painting from Fig. 773. Heroine with Baby and Nurse, Casa dei Dioscuri,
Pompeii Naples
Phot. Losacco Phot. Losacco
Fig. 762. Mask of Woman, Wall Painting from Pompeii Fig. 774. Iphigenia, House of the Goldsmith
Phot. Losacco Phot. Losacco
Fig. 763. Mask of Father of Comedy, Wall Painting from Fig. 775. Stage with Presentation of a Mime
Pompeii Cube, Romische Scaenae Frons, pi. n
Phot. Losacco Fig. 776. Stage with Presentation of a Pantomime
Fig. 764. Mask of Youth of Comedy, Wall Painting from Cube, Romische Scaenae Frons, pi. vi
Pompeii Fig. 777. Stage with Victorious Athletes
Phot. Losacco Cube, Romische Scaenae Frons, pi. rv
Fig. 765. Alternating Scenes of Tragedy and Comedy. Fig. 778. Stage with Victorious Athletes ( detail of Fig. 777
Frieze, Casa del Centenario Phot. Alinari 12114
Old Phot. Fig. 779. The Killing of Children, Lamp, Rome
Fig. 766. Heracles, Amphitryon, Megara, and Lycus, from Phot. Faraglia
Casa del Centenario Fig. 780. Portrait of Seneca, Berlin
Dieterich, Pulcinella, pi. I Arndt, Portrats, pi. 1200
Fig. 767. Amphitryon, Megara, and Lycus, from Casa di Fig. 781. Statue of Apollo Kitharoidos (perhaps Nero)
Casca Phot. Anderson 1311
Notizie degli Scavi (1929), pi. xxm Fig. 782. Tombstone of the Flutist Myropnous
Fig. 768. Priam Kneeling to Achilles, from Casa del Cen- Phot. German Arch. Inst., Rome
(No. 4674)
tenario Fig. 783. Pantomime, Ivory Relief from Trier, Berlin
Monumenti dell' Instituto, xt, pi. xxx, 4 Phot. Jane Rodenwaldt van Heuckelum
Fig. 769. Medea Pointing Sword at Her Children, from Fig. 784. Girls Dresed in Bathing Suits
Casa del Centenario Anthemon, Scritti in onore di Carlo Anti, pi. xxxn
Monumenti dell' Instituto, xr, pi. xxxi, 11 Fig. 785. Tragic Scene from Pulpitum of Sabratha
Fig. 770. Slave Awaiting Return of Youth with Small Boy Africa Italiana, m
(1930), fig. 26
and Torchbearer, Casa del Centenario Fig. 786. Mime from Pulpitum of Sabratha
Dieterich, Pulcinella, pi. n Africa Italiana, m
(1930), fig. 40
Fig. 771. Priestess, Old Man, and Slave by Altar, Casa del Fig. 787. Funeral Plays, Wall Painting from the Necropolis
Centenario of C)Tene
Dieterich, Pulcinella, pi. hi Wieseler, Theater gebaude, pi. xm
322
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES
Fig. 788. Funeral Plays for Flavius Valerianus, Relief in Fig. 814 a-c. Theater Tickets, Bibliotheque Nationale
Villa Doria-Pamphili Phot. Archives photographiques
Arndt-Amelung, Fhotographische Einzelaufnahmcn an- Fig. 815 a-b. Theater Tickets, Louvre
tikcr Skulpturen, 2366 Phot. Archives photographiques
Fig. 789. Pair of Rulers, Mosaic from Porcareccia, Vatican Fig. 816 a-c. Theater Tickets, Milan
Phot. Alinari 26989 Phot. Museo Teatrale alia Scala
Fig. 790. Women Sacrificing, Mosaic from Porcareccia, Fig. 817 Actor of Farce, Bronze Statuette
a-c.
Vatican Phot. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Phot. Alinari 26988 Fig. 818. Actor of Farce, Terracotta, Bonn
Fig. 791. Mercury and Alcestis, Mosaic from Porcareccia, Phot. Provinzialmuseum, Bonn
Vatican Fig. 819 a-b. Mask of Actor of Farce, Candia
Phot. Alinari 26989a Phot. Gerhard Rodenwaldt
Fig. 792. Hero and Satyr, Mosaic from Porcareccia, Vatican Fig. 820. Mask of Farce, Tarentum
Phot. Alinari 26987 Phot. Quagliata and Bendinelli
Fig. 793. Tragic Scene, Cake Mould, Ostia Fig. 821. Mask of Manducus, Worms
Phot. Faraglia Phot. F. Behn
Fig. 794. Comic Scene, Cake Mould, Ostia Fig. 822. Mask of Manducus, Bonn
Phot. Faraglia Phot. Provinzialmuseum, Bonn
Fig. 795. Comic Scene, Cake Mould, British Museum Fig. 823. Mask of Lamia, Westheim
Phot. Courtesy the Trustees of the British Museum Phot. Courtesy Professor F. Behn
Fig. 796. Comic Scene, Cake Mould, from the Agora, Athens Fig. 824. Fragment of Mask from Heddernheim
Phot. Lucy Talcott, Courtesy the Directors of the Agora Phot. Mus. Frankfurt
Excavations Fig. 825. Head of Mime, Profile
Fig. 797. Hero and Heroine, Lamp, Ostia Phot. Mus. Munich
Phot. Faraglia Fig. 826. Pair of Mimes, Hildesheim
Fig. 798. Tragic Actor, Lamp, Dresden Phot. Pelizaeus Museum
Phot. Mus. Dresden Fig. 827 a-b. Mimes with Foolscaps, Athens
Fig. 799 a-b. Tragic Actor, Ivory Statuette, Paris a. upper-part of terracotta statuette; b. terracotta
Phots. Archives photographiques lamp
Fig. 800. Tragic Mask, House of the Large Fountain, Pom- Phots.Lucy Talcott, Courtesy of the Directors of the
peii Agora Excavations
Phot. Tatiana Warscher Fig. 828. Mime in Paenula, Bronze Lamp, Athens
Fig. 801. Mask of Heroine, from Tralles Phot. Lucy Talcott, Courtesy of the Directors of the
Phot. Mus. Istanbul, No. 106 Agora Excavations
Fig. 802. Masks on Mosaic of Heraclitus Fig. 829. a-b. Female Mime, Princeton
Phot. Alinari 29912 Phot. Courtesy The Art Museum, Princeton University
Fig. 803. Tragic Mask, Barcelona (Estate of A. M. Friend)
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Rome (42.48) Fig. 830. Negro Juggler, Berlin
Fig. 804. Tragic Mask from Carthage, Louvre Phot. Berlin Museum
Phot. Archives photographiques Fig. 831. Comic Actor, Late Roman Relief
Fig. 805. Masks in the Theater of Ostia Phot. Louvre, Courtesy Professor Charbonneaux
Phot. Anderson 27230 Fig. 832 a-b. Tragic Scene, Sarcophagus Fragments
Fig. 806. Masks of Heracles and Deianeira, from Season Phot. Louvre, Courtesy Professor Charbonneaux
Sarcophagus, Berlin Fig. 833. Medea and Oedipus, Ivory Relief
Phot. Berlin Museum Phot. Museo Eremitage
Fig. 807. Mask from Mintumae, Philadelphia Fig. 834 Diptych with Plays and Games, Ana-
a-b. Ivory
Phot. Courtesy The University Museum, Philadelphia Bibliotheque Nationale
stasius,
Fig. 808. Group of Masks, Mosaic from Villa of Hadrian, Delbriick, Die Consular-Diptychen, 21
Vatican Fig. 835. Ivory Diptych with Plays and Games, Leningrad
Phot. Anderson 23698 Delbriick, Die Consular-Diptychen, 18
Fig. 809. Mask of Youth, Galleria geografica, Vatican Fig. 836. Ivory Diptych, drawing, Victoria and Albert Mu-
Phot. German Arch. Inst., Rome (3377) seum
Fig. 810 a-c. Mask from Kerameikos Delbriick, Die Consular-Diptychen, p. 128, fig. 1

Berliner Winckelmannsprogramm (75), pis. rv-vi Fig. 837. Ivory Diptych, Verona
Fig. 811 a-b. Theater Tickets with Tragic Masks, a. formerly Delbriick, Die Consular-Diptychen, 19
Bieber, b. Berlin Fig. 838. Animal Baiting, Relief, Milan
Phot. Bieber; b. Phot. Berlin Museum
a. Phot. Bassano
Fig. 812 a-k. Theater Tickets, Bibliotheque Nationale Fig. 839. Animal Hunting, Painting, Parapet, Theater of
Phot. Archives photographiques Corinth
Fig. 813 a-f. Theater Tickets, Drawings Srillwell, Corinth, n, The Theater, fig. 76; copy by
Bieber, Denkmaler, fig. 89 Josephine Shear-Harwood

CHAPTER XVI. THE INFLUENCE OF THE ANCIENT THEATER ON

THE MODERN THEATER
Fig. 840. Telari Stage,a. Section, b. Plan Fig. 841. Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza
Joseph Furttenbach, Mannhafter Kunstspiegel, fig. 12a-b Phot. S. A. Galla, Vicenza

323
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND SOURCES
Fig. 842. Judith Anderson in the Role of Medea, a. with Fig. 853. Cassandra in Aeschylus' Agamemnon, Syracuse
John Gielgud as Jason, b. with her Children 1914
Phot. Syracuse,
Phots. Courtesy Department of Fine Arts, Columbia Fig. 854. Performance of Aeschylus' Agamemnon, Reading,
University England
Fig. 843 a. Aristophanes' Birds performed by highschool Phot. Sport and General, London
students in Berlin. Original painting by Erich Fig. 855 Performance of Sophocles' Plectra by the
a-c.
Heckel destroyed, new version in the artist's pos- Greek National Theater
session, Memmenhofen, iiber Radolfzell, am Phots. Courtesy of Sol Jacobson
Bodensee, Germany Fig. 856 a-b. Performance of Sophocles' Oedipus the King
Phot. Walter Schmidt, courtesy Erich Heckel by the Greek National Theater
Fig. 843 b. The Girl from Samos, New York Production Phots. Courtesy of Sol Jacobson
Ida Ehrlich Fig. 857. Presentation in the Theater of Herodes Atticus,
Phot. Alix Jeffry Athens
Fig. 844 a-d. Performances of Plautus and Terence by Phot. H. Landshoff, Reprinted from Mademoiselle, Street
German Students and Smith Publications, 1955
a-c: Phots. Gymnasium Cassel; d: Phot. Betterman Fig. 858. Presentation of King Oedipus in the Schumann
Fig. 845. Theater of Delphi during Performance of Aeschy- Circus, 1910
lus' Prometheus Painting by Emil Orlik
Phot. Nelly's Fig. 859. The Greek Theater, University of California
Fig. 846 a-b. Performance of Aeschylus' Prometheus in Phot. University of California, Berkeley
Delphi Fig. 860. Dietrich Eckard Freilichtbiihne, Berlin
Phot. Nelly's Hiirliman, Deutschland, Orbis Terrarum (1934), pi. 41
Fig. 847 a-d. Performance of Aeschylus' Suppliants in Figs. 861-864. Barnard College Greek Games; 861: Dancers,
Delphi 1943; 862: Oath of the Athletes, 1946; 863: Agnes
Phot. Nelly's Craig Throwing the Discus, 1935; 864: Antigone,
Fig. 848. Io in Aeschylus' Prometheus, Delphi 1950
Phot. Nelly's Phots.Helen Erskine, Columbia; n.p.; Wide World;
Fig. 849. Oceanus in Aeschylus' Prometheus, Delphi Manny Warman, Columbia University
Phot. Nelly's Fig. 865. Dance of Austrian Schoolteachers in the Orchestra
Fig. 850. Herald in Aeschylus' Suppliants, Delphi of Epidaurus
Phot. Nelly's Phot. German Arch.
Inst, Athens (Epidaurus 72)
Fig. 851. Hephaestus in Aeschylus' Prometheus, Delphi Fig. 866. Tailpiece. Performance of Euripides' Hippolytos,
Phot. Nelly's August 1954, in the Theater at Epidaurus.
Fig. 852. Agamemnon in Aeschylus' Agamemnon, Delphi Phot. Courtesy of Mr. Robert McCabe
Phot. Nelly's

324
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Note: The bibliography has been arranged according to subject, so that in this many-sided
field the reader can find more easily the books and papers which interest him especially.
Inside each division the arrangement is alphabetical. The divisions on literature and epig-
raphy are far from complete, as they can easily be found elsewhere.

Handbooks and Histories of the Theater Actors and Acting

Origins of the Theater Costumes
Theater Building Dramatic Literature
1. Greek 1. Ancient Writers
2. Roman 2. Modern Writers
Production and Reproductions of Theater Inscriptions
Performances English Translations
Music and Dance The Influence of the Ancient Theater on the
Popular Theater Modern Theater

HANDBOOKS AND HISTORIES OF THE THEATER

Allen, James Turney. Stage Antiquities of the Greeks and Korting, G. Geschichte des griechischen und romischen Thea-
Romans and Their Influence. New York, 1927. ters. Paderbom, 1897.
"On the Odeum of Pericles and the Periclean Re-
. Little, Alan M. G. Myth and Society in Attic Drama. Co-
construction of the Theater," University of California lumbia University Press, NewYork, 1942.
Publications in Classical Archaeology, I, No. 7 (1941), Miiller, Albert. Lehrbuch der griechischen Buhnenalter-
pp. 173-177. tumer. Freiburg, 1886.
Bethe, Erich. Prolegomena zur Geschichte des Theaters im Das attische Biihnenwesen, 2nd edition, Gutersloh,
.

Altertum. Leipzig, 1896. 1916.

Bieber, Margarete. Die Denkmaler zum Theaterwesen im Navarre, Octave, he Theatre Grec. Paris, 1925.
Altertum. Berlin, 1920. Nicoll, Allardyce. The Development of the Theater. A Study
The History of the Greek and Roman Theater.
.
of Theatrical Art from the Beginnings to the Present Day.
Princeton University Press, 1939. 3rd ed. New York, 1946, pp. 17-62, figs. 1-51.
d'Amico, Silvio. Storia del Teatro drammatico, I. Rome, 1939- Oehmichen, Gustav. Griechischer Theaterbau. Nach Vitruv
1940. und den Ueberresten. Berlin, 1886.
Fensterbusch, Curt. "Bericht iiber die Literatur zur Ge- and Paul Stengel. "Das Biihnenwesen der Griechen
,

schichte des Theaters der Griechen und Romer," Jahres- und Romer," in Iwan Miiller, Handbuch der klassischen
berichte der Klassischen Altertums Wissenschaft, 227 Altertumswissenschaften. Vol. V, part 3. Munchen, 1890.
(1930), in, 4-12; 253 (1936), m, 1-57. Schneider, G.C.W. Das Attische Theaterwesen. Zum besseren
Flickinger, Roy C. The Greek Theater and its Drama. Verstehen der griechischen Dramatiker nach den Quel-
The University of Chicago Press, 1918; 4th edition, len dargestellt. Weimar, 1835.
1936. Wieseler, Friedrich. Theatergehaude und Denkmaler des
Haigh, A. E. The Attic Theatre, 3rd edition by Pickard- Biihnenwesens bei den Griechen und Romern. Gottin-
Cambridge. Oxford, 1907. gen, 1851.

ORIGINS OF THE THEATER

Bieber, Margarete. Review of Hedwig Kenner, Das Theater Mahr, August C. The Origin of the Greek Tragic Form. New
und der Realismus in der griechischen Kunst (1954) York, 1938.
in Gnomon (1956), 127-134. Nilsson,M. "Der Ursprung der Tragodie," Neue Jahrbiicher
Brommer, F. Wurzburg, 1937.
"Satyroi." Dissertation, das klassische Altertum, 1911, pp. 609 and 673f.
fiir
Cornford, F. Macdonald. The Origin of Attic Comedy. Cam- Geschichte der griechischen Religion, Iwan Miiller,
.

bridge, 1934. Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaften. Abt.

Dieterich, Albrecht. "Die Entstehung der Tragodie," Archiv V, Teil II. Vol. 1. ed. W. Otto. Munich, 1941. Pp. 215-
fiirReligionswissenschaft, xi (1908), 163ff.; reprinted 219 (Satyrn und Silene); pp. 532-568 (Dionysos).
in Kleine Schriften, pp. 414ff. Pallottino, M. Etruskische Malerei. Geneva, 1952. Etruscan
Ducati, Pericle. Storia dell'Arte etrusca, II. Pis. 77, 79, 84- Painting. New York, 1952, pp. 38ff., 65f., 73ff.
87, 89. Florence, 1927. Pickard-Cambridge, Arthur Wallace. Dithyramb, Tragedy
Grande, C. del. Tragodia. Essenza e genesi della tragedia. and Comedy. Oxford, 1927.
Napoh, 1952. Pohlenz, M. "Das Satyrspiel und Pratinas von Phlius," Nach-
Herter, Hans. Vom dionysischen Tanz zum komischen Spiel, richten der Gottinger Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften,
Darstellung und Deutung, I. Iserlohn, 1942. 1926, pp. 298ff.
Kenner, Hedwig. Das Theater und der Realismus in der Poulsen, F. Etruscan Tomb Paintings. Oxford, 1922. Pp. 12f.,
griechischen Kunst. Wien, 1954. figs. 4-6.

325
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Radermacher, L. Beitrdge zur Volkskunde aus dem Gebiet . The Dramas and Dramatic Dances of Non-Euro-
der Antike. Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissen- pean Races Reference to the Origin of Greek
in Special
schaften. Wien. Philologisch-historische Klasse. Band Tragedy; with an Appendix on the Origin of Greek
187, Abh. 3, 1918, pp. 18ff., 32ff.: "Menschen und Comedy. Cambridge, Eng., 1915.
Tiere" (Karikatur). . Dramatic Dances of Non-European Races. Cam-
Reisch, E. "Zur Vorgeschichte der attischen Tragodie," bridge, Eng., 1925.
Festschrift Th. Gomperz, 1902, pp. 451ff. Winterstein, Alfred. Der Ursprung der Tragodie. Psycho-
Ridgevvay, William. The Origin of Tragedy with Special analytischer Beitrag zur Geschichte des Griechischen
Reference to the Greek Tragedians. Cambridge, Eng., Theaters. Imago-Biicher, VIII. Leipzig, 1925.
1910.

THEATER BUILDING
1. Greek 3. Das Theater in Sikyon, 1931. Vol. 4. Das Theater in
Megalopolis, 1931. Vols. 5-7. Das Dionysos-Theater in
Allen, James Turney. "The Key to the Reconstruction of
Athen. I. Die Ruine. II. Die Skulpturen vom BiiJinen-
the Fifth-Century Theater at Athens," University of Cali-
haus (Herbig). III. Einzellieiten und Baugeschichte
fornia Publications in Classical Philology, V, No. 2,
(rait Bulle und Kiibler), 1935-36. Vol. 8. Das Theater
1918; "The Greek Theater of the Fifth Century Before
in Eretria, 1937. Vol. 9. Das Dionysos-Theater in
Christ." ibid., VII, No. 1, 1920; "The Orchestra Terrace
Athen, IV. Nachtrdge (supplement to Vols. 5-7). Das
of the Aeschylean Theater," ibid., No. 2, 1922; "Prob-
Theater im Piraieus, Das Theater auf Thera. Stuttgart
lems of the Proskenion," ibid., No. 5, 1923. "On the
und Koln, 1950.
Program of the City Dionysia during the Peloponnesian
Frickenhaus, August. Die altgriechische Biihne. Strassburg,
War," ibid., XII, No. 3, 1938.
1917.
Anti, Carlo. Teatri Greci arcaici da Minosse a Pericle.
. "Antike Biihnenkunst," Bonner Jahrbiicher, Heft
Padua, 1947.
125, 1919, pp. 195-210, pi. xxxvn.
. Guida del Teatro antico di Siracusa, Firenze, 1948.
Gerkan, Arnim von. Das Theater von Priene. Miinchen,
. "L'acustica fattore determinante della storia dei tea-
1921.
tri greci e romani," Atti della Accademia Patavina di
Heberdey, Niemann, Wilberg. Das Theater in Ephesos, in
Scicnze, Lettere, ed Arti (Padova), lxtv (1951-52),
Forschungen in Ephesos, II. Oester. arch. Inst., Wien,
1-27.
1912.
Arias, Paolo Enrico. 11 Teatro greco fuori di Atene. Firenze,
Hill, Ida Thallon. The Ancient City of Athens. Its Topog-
1934.
raphy and Monuments. London, 1953. Ch. XII, "The
Bieber, Margarete. "A Free Theater for a Free People,"
Theatre of Dionysos," pp. 113-124.
Theater Arts, 1941, pp. 908-916.
Libertini, Guido. 11 Teatro antico e la sua Evoluzione. Ca-
Broneer, Oscar. "The Tent of Xerxes and the Greek Theater,"
tania, 1933.
University of California Publications in Classical Archae-
Noack, Ferdinand. Skene Tragike. Eine Studie uber die
ology, I, No. 12, 1944, pp. 305-12.
scenischen Anlagen auf der Orchestra des Aischylos
Bulle, Heinrich. "Untersuchungen an griechischen Thea-
und der anderen Tragiker. Tubingen, 1915.
tern,"Abhandlungen Bayer. Akad. Wissenschaften, phil.-
Pickard-Cambridge, Arthur Wallace. The Theatre of Diony-
hist. Klasse, Vol. XXXIII, Miinchen, 1928.
sus in Athens. Oxford, 1946.
Capps, E. "The Stage in the Greek Theatre According to the
Puchstein, Otto. Die griechische Biihne. Eine architektoni-
Extant Dramas," Transactions of the American Philo-
sche Untersuchung. Berlin, 1901.
logical Association, XXII, 1891. Reprinted Berlin, 1893.
Rizzo, G. Emanuele. 11 Teatro Greco di Siracusa. Milano-
Dinsmoor, William Bell. The Architecture of Ancient Greece.
Roma, 1923.
An Account of Its Historic Development. Revised and Robertson, D. S. A Handbook of Greek and Roman Archi-
enlarged edition based on the first part of The Archi-
tecture, Cambridge, 1929, sec. ed. 1954. Pp. 164-169,
tecture of Greece and Rome by William J. Anderson
figs. 71 (Epidauros), 72-73; Priene, pp. 271-283.
and R. Phene Spiers (1927). London-New York, 1950.
Romagnoli, Ettore. 11 Teatro Greco. Milano, 5th ed., 1924.
Theater: Archaic, p. 119f.; Fifth Century, 207-211;
Stillwell, R. Corinth, The Theater, The Results of Excava-
Fourdi Century, 244-251; Hellenistic and Graeco-Ro-
tions Conducted by the American School of Classical
man, 297-330.
Studies at Athens, II. Harvard University Press, 1952.
"The Athenian Theater of the Fifth Century,"
.

Studies Presented to David Moore Robinson. Saint 2. Roman

Louis, Washington University, I, 1951, pp. 309-330.
Anderson, W. J.
and R. P. Spiers (revised and rewritten by
Dorpfeld, Wilhelm, and Emil Reisch. Das Griechische Thea-
Thomas Ashbv). The Architecture of Ancient Rome.
ter. Athens, 1896.
New York and London, 1927. Pp. 87-98, figs. 21-26,
Fensterbusch, Curt. In Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopddie pis. LXVI-XLVin.
der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft, zweite Reihe, Bachy, Victor. "Un theatre Romain, Orange," Phoibos, ni-
Vol. V, 1934. Pp. 1384ff. s.v. "Theatron" and p. 2030f. iv (1948-1950), 97-109, figs. 3-14.
s.v. "Theologeion." Boeswillwald, E., Cagnat, B., Ballu, A. Timgad, une cite
Fiechter, Ernst Robert. Die baugeschichtliche Entwicklung africaine sous V empire romain. Pp. 93ff., figs. 42-52,
des antiken Theaters. Miinchen, 1914. pis. xrn-xv and 105f., fig. 45. Paris, 1905.
Antike griechische Theaterbauten. 9 vols. Stuttgart,
.
Broneer, O. Corinth, The Odeum, Results of Excavations
1930-37. Leipzig. Sachsische staatliche Forschungs- Conducted by the American School of Classical Studies
institute. Forschunssinstitut fur klassische Philologie und at Athens, X. Harvard University Press, 1932.
Archaeologie. Vol. 1. Das Theater in Oropos, 1930. Vol. Calza, Guido. II teatro Romano di Ostia. Rome, 1927.
2. Die Theater von Oiniadai und Neuplcuron, 1931. Vol. . Ostia. Pp. 8f., 26f., figs. 19-21, 25. Milan, 1925.

326
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Caputo, G. In Dioniso (Bolletino dell' Istituto Nazionale del Maiuri, Amedeo. Introduzione alio studio di Pompei (1943),
Dramma antico), x (1947), 5-23 (Leptis Magna). pp. 34ff.
. "Architettura del teatro di Leptis Magna," Dioniso, "Saggi nella Cavea del "Teatro grande," Notizie
.

xm (1950), 164-178. degli Scavi, Serie VIII, vol. V, 1951, pp. 126-134.
11 Teatro di Leptis Magna; 11 Teatro di Sabratha, Mono- Pompei. Novara, 1951, pp. 26-30, pis. 36-45.
.

grafie di Archeologia libica III and VI, Rome, l'Erma . Pompei, in Musei e Monumenti d'ltalia, No. 3.,
di Bretschneider, in the press. pp. 23ff., fig. 3, pi. xm, figs. 23-24, pi. xrv, figs. 25-26.
Carton, L.B.Ch. Le theatre Romain de Dougga. 2nd ed. -. Ercolano. Novara, 1932, pp. 27ff. Herculaneum,
Tunis, 1922. Paris, 1932, figs, on pp. 27-29. Herculaneum, tr. by V.
Cube, G. von. "Romisehe Scaenae Frons in den Pompejanis- Priestley, Rome, 1937, pp. 61-65, fig. 6, pi. xl, figs.
chen Wandbildern IV. Stils," Beitrage zur Bauwissen- 71-72
schaft, VI, 1906. Pp. 28ff., pis. u-vu. Marconi, P. Verona Romana. Bergamo, 1937, pp. 131ff.
Drexel, F., in L. Friedliinder, Darstellungen aus der Sitten- Man, August. Pompeji in Leben und Kunst. Leipzig, 1900,
geschichte Roms in der Zeit von Augustus bis zum pp. 129-150 (Theater); 196-209 (Amphitheater).
Ausgang der Antonine 9-10th. ed. IV (Anhiinge), ed. Melida, Jose Ramon. 11 Teatro Romano di Merida. Madrid,
G. Wissowa, 1921. "Gebaude fur die oftentlichen Scliau- 1915.
spiele in Italien und den Provinzen," pp. 205-257. Paratore, Ettore, Storia del Teatro Latino. Milano, 1957.
"Kostiim und Bewaffnung der Gladiatoren," pp. 258- Paribeni, R. "II teatro durante l'impero romano," Dioniso,
267, "Ueber die bei den iom. Venationen verwandten vi (1937), 45ff., 209-216.
Tiere," pp. 268-275. Peyre, R. Nimes, Aries, Orange. Paris, 1910, pp. 78ff.
Fiechter, Ernst Robert. Antike griechische Theaterbauten, Le midi de la France et ses villes d
. art: Avignon,
vol. 9, Das Dionysostheater IV (time of Nero), pp. 17- Nimes, Aries, Orange. Paris, 1931.
21, fig. 5, pis. 3-5. Stuttgart, 1950. Pfeiffer, Homer. Memoirs of the American Academy, IX
Formige, Jules. "Remarques diverses sur les theatres Ro- (1931), 145-156, pis. 11-15, and frontispiece (Dugga).
mains d'Arles et d'Orange," Memoires presentes d VAca- Platner, Samuel B. and Ashby, T. Topographical Dictionary
demie des Inscriptions et Bellcs-Lettres, XIII, Part 1, of Ancient Rome, s.v. "theatrum Balbi, Marcelli, Pom-
Paris, 1923, pp. 25-90, figs. 1-19, pis. i-v. "Notes sur la peii," pp. 513ff. London, 1929.
scene du theatre d'Orange, ibid., XIII, Part 2, 1933, Puchstein, Otto, in Wiegand, Theodor, Palmyra. Ergebnisse
pp. 697-712, pis. xvi-xvn. der Expeditionen von 1902 und 1917. Berlin, 1932, pp.
. Le theatre romain de Vienne. Vienne, 1950. 41ff., pis. 11, 19-23.
Frezouls, Eduard. "Teatri Romani dell'Africa francese," Di- Robertson, D. S. Handbook of Greek and Roman Architec-
onisio, xv (1952), 90-103, pis. i-n. ture. Cambridge, 1929, 2d ed., 1954, pp. 271-283,
. "Les theatres romains de Syrie," Annales archeo- figs. 114-118, Pompeii; pi. xx, Orange; figs. 115-118,
logiques de Syrie, n( 1952),46-100. Aspendus.
Le Theatre de Philippopolis en Arabie, Paris, 1956. Rumpf, Andreas. "Die Entstehung des romischen Theaters,"
Gerkan, Arnim von. "Zu den Theatern von Segesta und Mitteilungen des Deutschen archaologischen Instituts,
Tvndaris," Festschrift Andreas Rumpf, Krefeld, 1952, in (1950), 40-50.
pp. 82-92, figs. 5-6. Sautel, J.
Le theatre de Vaison et les theatres Romains de
Guidi, Giacomo. In Africa Italiana, m
(1930), 36ff. (Sabra- la Vallee du Rhone. Etudes et Documents sur Vaison-
tha). La Romaine, XI, 1951. Avignon, new ed. Bibliography
Gullini, Giuseppe. "Sabratha," Bulletino della Commissione on the theaters in the Rhone Valley, pp. 44-47.
archeologica, Bull, del Museo del Impero Romano, Thompson, Homer A. "The Odeion in the Athenian Agora,"
lxxi (1943-1945), 21-34, figs. 1-2, 10. Hesperia, Journal of the American School of Classical
Hanson, John Arthur. Roman Theater-Temples. Princeton Studies at Athens, xrx (1950), 31-141, pis. 16-60.
Monographs in Art and Archaeology, 33. Princeton Uni- Wuilleumier, P. "Theatres et amphitheatres Romains de Ly-
versity Press, 1959. on," Annales de Gand, i (1937), 131ff.
Hormann, Hans. "Die romisehe Biihnenfront zu Ephesos" Lyon, Metropole des Gaules. Le monde romain
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Jahrbuch des deutschen arch. Instituts, 38/9, 1923/4, Collection publiee sous le patronage de l'Association
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Lanckoronski, K. Stadte Pamphyliens und Pisidiens, I-II. "Fouilles de Fourviere, a Lyon," in Supplements d
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Vienna, 1890-92. Gallia, ed. du Centre National de la Recherche Sci-

Lugli, Giuseppe. "L'Origine del teatro stabile in Roma an- entifique, 1951.
tica," Dioniso, ix (1942), 2-3, 55-64. . Les Fouilles de Fourviere, 11th ed., Lyon, 1952.

PRODUCTION AND REPRODUCTIONS OF THEATER PERFORMANCES

Romano da
Anti, Carlo. "Rilievo teatrale
Beitrage zur alteren Kulturgeschichte.
Castel S. Elia,"
Band I, Fest- —Museum,"
"Wurden
.
AJA, 45 (1941), 529-536.
in Rom aufge-
die Dramen des Seneca
schrift fur Rudolf Egger, pp. 189-205, figs. 1-2. Klagen- fiihrt?" Mitteilungen des deutschen Instituts in Rom,
furt, 1952. 60/61 (1953-54), 100-106.
Beyen, H. G. Die pompejanische Wanddekoration vom zwei- — "The . Entrances and Exits of Actors and Chorus in
ten bis zum vierten Stil, I. Haag, 1938, Pp. 97-207, figs. Greek Plays, with Appendix: The Statues of Miltiades
22-33, 44-61. and Themistokles in the Theater at Athens," AJA, 58
Bieber, Margarete, and Alfred Bruckner, "Kuchenform mit (1954), 277-284, pis. 51-54.
Tragodienszene," Skenika, 75. Programm zum Winckel- — Articles in Enciclopedia dello Spettacolo, s.v. Frick-
.

manns-Feste der archaologischen Gesellschaft zu Ber- enhaus, Fiechter, Ludi, Scenotecnica, Scenografia, Spet-
lin, 1915. tacoli Greci, Spettacoli in Roma, Theologeion, Thyroma,
"A Tragic Chorus on a Vase in the Metropolitan
. Velum, Rome, 1956-.

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Brommer, F. Satyrspiele. Bilder griechischer Vasen. Ber- Little, Alan M. G. "Scaenographia," Art Bulletin, xvm
lin, 1944. (1936), 407ff., figs, i-vin.
Bulle, Heinrich, Eine Skenographie. 94. Winckelmanns-Pro- "Perspective and Scene Painting," ibid., xrx (1937),
.

gramm. Berlin, 1934. 485-495.

,and Wirsing, Heinrich. Szenenbilder zum griechi- "A Roman Source Book for the Stage," AJA, 60
.

sclien Theater des 5. Jahrlwnderts v. Chr. Berlin, 1950. (1956), 27-33, pis. 20-27.
Buschor, Ernst. "Feldmause," Sitzungsberichte Bayrische Moore, Frank Gardner. The Roman's World. New York,
Akademie der Wissenschaften, Miinchen, Philosophisch- 1936. Ch. VI, "Festivals and Diversions," pp. 135-153.
historische Klasse, 1937, Heft 1, pp. 1-34. Musenides, Takis. "Aischylos und sein Theater," Die Biihnen-
Capps, E. The Introduction of Comedy into the City Diony- kunst der Antike, I. Berlin, 1937.
sia. Decennial Publications of the University of Chi- Pasqui, A. in Notizie degli Scavi, 1906, pp. 357ff. (Kuchen-
cago, 1903. formen).
. "The Chorus in the Later Greek Drama," AJA, xi Petersen, E. Die Attische Tragodie als Bild- und Buhnen-
(1895), 287ff., 325ff. kunst. Bonn. 1915.
Delbriick, Richard. Die Consular-Diptychen, in Studien Pickard-Cambridge, A. W. The Dramatic Festivals of Athens.
zur spatantiken Kunstgeschichte im Auftrag des Deutsch- Oxford, 1953.
en archiiologischen Instituts, ed. R. Delbriick and H. Sechan, Louis. Etudes sur la Tragedie grecque dans ses rap-
Lietzmann. Berlin und Leipzig, 1929, pp. 78ff. ports avec la Ceramique. Paris, 1926.
Dieterich, Albrecht. Pulcinella. Pompejanische Wandhilder Simon, Antonia, Katharina, Henriette (Antonia Goethert).
und romische Satyrspiele. Leipzig, 1897. Comicae Tabellae. Die Szenenbilder zur griechischen
Fensterbusch, Curt. Die Biihne des Aristophanes. Leipzig, 'Neuen Komodie,' in Die Schaubuhne, Quellen und
1912. Forschungen zur Theater geschichte. Band 25. Ems-
Formige, Jules. "Notes complementaires sur les theatres ro- detten, 1938.
mains," Bulletin des Antiquaires de France, 1913, pp. Taylor, Lily Ross. "The Opportunities for Dramatic Per-
111-114. "Les representations dans les theatres romains," formances in the Time of Plautus and Terence," Trans-
ibid., 1921, pp. 88-93, 315-317. actions American Philological Association, lxviu ( 1937),
Friedlander, Ludwig. Darstellungen aus der Sittcngeschichte 284-304.
Roms, in der Zeit von Augustus bis zum Ausgang der Terentius Codex Ambrosianus. Phototype editus, praefatus
Antonine, 9th ed., besorgt von Georg Wissowa, II. Leip- est Ericus Bethe. Lugduni Batavorum (Leyden), 1903.

zig, 1920, pp. 1-160, "Die Schauspiele." Vogel, Julius. "Scenen Euripideischer Tragodien in griechi-
Harsh, P. W. Studies in Dramatic "Preparation" in Roman schen Vasengemalden," Archdologische Beitrdge zur
Geschichte des griechischen Dramas. Leipzig, 1886.
Comedy. Chicago, 1935.
Webster, T. B. L. Greek Theatre Production. London, 1956.
Hook, La Rue Van. Greek Life and Thought. Chaps, xn-xv,
(Review by M. Bieber, AJP 78 (1957), 206-213.)
pp. 172-216. Columbia University Press, revised ed.,
Weitzmann, Kurt. "Three Bactrian Silver Vessels, with Il-
1933.
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"Une mosaique Romaine de Ulpia Oescus,"
Ivanov, Teofil.
289-324.
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(1949), 159-210.
Johnston, Mary. Exits and Entrances in Roman Comedy. Weston, Karl E. "The Illustrated Terence Manuscripts,"
Geneva, N.Y., 1933. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, xrv (1903),
Jones, W. and Morey, C. R. The Miniatures of the Manu- 37-54, with 90 plates.
scripts of Terence Prior to the Thirteenth Century. Terence Illustrated. An Exhibition. Williams Col-
.

Princeton, 1931. lege, Williamstown, Mass., 1955.

MUSIC AND DANCE

Behn, Friedrich. Die Musik des Altertums. Mainz, 1925. Roos, Ervin. Die tragische Orchestrik im Zerrbild der alt-
Musiklcben im Altertum und fruhen Mittelalter.
. attischen Komodie. Lund, 1951.
Stuttgart, 1954. Sachs, Curt. Die Musikinstrumcnte, Breslau, 1923.
Bethe, E. "Die griechische Tragodie und die Musik," Neue Die Musik des Altertums, Breslau, 1924.
.

Jahrbiicher fiir das klassische Altertum, xix (1907), "Die Musik der Antike," in Handbuch der Musik-
.

81-95. wissenschaft, ed. E. Biicken. Potsdam, 1930.

Emanuel, Maurice. La Dance grecque antique. Paris, 1896. The History of Musical Instruments. New York,
.

.The Antique Greek Dance. Translated from the 1940.

French by Harriet Jean Beauley. 2nd ed. London, 1927. . Rise of Music in the Ancient World, East and
The
Georgiades, Thrasybulos. Musik und Rhythmus bei den West. New
York, 1943.
Griechen, Hamburg, 1958. Schnabel, Heinz. Kordax. Archdologische Studien zur Ge-
.Greek Music, Verse and Dance, Merlin Music schichte eines antiken Tanzes und zum Ursprung der
Books v, New York. griechischen Komodie. Miinchen, 1910.
Kitto, H. D. F. "The Dance in Greek Tragedy," Journal of Sechan, Louis. La Danse grecque antique. Paris, 1930.
Hellenic Studies, lxxv (1955), 36-41. Thierfelder, A. Altgriechische Musik. Sammlung von Ge-
Lawler, Lillian M. Greek Dance (in preparation in 1957). siingen aus dem klassischen Altertum vom 5. bis 1.
Mountford, J. F. "Greek Music in the Papyri and Inscrip- Jahrhundert v. Chr. Leipzig, 1899.
tions" in New Chapters in Greek Literature, II, 1929, Vetter, W. "Musik" in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopddie,
pp. 146-183. xvi, 1, 1933, pp. 823ff.
and R. P. Winnington-Ingram, "Music" in Oxford Weege, Fritz. Der Tanz in der Antike. Halle, 1926.
Classical Dictionary, 1949. Wegner, Max. Das Musikleben der Griechen. Berlin, 1949.

328
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
POPULAR THEATER

Bieber, Margarete. "Mima Saltatricula," AJA, 43 (1939), schichtlicher Versuch. 1. Theorie des Mimus; 2. Ent-

640-644. wickelungsgeschichte des Mimus. Berlin, 1903.

Catteruccia, Luigi M. Pitture vascolari italiote di soggetto Der Mann mit dem Eselskopf. Ein Mimodrama vom
.

teatrale comico. Roma, 1951. klassischen Altertum verfolgt bis auf Shakespeares Som-
Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire des Antiquites: G. Boissier, mernachtstraum. Weimar, 1904.
s.v. "Mimus," m,2 (1904), pp. 1899-1907; O. Navarre, Traversari, Gustavo. "Colombetra e Tetimimo," Dioniso
( Bolletino dellTnstituto Nazionale del Dramma Antico )
s.v. "Persona," iv,l (1906), pp. 406-416; Navarre, s.v.

"Phlvakes," rv,l (1906), pp. 435-438; G. Lafaye, s.v. N.S., xin (1950), 18-35, and xv (1952), 3-12.
"Venationes con bestie di terra e d'acqua in bacini
.

"Satura," iv,2 (1906), pp. 107S-1080.

occasional e teatrali," Atti della Academia Patavina di
Heydemann, H. "Die Phlyakendarstellungen auf bemalten
Scienze Lettere ed Arti, lxv (1952-53), 3-16.
Vasen," JaJirbuch des deutsclien arclidologischen In-
Trendall, A. D. Paestan Pottery. A Study of the red-figured
stituts, I, 1886, pp. 26()ff.
Vases of Paestum. The British School at Rome. London,
Horovitz, J.
Spuren griechischer Mimen im Orient. Berlin,
1936. Pp. 21ff., 60ff.; figs. 19-31.
1905.
Paestan Pottery (revision and supplement). Papers
.

Korte, Alfred. "Archaologische Studien zur alten Komodie,"

of the British School at Rome, 20 (New Series, vn)
Jahrbuch des deutsclien arclidologischen lnstituts, VIII,
1952, pp. 1-53, pis. i-xrx.
1893, pp. Glff. "Vasi italioti ed etruschi a figure rosse," Monumenti
.

Nicoll, Allardyce. Masks, Mimes and Miracles. Studies in the Musei e Gallerie Pontificie del Vaticano, i ( 1953 )
Popular Theatre. London and New York, 1931. 24ff., pis. vii-vin.
Pauly-Wissowa. Real-Encyclopddie des klassischen Alter- Catalogue of Phlyakes Vases,
. London Institute of
tums. Marx, "Atellanae Fabulae," n,2 (1892), pp. 1914- Classical Studies (1959).
1821. Kroll, "Satura," sec. series, h,1 (1921), pp. 192- Zahn, R. "Vom Maler Assteas und der griechischen Posse
200. Wiist, "Mimus," xv (1932), pp. 1727-43. Wiist, Unteritaliens," Die Antike, vu (1931), 70ff.
"Phlyakes," xx,2 (1941), pp. 292-306. Wiist, "Panto- . "Krater des Assteas," in Furtwangler-Reichhold,
mimus," xvm,3 (1949), pp. 833-869. Griechische Vasenmalerei, III (1932), pp. 178ff. to
Reich, Hermann. Der Mimus. Ein litterar-entwickelungsge- pi. 150.

ACTORS AND ACTING

Allen, James Turney. "Greek Acting in the Fifth Century," ing in Ancient Greece together with a Prosopographia
University of California Publications in Classical Philol- Histrionum Graecorum. Chicago, 1908.
ogy, II, No. 15 (1916), pp. 279-289. Rees, K. The So-Called Rule of Three Actors in the Classical
Bieber, Margarete. "The Statuette of an Actor of New Greek Drama, Chicago, 1908.
Comedy," Bulletin of the Art Museum, Princeton Uni- . "The Three-Actor Rule in Menander," Classical
versity, 1951, pp. 4-12. Philology, v (1910), 291-302.
Bulle, H. "Von griechischen Schauspielern und Vasenma- . "The Meaning
of Parachoregema," Classical Philol-
lern," Festschrift fiir James Loeb, pp. 5ff. Miinchen, (1907), 387-400.
ogy, ii

1930. Romagnoli, Ettore. Nel Regno di Dionise. Bologna, sec. ed.

. "Weihebild eines tragischen Dichters," Corolla Cur- 1923.
tius,pp. 150-160, pis. 54-57. Stuttgart, 1937. Shister, Famic Lorine. "The Portrayal of Emotion in Trage-
Goldman, Hetty, and Jones, Frances. "Terracottas from the dy," American Journal of Philology, lxvi (1945), 377-
Acropolis of Halai," Hesperia, xi (1942), 365-421. 397 and lxix (1948), 229-231.
Hunningher, B. "Acoustics and Acting in the Theater of Sittl, K. Die Gebdrden der Griechen und Romer. Leipzig,
Dionysus Eleuthereus," Mededelingen der Nederlandse 1890.
Akademie van Wetenschappen, No. 9, 1956. Spitzbarth, Anna. Untersuchungen zur Spieltechnik der
Kaffenberger, M. "Das Dreischauspielergesetz in der grie- griechischen Tragodie. Winterthur, 1945.
chischen Tragodie." Diss. Giessen, 1911. Warnecke. "Die biirgerliche Stellung der Schauspieler im
Liiders, O. Die Dionysischen Kiinstler. Berlin, 1873. alten Rom," Neue Jahrbiicher fiir das klassische Alter-
O'Connor, J. B. Chapters in the History of Actors and Act- tum, xxxm (1914), 95ff.

COSTUMES
Abrahams, Ethel B. Greek Dress. London, 1908. der vorgriechischen Zeit bis zur romischen Kaiserzeit.
Beare, W. "Masks on the Roman Stage," Classical Quarterly, Berlin, 1934.
xxxm (1939), 139-146. — . Articles in Enciclopedia dello Spettacolo s.v. Cos-
Bieber, Margarete. "Die Herkunft des tragischen Kostums," tume, Onkos, Somation.
Arch. Jahrb., xxxn (1917), 15-104.
Article "Kothurn," xi (1922), 1520; article "Maske,"
.
— "Roman Men
. in Greek Himation" ( Romani Pal-
liati).Proceedings of the American Philosophical So-
xrv,2 (1930), 2070-2105, in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-En-
ciety, 103, 1959, 374-417.
cyclopddie.
. Griechische Kleidung. Berlin, 1928. — . "Das Menander-Relief der Sammlung Stroganoff,"
. Entwicklungsgeschichte der griechischen Tracht von Festschrift Andreas Rumpf, pp. 14-17. Krefeld, 1952.

329
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
riense, Otto,Die Modifizierung der Maske in der griechischen Repond, Jules. Les Secrets de la Draperie antique, de I'Hi-
Tragddie, 2nd. ed. Freiburg, 1905. mation Grec au Pallium Romain, in Studi di Antichitd
lleuzey, L. Histoire du Costume antique, d'apres des Etudes Cristiana del Pontificio Instituto di Archeologia Cristi-
sur le modele vivant. Paris, 1922. ana, III. Rome-Paris, 1931.
Higgins, R. A. Catalogue of the Terracottas in the Depart- Robert, Carl. Die Masken der neueren attischen Komodie-
ment Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Mu-
of the 25th Hallisches Winckeimanns-Programm. Halle, 1911.
seum. London, 1954. Pp. 198-202, Nos. 737-802, pis. 97- Rumpf, Andreas. "Einige komische Masken" in Mimus und
99. Logos, Fine Festgabe fur Carl Niessen, pp. 163-170, pis.
Korte, A. "Der Kothurn im fiinften Jahrhundert," Festschrift vi-vii. Emsdetten, Westfalen, 1952.
zur 49. Versammlung deutscher Philologen und Schul- Saunders, C. Costume in Roman Comedy. Columbia Uni-
manner. Basel, 1907. Pp. 20311. <> versity Press, 1909.
."Archaologische Studien zur alten Komodie," Arcfi. "The Introduction of Masks on the Roman Stage,"
.

Jahrb., vm(1893), 61ff. A]A, xxxn (1911), 58ff.

Krien, Gisela. "Die Angleichung der tragischen und komi- Smith, K. K. "The Use of the High-heeled Shoe or Buskin
schen Theatermasken in der spatantiken Zeit," in Maske in Greek Tragedy," Harvard Studies in Classical Philol-
und Kothurn, Vierteljahrsschrift fur T heater wissen- ogy, xvi (1905)', 123.
schaften, I, 1955, pp. 79-87. Ed. Institut fur Theater- Webster, T.B.L. "South Italian Vases and Attic Drama,"
wissenschaft an der Universitat Wien, Hermann B6h- Classical Quarterly, xlih (1948), 15ff.
laus Nachf. Graz-Koln. "The Masks of Greek Comedy," Bulletin of John
.

."Der Ausdruek der antiken Theatermasken nach Rylands Library, xxxu (1949), 97-133, figs. 1-8.
Angaben im Polluxkatalog und in der pseudoaristoteli- "Masks on Gnathia Vases," Journal Hellenic Stud-
.

schen Physiognomik," JOAI, xlh (1956), 84-117, figs. ies, lxxi (1951), 222ff., pi. xlv.

45-59. "The Costume of the Actors in Aristophanic

.

Luschey, Heinz. "Komodien-Masken" in Ganymed, Heidel- Comedy," Classical Quarterly, new series, v (1955),
berger Beitrdge zur antiken Kunstgeschichte, pp. 70-84, 94f.
Figs. 1-9. Heidelberg, 1949. "Notes on Pollux' List of Tragic Masks," Festschrift
.

Reisch, Emil. Griecliische Weihgeschenke. University Wien. Andreas Rumpf, pp. 141-150, Krefeld, 1952.
Abhandlungen des archaeologisch-epigraphischen Semi-
nars No. 8, 1890.

DRAMATIC LITERATURE
1. Ancient Writers Duff, J.
Wight. A Literary History of Rome from the Origins
to the Close of the Golden Age, 3rd. ed. London, 1953,
Aristotle. De arte poetica. The Poetics. Ed. W. H. Fyfe.
Chapters rv-v.
Loeb Classical Library, 1927.
Ehrenberg, Victor. The People of Aristophanes. A Sociology
Donatus, Aelius. Commentum de Comoedia
of Old Attic Comedy. Oxford, 1943.
Donati in Commenta Terentiana Pracfationes, ex recensione
Fergusson, Francis, The Idea of a Theater. Princeton 1949.
Augusti Reifferscheidii. Bresiau, 1875. Idem, rcc. P.
Pocket ed., Doubleday Anchor Books, New York, 1953.
Wessner. Leipzig, 1902-08.
Fiiinkel, E. Plautinisches In Plautus. Berlin, 1922.
Hunt, A. S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta papijracea
Harsh, P. W. Handbook of Classical Drama, 2nd ed., Stan-
nuper reperta. Oxford, 1912.
ford, 1948.
Kaibel, K. Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Berlin, 1899.
Nauck, August. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Leip- Jahrcsberichte tiber die Fortschritte der klassischen Alter-
zig, 1889. tumswissenschaft.
Olivieri, A. Frammenti delta Commedia greca e del mimo Aeschylus: Morel, W. Vol. 234 (1932), pp. 67-106 and
nclla Sicilia e nella Magna Grecia. Naples, 2nd ed. 1946- 259 (1938), pp. 1-34.
vol.

1947. Sophocles: Blumenthal, A. von. Vol. 261 (1938), pp.

Pollux, Onomasticon. ed. E. Bethe. Leipzig, 1931-1937. 67-139 and vol. 277 (1942), pp. 1-72.
Ribbeck, Otto. Tragicorum Latinorum Fragmenta, 3rd ed. Euripides: vol. 259 (1938), pp. 35-66
Leipzig, 1897. Griechischen Komodie: Wiist, vol. 263 (1939), pp. 1-99.
Comicorum Romanorum Fragmenta, 3rd ed. Leip-
.
(Comprehensive critical bibliographies.)
zig, 1898. Kitto, H. D. F. Greek Tragedy: A Literary Study. 2d ed.,
Vitruvius.The Ten Books on Architecture, trans, by Morgan, rev. London, Methuen, 1950.
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1926, pp. 137ff. Idem, a Doubleday Anchor Book, A 38, 1954.
2. Modern Writers Korte, G. Die griechische Komodie. Aus Natur und Geistes-
welt, 1914.
Beare, W. "The Italian Origin of Latin Drama," Herma- Idem in Pauly-Wissowa, s.v. Komodie, XI, pp. 1207ff.
thena, xxiv (1939), 30-53, 88f.
Kroll, Wilhelm, s.v. "Satura" in Pauly-Wissowa, second se-
.The Roman Stage. A Short History of Latin Drama
ries, zweite Serie, II, 1, 1921, pp. 192-200.
in the Time of tlie Republic. London, 1950; 2nd. ed.,
Legrand, Ph. E., "Daos, Tableau de la Comedie Grecque
1955.
pendant la Periode dite Nouvelle" in Annales de I'Uni-
Blumenthal, A. von. Sophokles. Entstehung und Vollendung
versite de Lyon, II, Droit et Lettres, Nouvelle Serie,
der griechischen Tragddie. Stuttgart, 1936.
Fasc. 22, 1910. Translated and shortened to two-thirds
Bowra, C. M. Sophoclean Tragedy. Oxford, 1945.
of the original by James Loeb in The New Greek Com-
Duckworth, George E. The Nature of Roman Comedy. A
Study in Popular Entertainment. Princeton University edy, 1917.
Press, 1952. Leski, A. Die Griechische Tragddie. Leipzig, 193S.

330
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Leski, A. Die tragische Diclitung der Hcllenen. Gottingen, Pohlenz, M. Die griechische Tragbdie. 2nd ed., Gottingen,
1956 (Studien zur Altcrtumswissenschaft, 2). 1954.
Little, A. M. G. "Plautus and Popular Drama," Harvard Post, L. A. From Homer to Menander: Forces in Greek Po-
Studies in Classical Philology, xlix (1938), 205-228. etic Fiction. Berkeley, 1951.
Lord, L. E. Aristopliancs, His Plays and His Influence. Bos- Radermacher, L. "Zur Geschichte der griechischen Komodic,"
ton, 1925. Akademie der Wisscnschaften. Wien, vol. 202, 1. Abh.
Lucas, D. W. The Greek Tragic Poets. London, 1950. 1924, pp. 1-44. I. Phlyakes; II. Stoffgeschichtliches.
Greek Drama for Everyman. New York, 1953.
. Reinhardt, Karl. Aischylos als Regisseur und Theologe. Bern,
Miller, H. W. "A Survey of Recent Euripidean Scholarship, 1949.
1940-1954," Classical Weekly, 49 (1956), 81-92. Sophokles. 3rd ed. Frankfurt a.M., 1947.
.

Miller, Walter. Daedalus and Thespis. The Contribution of Sheppard, J. T. in Cambridge Ancient History, V, 1927, Chap-
the Ancient Dramatic. Poets to Our Knowledge of the ter V.
Arts and Crafts of Greece. I. Architecture, II. Sculpture, Webster, T.B.L. An Introduction to Sophocles. Oxford, 1936.
III. Painting and Allied Arts. I: New York, 1929. II-III: Greek Art and Literature, Oxford, The Clarendon
.

University of Missouri Publications, VI and VII, 1931- Press, 1939, passim, particularly: pp. 57ff. Aeschylus;
1932. 87ff. Sophocles; 15011. Euripides.
Murphy, Charles T. "A Survey of Recent Work on Aris- Studies in Menander. Manchester University Press,
.

tophanes and Old Comedy," Classical Weekly 49 1950.

(1956), 201-211. Studies in Later Greek Comedy, Manchester Univer-
.

Murray, Gilbert. Aristophanes. A Study. Oxford, 1933. sity Press, 1953.

Euripides and His Age. New York, 2nd ed., 1946.
. Art and Literature in Foutih-Century Athens. Uni-
.

Navarre, Octave. La comedie des mceurs chez Aristophane. London, Athlone Press, 1956.
versity of
Toulouse, 1931. Wilamowitz-Mollcndorff, U. von. Einleitung in die griechische
Norwood, Gilbert. Greek Tragedy. 2nd ed. London, 1928. Tragbdie. Berlin, 1907.
. Essays on Euripidean Drama. Berkeley, 1954. Euripides, Herakles, I. Berlin, 1895. Chapters I-IV.
.

. Greek Comedy. London, 1931. Wissowa, G. Religion und Kultus der Rbmer. 2nd ed.
The Art of Terence. Oxford, 1923.
. Munchen, 1912, pp. 449-467.
Petersen, E. Die attische Tragbdie als Bild- und Buhnen-
kunst. Bonn, 1915.

INSCRIPTIONS

Capps, E. "A New Fragment of the List of Victors at the Homolle, M. Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique, 1894,
City Dionysia," Hesperia, xn (1943), Iff. pp. 162ff. (Delos)
Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum (CIG), 4 vols. Berlin, Inscriptiones Graecae. (IG). Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Akademie der Wissenschaften, ed., Boeck, 1828-1877. Berlin, 1873-1915. Editio minor 1913-1940.
Inscriptiones Graecae. (IG), 14 vols, ibid., 1873-1890, Inscriptiones Atticae. IG, ii-m, ed. J. Kirchner. Berlin, 1913.
ed., Kirchoff, Kaibel et alii. Inscriptiones Argolides, IG, iv, ed. F. Hiller von Gaertringen.
Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Berlin, Akademie Berlin, 1929.
der Wissenschaften, 1862-1943 (1862-1936, 14 vols. Jacoby, F. Das Marmor Parium, 1904. IG, xn,5, No. 444.
1893-1943, editio altera). Meritt, B. "Greek Inscriptions," Hesperia, vii (1938), 116f.
Dittenberger, W. Sylloge Inscriptionum graecarum. 3 vols. Wilhelm, A. Urkunden dramatischer Auffiihrungen in Athen.
Leipzig, 1898-1901. Mit einem Beitrag von Georg Kaibel. Wien, 1906.
Durrbach, F. Choix d' Inscriptions de Delos. Paris, 1921.

ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS

Aristophanes. The Eleven Comedies. Tudor Publishing Co., Hadas, Moses, and J.
H. McLean, eds. The Plays of Eu-
1936. ripides. New York: The Dial Press, 1936.
Banks, Theodore Howard. Sophokles. Three Theban Plays Hamilton, Edith. Three Greek Plays. New York: W. W.
(Antigone, Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus). Norton and Co., 4th ed., 1956.
Oxford University Press, 1956. Loeb Classical Library (Greek and English): H. W. Smyth,
Cooper, Lane. Fifteen Greek Plays. Oxford University Press, Aeschylus, 2 vols.; F. Storr, Sophocles, 2 vols.; A. S.
1943. Way, Euripides, 4 vols.; B. B. Rogers, Aristophanes, 3
Duckworth, G. E. The Complete Roman Drama, 2 vols. New vols.; F. G. Allinson, Menander; (Latin and English): P.
York: Random House, 1942. Nixon, Plautus, 5 vols.; J. Sargeaunt, Terence, 2 vols.; F.
Eliot, Charles W., ed. Nine Greek Dramas. The Harvard J.
Miller, Seneca, 2 vols.
Classics, 8. New York, 1900. Murray, Gilbert, tr. The Plays of Euripides. London: Long-
Everyman's Library, Vol. 62, Aeschylus, Lyrical Dramas; mans, Green and Co., 1931.
Vol. 114, Sophocles, Dramas; Vols. 63 and 271; Eu- Oates, Whitney J. and Eugene O'Neill, Jr. The Complete
ripides, Plays. Greek Drama, 2 vols. New York: Random House, 1938.
Fitts, Dudley. Greek Plays in Modern Translation. New York . Seven Famous Greek Plays. New York: The Modern
The Dial Press, 5di ed., 1953. Library, 1950.
Grene, David, and Richmond Lattimore, eds. The Com- Post, L. A. Menander. Three Plays, translated and inter-
plete Greek Tragedies. The University of Chicago Press, preted. London and New York: E. P. Dutton and Co.,
1953-1959. 1929.

331
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Robinson, C. A. An Anthology of Greek Drama. New York: Women of Troy, Helen). The Penguin Classics, 1954.
Rinehart and Co. Vol. I, 1949; Vol. II, 1954. Watling, E. F. tr. Sophocles. The Theban Plays. The Pen-
Vellacott, P., tr. Euripides. Alcestis and Other Plays (Hip- guin Classics, 5th ed., 1953.
polytus, Iplugenia in Tauris). The Penguin Classics, . Sophocles. Electra and Other Plays (Philoctetes,
1953. Women of Trachis, Ajax). The Penguin Classics, 2nd
— —— .Euripides. The Bacchae and Other Plays (Ion, The ed., 1954.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE ANCIENT THEATER ON THE MODERN THEATER

Allen, James Turney. Stage Antiquities of the Greeks and Highet, G. The Classical Tradition. Greek and Roman In-
Romans and Their Influence. New York, 1927. pp. 149- fluences on Western Literature. New York, 1949.
182. Kernodle, George R. From Art to Theatre. Form and Con-
Cheney, Sheldon. The Theatre. Three Thousand Years of vention in the Renaissance. University of Chicago Press,
Drama, Acting, and Stagecraft. New York, 1935. 1944.
Duckworth, G. E. The Nature of Roman Comedy. A Study in Lang, Paul Henry. Music in Western Civilization. New York,
Popular Entertainment. Princeton University Press, 1952, 1941.
Chapter 15, "The Influence of Plautus and Terence MacGowan, Kenneth and William Melnitz. The Living
upon English Comedy," pp. 396-433. Extensive bib- Stage. A History of the World Theater. New York,
liography on pp. 462-464. Prentice Hall, 1955. Good bibliography on pp. 509-
Gassner, John. Masters of the Drama. New York, 1940, 3rd 518.
revised ed., 1954. Nicoll, Allardyce. Masks, Mimes and Miracles. Studies in the
Hamlin, Talbot. Forms and Functions of Tiventieth-Cen- Popular Theatre. London, 1931.
Columbia University Press, 1952. III.
tury Architecture, . The Development of the Theater. A Study to the
Building Types, pp. 396-477, theaters by Hamlin and Present Day. 3rd ed. New York, 1952.
Lee Simonson; pp. 478-520, auditoriums by A. L. . World Drama from Aeschylus to Anouilh. London,
Harmon. 1949.
Hammitzsch, Martin. Der moderne Theaterhau I, Der hofische Sachs, Curt. Our Musical Heritage. A Short History of Mu-
Theaterbau. Berlin, 1906. sic. 2nd edition, New York, 1955.

332
 INDEX
Abbott, George, 260 aisle,64, 177, 187 animals, 9, 15-16, 197-99, 203, 222, 238,
Accius, 152, 156-58, 229, 233; plays, 156-57; Aixone, 51 252; see also dogs, donkeys
Astyanax, 157, 163; Hecuba, 157; Amphi- Ajax, 148, 156, 235; in farce, 136, Fig. 494 Anouilh, Jean, Antigone, Medea, 259, ch.xvi
truo, 229 Alcaeus, 4, Figs. 6-7; in farce, 136-37, Fig. n.38, Fig. 842
Achilles, 42, 85, 88-89, 135, 148, 156, 230, 498 Anthesteria, 49, 51-52
236, 241-42, Figs. 491, 793 Alcamenes, 24, 64 Anti, C, 55, 63, 70, 74, 235, ch.v n.6, ch.vi
acoustics, 45, 82, 115, 127, 167, 180, 187- Alcinous, 136, 139, Fig. 495 nn.3, 8, ch.X n.90
88, 221 Alciphron, 90 Antigone, 33, 78, 259; see also Sophocles and
acrobats, 50, 106, 144, 159-60, 238, 249, Alcmene, 130, 132, 137, 143, 151, 260, Fig. Euripides, parody of, 134-35, Fig. 490
252, Figs. 211-12, 535, 579 479 Antioch, see theater, 210
Acropolis, 18, 51, 54, 59, 63-64, 69-70, 190, Alexander the Great, 22, 46, 83-85, 87, 108, Antiope, 34, Fig. 120
211, 215, 221 120, 132 Antiphanes (comic poet), 76, 115
acroteria, 68, 146, 231 Alexandria, 85, 87, 112, 116, 165, 236 Apaturius of Alabanda, 168, 188
acting, 80-86, 106, 108, 159, 161-66, 263 Alexis (comic poet), 71, 87 Aphrodite, 31, 76-77, 133, 225, 235, 238
actors: in tragedy, 17-19, 21-29, 31-32, 57, Alfieri, Vittorio, Oreste, Antigone, Alcestc Apollo, 1-3, 12, 16, 65, 131, 139, 146, 152,
157-59, 162-64, 203-05, 234-35, 239-51, scconda, 258 168, 190, 193, 201, 227, 232, 234-35, 241,
258, 262-63, Figs. 90, 113, 290-94, 300- Allen, James T., ch.v n.10, ch.xv n.39, Fig. 258, 267, Figs. 1, 481, 629, 776, 781
07, 588, 591, 779, 787-88, 798-99, 832-33, 232 Apollodorus of Carystus, 88, 152
835, 842; in comedy, 37-41, 44-45, 49, 150- altar: of Dionysus, 8, 14, 18, 22, 32, 35, 40, Apollogenes (actor), 85
51, 154-56, 161-62, 250, Figs. 133-78, 184- 42, 47, 54-60, 72-73, 78, 89, 104-05, 133- Apollonius of Tyana, 203
90, 198, 295-99, 580-87, 831, 843-44; in 34, 142-43, 146, 150, 156-58, 162, 191, Apuleius, 180, 190, 237-238, 249
farce, 38-39, 130-35, 143-45, 247-49, Figs. 200, 207, 214-15, 221, 223, 229-30, 240, aquacades, 190, 210-11, 215, 217, 222, 237-
D, 130-32, 203-07, 538-39, 817-24; in Figs. 45, 48, 53-54, 96, 110-11, 116, 121- 38, 253, 268-69, Fig. 784
mime, 37, 107, 159-60, 165-66, 227, 236- 22, 221, 228-29, 238-40, 260, 273-74, 281, arcades, 185, 198, 201, 205-06, 208, 255
38, 248-49, 254, Figs. 127-29, 579, 786, 315, 486-88, 493-94, 528, 531, 569, 572, Arcadians, 122, 126
825-30; in satyr play, 9-11, 15, Figs. 27- 752, 771; slave seated on, 40, 47, 104, 150, Archelaus of Priene, relief, 2-3, 225, Figs. 1-2
43; modern, Figs. 842-44, 848-56 162, Figs. 150, 196, 198, 406, 410-13, Archilochus of Myrina, 91
actors' dress, see costume and masks 556-58, 587; of Zeus, 132, 135, Fig. 482 Archilochus of Paros, 6
actress of the mime (mima), 165, 236-38, altars: from Ishtar temple, 112, Figs. 430-31; archimime, 165, 249
249, 269, Fig. 829 Roman altars, 191, 200, 207, 215, 221, architectural decorations, 188-89, 195, 224,
Adeimantus, archon, 20 229-30, 240, Figs. 766-67, 771, 790 269, see also scaenae frons
aditus maximus, 187, 202, 216, Fig. 683 Ambivius Turpio, 153-54, Fig. 559 archon, 20, 80, 215, basileus, 52, eponymus,
Adrastus, 1, 6 Ambrosia (nymph), 26, Fig. 89 53
aedicula, 153, 155, 158, 186, 205, 208, 213 ambulatoria, 186 arena, 168, 170, 178, 197-99, 215-19, 222,
Aeetes, 34-35, 78, Fig. 289 Amelung, Walter, 263 252-53, Figs. 662, 727
Aelian, 51, 238 Amman, see theater of Amman, Figs. 708-09 Areopagus, 44, 51, 54
Aemilius Paulus, 152, 156 Amphiaraus, 120 Ares, 42, 235; in farce, 133, Fig. 485
Aemilius Scaurus, 168 amphitheater, 148, 170, 177-80, 186, 190, Arete (in Odyssey), 136, 139, Fig. 495
Aeschines, 83 197-98, 201, 219, 222, 227, 232, 238, 241, Ariadne, 10, 52, 64, 106
Aeschylus, 1, 12-28, 31, 37, 44, 53, 57, 59, 247, 252-53; at Aries (Arelate), 199, Arion, 1, 6, 8, 15, 23, 37, 49-50, 136, Figs.
64, 73-74, 79-80, 83-84, 100, 124, 156-57, 270; Caesarea in Palestine, 208; Capua, 210, 496
161, 223, 247, 255, 257-58, 262, 266, 268- 179, Figs. 626-27; Carthage, 203; Cologne Ariosto, La Cassaria, I Suppositi, 254
69; portraits, 20-21, Figs. 36, 62-65 (Koln-am-Rhein, Colonia Agrippinensis ) Aristodemus, 83
Aeschylus, plays: Agamemnon, 53, 65, 81, 202; Corinth, 211, 216-17, 220; at El Aristophanes, 36-39, 44-45, 48, 51, 64-65,
233, 258, 262-63, 266, 268, Fig. 854; Djem (Thysdrus), 203; Italica, 203; Leptis 69, 79, 87-88, 90, 131, 133, 141, 143, 257-
Choephoroe, 65, Eumenides, 27, 65, 78, Magna, 203; Mainz (Mosruntiacum) 202; 58, 260-61, 269, portrait, Fig. 183
259, Figs. 96-97; Europa (Kares), 77; Merida (Emerita), 203; Nimes (Nemausus), Aristophanes, plays: Acharnians, 36, 38, 40,
Lycurgus, 26; Myrmidons, 77; Nereids, 77; 199, 270; Paris (Lutetia), 199; Pergamum, 42, 44-47, 51, 65, 76, 130, 133, Birds, 37-
Oresteia, 22, 29, 57, 59, 65, 68, 258-59, 263, 208; Pola, 199; Pompeii, 177-79, Figs. 622- 38, 41, 45, 53, 65, 260, Fig. 843a, Clouds,
265; Persians, 20-21, 37, 57, 78, 80, 262, 24; Pozzuoli (Puteoli), 179, Fig. 625; 38, 44, 65, 262, Ecclesiazousae {Women
264, 268; Phryges, 77; Prometheus Bound, Rome, Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum), in Council), 38, 41-42, 44-45, 47, 49, 78,
22, 57, 258, 261-62, Figs. 845-46; Prome- 197, Figs. 666-70; Trier (Treves, Augusta 134, 261; Frogs. 6, 21, 26, 31, 37, 40, 42,
theus the Firebringer, 13; Psychostasia, 78; Treverorum), 202; Verona, 196-97, Figs. 44, 46, 49, 54, 65, 69-70, 81, 133, 141,
Redeeming of Hector, 77; Seven against 662-65 261, Fig. 221; Knights, 37, 44, Fig. 126;
Thebes, 22, 262; Sphinx, 12, Fig. 37; Sup- Amphitruo, Amphitryon, 229, Figs. 766-67; Lysistrata, 38-39, 81, 260-61; Peace, 38,
pliants (Hiketides), 20-21, 80, 262, ch.n see also Plautus, scenes of, 231 41-42, 76, 81, 141, 257; Plutus, 44-45, 87,
n.ll, Fig. 847; Women of Aetna, 129; Vita, nnanrnorisis, 33, Figs. 115-16, 774 135, 257; Thesmophoriazousae, 31, 38, 42-
22, 26-28, 78, 129; first printed edition, Anakreon, 3, Fig. 5 44, 64, 76. 261; Wasps, 37-38, 43, 47
256-57 analemmata (supporting walls), 59, 72-73, Aristophanes the grammarian, 88, 91, 105
Aesopus (actor), 164 118, 172, 177, 187, Figs. 254-56, 258, Aristotle, 6, 9, 12, 17, 21, 29, 36, 51, 59, 83,
Aezani, see theater, Figs. 743-44 273-76 102, 129, 256, ch.i n.12; Pseudo-Aristotle,
Afranius, L. (writer of fabula togata), 160,
Anaxagoras, 59, 74 100
247 Arlequino, see harlequin
Anaxandrides, Herakles, 46
Agamemnon, 42, 89, 240, 242 Aries, see amphitheater, and theater at Aries,
Anderson, Judith, 35, 259-60, Fig. 842
Agatharchus (painter), 59, 74, 269 Fig. 671
Anderson, Maxwell, 260
Agathon, 44, 51, 76 art of acting, see acting
Agave, 32, 82 Andromeda, 25, 31-32, 35, 77, 148, 157-58, Artemis, 16, 65-66, 76
agon (contest), 6, 39, 43; personification, 70, 228, Figs. 110-112, 570-71 Artorius (architect), 173, 188
Fig. 269 animal baiting ( venationes) 178, 190, 197-
,
Asclepius, 64, 70, 135, 249
agonothetes (official), 43 99, 200, 203, 208, 215-17, 219-20, 222, Asia Minor, 27, 112, 117, 190, 208, 210,
agora, 49, 54, 57, 63, 70, 73, 84, 115, 120, 250, 252-53, 270, Figs. 834b, 838-39 213, 217, 220, 253
146, 177, 221, 249 animal costumes and masks, 2, 6, 8, 22, 36-37, Aspendus, see theater, Figs. 700-06
Agrippa, 191, 202; see Odeum of Aerrippn, Figs. 123-29 Assos, see theater, Fig. 440
Figs. 617-19 animal fights, 181, 198, 208, 217-19, 222 Assteas (vase painter), 129-32, 136, 139, 144,

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 INDEX
146, 167-68, 170, 256, ch.x n.14, ch. xvi Beare, W., ch.in n.31, ch.vi n.ll, ch.xi nn.21, cave, 34, Figs. 119-20
n.16, Figs. 479, 494, 508, 535 25, ch.xm n.2, ch.xv n.14 cavea, 167-68, 172, 174, 179, 184-95, 198-99,
Astydamas, Achilles, Antigone, Athamas, 81 Beazley, Sir John, ch.x n.33 201-04, 206-08, 211-12, 222, 268, Figs. 654-
Atellan farce, 131, 145-46, 148-50, 159-60, Behrman, S. N., 260 55, 658-59, 690
167, 173, 188, 227, 247-48, ch.x n.21, bema, 3, 18, 55 cenaculum, 131, 167
Figs. 538-39 Berkeley, California, Greek theater, 268, Fig. centunculus, 160, 249, 254, ch.xvi n .5, Fig.
Athena, 13-14, 30-31, 34, 65, 131, 135-36, 859 829
225, 232, 267; cult of, 1, 136; statue, 225, Bernbeck, Giessen, 266 Cepheus, 31-32
Figs. 40-41, 121, 759 Bethe, 31, 114, ch.vi n.28, ch.x nn.21, 92 Cephisodotus, 89
Athenaeus, 38, 49, 74, 89, 124, 129, 136, bilingual public, 92, 186, 234 chariot races, 147, 167, 252, 267
168, 223, ch.ix n.28 bisellia (honorary seats), 173, 177, 193-94, Charley's Aunt, 42
Athenodorus, 81 202; see also proedria Charon, 37, 70; Charonian steps, 78, Figs.
Athens, 1, 3, 18, 84, 87, 106, 115, 122-23, Blavatski, ch.x n.48 284-88; Charun, 147-48, 199, ch.xvi n.5,
129, 159, 164, 167, 177, 190, 211, 223, Blepyros, 41 Figs. 544-45
227, 234, 252, 259; see also theater of blows, 140-41, 162, 238, Figs. 512-13, 516 Cheiron, 135, Fig. 491
Athens, Odeum of Herodes Atticus Boeotia, 1, 27, 48 children in tragedy, 81, 163, 230-31, 234,
athletes, 161, 174, 232-33, 237, 267, Figs. Boscoreale frescoes, 124-26, 168, 228, 244, 239, 251, Figs. 590, 773, 779, 842; in
777-78, 784; athletic contests (games), 147, 269, Figs. 471-74 comedy, 42, 81, 88, 103-04, 139, Fig. 400;
152, 167, 227, 232, 269-70; female tum- Bosra, see theater, Fig. 710 in the service of troupes, 239, Figs. 787-88
bler, 144, Fig. 535 bouleuterion, 181-82, 221, Fig. 633 children's oenochoe, Fig. 218
Atilius, Marcus, Electra, 166 bourgeoisie, 87, 102, 115; bourgeois men, 93, chiton, 10-12, 27, 31, 34, 37, 45, 50, 83,
Atta, T. Quinctius, 160 102-05, 124, Figs. 324-28, 408; bourgeois 89, 91-92, 96-97, 99, 103, 143, 149, 154,
Attic tragedy, see Greek tragedy women, 96-97, 101, 105, 145, Figs. 353- 163-64, 268
Attic tribes, 6, 53, 71, 81, 86, 122, 126, 189, 55, 383, 540 chlaina, 16
214 boxes (box seats), 172, 178-79, 184, 186-87, chlamys, 11, 37, 89, 99, 103-05, 135, 143,
audience, 36-37, 44, 59, 108, 127, 131, 153, 189, 197-99, 207-08, 214, 256, 268; see 154, 162-63, 232, 242
168, 172-73, 186, 193, 203, 206, 221-22, also tribunalia Choerilus, 19-20, 22
241, 251-52, 268; see also spectators boxing, 85, 141, 143, 147, 232; caricature of Choes, 52
auditorium, 32, 45, 57, 59, 63, 69-71, 76, 102, boxers, 141, Fig. 516 choral dance, 4-6, 16, 63, 235, 262, 267,
109, 111, 118, 126-27, 167-68, 170, 172- braggart, see soldier, Figs. 369-71 Figs. 12-14; see also chorus dancing
74, 178, 181-83, 185, 187-89, 197-98, 201, breccia, 60, 67 choraules, 236, ch.xv n.23, Fig. 782
205, 207, 209-11, 214-15, 217-22, 253, Briseis master (vase painter), 20, Figs. 60-61 choregus, 7, 20, 43, 51, 53, 59, 64, 81
256, 258, 267, Figs. 223, 225-31, 237-38, Brommer, ch.m n.40 chorodidaskalos (chorus teacher), 12, 20, 29,
243-44, 250-51, 255-56, 258-59, 271-74, Broneer, Oscar, 62, 222 53, 81, 84, ch.n n.69, Figs. 36, 61-62
276, 281, 284-88. 416-18, 420, 440-42, Browning, Robert, Agamemnon, 258 chorpodium, 79
446, 449-52, 461-65. 468-69. 477, 647- Brygus painter (of vases), 8, 14, Figs. 20, 48 chorus, 1-21, 29, 31, 34, 37-39, 43-45, 49,
48, 650-56, 658-59, 662, 667, 672-76, 680- Bucco, 131, 145, 148, 151, 160, 247, 254 53-54, 57, 59-60, 67, 70, 77, 79-81, 86-87,
81, 685-87, 689-90, 694, 700-01, 703, 708- buffoon, 249 96, 108, 115, 119, 122, 126-27, 129-30,
12, 717-20, 725-28, 731a, 733-34, 737-38, Bulle, H., 68, 110, 112, 114-15, 117, 124-25, 141, 151, 163-65, 232, 234-36, 239, 251-
741, 748-51; see also theatron 131, 164, 170, 188, ch.v nn.13, 16, 31, 52, 259, 262-64, 266-69, Figs. 12-14, 34-
augur, 142, Figs. 523-25 ch.vi nn. 13-14, 28, ch.vn n.32, ch.ix nn.13, 36, 60, 62, 181-82, 787, 837; chorus of
29, ch.xra n.3, Fig. 470 satyrs, 1-2, 6, 10-12, 15, 20, 38, Figs. 15,
Augustine, Confessions, 253
bulls, 2, 37, 53, 135: as a prize of victory, 15; 17, 23, 30-33, 36, 48-49, 53, 308, see also
Augustus, 74, 90-91, 122, 148, 152, 156-57,
bull dragging Dirce, 34, Fig. 120; bull satyrs; number of chorus in tragedy, 11,
159, 165, 172-73, 177, 181, 184, 186-87,
games, 199, 270, ch.xvi n.60 20, 53, 57; chorus-singing, 4-6, 9, 18, 37,
191, 193, 199-200, 205-08, 221, 227, 252
Buschor, E., ch.l n.26, ch.m n.61, ch.v n.26 51, 227, 235, 258, 262; chorus-dancing, 6,
aula regia, aula hospitalia, 173, 187
buskin, see cothurnus 8, 20, 37, 55, 266, Figs. 12-14, 180-82
aulaeum, 179-80, Figs. 606, 611; see also Butrinto, see theater Christianity, 238, 253-54
curtain Byzantine Empire, 250 Christian martyrs, 253
auloi (double pipes), see flutes Chronos, 2
Aurelius, Marcus, 205, 208, 221 Caccini, Giulio, musician, 257 Chryseis, 89
awnings, 179 Cadmus, 42, 48-49, Figs. 174-75, 207 Chytroi, 52
Caecilius Statius, 150-53, 235-36; comedies, Cicero, 148-49, 160-61, 164
babies in comedy and in tragedy, 40-41, 47, 152 Cicirrus, 248
103, 138, 163, 232, Figs. 152, 165, 185, Caesar, G. Julius, 74, 88, 159, 164, 166, 170, Cincius Faliscus, 155
400-01, 589; babies in farce, 138-39, Fig. 184. 199, 207 Circe, 48
507; see also children Cnlie-ula, 238. 247 Circle-in-the-Square, see modem theaters
Babylon, see theater of Babylon, 120 Callippides, 80 circus, 152, 167, 180-81, 190, 193, 199, 201,
Bacchus, 207, 235-36 Cnllistratus, 80 203, 220, 227, 241, 247, 252, 267, 269,
Bacchylides, 1, 6, 80 Camerata in Florence, 257 Figs. 629, 678, 743-44; modern circus,
backdrops, 111, 114, 120, 125-26, 269 Campania, 131. 141, 145-46, 148, 152, 179 254; Circus Schumann, 265, Fig. 858
background for plays, 57, 60, 62, 64-66, 74, Campus Martius, 152, 184, 222 Circus Flaminius, 150, 152, 167, 184, 227
78-79, 114-15, 120, 124, 146, 167-68, 173,
cantharus, 52 Circus Maximus, 152
189, 194, 211, 223, 238, 250, 255-56,
cantica, 151, 161, 165
cistae, ch.xn n.9
259, 262-63, 269, Figs. 234-42; see also cithara, 3-4, 6-8, 11, 43, 95, 126, 137, 166,
Caputo, Giuseppe, 63, 182, 206
cave, temple, tent, palace, scaenae frons, 232, Figs. 10-11; citharists, citharoedi,
Carcinus, 37
skene cithara players, 3, 11, 53, 84, 96, 106, 126,
backstage, 115, 120, 122
caricature, 106, 135, 248
160, 234-35, 239, Figs. 3-4, 341, 541, 781,
Balbus, theater of, 184 Carotta, 194 787-88
Bali, 17, 37, 63, 135, ch.l n.47, Figs. 51-52, carrus navalis (ship car), 19, Figs. 56-58 clappers, 1, 43, 50, 237, 249; foot clapper,
127-29, 249 caryatides, 201, 225 see scabellum; see also cymbals
ballet, 106, 237 Casnar, 145, 148, 151 Claudius Appius, consul, 167
balustrade, 184, 197, 201 Cassandra in farce, 136, Fig. 494 Claudius (emperor), 186, 193, 247
Baroque Period, 255-57 Cassius Dio, 137, 179, 181 Claudius Novius, 213
Basilinna, 52 catalogue of masks, see Pollux Claudius Pulcher, 188; theater of, 168
Bathyllus (pantomime), 165, 236 Catholic University, 265 Claudius Sextus, 207
Bayreuth, 258, 268 Catulus, Quintus, 168, 179 Cleisthenes, 1, 6

334
 INDEX
Cleon, 44 Cornell, Katharine, 259, 268, ch.xvi n.38 15, 120, 124-26, 168, 170, 173-74, 179-
Cleophrades painter (of vases), 8, Figs. 21-24 Cornford, F. M., ch.i n.12 80, 182, 184, 188, 190-91, 201, 206, 208,
Clio, 2 coryphaeus, 80 210-12, 215, 218, 221, 223-26, 252, 258;
clowns, 147, 165, 249 costume: in tragedy, 22-32, 53, 85, 149, 156, see also scenery, background
Clytemnestra, 241, Fig. 793 161, 163-64, 166, 229, 234, 236, 239-40, decorative wall, 114, 116, 119, 168, 173, 186
coins, 199, Fig. 670, ch.xiv n.45 242-43, 252, 259, 262, 264, 267-68, Figs. decuriones (city council), 174
college and school productions, 254-57, 261- 79-89, 91, 112-13, 115-17, 588-91, 765-69, deikelists, 129
70; Barnard, 266-67; Bradford, Reading, 772-73, 779, 785, 789-93, 797-99, 832- Delos, 6, 24, 50; inscriptions, 68, 111-12,
Eng., 262, 268; Bryn Mawr, 261; Cam- S5, 846-56; see also cothurnus; in Greek 124; see also theater, Figs. 449-51
bridge, Eng., 263, Catholic Univ., 265; comedy, 36-42, 92-94, Figs. 123-79, 184- Delphi, 1, 12, 16-17, 21, 84, 131, 190, 227;
Cedar Crest, 263, 267; Columbia, 234, 202, 324-28, 341-42, 346-47, 349, 353-55, see also theater
260, 266-67; Fordham, 263; Haverford, 357-60, 368-74, 378-79, 382-83, 386, 395- Demeter, 22, 225; cult of, 1, 16
261; Northwestern, 267; Oxford, Eng., 263, 413; in Roman comedy, 143, 148-49, 154, Demetrius (poet), 10-11, 84, 87, 124, 223,
266, 268; Pacific Little Theater, Stockton, 161, 250, 260-61, Figs. 547-48, 551-59, 580- Figs. 31-32
Cal., 267; Randolph-Macon, 263; Reed, 261, 87, 770-71, 794-96, 831; in satyr play, Democritus, 59, 74
267; Riverdale School, N.Y.C., 266; Vas- 1, 6, 9, 12, 23, 41, ch.i n.43, Figs. 26-29, demons, 2, 6, 8-9, 16, 22, 38-39. 41, 147
sar, 266; Wellesley, 263; William and 31-32, 36, 94-95, see also Silenus; in farce, Demos, 44
Mary, 266 48, 129, 143, Figs. 203-07, 479, 481-531, Demosthenes, 44, 53, 67-68, 83
colonnade (portico), 68, 70, 111-15, 118, 533-37, 539, 817-18; dancers' costume, 36, Deubner, ch.n n.5, ch.ra n.61, ch.rv n.ll
120, 122, 125, 170, 172, 179, 181-82, 184- 147, Figs. 123-24, 180-82, 211, 541, 861; deus ex machina, 30-34, 76-78; see also ele-
85, 187-91, 193-94, 200-08, 212, 214, 216, see also himation, pallium, toga, mime, pan- vator in Priene
218-19, 221-22, 232, Figs. 223, 237, 250, tomime deuteragonist, 80, 165
256, 258, 464, 631-32, 635, 638, 641, cothurnus (hierh-soled boot), 10, 12, 15, 22, Deutsches Theater, Berlin, 267
675, 684-85, 689, 694, 700, 710-12 26-27, 34, 84-85, 157, 161, 163-64, 230, Diadochi (Alexander's successors), 46, 99,
Colosseum, see Amphitheater, Flavian in 239, 249, ch.n nn.42, 46, Figs. 85-95, 772- 116
Rome, Figs. 666-70 73, 799 dialogue, 18-19, 21-22, 29, 38-39, 44, 80,
columns (pilasters), 68, 130, 146, 155, 161 cottabus, 145 106, 115, 166, 249, 257
(pillar), 167-68, 170, 172-74, 182-85, 188, coulisses, 74, 116, 129, 256, ch.x n.2 diazoma (rounded passage), 64, 70, 218, 220
193-95, 198, 201-02, 205-06, 208. 210, courtesan in comedy, 48, 87-88, 90-91, 93, didaskalia, 53, 151
212, 216-18, 221, 231-32 96-98, 101-02, 105, 138, 149-51, 161, Diels, H., 258
comedy, Greek, 2-3, 16-17, 21, 24, 31, 53-54, 245, 247, Figs. 358-66, 548b, 582 Dietrich Eckhard Freilicht Theater, Berlin,
57, 75, 81-82 (personification), 122, 124, covered portico, see colonnade 267, Fig. 860
133, 138-39, 141, 145, 147, 223, 225-27, coward, 39, 42, 49 Dietrich, Mary, 263. ch.xvi n.45
257; Old Comedy, 36-46, 48, 68, 85, 87, Craig, 269, ch.xvi n.56 Dikaiopolis (Dicaeopolis), see Aristophanes,
92-93, 96-97, 101-03, 108, 135, 152, 161, crane, see flying machines Acharnians
164, 260, Figs. 133-81; Middle Comedy, crater, 49, 83 Dinsmoor, W.B., 54, 60, 63, 68, 114-15, ch.v
39, 45-51, 87, 92, 96, 101, 115, 129, 143, Craterus (painter), 91 nn.4, 33, Figs. 237, 258
245, ch.ra n.23, ch.x n.57, Figs. 184-200; Crates, 47, 81 Dio, Cassius, see Cassius Dio
New Comedy, 33, 40, 45-48, 85, 87-106, Cratinus (comic poet), 6, 81, 135 Dio Chrysostomus, 215, 252
108, 115-16, 123, 126, 148-55, 161, 167, Creon, 33, 35, 134 Diodorus, 46
229, 242, 245, 261, ch.vrn n.l, Figs. 315- crepida, 239, 242 Diomedes, 129, 155
413 crepidata, see tragedy, Roman Dionysia, great city, 19, 39, 49, 52-54, 80,
Comedy (muse), see Komoidia Crete, 3, 6 83; rural, 2, 36, 38, 44, 50-51; Anthesteria,
comedy, Roman, 92, 94, 96, 100, 102, Crosby, Margaret, ch.x nn.37, 56 49, 51-52; Lenaea, 51, 54, 80-81
105, 129, 148-56, 160-62, 165-68, 179, 217, Crypta (covered corridor), 172-74, 178, 184, Dionysiac artists, 84, 86, 92, 105, 122, 126,
227-30, 237-38, 241-42, 244-45, 247, 250, 186 237, 239, Fig. 307; religion, 1-2, 17; mys-
254-55, 257, 261, ch.vin n.l, Figs. 547- cunei (sections of auditorium), 10-12, 70, teries, 16
66; on a relief in Naples, 92-94, 124-25, 127-28, 172, 181, 187, 198, 219 Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 137
161, 180, Fig. 324; Italian popular comedy, cupids, 182, 237 Dionysus, 1, 2, 4, 6-8, 10-16, 18-19, 22-23,
129-46, Figs. 551-53; see also phlyakes Curiatus Maternus, 235 25-27, 30-32, 36, 38, 40-42, 46, 49, 51-52,
comic actors, 81, 94, 96, 100, 126, 129-31, Curio, 170 54, 64, 70-71, 80, 82, 84, 92, 106, 126,
148-50, 242, 247, Figs. 133-78, 184-200, curtain, 69, 84, 120. 124, 167, 174, 179- 133, 141, 143-45, 158-59, 190, 195, 208,
202; see also actors in comedy 80, 194, 200-01, 203-06, 214, 216, 250, 213, 215, 221, 223, 225, 227, 234, 237-
comic costume, see costume Figs. 324, 656, 671, 673, 676, 687, 719, 39, 258, 268, Figs. 18-19, 31-33, 42, 53-
comic strips, 269 724; see also aulaeum, siparium, parape- 55, 59, 72, 80-89, 91-93, 113, 215; see also
commedia dell'arte, 131, 254, 269 tasma theater of Dionysus and Limnais, Diony-
commedia erudita, 254 Cybele, 152 sion in; precinct of Dionysus, 18-19, 35,
Commodus, 74, 245 cymbals, cymbalists, 8, 95-96, Figs 342, 346; 51, 54, 57, 64, 69-70, 73, Figs. 223-
concubine, 97, 105, Fig. 357 see also clappers 24, 250, 258; shrine of Dionysus Lenaeus,
Constantinople, 250 51, 54, Figs. 216-17; gold and ivory statue
construction of the Greek theater, 54-73, 127, dadouchos (torchbearer), 24 of Dionysus, 64; image, 9, 30, 52, Figs.
Fig. 475 Damocopus (architect), 129 25a, 109, 215
construction of the Roman theater, 167-89, Dan aids, 21 Dioscurides (mosaicist), 95-96, 105-06, Figs.
190-220, 227, Fig. 645 dance, 1, 5-6, 8, 11, 16-17, 28, 37, 43, 45, 346-47; see also mosaics
contamination, 88, 92, 152-53 49-50, 52, 54, 63, 82, 96, 103, 106, Diphilus, 88, 150, 152
contest of actors, 52, 80-81, 83; of poets, 30, 144-48, 159, 161, 165, 167, 221, 235, Dirce, 34
80, 83, 225; see also agon 237-38, 249, 269-70, Figs. 12-14, 25, 51- Disney, 135
Cook, A. B., ch.v n.9 52, 123-24, 131, 202, 208-09, 211, distegia, see upper storey
cook in comedy, 39-40, 92, 98, 100-01, 103, 222, 536-37, 861, 865; Etruscan, 147-48, dithyramb. 1, 6-9, 12, 16-17, 21, 23, 25, 51,
106, 150, 154, 230, Figs. 155-56, 203, Fig. 541; Swiss, 63; Roumanian, 63, Fig. 53-54, 57, 71, 80, 86, 122, 126, 258, 269
378-83; see also Maison 248; Jewish, 63; Bali, 63, Fig. 249 Djemila, see theater, Fig. 688
corbels, 179, 201 D'Annunzio, G., Hippolite, 260 dogs, 18, 137, Fig. 497; Maera, 18; Rin-tin-
Corfu pediment, 22 death chamber, 199 tin, 238; Lassie, 238
Corinth, 1, 6, 34, 39, 131, 177, 222; see Decimus Laberius, see Laberius Dolon, 129
also theater of Corinth, Figs. 726-29; odeum declamation, 161, 165, 174, 227, 230, 235, dominus gregis, see theater director
of Corinth, Figs. 748-49 250 Domitian, 198, 222
Corneille, 35, 255 decoration in the theater, 67, 73-74, 78, 114- Donatus, 155, 180

335
 INDEX
donkey, 133, Fig. 487 Eros, 10, 31, 77 flat roof, 110-13
doors, 68, 72, 74, 76-77, 89, 92, 110, 112, Ethiopia, 31 flatterer, see parasite
114-17, 119-20, 123-25, 130, 133, 137, Etruria, 141, 147, 152, 193 Flickinger, R., ch.v n.48, Figs. 287-88
139-40, 146, 162, 166-67, 170, 172-74, Etruscan dances and musicians, 147-48, 167, Floralia, see ludi Florales
182-88, 193-94, 201, 204-06, 208-10, 212, Fig. 541 flutes and fluteplayers, 1, 4-12, 19-20, 36-38,
217-20, 231-32, 238-39, 250, 253, 256, Eubulus (comic poet), 133 43, 45, 50, 53, 81, 84, 91-93, 96, 102,
269, Figs. 324, 786-87; in farce, Figs. Eumenes II, 63, 120 106, 137, 140, 143, 148, 151, 232, 235-36,
479, 487, 491-92, 500, 507, 509, 512, 540; Eunous, 39, Fig. 132 239, Figs. 9-11, 16-17, 19, 27-28, 31-33,
see also hospitalia and regia Euripides, 1, 9, 12, 21-22, 28, 30-35, 42- 36, 45, 56, 60, 62, 124, 182, 324, 328-
Doric comedy, see Doric farce 44, 51, 64, 69, 76-79, 83, 88-89, 91-92, 29, 346, 511, 531, 533, 541, 629, 782, 787
Doric farce, 38-40, 44-45, 92, 101, 129, 131, 100, 129, 134, 148-49, 156-57, 223, 255, flying machine, 67, 76-78, 256, 269, ch.vi
133, 139, 148, 249 257-59, 266, 268, Figs. 106-09 n.14, Figs. 281-83
Dorpfeld, W., 54, 60, 65, 68, 114-15, 188, Euripides, plays: Alcestis, 81, 257-58, 266; Fontanne, Lynn, see Lunt
220, ch.DC n.34, Figs. 239, 257, 646 Andromeda, 31, 53, 76, 157-58, 266, Figs. fool, 249
Dossenus, 131, 145, 148, 151, 160, 247-48, 110-12; Antigone, 33, 65, 266, Fig. foot clapper, see scabellum
254 117; Antiope, 34, Fig. 120; Bacchae, 9, Forum Boarium, 167
drama, 1-3, 9, 16-17, 19, 29, 39, 126, 148- 30, 32, 82, 266-67, Figs. 113-14; Bellero- Forum Romanum, 151
49, 167 phon, 76; Cyclops, 10, 16, 258; Electra, foyer, 70, 191, 201, 206-07, 216, 221
dramatic construction, 29-30 241-42, 259-60, 266; Hecuba, 264, 266; Francois vase, 6, 25, 133, Fig. 14
dramatic performances, see scenic plays Helen, 266; Heracles, 266; Hippolytus, 30, freedman, 103, 105, 145, 148, 161, 173
dramatis personae, 45-46, 82, 157, 245 76-78, 164, 233, 260, 266, 269, ch.n n.69, Freud, S., 264-65, ch.l n.12
dramatists, 22, 29-30, 44-45 ch.xn n.16, Figs. 281-82, 774, 866; Ion, Frickenhaus, A., 8, 12-13, 68, ch.n n.71, Fig.
Draper, Ruth, 269 65, 74, 163-64, 266; Iphigeneia in Aulis, 257
Drerup, ch.xni n.3 241, 259, 266; Iphigeneia in Tauris, 33, Fulvius, Q., 167
dressing rooms, 57, 59, 67, 173-74, 182, 193, 65-66, 83, 231, 258-59, 266, 268, Figs. funeral games and
plays, 162, 227, 238-39,
200-01, 205, 208, 215, Fig. 612 115-16, 253, 774; Madness of Heracles, 30, 247, 250, 252, Figs. 787-88; see also ludi
dromena, 17 82, 229, 233, Figs. 766-67; Medea, 34, 65, Funebres
Duckworth, ch.xi nn.21, 25 76, 156, 230, 233-34, 259-60, Figs. 121-22, Furies, see Erinyes
Dugga, see theater of Dugga 456, 842; Orestes, 83, 241-42, 258, 266, Furttenbach, Joseph, 256, Fig. 840
Duris (vase painter), 5, 14-15, 124, Figs. Philoctetes, 30, 34, Fig. 119; Phoenicians,
10-11, 40, 49 78, 266, Suppliants, 266; Trojan Women, Galilei, Vincenzo (musician), 257
dwarf, 96, 236, Figs. 346, 782 65, 81, 163, 233, 259, 263, 266; Rhesus galleries, 130-31, 167, 170, 172-73, 182, 184-
(attributed to Euripides), 34, 64 86, 189-91, 194, 197-201, 203, 205-06,
ecclesiasterion, 182, 221 Europa, 77 208, 212, 218-20, 222, 247, 256, see also
ecclesiasterion of Tralles, 168 Eurydice, wife of Creon, 33 colonnade, Figs. 479-80, 601
eccyclema, 76-77, 268, ch.n n.71, Figs. 280-81 Eurystheus, 133 Gamelion, 52
ecstasy, 1, 8-9, 16-17, 82 exarchos (leader), 6, 12, 14-15, 18-19, 23, games, 1, 33, 198, 217, 227, 253
education, Greek, 5, 152-53 28, 38, 80 gamos, 41, 52
Egypt, 1, 3, 17, 84, 112 exedrae, 125, 191, 201, 205, 208, 216, 222 gangway, 127, 177, see also praecinctio
Egyptian mysteries, 16 Exekias (vase painter), 19, Fig. 59 Gellius, Nodes Atticae, 83, 249
Ehrlich, Ida, 261, ch.vni n.3 exodium, 160 Gelo of Syracuse, 74
eidolon, 34 exodos, 29 gems, Mycenaean, 22, Fig. 70
Eighteenth Century, 257-58 exomis, 39, 142-43, 154, 162-63 Gerkan, R. von ch.vi nn.13, 54, ch.rx n.29
Elaphebolion, 52-53 gestures, 81-82, 85, 92-93, 105-06, 141-42,
Electra, 241-42, Figs. 794-96; see also Aeschy- fabula: Atellana, see Atellan farce; crepidata, 154, 161-64, 230, 235, 238, 242, 249-51
lus, Sophocles, Euripides 227; palliata, 92, 149, 153-54, 162, 227, ghostly apparitions, 22, 34-35, 57, 78, 205,
Eleusis, 1, 16-17, 24, 51, 59; Eleusinian see also pallium Figs. 121-22b, 289, 693
mysteries, 16, 24, Fig. 79; priests, 24-25 fabulae: praetextae (historical plays), 149, Gielgud, Sir John, 259, Fig. 842a
elevator, 179, 199 156, 235, Fig. 629; salticae, 235-36; saturae, Gilbert, Sir W.
and Sullivan, Sir A., 269
S.
elevator in Priene, 114 148, ch.xi n.6; tabernariae, 160; togatae, Giraudoux, Amphitryon 38, 260
Jean,
Elis, see theater, Fig. 277 149, 160, 247, Figs. 550-53 gladiatorial contests, games, 147-48, 152-53,
embates (higTi clogs), 239, 242 farce, 38-39, 44, 47-49, 88, 97, 101, 106, 129, 167, 170, 178-79, 190, 197-200, 208, 213-
emmeleia, 43, see chorus dances 146-48, 160-61, 167-68, 227-28, 238, 248, 15, 217-18, 220, 222, 227, 238, 241, 252-
Ennius, 152, 156, 158, 233; plays, 156 254, 256, 260-61, 269, Figs. 130-32, 202- 53
entablature, 68, 182, 185, 205-06, 208, 212, 08, 817-24; see also phlyakes gladiators, 147, 160, 179, 198, 252-53, Fig.
216, 221, 223, 226 farmer, 101, 133, 160, see also rustic; in 628
Enters, Angna, 269 farce, 141, Fig. 514 Gluck, C. W., Orpheus und Eurydike, 258,
entrances, 59, 69-70, 114, 116-17, 119-20, Farnese theater in Parma, 256 264
124, 173, 178-79, 184, 186-87, 189-92, father: in comedy, 89, 92-94, 99, 105, 125, Glycera, 89-90, Fig. 321
194, 197-200, 202-08, 218-19, 221, 232, 150, 152-56, 228, 244, Figs. 325-28, 330- goat, 15-16, 18, 36, Fig. 50
13,
247, ch.VT n.ll, Figs. 654, 656; see also 37, 554b, 763, 807-08; in farce, 134, 138, goatskin robe, 12-14, 16, 27
main entrance, side approaches, parodos 141, Figs. 504, 517 Goethe, 35, 258; Iphigenie auf Tauris, 258
epeisodion, 18, 29, 39 Fehling, Jiirgen, 263 Goldman, Hetty, 39
ephebi, 29, 87 Fergusson, Francis, 266, ch.n n.55 Gordian, coins of emperor, 199
Ephesus, see theater, Fig. 441-448 Fescennini, 147-48 gourmand, 39, 47
epic, 1-3, 17, 19, 29, 42, 84 festival dramas, 6, 16-17, 36-37, 84, 106, Graeco-Roman theater, 170, 190, 213-220
Epicharmus of Syracuse, 39, 100, 129, 133, 147, 152, 180, 190, 193, 227, 238, 241; Greek National Theater, 264, 263, Figs. 855-
135-36, 141-42, 145, ch.vi n.4 festivals in Ostia, 241; festivals, Pan- 56
Epictetus (vase painter), 4 athenaic, 227; festival robes, 4, 6, 52-53; Greek theater, 53, 80, 102, 107, 108-09, 126-
Epicurus, 87, 91; philosophy of, 87, 90 festivals in Rome, 241 28, 131, 146, 181, 184, 187-90, 220, 254,
Epidaurus, see theater, Figs. 271-75 Festus, 155 258, see also theater building
episeistos, 95 Fiechter, E., 54, 60, 62, 68, 114-15, 188, grotesque masks, see masks
episkenion, see upper storey 214, ch.v n.10, Figs. 233-36, 241-42, 255- guilds, see Dionysiac artists
Eretria, see theater, Figs. 452-54 56, 261, 263-65, 285-86, 464-67 Guthrie, Tyrone, 264-65
Eretria master (vase painter), 23 Fiesole, 193-94, see also theater, Figs. 655- gymnasium, 177, 222
Erigone, 18 57 gymnastics, 29, 181, 270
Erinyes, 22, 27, Figs. 96-97 Flamininus, T. Quinctius, 152 gymnopaidia, 122

336
 INDEX
Hadas, Moses, 258 HSrmann, 218, Fig. 736 Kleandros (actor), 80
Hades, 31, 133, 158 horse races, 167, 181; horse shows, 122, 250, Kleist, Heinrich von, Amphitryon, 260
Hadrian, 191, 202, 210, 214-17, 220, 223, 252, Figs. 834-37 Kleisthenes, see Cleisthenes
225, 247 hospitalia, 173, 182-83, 187, 193, 201-03, komasts, 36
Haemon, 33 205-07, 216, 231-32, Figs. 674-76, 786 Komoidia (personification of comedy), Figs.
Hardy, Thomas, 108 Hostilius (mime writer), 238 2, 321
Harlequin, 147, 254, ch.xvi n.5 Howe, Thalia Phillies, ch.ii n.19 komos, 1, 28, 36, 39, 44, 51, 129, 152
harmonics, 187 Hyakinthia, 122 kordax, 38, 43, 49, Figs. 180-81
Harrison, Evelyn, ch.in n.39 hydria, 47, 50, 134, 141 kothurnos, see cothurnus
Harrison, Jane, ch.l n.12 Hyginus, 33, 235 krater, see crater
Hart, L. and Rodgers, R., The Boys from hymns, 1 Krates, see Crates
Syracuse, 260 Hypnos, 77 Kratinus, see Cratinus
Hasenclever, Walter, Antigone, 259 hypocrites, 18, 80 Kreon, see Creon
Hauptmann, Gerhart, Die Atriden, eine Tetra- hyposkenion, 115, 205-06, 218, Fig. 692 Krien, Gisela, 105, ch.XV n.51
logie, 259 hypothesis, 107 Kroll, ch.xi n.6
Hauser, ch.X n.47 hypothymis, 92, 95 Kyd, Thomas, The Spanish Tragedy, 255
Heckel, Erich (painter), 261, Fig. 843a kylix, 50
Hecuba, 230, Fig. 765 Iacchus, 24-25 Kyllene, 13
Hecyra, comedy by Terence, 88, 107; mime, Icaria, 51
107, Fig. 415 Icarius, 18, Fig. 54 Laberius, Decimus (writer of mimes), 159,
Helen in farce, 135, Fig. 492 ikria (wooden benches, bleachers), 54, 57, 164, 173
Hephaestus, 38, 64, 135, 235, 262, Figs. 130, 63-64, ch.v n.l Lamachos, 40, 44, 46
252; in farce, 133, Fig. 4S5 Iliad, see Homer Lamia, 248, Figs. 823-24
Hera, 1, 14, 38, 64, Fig. 48; in farce, 133, improvisations, 17, 36, 39, 51 lampadion, 98, Fig. 366
Fig. 485 inscriptions: Greek, 53, 68, 84, 89, 110-12, Laomedon, 10
Heracles, 6, 10-11, 14-15, 22, 26, 30, 33-34, 120, 179, 181-83, 190, 242, 247; Latin, 131, lar familiaris, 152
39, 42, 46-47, 49, 65, 70, 82, 85, 129-34, 170, 172-74, 178, 181, 190-91, 205, 207, Latin plays, 88, 147-61, 184, 227-46; see
139, 145-46, 148, 157, 216, 226, 229, 236, 241, 247, Fig. 609 also comedy, Roman theater
236, 239, 244, 247, Figs. 32, 48b, 117, 121, interior scenes, 114, 120, 124, 130, 269, Lattimore, Richmond, 266
170-71, 187, 311, 479, 481-82, 486-89, Figs. 347, 470 Laureolus, 238
569, 766, 805-06; comedy by Anaxandri- intermissions (interludes), 53, 70, 74, 96, Lautenschlager, Karl, 268
des, 46 160, 182, 190, 203, 257, Fig. 346 lecythus (lekythos), 3, 16, 23, 52, 162, Figs.
Heraclitus (mosaicist), 243, Fig. 802 Iolaus, 130-32 73, 219
Herbig, 223, 225 Iphigenia, 33, 35, 65, 68, 231, 241, 258, Leda, 135
Herculaneum, see theater, Fig. 644 Figs. 115-16, 253, 774 Lehmann (Lehmann-Hartleben), Karl, 66, 68
herdsman, 40, Figs. 144-46 Iris, 14 Lenaean 54-55, 80-81; precinct
festival, 52,
Hermes, 14-15, 24, 31-32, 34, 42, 132, 138- Isis, 16, 165, 172 (Lenaion), 69-70, Figs. 216-17; vases, 8,
39, Fig. 49; in farce, 134, Fig. 489; see also Ismene, 33 23, Fig. 25
Mercury Italy, 84, 113, 129-31, 136, 141, 147-161, leno, see procurer
Hermippus (comic writer). 133 168, 170, 181, 183, 187, 190-99, 222, Lentulus (writer of mimes), 238
Herod, King of the Jews, 208 248, 254, 256, 258 Leonidaeum in Olympia, 113, 118
Herodes Atticus. 221-22; see also theater, itinera versurarum, 172, 187, 194, Fig. 657 Lepidus, M. Antonius, 168
Figs. 712-16 ivory tablets (diptychs), 250-52, Figs. 833-37 Leptis Magna, see theater, Figs. 696-99
Herodotus, 1, 6 Lesky, A., ch.n n.l 1
heroes, 9, 23, 42, 157, 163, 232, 237, 240, Jason, 6, 13-15, 34, Figs. 40-42 Lessing, 258
250, Figs. 177, 567-68, 772, 785, 789- Jeffers,Robinson, Medea, 35, 259, 266, Fig. Licymnius (mathematician), 168
792; see also Achilles, Ajax. Heracles, 842; The Cretan Woman, 260 Limnais, Dionysion in, 54, 69
Perseus; heroes in comedy, 42, Figs. 169-78 jesters, 249, 254; see also clowns Linus (Linos), 131
heroic saga, 6, 15, 18, 30, 39, 42, 48, 88, Jocasta, 59 Lipiner, S., 260
129-31, 148, 162-63, 230, 242 Johnston, Mary, ch.vi n.ll lists of plays, ch.m n.51
heroine, 12, 23, 32-33, 76, 149, 157, 163, 230, Jones, Inigo, 256 Little,ch.xv n.13
234-37, 239, 241, 243, Figs. 567, 773, 785 Josephus, 208 Littmann, Max, Schiller Theater, Berlin and
Herondas. 107 jugglers (ball players), 248-50, 252, 254, Kiinstlertheater, Munich, 268
heroon (shrine), 33, Fig. 117 Figs. 830, 835, 837 liturgy, 1, 17, 28
Herzog, Rudolph, 170 Juno, 235, 237 living pyramids, 252, Fig. 835
Hesione, 10-11, 31 Jupiter, 131, 151-52, 238, 260, Fig. 484 Livius Andronicus, 148, 152, 158, 161, 165;
Hieron of Syracuse, 129, 168, 183, 247 Juvenal, 236, 247, ch.xi n.ll tragedies and comedies enumerated, 148
Higgins, R. A., ch.ii n.16, ch.in nn.15, 23 Livy, 148, 152, 161, 167-68
high stage, see proskenion, raised stage Kabeiric vases, 48, 49, Figs. 204-07 logeion, 77, 111, 114-15, 118, 120, 126,
Highet, Gilbert, ch.vni n.3, ch.xvi n.34 Kadmos, see Cadmus ch.vi n.13
hilarious tragedy, see tragicomoedia Kaibel, ch.x n.2 loin cloth, 9, 16, ch.l n.43, Figs. 26-29, 31-
himation, 46-47, 92, 94-95, 97-98, 100-01, Kallipides, see Callipides 32, 36
104, 135, 142-43, 149, 154, 268, Figs. Kallistratos, see Callistratus London, the Theater, Swan Theater and
186, 192-93, 324-28, 332, 338, 359, 548, Karagoz, 254 Globe Theater, 256
559; see also pallium Karouzou, S. P., ch.ii n.42 lovers in comedy, 99, 103, Figs. 369, 395; in
hippodrome, 181 Kasperle, 254 farce, 137-38, Figs. 499-505
historia, 2; historical plays, see fabulae prae- katablemmata, 74-75 low stage, 146, 173-74, 186-89
textae katatome, 64, 70
Lucan (Marcus Annaeus Lucanus), 190,
histriones,147-48 Keats, John, 258
235-36
Hofmannsthal, Hugo von, Electra, 260 Kenner, Hedwig, ch.vi n.29
Holconius Rufus and Holconius Celer, 172- Kerameikos, 47
Lucian (Loukianos) of Samosata, 234-35,
73, Fig. 609 kerkides (wedge-shaped divisions), 63, 70- 239, 243
Homer, 2, 88, 90, Figs. 1-2; Iliad, 2, 54,
7, 72 Lucretius, 179, 190
89, 156, ch.v n.9; Odyssey, 136 Kerkopes, 133 ludi: 152; Apollinares, 152, 159, 227; Cere-
Homeric hymn to Dionysus, 7, 19 Kernodle, G. R., ch.xvi n.16 227; Etrusci, 151; Falisci, 235; Flora-
ales,
Hora, 63, Fig. 248 kerykeion (herald's staff), 15, 132 les, 159, 227, 238; Funebres (Funerales),
Horace, 147, 151, 180, 227, 248 Kirke, see Circe 152, 162, 227; Megalenses, 152, 227; Osci,

337
 INDEX
148; Plebeii, 150, 152, 167, 227; Romani, 64, 807-810; in farce, 49, 131, 134, 144-46, Munich, 268; San Carlo Opera, Naples,
148, 152, 168, 227; Votivi, 152 160, 247-48, ch.X n.21, Figs. 538, 551-53, 258; La Scala Opera, Milan, 258; Schiller
Lunt, Alfred and Fontanne, Lynn, 260 818-24; in pantomime, 165-66, 235-36, Fig. Theater, Berlin, 268; Stratford Theater,
Lycon (actor), 84 783; in satyr play, 10-11, 155-56, 223, 245, Ontario, 264; Theater Marquee, New
Lycosura, 22 Figs. 31-32; of Heracles, 244, Figs. 805-06 York, 266; Theatre Guild, 260; Wagner
Lycurgus, 22, 45, 68, 70, 73-74, 84, 115- matchmaker, 97, 105, 134, Fig. 349 Festival Theater, Bayreuth, 258, 268-69;
16, 123, 247 Mazois, 186 see also Farnese Theater and Teatro
Lycus (Lykos), 30, 34-35, 229, Figs. 120, mechanical devices, 22, 31, 34, 67, 74-79, Olimpico
766-67 199, 205, 237, 255-56, 268-69, Figs. 276- modern theaters in colleges, see college
Lyon, see theater, Figs. 673-74 89; see also periacti, eccyclema, flying Moliere, 238, 254-55, 260
lyre, 3-5, 8, 11, 81, 91, 156, 236, 244, Figs. machine, deus ex machina moneylender, 149-50, Fig. 552
5-8, 10, 12, 33, 783 Medea, 34-35, 77, 119, 156, 230, 250, 259-60, monologues, 106, 165-66
lyric, 1-4, 17, 19, 29, 80, 84, 108, 115, 119, Figs. 121, 122c, 769, 833, 842 Monteverdi, Claudio, Dafne, Arianna, Orfeo,
126-27, 137, 166, 187, 227; lyric per- Medusa, 22, 31, 158 257
formances, see thymelic plays Megalopolis, see theater of Megalopolis mosaics, 12, 20, 88, 90, 96-98, 102-04, 107,
Lysicrates (actor), 80 Megara, wife of Herakles, 30, 33, 130, 229 124, 130, 156, 158-59, 168, 201, 237, 240,
Lysicrates (choregus), 7, Monument of, Fig. Megarian farce, 38, 101; Megarian jokes, 38 242-44, Ftgs. 346-47, 401, 565, 574, 784,
18 Melanchthon, 257 789-92, 802
Melpomene, 2, 82, Fig. 302 mother, 150; of courtesans, 97
Maccus, 131, 145, 148, 150, 160, 247-48, 254 Menander, 33, 45, 47, 87-91, 115, 123, 150, mother-in-law, 107
Macedonia, 9, 27, 87, 120, 217 152, 223, 231, 242, 257, 261, chtvm n.l, motion pictures, 238, 260-61
machinery, see mechanical devices Figs. 314-23 movable properties, 79, 116, 120, 146, 193,
Macrobius, 159 Menander, plays: Achaeans, 88-89, 242, Fig. 199, 201
Maenads (Bacchae, Thyades, Lenae), 1, 8-9, 315; Adelphoi {Brothers), 88, 247; Agroi- movable seats, 174, 191, 194; see also seats
16,23, 51, 54, 144, 156, 158-59, 223, kos (Farmer), 101; Andria (Girl from Miihsam, Alice, ch.n n.l
237, Figs. 19-26, 33, 72 Andros), 88, 152, 156; Anger, 87; Dyscolos Mummius, 168
Maenianum, 194, 197-98 (The Sidlen Man), 87, 94, ch.viii n.3; Murray, Gilbert, 258, 261, ch.i n.12, ch.n
Maera, Maira, 18 Epitrepontes, ( Arbitrants) , 87, 92-94, 96, n.ll
Maffei, S., 199 102-03, 123, 139, 261, Figs. 327, 468-69; muse, muses, 2, 23, 29, 82, 84, 94, 180, 193,
magicians, 126, 251 Heautontimoroumenos (Self -tormentor), 87- 206, 226, 240, Figs. 1, 303-05, 308, 321,
Magna Graecia, 32, 92, 129, 147-48, 170, 88; Hero, 88, 102; Kolax (Flatterer), 88, 334, 629
190 99, 102, 149; Perikeiromene, 88, 94, 96- music, 1-4, 6, 17, 29, 54, 81, 84, 95-96,
Magna Mater, 152 99, 102; Perinthia (Girl from Perinthus) , 127, 136, 147, 151, 161, 174, 181, 220,
Magnes, 37 88, 156; Samia (Girl from Samos), 88-89, 222, 227, 232, 234-36, 239, 245, 257-58;
Magnesia, see theater, Fig. 730 92, 94, 101, 261, Figs. 316-17, 843b competitions, 181; history of music, 22, 257
Mnhr, 62, 68, Figs. 240, 259-60, 280 Mercury, 132, 152, 199, 239-40, 260, Figs. musical comedy, 151, 260, 269
maidservants, 96, 98, 101, 230, Figs. 347, 484, 791; see also Hermes music hall, see odeum
367, 773 Merida, see theater, Figs. 680-84 musicians, 3, 11, 29, 37, 50, 53, 84, 96,
main entrance, 183, 187, 191 Meritt, Benjamin D., 170 106, 115, 124, 126-27, 151, 156, 167-68,
Maison, 40, 101, 103; see also cook messenger, 34, 66, 82, 85, 119, 230-31, Figs. 235-36, 239, 252-53, 257, Figs. 179, 341-
Maiuri, Amadeo, 113, 172, Fig. 607 293-94, 772 42, 346; Etruscan musicians, 147, Fig. 541
Malalas, 210 Messerschmidt, ch.X n.57 Mussato, Alberto, of Padua, Eccerinis, 255
Manducus, 151, 248, 254, Figs. 821-22 Metropolitan Opera House, New York, 258 mute, 89, 227; see also supernumeraries
Mania, 130 Middle Ages, 69, 148, 153, 249-50, 254 Mycenae, 1, 20, Figs. 70-71
mantle, 10-11, 15-16, 25-26, 33-34, 37, 39, Middle Comedy, see comedy, Greek Mynniskos (actor), 80
43, 50, 91-92, 95-101, 103-05, 137, 140, Miletus, see theater, Figs. 737-39 Myropnous, 236, Fig. 782
142-43, 149-50, 153-54, 161, 163-64, 224, Miltiades, 223 mysteries, 16, 70
237, 241, 248-50; fringed, 92-93, 103, Miltiades, Milton, 265 myth, mythology, 1-3, 6, 11, 14, 30, 42, 112,
145, 149 mime, 9, 86, 106-07, 126, 129, 159-60, 164- 129, 165-66, 240, 242, 257-58, 260, 267
Marcellus, 184; see also theater, Figs. 640-43 66, 173-74, 179, 206, 227, 232, 237-38, Mytilene, see theater
Marconi, 170 242, 248-52, 254, 256, ch.xv n.65, ch.xvi
Marlowe, Christopher, 255 n.5, Figs. 414-15, 579, 592, 775, 786, Naevius, 148-50, 152, 155, 229, 231; trage-
Marmor Parium, see Parian chronicle 825-29, 834a, 836; mimesis, 9, 17, 161; dies and comedies, 149
Marsyas, 232 mimetic art, 1, 17, 86, 159-61, 165, 237- Nannion, 115
Martial, 179, 190, 237, ch.xi n.ll 38, 267; mimetic dances, 106, 148, 159; naumachiae (naval fights), 253
masks: 2, 6, 9-12, 19, 22, 27, 31-32, 36, 39, mimologoi, 107, Fig. 415 Nausicaa, 29, 136
41, 44-45, 47-49, 51, 53, 81-86, 89-90, Minotis, Alexis, 264 Navarre, O., 105
92-105, 125, 141-43, 147-48, 153-164, 174, Minturnae, see theater, Figs. 651-54 nebris (deerskin), 12, 84
180, 223, 225, 227-28, 235-39, 243-45, Minucius Prothymus, 155 negro, 31, 249, Figs. 111a, 830
260, ch.xv n.51, Figs. 66-69 (Punic); gro- Mithras, 16 Neoptolernus, 30, 135, actor, 81, 83
tesque, 22, 45, 92, 100-02, 104, 144, 203, mitra, 95, 98, 155-56, 159 Nero, 91, 160, 173, 179, 181-82, 186, 197-
241, 245, 247-48, 264, Figs. 70-71; Diony- Mnemosyne, 2 98, 213-15, 223, 225, 233-35, 239, 247,
siac, 15, 22-23, 125, 158-59, 223, 227, Mnesilochus, 43 Figs. 719-23, 781
ch.xrv n.90, Figs. 72-73, 573, 578; in trage- modern amphitheaters, 270 Nestor, 89, 242
dy, Greek, 11, 19, 22, 26, 32, 82, 85-86. modern presentations in colleges and schools, New Comedy, see comedy, Greek
155, 245, 262, 268, Figs. A, 34-35, 74, see college
New Pleuron, see theater, Figs. 438-39
90, 113-14, 300-06, 309-13; in tragedy, modern theaters, 146, 234, 253-70, Figs.
niche, 173-74, 182-84, 186, 189, 191, 193-
Roman, 149, 154-59, 161, 163-66, 203, 842-60, 866; Circle-in-Square, N.Y.C.,
94, 200-02, 204-12, 215, 217-18, 220,
227-28, 232, 236, 239-40, 243-47, 250, 259, 269; Dcutsches Theater, Berlin, 266-
223, 225, 232
Figs. 573-77, 594, 760-62, 800-06, 811; 67; Dietrich Eckhard Freilichtbiihne, Ber-
Nicias, 44, 60, 63. 73, 77, 108
in comedy, Greek, 36-37, 41, 44-45, 47, lin, 267-68, Fig. 860; Everyman's Theater,
51, 89-90, 92-105, 125, 140, 154-59, 161, New York, 261; Greek National Theater, Nicostratus of Argos, 46
163-65, 245, 260, Figs. 201, 215, 316-17, Athens, 264, Figs. 855-56; Grosse Schau- Niemann, 218, Fig. 735
329-37, 339-40, 343-45, 348, 350-52, 356, spielhaus, Berlin, 261, 264-65, 267-68; Nietzsche, Friedrich, 3, 258
358, 361-67, 373-413; in comedy, Roman, Kunstler-Theater, Munich, 268; Lauch- Nikai, 3, Fig. 4
92, 96, 149-50, 154-56, 161, 163-65, 227- stadt Theater, 261; Metropolitan Opera Nimes, see theater
28, 244-47, 250, Figs. 549, 560-66, 763- House, New York, 258; Residenz Theater, Nineteenth Century, 254, 258

838
 INDEX
Ninnion pinax, 24 694, 700, 710-12, 717-20, 726-28, 738, parodos (side entrance), 29, 39, 57, 59, 67,
Noack, F., 79, ch.v nn.10, 13, ch.vi n. 28 741, 845, 857, 859-60, 865 70, 72, 75, 77, 118, 120, 122, 170, 172-
Norbanus Sorix, see Sorix Orestes, 42, 66, 231, 234, 241-42, 258-59, 73, 187, 189, 194, 211-12, 214-20, Figs.
Notium, see theater 264, Fig 253 221, 224, 231, 238, 250, 254-56, 258-59,
Novius, see Claudius Orient, 3, 27 271-75, 281, 656-57, 661, 697
Numisius, Publius (architect), 186, 188 oriental mysteries, 16 parody of tragedy, 129-36; of Arion, 37
Numitorius Hilarus, 163, 182 Orlik, Emil (modern painter), 265, Fig. 858 passageways and vaulted passageways, 70,
nurse, 41, 46-47, 93, 97, 134, 164, 231, 259, Oropos, see theater, Figs. 426-29 177-79, 181, 184, 186-89, 193, 199, 205-
Figs. 165, 185 (in comedy), 591, 773 (in Orpheus, 253 06, 212; see also crypta
tragedy Orphic-Dionysiac tablets, 16 Patroklos, 89
nymphaeum, 206, 210 Oscan plays, 131, 145-46, 148, 150-52, 167, Pausanias, 26, 64, 72, 89, 135, 221-22, ch.n
248 n.13
Oates, Whitney, 261 Oscans, 145-46, 148, 160, 170, 172, 247-48, Paxinou, Katina, 264
obelias, 49 Fig. 539; see also fabulae Atellanae peasants in comedy, 101, 242, Figs. 384-85,
odeum, 220-222, 239, 247; of Agrippa in Osiris, 1 794-96
Athens, 54, 174-77, 221, Figs. 617-19; of Ostia, see theater of Ostia, Figs. 647-50 pedagogue, 164, Figs. 10-11, 590
Amman (Philadelphia), 221-22; of Aosta, outer facade (of theaters), 122, 182, 185-86, pedlar, 40, Fig. 147
221, Fig. 747; of Aspendus, 221; of 188-39, 193, 201, 206, 208, 218, Figs. 612, Peloponnesian War, 53, 64, 73, 75, 116, 259
Butrinto, 222, Fig. 750; of Corinth, 174- 641-45, 677, 702 Peloponnesus, 1-2, 17, 38, 129
77, 222, 225, Figs. 748-49; of Cretopolis, Ovid, 156, 180, 197, 235, 238 peplos, 98-99, 137, 268, Figs. 360, 368
222, Fig. 751; of Ephesus, 222; of Epidau- performance, 1, 114, 180
rus, 177, Fig. 621; of Gortyn, 222; of Pacuvius, 152, 156, 163, 166 Pergamum, 24, 134, 180; see also theater,
Herodes Atticus, 212, 221, 225; of Lyon padded bodice (jerkin, somatia), 38-39, 41- Figs. 243-47
(Lugdunum), 220; of Naples, 174, 220; 43, 45, 154, 157, 164, 203, 239, 243, 250, Peri, Jacopo (musician), 257
of Patras, 221; of Pericles, 53, 59, 64, ch.m n.31 periaktoi, periacti, 63, 75-77, 255, Figs. 277-
70, 73, 220, Figs. 237, 258; of Pompeii, Paenula, 149, 249, Figs. 552, 828 79
174, 220; of Rome, 222; of Sagalassus, Paestum, 130-31, 143, 146 Periander, 1
221; of Syracuse, 177, 222, Fig. 620; of Paidia, 10, Fig. 32 Pericles, 29, 39, 44, 53, 73, 108, 220; see
Taormina, 174, 220, Fig. 616; of Termes- painted decorations, 22, 74, 110. 114, 116, also odeum of Pericles
sus, 221, Figs. 745-46; of Vienne, 220 123-25, 168, 174, 182, 187-89, 216-17, Persephone, 1, 16
Odysseus, 30, 39, 42, 48, 89, 129, 157, 223, 232; see also pinakes Perseus, 31-32, 48, 50, 76, 106, 157-58, 228,
163, 236, Figs. 30, 172-73, 204-06; in farce, painted figures, 180, 223 Figs. 110-1 11c, 202, 570-71
136, Fig. 495; in tragicomoedia, 129, Fig. painted screens, 74, 111, 116, 120, 122-23, persona, 147
478; tragedy, Roman, 162-63, Fig. 588 256; see also pinakes perspective, 74
Odyssey, see Homer palace and stage palace, 33-35, 112, 114-15, peruke, 248
Oedipus, 12, 59, 230, 234, 251, 264-65, 125, 129, 133, 173, 263, 267, Figs. 117, Peruzzi, 184
Fig. 833 121, 122a, 432e-g Pessinus, see theater
Oeniadae, see theater, Figs. 457-59 Palladio, Andrea (architect of the Teatro petasos, 15, 154, 179
Oikoumene, 2, 124 Olimpico, Vincenza), 194, 256 Petrarch, Philologia, 254,
Oistros (personification of frenzy), 34 Palliata, see comedy, Roman Petronius, 247
okribantes (high stilts), 240 pallium and palla, 92, 149-50, 153-54, 161, Pfuhl, Ernst, ch.n n.67
Old Comedy, see comedy, Greek 237, 249-50, ch.xi n.12, ch.xvi n.59, Figs. Phaeacians in farce, 136, Fig. 495
oldmen, 39, 85, 93-94, 105, 125, 129, 139, 554b, 559, 561; see also himation Phaedra, 76-77, 164, 260, Fig. 591
142, 148, 151, 153, 230, 245, 247, 257, Palmyra, see theater, Fig. 707 Phaedrus (writer of fables), 89
Figs. 133, 309, 324-28, 332-36, 502-04, Pan, 6, 125, 156, 165, 170-71, 224, Figs. Phaedrus, bema of, 18, 215, 223, Figs. 53-55,
771; in farce, 132, 134, 137-39, 141-42, 16, 603-04 71 7-20
144-45, Figs. 482, 488, 502, 508-09, 517- pander, see procurer phallic ceremonies, 36; chant, 36, 51; phallus,
19, 521-22 Pandia, feast of, 53 39, 143, 146, 249, ch.m n.31
Old Vic Theater, London, 264 Pandora, 6, Fig. 16 Pherecrates (comic poet), 135
old women, 41, 85, 93, 96-97, 105, 129, 164, panels, 110-111, 115, 123 Phersu, 147, Figs. 542-43
245, Figs. 163-65, 312, 327, 347-54; in pantaloon, 254 Phidias, 29, 64
farce, 134-36, 140, 144, Figs. 488-89, 492, pantomime, 165-66, 174, 179, 227, 232-33, Philadelphia, see theater of Amman
494, 510, 512, 520; see also women in 235-37, 242, 252, 269, ch.xv n.22, Figs. Philemon, 45, 47, 88, 150
comedy 776, 783 Philomela, 29
Olivier, Sir Laurence, 264 Papposilenus (old Silenus), Papa-Silenus, see Philip of Macedon, 45, 83; Philip V, 119
Olympia, 227 Silenus Philippi, see theater
Olympus, 38, 133 Pappus (Latin), Pappos (Greek), 103-04, Philippopolis, see theater
Olynthus, 40, 45 131, 145, 148, 160, 247, 254, Fig. 396; Philostratus, 203, 212, 221-22, 234, 240
Omrikos, 39 see also old men Philoxenus, 126
O'Neill, Eugene, Mourning Becomes Electra, parabasis, 37-38, 44, 141 phlyakes farce, 127-46, 148, 150-51, 167,
259 parachoregma, see supernumerary 260; masks, 143; stage, 116, 146, 148,
O'Neill, Eugene, Jr. (translator), 261 parade, 2, 122, 152 167-68, 180, 204, 215-16, Figs. 483, 485,
onkos, 22, 24, 42, 84-85, 95, 157-58, 163- parapetasma (curtain), 124, Fig. 324 488-89, 491-92, 498, 504, 507-09, 511,
64, 228, 230, 234, 239-44, 247, 250 parapets, 114, 117, 174, 177-78, 184, 189, 515, 517-19, 535, 540; vases, Figs. 481-502,
opera, 257-58, 264, 268 202-03, 205-06, 215, 217-19, 232, 252- 504-28, 531, 533-37; statuettes, 138, 142.
Ophelandros, 39 53 Figs. 503, 529-30
Orange, see theater, Figs. 675-79 parasite, 39, 88, 92, 98-101, 106, 124, 150- Phoenix, 89, 242
orchestra, 22, 32, 34-35, 37, 42, 54-55,
11, 51, 153, 164, 255, 257, ch.vm n.64, Figs. Phormis, 74, 129, ch.vi n.4, ch.X n.2
57, 59-63, 66-69, 72, 78, 96, 108, 110, 371-77 phortika, 40, 45, 103, 133
114-15, 118-20, 127, 146, 169, 172-74, 181, paraskenia (side buildings), 62, 67-70, 73, Photius, 49, 54
184, 186-89, 191-94, 200-03, 205-07, 211, 76, 78, 108, 111-12, 114, 118-20, 123, Phrynichus, 19-20, 22, 57; Capture of Mile-
214, 252-53, 256, 261-63, 265, 269, Figs. 129, 131, 168-72, 179, 181, 187, 201, tus, 19; Phoenician Women, 19-20
223-33, 236-40, 250, 254-256, 258-60, 203, 206, 211, 214, 216-17, 224, 263, Physis, 3
271-74, 285-88, 416-18, 420, 425, 427-29, ch.ix n.9, Figs. 253-66, 603 Picard, Charles, ch.x n.32
440-42, 445-46, 449-52, 456-59, 461-65, Parian chronicle (ZG xn, 5 No. 444), 15, 87, Pickard-Cambridge, Sir Arthur, 60, 105,
468-69, 596-97, 607, 610, 613-14, 647-48, ch.n n.3 ch.i n.44, ch.n nn.2,5, ch.m n.4, ch.vm
650-57, 672-76, 680-81, 686-87, 689-90, Paris (pantomime actor), 236; myth, 237 n.98

339
 INDEX
pilos, 40, 42, 163 post-Euripidean tragedy, 34-35, 78-79, 83, regia, 173, 182-83, 187, 193, 200-03, 205-
pimp, see procurer 87, 129, Figs. 121-22 07, 209-10, 212, 216-17, 231-32, 235,
pinakes, 74, 111, 114-16, 122-24, 189, Figs. Post, L. A., 261 Figs. 674, 676, 679, 699, 775-78, 786
423-25, 445-46; see also painted decora- postscaenium, 173-74, 184, 200, 203, 208-09, Reinhard, K., ch.n n.12
tions and screens 211-12, 215, Figs. 612, 639 Reinhardt, Max, 261, 264-65, 268
Pindar, 54 praecinctio (passageway), 184, 186, 194, reliefs, 54, 82-84, 89, 92-93, 101-02, 115,
Piraeus, 32, 51, 87; see also theater, Fig. 198, 202, 208 124-25, 130, 154-57, 162, 164, 179-80,
463 Pratinas, 14, 20-21, 54, 57 182, 188, 193, 201, 205-06, 215, 223,
Pisistratus, 19, 54, 73 Praxagora, 41 225-28, 235-36, 239, 250, 252; with story
Pistoxenos, 81 Praxiteles, 25, 89, 91 of Dionysus, 32, 159, 215, 223
Pithoigia, 52 Priam, 85, 230, Figs. 310, 768; in farce, religion, Bacchic, Dionysiac, 1-2, 8, 16, 37,
planipedes, 160 135-36, Fig. 493 52, 83-84, 123; pre-Greek, 22, Fig. 71;
platform for actors, 111, 114-15, 120, 167- Priene, see theater, rigs. 416-25 Greek, 189, 254, 259, 268; Roman, 152.
68, 206, 255-56, 263; see also logeion Pringsheim, 25, ch.n n.26 254
Plato, 44, 51, 106, 258 private houses, 107, 114-15, 117-18, 124-25, Renaissance, 153, 186, 188, 254-57
Plato (comic poet), 133 131 revellers (komasts), 36-37
Platonius, 45, ch.m n.51 prizes,6, 15, 25, 30, 53 revolving stage, 268
Plautus, 88, 92, 94, 105, 131, 139, 141, proagon (assembly), 53, 59 rhapsodes, 84, 126, 166, 234
145-46, 150-53, 160-62, 167, 230-31, 254- procession,1, 4, 8, 49-53, 55, 198 Rhesus, attributed to Euripides, 34, 64
55, 257, 260-61, 269, ch.xi n.21, Fig. 844 procurer (pornoboskos), 102, 106-07, 150- Rhinton of Syracuse, 129, 131, 136, 141-42.
Plautus, plays: Amphitruo, 115-16, 131-32, 51, 153-54, Figs. 386-87, 561 (Sarfhio) 146, 151, ch.X n.90, Herakles, 129-32,
151-52, 166-67, 254-55, 260-61, Fig. 484; procuress, 96, Fig. 349 Amphitruo, 132, 151
Asinaria, 138, 150-51; Aulularia, 139, proedria (seats of honor), 63, 70-71, 114- Richardson, Wayne, 266
151-52, 254-55; Bacchides, 138, 150- 15, 123, Figs. 267-69; see also bisellia Rinuccini, Ottario, 257
51, 254; Captivi, 151, 153-54; Casina, 138, programs, 53 Rin-tin-tin, 238
150-51; Cistellaria, 150, 161; Curculio, Prokne, 29 rituals, 1, 22
151; Epidicus, 151, 154; Menaechmi, 100- prologue, 21-22, 29-30, 39, 151-53, 167 Rizzo, G. E., ch.X n.90, ch.xm n.3
01, 150, 155, 230, 247, 254-55, 260; Prometheus, 6, 13, 15, Fig. 39 Robert, Carl, 12, 105, 261, ch.n n.76, ch.xn
Mercator. 138, 151, 154; Miles gloriosus, Pronomos (fluteplayer), 10-12, ch.n n.69, n.16, ch.xv n.22
150, 161, 167, 255; Mostellaria, 146, 150- Figs. 31-32 Robinson, David M., ch.m nn.39, 49
51, 162; Persa, 151; Poenulus, 167; properties, see movable properties Rodgers, R. and Hart, L., The Boys from
Pseudolus, 150-51; Rudens, 151-52; Sti- proscenium (Latin) and proskenion (Greek), Syracuse, 260
chus, 103, 138, 140, 150-51, 167; Tri- 68, 74, 77-78, 111-16, 119-20, 123-24, Rogers, B. B., 261
nummus, 151-52; Truculentus, 150, 167- 126-27, 131, 167-73, 186-89, 191, 193- Romaia, 217
68; Vidularia, 150; first edition, 254; first 94, 201-07, 210, 215, 217-18, 232-33, 256, Roman forum, 151
translation, 254 268, ch.ix nn. 13,25, Figs. 271-74, 276, Roman stage, 119, 126-27, 146, 148, 152,
Pliny, Natural Histort/, 91, 168, 170, 179, 416-29, 440-60, 463-67, 648, 650, 653, 159, 164, 166-68, 173, 189, 191-92, Figs.
184, 190, 197, ch.n n.10 656, 680, 685-90, 692-98, 717-20, 777-78 608, 610-11, 634; see also scene building
Plutarch, 20, 52, 83-84, 88-89, 165, 181- protagonist, 21, 80-81, 84; see also hero and stage building
82, 235, ch.n n.13, ch.ix n.27 prothyron, 65 Roman theater, 22, 70, 74, 92, 106-07, 146-
Pluto, 65, 70 protomes, 37 48, 161-62, 167-95, 225, 232, 237, 252,
Pnyx, 52, 54 provisional theaters, 131; see also temporary 254, Figs. 613-15, 630-32, 635-61; see also
podium, 76, 115, 117, 122, 146, 168, 170, buildings Latin plays; comedy and tragedy, Roman
182-83, 187, 198, 200, 202, 204, 206, 208, pseudokore, 96-97, Fig. 356 Rome, 145-48, 161-69, 181, 184, 188, 190-
216-19, 221, 253, 261-63 Ptolemy: I, Soter, 87; II, Philadelphus, 118, 91, 222, 239, 247, 253
Poelzig, Hans (architect), 268 210; IV. Philopator, 118; Auletes, 235 roofed portico, see colonnade
poiesis, 2 Publilius Syrus, 159 rope dancers, 153, 254
pointed beard, see sphenopogon Puchstein, Otto, 119 Roscius Gallus, Quintus (actor), IOC, 164,
Pol a, see theater Pulcinella, 254, ch.xvi n.5 ch.vn n.32
policeman, 140 pulpitum, 126, 130, 148, 152, 167, 174, Rose, Billy, 268-69
184, 187-88, 191, 194, 202-05, 207-13, 215, Roswitha of Gandersheim, 254
Polion (vase painter), 6, Fig. 17
politician, 149, Fig. 353 217-20, 232, 235, 237, Figs. 656, 698, 705, Rumpf, 181, ch.vm n.64, ch.xm n.2
Pollux (writer), 49, 74-76, 78, 92-94, 103, 721-22, 740; see also Roman stage Rural Dionysia, see Dionysia, Rural
105, 126, 136, 241, 245, 268, ch.vi n.l Punch and Judy show, 254 rustic, 101, 141, 156, 160; see also farmer
Polus, 83-84 puppet show, 38, 254
Polybius, 126, 152, 167-68 Pylades (friend of Orestes), 66, 231, 241-42, Sabratha, see theater, Figs. 694-95
Figs. 253, 794-96; (pantomime), 165, 236 Sacchini, A. M. G., Edipo a Colono, 258
Polycleitus (architect), 72-73
pyrrhic dance, 50, 237 Sachs, Hans, Alcestis, 257
Polygnotus, 81
Pyrrhus, 137 sacrifices, 1-2, 4, 8, 14-16, 18, 23, 26, 51, 53,
Polynices, 134
Python (vase painter), 12, 131, 145, ch.i 132
pompe, see procession
n.29, ch.X n.14, Fig. 538 Sagalassus, see theater, Figs. 741-42
Pompeii, 24, 131, 139, 146, 157, 165, 170,
sagula, 149, 551
174, 178-79, 247; see also wall paintings Saguntum, see theater
and theater, Figs. 605-15 Querolus, 244, 254
Quintilian, 47, 94, 156, 161, 164-65, 245 Salamis, 5-6, 28, 84
Pompey, 181-82, 227; see also theater built Salis, von, ch.n n.67
by Pompey, Figs. 630-32 San Carlo Theater in Naples, 258
races, see horse races and chariot races
Pompilius (mimetic dancer), 159 Santia, 145-46, 148, Fig. 539
Racine, Jean Baptiste, 35, 255
Pomponius, 160 Sappho, 4, 137, Figs. 6-7; in farce, 136-37,
radio, 269
Pomponius Secundus, 235 raised stage, 108, 115, 120, 123, 126-28,
Fig. 498
porch, 111, 113-14, 146, 221, 247; see also Sarpedon, 77
146, 187, 189, 217, 220; see also pro-
stoa skenion, proscenium, pulpitum Sartre, Jean-Paul, The Flies, 259
Porter, Cole, Out of This World, 260 ramps, 118-20, 206, 218, Figs. 452-56, 460 satura, see fabulae saturae
portico, 112-14, 122, 179, 182, 188, 200, Raubitschek, A., ch.n n.ll satyric costume, 1, 6, 23, 27, 41, ch.i n.43.
201, 203-08, 211-12, 216, 218, Fig. 437; rear facade of theater, see outer facade Figs. 94-95; scenery, 125, Fig. 474
see also colonnade rear stage, see backstage satyr play, 1, 6-7, 9-12, 14, 16-17, 20-21, 23,
Poseidon, 16, 48-49; month of, 51 recitation, 107, 161, 165-66, 174, 220, 234, 25, 30, 38, 51, 53-54, 57, 84, 89, 125, 130,
Posidippus, 88 240, 252, Figs. 593-94 148, 155-56, 217, 227, 239-40, 245, 266,

340
 INDEX
ch.l n.26; Figs. 15-18, 26-32, 36-37, 39- Semper, G. (architect), 268 125-26, 153-54, 368-71, ch.vm n.64; in
43, 48-50; vases, 6, 8, 10, 13-14, 23, 25, Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, 31, 35, <£5Jp 163- farce, 137, Fig. 497
64, Figs. 27-43 64, 230, 232-35, 254-55, 258-60, ch.xv solo-declamation, 135, 165-66
satyrs, 1, 6-9, 13-19, 23, 26-27, 36, 38, 51, 54, n.14, Fig. 780 soloists, 126, 239
84, 144-45, 155-56, 158-59, 195, 215, 223- Seneca, plays: Agamemnon, 233; Hercules somatia, see padded bodice
25, 240, 245, Figs. 17-19, 21, 33, 215, 308, Furens, 233; Hercules Oetaeus, 233; Hip- son in comedy, see youth in comedy
537, 792 poly tus (or Phaedra), 164, 233; Medea, Sophilus (vase painter), 54, Fig. 220
scabellum (foot clapper), 235 230, 233-34, 260; Oedipus, 230, 233; Sophocles, 1, 5, 11-12, 21-22, 28-31, 33-34,
scaena, see scene building Phaedra, see Hippolytus; Phocnissae, 233; 51, 59, 64, 73-74, 79-81, 83, 91, 135, 148,
scaena ductilis, 74-77, 116, 255-56, Fig. 276; Thyestes, 233; Troades, 233; Octavia 156-57, 163, 223, 233, 255, 257-58, 263,
vertilis, 255-56 (wrongly attributed to Seneca), 235; first 266, 268-69, Figs. 98-103
scaenae frons, 122, 124, 162, 167-68, 170, English translation printed (1581), 255 Sophocles, plays: Ajax, 29, 65, 156; Antig-
173-74, 180, 182-84, 186-89, 191, 193-95, senex, 148, 151, 247, 254, 269; see also old one, 28-29, 33, 65, 134-35, 258-59, 262-
200-02, 204-14, 216-20, 222, 224-26, 231- men 66, 268-69; Assembly of the Achaeans, 89;
32, 235-36, 252, 256, Figs. 587-88, 600- Serlio, 184 Electra, 29, 83, 260, 263-64, 266, Fig.
02, 610-12, 629, 634-37, 650, 671, 674- servants, 45, 94, 96, 99, 101-05, 125, 133, 855; Ichneutae, 10, 12; Nausicaa, 29;
76, 679-82, 689-96, 698-701, 703-16, 719- 135, 163, 230, 241, 245, 250, 257; see Oedipus Coloricus, 28, 64, 84, 258, 265, 268;
23, 726, 729, 732, 735-44, 775-78 also slaves, maids Oedipus the King, 29, 59, 65, 81, 83, 257-
Scala Theater in Milan, 247, 258 setting, 74, 108, 125, 130, 146, 237, 269, 58, 263-65, ch.n n.55, ch.v n.15, Figs.
Scaurus, see theater Fig. 470; see also scenery 238, 856, 858; Philoctetes, 29-30, 34, 65,
scene building and stage building, 11, 60, 63- Severan map, 181-82, Fig. 630 266, Fig. 118; Tereus, 29, Fig. 105; Tha-
68, 74-77, 79, 108-30, 167-68, 181, 184-93, Seventeenth Century, 254-57 myras, 29, Fig. 104; Trachinian Women,
200-01, 204-09, 211-12, 215-17, 219, 222, Shakespeare, William, 108, 130, 249, 254- 157, 266; first printed edition, 257
225, 255, 264, ch.V n.10, Figs. 223, 232, 56, 260; theaters used by (Swan and Sophron, 106
234-42, 245-47, 250, 254-66, 416-29, 438- Globe), 256 Sorix, C. Norbanus (actor), 165, Fig. 592
69, 649-54, 671, 673-78, 680, 682, 685, sham naumachia
battles, see Sosias, 132
689-90, 692, 694-95, 700-03, 710-14, 717- Shaw, George Bernard, 108 Sosibios, 38, 129
23, 726, 730, 732-34, 740-41; see also Shelley, Percy Bysshe, Prometheus Unbound, soul houses, 112-13, Figs. 433-34
skene Cyclops, Oedipus Tyrranus, 258 sparsiones, 190
scene of action (place of performance), 59- Sicilian Comedy, 40, 100 Sparta, 22, 33, 77, 122, 135, 217; see also
60, 64-70, 108, 112, 114-16, 120, 126, 160, Sicilian parasite, see parasite theater
169, 173, 188, 267; see also stage Sicily, 129, 159, 168, 170, 181, 183, 190, 238 spectators, 36, 53, 57, 59, 63, 82, 122, 148,
scene painting ( skenographia) 29, 59, 68, 74,
,
Sicyon, 6; see also theater, Fig. 455 167, 169, 174, 179, 182, 185, 187-90, 198-
125, 168, 256, 269 side approaches (entrances), 119, 172, 183- 201, 205, 219, 222, 241, 263, 265, 268,
scenery (stage scenery), 22, 31, 34, 57, 59, 184, 186-87, 189, 191, 194, 203-06, 208- Figs. 220, 546; see also audience
68, 74-75, 125, 167-68, 199, 237, 255-57, 210, 215-17, 256, Fig. 657; wings, 68, 172, speira, 102-03, 155-56, 229, 245, 247, 250
260, 268-69, Figs. 281-83, 470-74; comic 187, 255, 269; wings of stage house, see sphendone, 95, 98, Fig. 363
scenery, 125; see also decoration paraskenia; see also parodoi sphenopogon (wedge-shaped beard), 39-41,
scenes from comedy, 48, 124-25, 153-54, 162, Sikilianos, Eva, 21, 261 93, ch.m n.34
182, 188, 191, 227, 229-30, 241, 244, sikinnis, 11, 43 sphinx, 12
Figs. 765, 770-71, 794-96, 843-44 Silenus, 11-16, 27, 38, 137, 143, 145, 156, Squarciapino, ch.xv n.34
scenes from tragedy, 59-60, 112, 125, 162- 223-25, 245, ch.l nn.26,42, Figs. 32, 36- stadium, 220, 270
64, 182, 188, 191, 227, 229-30, 235, 237, 39, 44-47, 94-95, 532, 538, 752-57 staff, 92-93, 154, 156, 163, 235, 239, 250
240-41, 244, 250-51, 267, Figs. 765-69, Silvanus, 147 stage, 26, 30, 68, 73, 89, 106, 114-22, 126-
772-74, 779, 785, 793, 797, 832-35 Simon, Antonia K., 105, ch.vm n.64 28, 130-33, 135, 146, 148, 152, 166-74,
scenic actors, 126; see also scenic plays siparium, 180, 193, 205, 250, ch.xni n.26, 182, 189, 194, 205-06, 215, 217, 219, 221-
scenic artists, 115, 126, 187, 239; see also Figs. 629, 831 22, 256, 267-68, Figs. 438-44, 460-67, 479-
scenic actors and plays Sixteenth Century, 254-57 80, 634, 647-48, 650, 653-54, 656, 671, 673-
scenic plays, 119, 122, 126, 149, 152, 170, skene, 29-30, 33, 57, 59-60, 62, 64-72, 74- 76, 680-82, 686-96, 698, 710-12, 715-23,
180, 184, 191, 193, 202, 213, 215, 221, 75, 79, 89, 108, 110-12, 115, 117, 119, 726, 730-31, 740-42, 775-78; see also
227, 237-39, 252 217, ch.ix n.9, Figs. 109 (personification) phlyakes stage, raised stage, and scaenae
Schauspielhaus, see modern theater 232-36, 254-66; see also scene building frons
Schiller, Friedrich von, 35, Bride of Messina, skenographia, see scene painting stage: managers, 84, 108, 267; painting,
258 skenotheke, 57, 59-60, 122, 217, Figs. 233, see scene painting; roof, 168, 170, 180,
Schleif, ch.v n.30 236, 255 182, 191, 201; scenery, see scenery; terrace,
Schweitzer, B., ch.vn n.32 skyphos, 37 63, 111-14; building, see scene building
Scipio: Aemilianus, 152, 203; Africanus slave dealer in comedy, see procurer staging, 69, 76, 106, 108, 112, 115, 123, 130,
Major, 168; Nasica, 168 slaves: in tragedy, 241, 250, Figs. 793, 832b; 205, 255, 267
screens, see painted screens, painted decora- in comedy, 40, 46-47, 88, 92-93, 96, 102- staircases, 70, 72, 78, 117-18, 120, 127-28,
tions, pinakes 05, 129, 148-51, 153-55, 161-62, 230, 241, 166-67, 172, 174, 177, 179, 181, 184-86,
sculpture in theaters, 223-26, Figs. 753-59 245-47, ch.vni n.64, Figs. 148-52, 191, 188-89, 193-94, 197-202, 204-09, 211-12,
scurra, 248 198, 295-99, 327-29, 332, 388, 413, 554a, 215-17, Figs. 760-64, 774-78
seats, 63-64, 70-73, 82, 111, 119, 126-27, 172, 555-58, 562-64, 580-87, 770, 794-96, 810, stairs (steps), 113, 127-23, 132-39, 146, 173-
174, 177, 179, 182, 184, 186, 189, 197- 816a; in farce, 129, 133, 138-43, 148; Figs. 74, 177-79, 181, 186, 188, 191, 193-94,
99, 201-03, 206, 211, 214-18, 222, 253, 487, 490-91, 501, 505, 507-09, 511, 513, 199, 201-04, 206-07, Figs. 483, 485, 488-
256; of honor, 63, 70-73, 110, 114-15, 519, 527-28, 530, 539; in mime, 232, 251, 89, 491, 507, 540, 594, 660
120, 123, 127, 168, 173-74, 177, 186-87, Figs. 771, 836; kitchen slaves, 40, Figs.
stamnoi, 8
189, 194, 198, 200-02, 205, 214-15, 219, 157-59; see also servants, maidservants
stands (wooden bleachers), in Greek theater,
Figs. 267-69, 416-18, 420, 424-25, 428-29, sleeved robe, 10-11, 22, 24-28, 31-33, 154,
54, 57, 59; see also ikria
648, 655-56, 680, 694, 696, 725; see also 157, 161, 163-64, 239, 242, 250, 268, Figs.
stasima, 29, 39
movable seats, proedria, bisellia, tribunalia 31-32, 79-89, 787-99, 832-35
Stallius, C. and M. (architects), 220
sections, 184, 186-87, 189, 194, 198-99, 201, Smith, Milton, Columbia University, 266
Smyrna statuettes of actors, 39, 45-48, 85, 92-105,
206, 214, 247 Smyrna, see theater of
secular plays, 184 soccus, 154 134, 149-50, 154, 161-62, 247-49, Figs.
Segesta, see theater, Fig. 596 Socrates, 44, 51, 65, 94 133-179, 185-200, 290-99, 325-26, 332,
Seldes, G. (playwright), 260 soldier(warrior) in comedy, 37, 39-40, 46, 338, 341-42, 349, 353-55, 357-60, 368-70,
Semele, 1 98-100, 102, 106, 124, 150, 154, 160, Figs. 372-76, 378-79, 382, 386, 396-413, 529-

341
 INDEX
30, 547-48, 554-58, 580-82, 817-18, 826, of Aries (Arelate), 179, 199-200, 270, Stobi (in Jugoslavia), 217, ch.xv n.90; of
828-30 Fig. 671; of Aspendus, 208-10, 221, Figs. Es Suhba, 208, 211, Fig. 711; of Syracuse,
stcphane, 94-95, 97 700-06; of Assos, 117, 126, 216, Fig. 440; 57, 68, 74, 129, 131, 146, 168-69, 179,
Stillwell, Agnes, 39, ch.ni n.15 of Athens, 6, 22, 73, 123-24, 126-27, 180, 247, 262, 266, 268-69, Figs. 225, 595;
Stillwell,R., 216 190, 211-212, 253, 264, 269; see also of Taormina, 183-84, 190, 220, 253,
stoa, 20, 60, 62, 64, 67, 74, 87, 193, 215 theater of Dionysus Eleuthereus, of Dionysus 270, Figs. B, 635-39; of Termessus, 219,
Stoic philosophy, 87 in Limnais and of Herodes Atticus; of Augst 221, 252-53, Fig. 740; of Thasos, 123; of
Strabo, 148, 235 (Augusta Rauracorum), 202; of Autun Thoricus, 57, Fig. 231; of Timgad
( Augustodunum), 200; of Babylon, 120; (Thamugadi), 180, 190, 203-04, Figs.
Stratford, Ontario, 264-65
Strauss, Richard, Electra, 260 of Balbus (in Rome), 184; of Bosra, 208, 686-87; of Tyndaris, 68, 131, 168-70, 172,
subitarii gradus (temporary seats), 168 211, Fig. 710; of Butrinto, 131, 222; 182, 217, 253, Figs. 599, 602; Vaison
substructures, 78, 186, 188-89, 194, 199, 201 of Corinth, 78, 120, 146, 182, 207, 216- (Vasio), 179-80, 201, 225, Fig. 672; of
subterranean passages, 179, Figs. 625-27 17, 225-26, 237-3§", 252-53, Figs. 460, Verona, 194-95, 199, 236, Figs. 658-61;
Suetonius, 88, 160, 166, 173, 184, 222, 234- 726-29, 839; of Daphne, 211, 225; of of Vienne, 200-01, 204, 220
35, 238, 247 Delos, 117, 126-28, 190, Figs. 449-51, theatron, 57, 59, 63-64, 70, 73, 111, 263, 268-
Es-Suhba, see theater, Fig. 711 476c; of Delphi, 128, 190, 226, 261-62, 69; see also auditorium
Suidas, 1, 6, 54, 129 264, 266, 269, Figs. 477, 845-47; of Diony- Thebes (in Boeotia), 1, 25, 84-85
Sulla, 123, 165, 172, 174, 220 sus Eleuthereus (at Athens), 23, 51, 54, 57, Themistion, 129
supernumeraries, 53, 81, 89, 163-64 63-64, 67, 69-71, 75, 89, 123, 190, 211-13, Themistocles, 20, 223
Syracuse, see theater, Fig. 225 215-16, 220-21, 223-25, 234, Figs. 223- Theocritus, 107
syrinx, 235, 252 30, 250-51, 254-62, 464-67, 717-25; of Dio- Theodora of Byzantium, 236
syrma, 25, 32 nysus in Limnais ( at Athens, Lenaean thea- theologeion, 76, 78, 114, 170
ter), 54, 69-70, Figs. 216-17, 221; of Dje- Theophrastus, 87
Tacitus, 148, 168, 179 mila, 203-04, Fig. 688; of Dugga, 180, Thersilion, 59, 122, Fig. 276
tambourine, 237 203-05, Figs. 689-92; Theseus, 1, 6, 49, 80
Taormina, see theater, Figs. 635-39 of Elis, 75, Fig. 277; of Ephesus, 70, Thespis, 18-19, 22, 52-54, 70, 80; car, Figs.
Taras, 136, 146 115, 117, 120, 122, 125-28, 213, 217-19, 56-58
Tarentum, 11, 13, 40, 68, 129, 131, 136-37, 222, 226, Figs. 441-48, 476b, 733-36; of Thettalus, 81, 83
146, 148-49, 156, 164 Epidaurus, 71-73, 115, 119-20, 126, 264, thiasus, 1, 9, 16, 23, 64, 143, 145, Fig. 72
Teatro Olimpico, 256-57, Fig. 841 266, 269-70, Figs. 271-75, 456, 865, 866; thief, 129, 139-40, 142
technitai, 126, see also Dionysiac artists of Eretria, 68, 77-78, 118, 126, Figs. 263- Thoas, 231
Telamon, 11 65, 284-88, 452-54; of Fiesole, 179, 193- Thompson, Dorothy Burr, 39, ch.rn nn.15, 42
telamons, 177, 224-25, Fig. 615 94, Figs. 655-57; of Heddernheim, ch.xv Thompson, Homer, 39, 221
telari, 75, 255-56, Fig. 840 n.64; of Herculaneum, 186-88, 225, 232, Thoricus, 57, Fig. 231
Telephus, 42, 47, 134, 230, Figs. 174-75, 178 Fig. 644; of Herodes Atticus (at Athens), Thrace, 1, 27
telesterion,59 190, 211-13, 215, 221, 262, 264-66, Figs. Thrasycles, 70
television,269 712-16, 857; of Kourion (in Cyprus), Thrasyllus (choregus), 64, 70
Tellus, 147 ch.xv n.90; of Leptis Magna, 206-07, 226, thymele, 3, 14, 55, 59, 126, Figs. 221, 223,
temple, as background, 33-34, 74, 114, 125, 236, 247, Figs. 696-99; of Lyon (Lugdu- 238
129, 131, 152, 158, Figs. 239-41, 260; of num), 179, 201, 220, Figs. 673-74; thymelic artists, 115, 126, 187; plays, 126,
Dionysus, 54, 63-64, 120, 223, Figs. 222- of Magnesia, 216-17, Figs. 730-31b; of 184, 215, 227, 237, 239
24, 226-30, 233-37, 250, 255-56, 258; of Marcellus (in Rome), 70, 168, 184-87, thymiaterium, 137
Venus, 181-82, 186, 190, of Zeus, 81 190, 238, Figs. 640-43; of Megalopolis, thyromata, 111, 114-15, 120-25, 180, 188-
temporary buildings, 57-58, 60-64, 112, 115, 74, 122, Fig. 276; of Merida (Emerita), 89, 217, Figs. 421, 425-29, 444-47, 453,
120, 122, 146, 167-68, 181-82, 184, 217, 70, 202-03, 226, Figs. 680-84; of Miletus, 455, 459-60, 466-67, 469-70; panels, 168,
225, 227 182, 217-19, 221, Figs. 737-39; of Mintur- 188
temporary stands, 54, 148, Figs. 220, 546 nae, 192-93, 201, Figs. 651-54; of Myti- thyrsos, 12, 25, 52, 159
tent of Xerxes, 62 lene, 181-82; of New Pleuron, 114, 120, tiara, 31, 35
Teos, 84 126, 131, Figs. 438-39; of Nimes (Nemau- Tiberius, 181, 193, 238
sus), 199; of Notium, 182; of Oeniadae, tibia, 148, Ibi
Terence, 88, 92, 94, 105, 107, 152-56, 231,
254-55, 257, 261, 268, Fig. 844 119- 20, 126, Figs. 457-59; of Orange tickets, Greek, 71, 90, Figs. 270, 320; Roman,

Terence, plays: Adelphi (Brothers), 88, 94, (Arausio), 180, 200-201, 225, 252, 266, 186, 198, 246-47, Figs. 811-16
Figs. 675-79; of Oropus, 111, 114-15, 120, tiers, 63, 70-72, 74, 76, 111, 122, 127-28,
152, 154-55, 255, Fig. 561; Andria (Lady
of Andros), 88, 152, 156, 255; Eunuchus. 127, Figs. 426-29; of Ostia, 70, 189-91, 193, 178, 181-82, 185-89, 194, 199, 216, 221-
88, 152, 155; Heauton Timornmenos (Self- 244, 261-62, 266, Figs. 647-50; 22
tormentor), 88, 150, 152-53; Hecyra of Palmyra, 208, 210, Fig. 707; of padded bodice
tights, see
(Mother-in-law), 88, 107, 152-54, Fig. Pergamum, 62-63, 75, 120, 208, 216, 225, Timarchus, 89
559; Perinthia (Girl from Pcrinthus), 88; Figs. 243-47, 461-62; of Pessinus, 201, Timgad (Thamugadi), see theater, Figs.
Phormio, 88, 152, 154, 255, ch.Xl n.28; 220, 252; of Philadelphia, see theater of 686-87
manuscripts, 153, 155, 158, 244-45, 254- Amman; of Philippi, 217, 225, ch.xv n.90; Timotheus, Persians, 126, 166
55, Figs. 559-61; first printed edition, 254 of Philippopolis, 208, 211; of Piraeus, 51, Tiresias, 32, 59, 251-52, 264
Termessos, see theater, Fig. 740 120- 23, 127, 131, Fig. 463; of Pola, 199; of Titus, 198-99, 208; coin of, Fig. 670
Terpander of Lesbos, 3 Pompeii, 68, 157, 168, 170-75, 177, 179, Tlepolemus, 80
tetralogy, 53, 59 181-82, 184, 186-88, 190, 204, 220, 232, toga, togata, 149, 160, 188, 198, 235, 238-
Thamyras, 29, 81, Fig. 104 252-53, Figs. 605-15; of Pompey (in Rome), 39, ch.xvi n.59, Figs. 550, 629, 788
Thanatos, 77 70, 170-75, 179-84, 186, 190, 203, 206, tombs, 22, 113, 147, 162-63
Thasos, see theater 221, 224, 227, 247, Figs. 604, 630-32, 640; torches, torchbearers, 8, 24, 91, 138, 142,
theater building, Greek, 54-73; Hellenistic,
of Priene, 108-15, 117, 120, 122, 126-28, 156, 232, 239, 267, Fig. 524
108-28, Fig. 475; Roman, 167-89, 190-213,
182, 217, 219, Figs. 416-25, 476a, 732; tragedy, Greek, 1-36, 38-39, 42-43, 45, 48,
Fig. 645; Graeco-Roman, 190, 213-19; mod-
of Sabratha, 70, 203, 206-07, 237-38, 51, 53-54, 68, 76, 80, 82-84, 87, 92, 95-
ern, 269-70
264, 266, Figs. 694-95, 785-86; of Sagalas- 96, 108, 112, 114-15, 119, 122, 126, 129,
theater director, 152-53
sus, 219-21, Figs. 741-42; of Saguntum, 203; 147-48, 152, 164, 225-27, 245, 257-58*;
theater manager, 62
theater: of Aezani, 201, 220, 252, Figs. of Scaurus (in Rome), 168, 170, 188; of Roman, 35f 148-49, 152, 156-58, 160-64,
743-44; of Alexandria, 112, 116; of Am- Segesta, 68, 131, 168-72, 182, 224, Figs. 167, 179, 203, 206, 217, 227-30, 239-41,
man (Philadelphia), 208, 210, 221-22, 596-98, 600-01, 603; of Sicyon, 118, 120, 250-51, 254-55, Figs. 588-91; subject mat-
Figs 708-09; of Antioch, 116, 182, 210; 126, Fig. 455; of Sparta, 122, 128, 217; of ter of Greek and Roman, 3, 112, 148-49,

342
 INDEX
165, 217; English, 255; French, 35, 255, 104-05, 110-12, 115-26, 180, 182, 184, water ballet, see aquacades
258; German, 35; Italian, 255 202-14, 218-20, 252-53, 266, 283, 306, water channel, 70, 72, 127, 194, 211, 215
tragicomoedia (hilarious tragedy), 129-32, 414, 479, 481-502, 504-28, 531-39 water organ, 239, 250, 252, Figs. 788, 837
141, 151, 255, ch.X n.90, Figs. 478-79 vaulted corridors, 186, 190-91, 199, 201, Webster, T. B. L., 105, ch.H n.ll, ch.X nn.60,
tragic costume, Greek, 22, 27, 33, 53, 81, 203, 217-18, 220; see also passageways 62, ch. XI n.21
85, 259, Fig. 113; Roman, 149, 156-59, 161, velum (velarium), 179-80, 190-91, 199, 208, wedding, 52, Figs. 218-19; see also gamos
163-64, 166, 203, 234, 236, 239-40, 242- Fig. 624 wedges, see cunei
43, 262, 264, 267-68; see also sleeved robe venationes, see animal baiting Werfel, Franz, The Trojan Women, 259, 266
tragic scenery, 125, 268-69; see also scenery Verdi, G., // Trovatore, 130 wigs, 154-55
and scene painting Verona, see theater, Figs. 658-61 Wilamowitz ( Wilamowitz-Moellendorf ) 79,,

Tragoidia (personification), 2, 225, Figs. 2, verpus (virgus), 148, ch.Xl n.ll 258, ch.vi n.28
758 versurae (projecting wings), 172, 179, 181- Williams, Esther, 269
tragoidos, 12, 140 38, 194, 200-01, 206-09, 212, 215, 217, Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, 132, 258
tragos, 2, 12-13, 16, 18, 36, Fig. 50 224, Figs. 714b-715, 721 Wingert, Paul, 16
Trajan, 210, 236, 247, 253 versus Fescennini, 147-48 Winterstein, ch.i n.12
translation, 148-49, 167, 257-59 Vespasian, 122, 198, 211, 217, 238 women: 8-9, 199; in tragedy, 164, 245, Figs.
Traversari, ch.xin n.26, ch. XV n.27 vestibulum, 146, 167 591, 773; in comedy, 40-41, 43-44, 47, 96-
travesty of daily life, 39, 48, 129, 137, 160; Vettii, house of, 32 98, 105-06, 124, 154, 230, 244-45, Figs.
of heroic saga, 48, 129-37; of mythology, Vicenza, 256 160-68, 185, 192-93, 347-67; in farce, 129,
129-36; of tragedy, 129-37; see also tragi- Victory, 2, Fig. 4 132-33, 137-39, 142-43, Figs. 479, 484,
comoedia, parody Vienne, see theater 488-89, 499-507, 520, 529; in pantomime,
Trendall, A. D., ch.m n.54, ch.x nn.12, 14, 48 Vignola, G. da, 255-56 236-38, Fig. 783; in mime, 86, 107, 159;
tribunalia (boxes for magistrates), 172-73, Villa Giulia master (vase painter), 6 on the stage, 165; see also young women,
184, 187, 189, 194, 197, 205, 207, 216, Villa of Boscoreale, 124-25, 159, 269; see old women, nurses, maidservants
219, Figs. 611, 656-57, 697 also wall paintings wrestling, 147
trilogy, 53 Villa of Diomedes, 113, Fig. 436 Wust, ch.x n.21
tripod, 6-7, 15, 25, 35, 146 Villa of Mysteries at Pompeii, 113, Fig. 435
80
tritagonists, Virgil, 235 Xanthias, 40, 46, 70, 133, 135, 140-41, 148
triumphal games, 227 virgins (in comedy), 97, 148, Fig. 356 Xenophon, Symposium, 50, 106, 159
troupes of actors, 239, 245; see also wander- Virtues, 3 Xerxes, 22, 62
ing troupes Vital de Blois, Aulularia, 254; Geta, 254 Xystos, 205
Troy, 10, 30, 135, 148, 230 Vitruvius, 59-60, 74-75, 125-28, 168, 173-
trumpets, 22, 236 74, 182, 186-87, 189-90, 193, 201, 216- young women in comedy, 85, 89, 95-97, 103,
tunic, 149-50, 154, 161-63, 237, 249-50 17, 220, 222, 254-56, 268, ch.vi n.l, ch.ix 150-51, 245, Figs. 328-29, 347-68, 383, 395;
Turks, 254 nn.27, 65, Figs. 475-76, 645, 731a; first in farce, 134, 137-38, Figs. 488-89, 499-
Twentieth Century, 258-267 printed edition, 255 505; see also women, in tragedy; in com-
tympanon, 1, 8, 32, 43, 50, 96, 137, 146, Volksbiihne, Berlin (popular stage), 263 edy; in farce; in pantomime; in mime
Figs. 179, 346 vomitoria, 172, 185-86, 194, 197-98, 201-02, youth: in tragedy, 85, 95, 245, Figs. 291-92;
Tyndareus, 135 205-06, 222 in comedy, 89-90, 92, 94-96, 98, 102-05,
Tyndaris, see theater, Fig. 602 124, 138, 141, 149-50, 154-55, 164, 229-
Wagner, Richard, 108, 258, 268-69 30, 244-45, 247, 257, Figs. 324, 338-45,
unions, see Dionysiac artists Wagner, Siegfried, 269 548a, 549, 764, 770, 809; in mime, 107,
upper storey (episkenion, distegia), 67, 110- wall paintings (murals), 23, 26, 64, 81-82, 251, Figs. 415, 786, 836
12, 131, 146, 167-68, 170, 185, 187-88, 90, 93, 96, 99, 101-03, 105, 114, 123-25,
206, 208-09, 212, 220-21 147-48, 157, 163, 165-67, 173-74, 178, Zahn, ch.m n.54, ch.X n.14
227-33, 239, 244, Figs. 71, 87-88, 300, Zea theater, see theater of the Piraeus
Vaison, see theater, Fig. 672 306, 322, 327-28, 371, 383, 395, 437, 471- Zeno (Stoic), 47, 87, 91
Valerius Maximus, 168, 179 74, 541-44, 546, 571, 589-90, 593-94, 624, Zeno, son of Theodorus (architect), 208
Varius Rufus (poet), 156, 233 760-78, 787 Zeus, 1-2, 18, 227, Fig. 1; in farce, 38,
Varro, 145, 148, 150 wandering troupes, 159, 237, 239, 245, 248, 45, 132, 135, 138, 247, 267, Figs. 482-84;
vase paintings, Figs. 3, 16-17, 19-20, 23-27, 250, 256 Amnion, 132, 146
29-35, 37-61, 72-74, 79-80, 85, 90, 94-97, warrior in comedy and in farce, see soldier Zonaras, 137

343