PREDATION

Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, known as the predator, hunts, kills, and
consumes another organism, known as the prey. Predation is a common phenomenon in the
animal kingdom and plays a crucial role in shaping ecosystems (Minelli, 2008).

Predators have evolved various adaptations to capture and subdue their prey, such as sharp teeth,
claws, speed, camouflage, and venom. They often possess sensory abilities that aid in locating
and tracking their prey, such as keen eyesight, acute hearing, or a well-developed sense of smell.

Prey species, on the other hand, have also evolved different strategies to avoid being caught by
predators. These strategies include defensive mechanisms such as protective coloration
(camouflage), warning coloration (aposematism), mimicry, and physical defenses like spines,
armor, or toxins.

Predation has significant ecological implications. It helps regulate populations of prey species,
preventing overpopulation, and promotes the survival of healthier individuals within a
population. Predators often target weaker, sick, or older individuals, which helps maintain the
overall fitness of the prey population.

In addition to population control, predation can influence the behavior, morphology, and
evolution of both predator and prey species. Over time, predators and prey may engage in an
evolutionary "arms race," where each develops adaptations and counter-adaptations to gain an
advantage over the other.

Predation also affects species diversity and community structure. The presence or absence of
predators can influence the composition and abundance of other species in an ecosystem. For
example, the reintroduction of wolves into Yellowstone National Park in the United States has
had far-reaching effects on the ecosystem, including changes in the behavior of elk and the
recovery of plant communities.

It's worth noting that predation is not limited to animals. In the plant kingdom, some species
exhibit carnivorous behavior, such as pitcher plants that trap and digest insects. Similarly, some
fungi and bacteria can engage in predation by consuming other microorganisms.
Overall, predation is a fundamental process in nature that shapes the dynamics of ecosystems and
drives the evolution of species. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance and functioning
of ecological communities.

STRATEGIES OF PREDETORS TO CAPTURE THEIR PREY

Predators have evolved various strategies to capture and capture their prey. These strategies are
shaped by their physical adaptations, hunting techniques, and the characteristics of their prey
(Mullan et al., 2015). Here are some common strategies predators employ:

1. Pursuit hunting
Predators that are fast and agile, such as cheetahs, wolves, or falcons, rely on chasing
down their prey. They use their speed, endurance, and sharp senses to pursue and catch
their prey in a direct pursuit.
2. Ambush hunting
Predators that are well-camouflaged or have the ability to remain hidden, like spiders,
crocodiles, or certain snakes, use ambush tactics. They patiently wait in concealed
locations and launch surprise attacks when their prey comes within striking range.
3. Stalking
Stalking is a strategy employed by predators that rely on stealth and patience. They
slowly and quietly approach their prey, using cover and minimizing any noise or sudden
movements. This technique is commonly observed in big cats like lions and tigers.
4. Cooperative hunting
Some predators, like wolves, lions, or orcas, engage in cooperative hunting where they
work together as a group to capture larger or more challenging prey. They coordinate
their actions, surround the prey, and use teamwork to increase their hunting success.
5. Trap-setting
Certain predators create traps or mechanisms to capture their prey. For example, the
spider constructs intricate webs to ensnare flying insects, while antlions dig funnel-
shaped pits in the sand to trap ants that fall into them.
 6. Stinging or venomous attacks
Predators such as spiders, scorpions, or snakes possess venomous bites or stings. They
inject venom into their prey, which immobilizes or kills them, making them easier to
consume.

It's important to note that different predators can employ a combination of these strategies
depending on their specific adaptations, habitat, and the characteristics of their prey. They have
evolved these strategies over time to increase their hunting efficiency and maximize their
chances of capturing and consuming prey.

STRATEGIES USED BY PREY TO ESCAPE PREDATORS

Prey species have developed a variety of strategies to escape from predators and increase their
chances of survival. These strategies are shaped by their physical adaptations, behavioral
responses, and defensive mechanisms. Here are some common strategies used by prey to escape
from predators:

1. Speed and agility

Many prey species have evolved to be fast and agile, allowing them to outrun or
outmaneuver predators. They rely on their ability to quickly accelerate, change direction,
or utilize their agility to navigate complex environments where predators may struggle to
keep up. Examples include gazelles, rabbits, and certain birds.
2. Camouflage and cryptic coloration
Prey species often employ camouflage to blend into their surroundings, making it
difficult for predators to detect them. They may have color patterns or body shapes that
match their environment, providing them with a visual advantage. This strategy allows
prey to remain hidden and increase their chances of avoiding detection. Examples include
stick insects, chameleons, and certain moths.
3. Warning signals and aposematism
Some prey species advertise their unpalatability or toxicity through warning signals like
bright colors, bold patterns, or vocalizations. These signals communicate to potential
predators that they are dangerous or unpalatable, deterring them from attacking.
Aposematic species, such as poison dart frogs, use this strategy to warn predators of their
toxic defenses.
 4. Startle responses
Prey species may employ startle responses to startle or distract predators momentarily,
providing them with an opportunity to escape. This can involve sudden movements,
flashing colors, emitting loud sounds, or dropping body parts as a diversion. For example,
grasshoppers orthoperan insects often exhibit a startle response known “startle jumping”.
5. Vigilance and early detection
Prey species often exhibit heightened vigilance and have well-developed senses to detect
the presence of predators. They remain alert and attentive to their surroundings, allowing
them to detect and respond quickly to potential threats. This includes keen eyesight, acute
hearing, or a well-developed sense of smell. When predators are detected, prey may take
evasive action before an attack is initiated. For example many birds exhibit vigilant
behaviors to detect predators since they have sharp eyesight which can detect even subtle
movement in their environment.
6. Defensive structures and behaviors
Some prey species possess defensive structures or engage in defensive behaviors to deter
predators. Examples include the spines of a porcupine, the horns of certain ungulates, or
the ability of certain fish to inflate themselves to appear larger and more difficult to
consume.
7. Group defense
Prey species that live in groups, such as many birds, ungulates, or schooling fish, benefit
from the collective defense. They may exhibit coordinated behaviors, such as mobbing or
forming defensive formations, to intimidate or repel predators. Group defense increases
the chances of survival for individual prey members by reducing the probability of being
targeted.
8. Escape to refuges
Prey species often seek refuge in areas inaccessible to predators. This can involve
retreating to burrows, crevices, dense vegetation, or taking to the air or water to escape
pursuit. By utilizing their knowledge of the environment and seeking out safe locations,
prey species can effectively evade predators.

These strategies are not mutually exclusive, and prey species may employ a combination of
tactics depending on their specific adaptations, habitat, and the nature of the predator-prey
interaction. The diversity of these strategies contributes to the survival and persistence of prey
species in the face of predation pressure.

ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF PREDATOR IN ECOSYSTEM

Predation plays a significant ecological role in ecosystems and has several important ecological
significances. Here are some key ecological significances of predation:

1. Regulation of Prey Populations: Predation acts as a natural regulatory mechanism for

prey populations. By consuming and controlling the abundance of prey species, predators
can prevent their populations from becoming overly abundant. This helps maintain a
balance in the ecosystem, preventing the overconsumption of resources and avoiding
detrimental impacts on other species and ecological processes.
2. Maintenance of Biodiversity: Predation plays a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity by
preventing the dominance of particular species. Predators can influence the competitive
interactions among prey species, favoring the coexistence of multiple species within a
community. By keeping prey populations in check, predators help preserve species
diversity and promote a healthier and more resilient ecosystem.
3. Selection Pressures and Evolution: Predation exerts selective pressures on prey species,
driving adaptations and influencing their evolution. Prey populations that are subject to
predation often develop various defense mechanisms, such as camouflage, warning
coloration, chemical defenses, or behavioral strategies to avoid or deter predators. This
evolutionary arms race between predators and prey leads to adaptations and counter-
adaptations, shaping the traits and characteristics of both predator and prey species over
time.
4. Spatial and Temporal Dynamics: Predation can influence the spatial and temporal
distributions of species within an ecosystem. Prey species may avoid areas or modify
their behavior to reduce the risk of predation, leading to spatial patterns in their
distribution. Additionally, predator-prey interactions can exhibit temporal cycles, such as
population fluctuations or synchronized breeding cycles, which can have ripple effects on
other species and ecosystem processes.
5. Ecosystem Stability: Predation contributes to the stability and functioning of ecosystems.
By preventing the overgrowth of certain prey populations, predators can help maintain
 ecosystem balance and prevent ecological disruptions. The presence of predators can
enhance the resilience of ecosystems by preventing the dominance of particular species
and promoting the coexistence of diverse organisms.

These ecological significances highlight the importance of predation in shaping ecosystem

structure, dynamics, and biodiversity. Predators play a critical role in maintaining the health and
functioning of ecosystems, influencing species interactions, and driving evolutionary processes.

PARASITISM

Parasitism Is a relationship between the two living species in which one organism is benefitted at
the expense of the other. The organism that is benefitted is called the parasite, while the one that
is harmed is called the host. A few examples of parasites are tapeworms, fleas, and barnacles.

Types of Parasitism

There are various types of parasitism and are classified based on their size, characteristics,
interactions with their hosts and their life cycles.

1. Obligate Parasitism
This is the kind of parasitism in which the parasite is completely dependent on the host to
complete its life cycle. Obligate parasites cannot survive without the host. Therefore, they
do not severely harm the host. Fungi, bacteria and viruses exhibit obligate parasitism. For
example, head lice, when removed from the human scalp, dies.
2. Facultative Parasitism
In this kind of parasitism, the parasite is not completely dependent on the host to
complete its life cycle and can survive without the host. A nematode
species Strongyloides stercoralis is found free-living but causes a disease strongyloidiasis
when it infects humans.
3. Ectoparasitism
The parasites that live outside the body of the host exhibit ectoparasitism. For example,
lice and ticks
 4. Endoparasitism
Parasites that live inside the body of a host exhibit endoparasitism. For examples,
hookworms and nematodes.
5. Mesoparasitism
The parasites that enter the external openings of the host exhibit mesoparasitism.

Examples of Parasitism

There are many examples of parasites, as it is a type of interaction between the two species.
Listed below are some of the common examples of parasitism.

i. Parasitism in Humans
The organisms that parasitize humans include fungi, leeches, lice, viruses, protozoa,
tapeworm, etc. Few organisms such as Helminthes live inside the intestine of the host
and causes several infectious diseases, such as jaundice, malnutrition, diarrhoea, etc.
All the infections are caused by viruses and bacteria.
ii. Parasitism in Plants
Small green insects called aphids, parasitize plants by eating their sap. Several types
of fungi parasitize crops ad spoil fruits, vegetables and food grains. The parasitic
plants contain modified roots called haustoria which connect to the host xylem or
phloem and drain it of nutrients and water.
iii. Parasitism in Insects
Parasitism is very common in insects. Entomophagous parasites attack larva and
young insects. A few insects deposit their eggs within the body of the larva of other
insect species. When the eggs hatch, the young one eats the larva and derives
nutrition from it.
 REFERENCE

Minelli, A. (2008). Predation. Encyclopedia of Ecology, Five-Volume Set, 2923–2929.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008045405-4.00287-1

Mullan, R., Glass, D. H., & McCartney, M. (2015). Species diversity and predation strategies in
a multiple species predator–prey model. Communications in Nonlinear Science and
Numerical Simulation, 25(1–3), 118–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cnsns.2015.01.011

Heithaus, M. R., & Vaudo, J. J. (2004). Predator-prey interactions. Biology of sharks and their
relatives, 17, 487-521.