Unit II

Wireless Propagation channels

Statistical description of the wireless channel: time invariant and variant two path
models, small scale fading with and without a dominant component, Doppler spectra,
temporal dependence of fading, large scale fading. Wideband and directional channel
characteristics: causes of delay dispersion, system theoretic description of wireless
channels, WSSUS model, condensed parameters, ultra wideband channels, directional
description.
 Unit II
Wireless Propagation channels
Statistical description of the wireless channel: time invariant and variant two path models, small scale
fading with and without a dominant component, Doppler spectra, temporal dependence of fading, large
scale fading. Wideband and directional channel characteristics: causes of delay dispersion, system
theoretic description of wireless channels, WSSUS model, condensed parameters, ultra wideband
channels, directional description.

 The Time Invariant Two Path Model

In many circumstances, it is too complicated to describe all reflection, diffraction, and scattering processes
that determine the different multipath components (MPCs). Rather, it is preferable to describe the
probability that a channel parameter attains a certain value. The most important parameter is channel gain,
as it determines received power or field strength.
We consider the simplest possible case time invariant propagation along two paths. In this we assume that
the transmitter and the receiver are stable and not moving. We transmit a sinusoidal waveform and
determine the transfer function at the location of the receiver (RX).Let the transmit signal is a sinusoidal
wave:
ETX(t)∝ cos (2ufct)
Let the received signal be approximated as a homogeneous plane wave. If the run length between TX and
RX is d, the received signal can be described as:
E(t)=E0 cos (2ufct-k0d)

Where k0 is the wave number 2u/λ. Using complex baseband notation

E=E0 exp (-jk0d)
Note that the real part of the field in complex representation, Re{E} is equal to the instantaneous value of
the field strength at time t = 0.
Now consider the case that the transmit signal gets to the RX via two different propagation paths, created
by two different interacting objects as shown in figure 1. These paths have different runtimes:
τ1=d1/c0 and τ1=d2/c0
Scatter 2

Distance d2

K1
r Receiver
0
K2

Transmitter Distance d1

Scatter 1
Figure 1 Geometry of the time-invariant two-path model.
The RX is in the far field of the IOs, so that the arriving waves are homogeneous plane waves. We assume
furthermore that both waves are vertically polarized, and have amplitudes E1 and E2 at the reference
position r = 0. We get the following expression for the superposition of two plane waves:
𝐸(𝑟) = 𝐸1 exp(−j𝑘1𝑟) + 𝐸2exp(−j𝑘2𝑟)
Where k1 is the vector valued wave number (i.e., has the absolute magnitude k 0, and is pointing into the
direction of wave 1).
We assume here that the two waves arriving at the RX position r are two plane waves whose absolute
amplitudes do not vary as a function of RX position.
 The Time Variant Two Path Model
In general, the runtime (path length) difference between the different propagation paths changes with
time. This change can be due to movements of TX, RX, IOs, or any combination. In time variant two path
model we assume only movement of the RX. The RX then sees a time varying interference pattern; we can
imagine that the RX moves through the mountains and valleys of the field strength plot.
The movement of the RX also leads to a shift of the received frequency, called the Doppler shift. In order to
explain this phenomenon, let us first revert to the case of a single sinusoidal wave reaching the RX, and
also revert to real pass band notation. If the RX moves away from the TX with speed v, then the distance d
between TX and RX increases with that speed. Thus:
E(t)=E0 cos (2ufct-k0[d0+vt])
E(t)=E0 cos (2ut[fc-v/λ]-
k0d0)
Where d0 is the distance at time t = 0. The frequency of the received oscillation is thus decreased by v/λ in
other words; the Doppler shift is given by:
v 𝑣
𝑣=− =
� 𝑐0
� −fc
Note that the Doppler shift is negative when the TX and RX move away from each other. Since the speed of
the movement is always small compared with the speed of light, the Doppler shifts are relatively small.
In the above example, we had assumed that the direction of RX movement is aligned with the direction of
wave propagation. If that is not the case, the Doppler shift is determined by the speed of movement in the
direction of wave propagation, v cos(ɶ). The Doppler shift is then:
𝑣=− v 𝑣
cos(𝛾) = cos(𝛾) = 𝑣max cos(𝛾)
𝜆
𝜆
−fc
The maximum Doppler shift νmax typically lies between 1Hz and 1 kHz. Note that in general, the relationship
νmax = fc · v/c0 is based on several assumptions e.g., static IOs, no double reflections on moving objects, etc.
Instantaneous value

k v

|v|cos ɶ

Figure 2 Projection of velocity vector |v| onto the direction of propagation k.

Since the Doppler shifts are so small, it seems natural to ask whether they have a significant influence on
the radio link. If all constituent waves were Doppler shifted by the same amount e.g., 100 Hz the effect on
radio link performance would really be negligible the local oscillator in the RX could easily compensate for
such a shift. The important point is, however, that the different MPCs have different Doppler shifts. The
superposition of several Doppler shifted waves creates the sequence of fading dips. Again, this can be
demonstrated using the two path model.

 Fading
The term fading, or, small-scale fading, means rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases, or multipath
delays of a radio signal over a short period or short travel distance. This might be so severe that large scale
radio propagation loss effects might be ignored.
 Factors Influencing Fading
The following physical factors influence small-scale fading in the radio propagation channel:
(1) Multipath propagation-Multipath is the propagation phenomenon that results in radio signals reaching
the receiving antenna by two or more paths. The effects of multipath include constructive and destructive
interference, and phase shifting of the signal.
(2) Speed of the mobile-The relative motion between the base station and the mobile results in random
frequency modulation due to different Doppler shifts on each of the multipath components.
(3) Speed of surrounding objects-If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they induce a time varying
Doppler shift on multipath components. If the surrounding objects move at a greater rate than the mobile,
then this effect dominates fading.
(4) Transmission Bandwidth of the signal-If the transmitted radio signal bandwidth is greater than the
bandwidth of the multipath channel i.e. quantified by coherence bandwidth than received signal will be
distorted.
 Types of fading
 Small Scale Fading
Small scale fading refers to rapid variation of instantaneous received signal strength due to the
constructive and destructive interference of multi-paths when the mobile station moves over very short
distances. Depending on the multipath delay spread small scale fading can be classified as either
frequency-selective fading or frequency flat fading. Depending on the Doppler spread, small scale fading
can be classified as either fast fading or slow fading.
 Flat Fading
If the mobile radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth which is
greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal, then the received signal will undergo flat fading. In
flat fading, the spectral characteristics of the transmitted signal remain unchanged at the receiver but due
to multipath propagation the strength of the received signal changes with time. Flat fading channels are
also known as amplitude varying channels and are sometimes referred to as narrowband channels, since
the bandwidth of the applied signal is narrow as compared to the channel flat fading bandwidth.
 Frequency Selective Fading
Frequency selective fading is occurring due to frequency dependent effect. If the bandwidth of the channel
is smaller than the bandwidth or transmitted signal then the channel creates frequency selective fading on
the received signal. Thus Frequency selective channels induce intersymbol interference (ISI). Modeling of
Frequency selective fading channels is much more difficult than flat fading channels because each
multipath signal must be modeled.
 Fast Fading
If the channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration then received signal will
undergo fast fading. For fast fading channels coherence time of the channel is smaller than the symbol
period of the transmitted signal. Fast fading channels may be specified as a flat fading or frequency
selective in nature depending upon channel impulse response which is to be simply a delta function. For a
flat fading, fast fading channel the amplitude of the delta function varies faster than the rate of change of
the transmitted baseband signal. In the case of a frequency selective, fast fading channel, the amplitudes,
phases, and time delays of any one of the multipath components vary faster than the rate or change of the
transmitted signal. In practice, fast fading only occurs for very low data rates.
 Slow Fading
If the channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than the transmitted baseband signal then
channel will undergo slow fading. For slow fading channels coherence time of the channel is greater than
the symbol period of the transmitted signal. Velocity of the mobile or velocity of surrounding objects and
the baseband signaling determines whether a signal undergoes fast fading or slow fading.
 Large Scale Fading
Large-scale fading occurs as the mobile moves over a large distance. It is caused by path loss of signal as a
function of distance and shadowing by large objects such as buildings, intervening terrains, and vegetation.
Shadowing is a slow fading process characterized by variation of median path loss between the transmitter
and receiver in fixed locations. The received signal strength may be different even at the same distance
from a transmitter, due to the shadowing caused by obstacles on the path.
 Path loss
Path loss is caused by dissipation of the power radiated by the transmitter as well as by effects of the
propagation channel. Path-loss models generally assume that path loss is the same at a given transmit
receive distance. Both theoretical and measurement-based propagation models indicate that average
received signal power decreases logarithmically with distance, whether in outdoor or indoor radio
channels, such models have been used extensively in the literature.
 Small Scale Fading without a Dominant Component
Following these basic considerations utilizing the two path model, we now investigate a more general case
of multipath propagation. We consider a radio channel with many IOs and a moving RX. Due to the large
number of IOs, a deterministic description of the radio channel is not efficient any more, which is why we
take refuge in stochastic description methods. This stochastic description is essential for the whole field of
wireless communications, and is thus explained in considerable detail.
 A Computer Experiment
Consider the following simple computer experiment. The signals from several IOs are incident onto an RX
that moves over a small area. The IOs are distributed approximately uniformly around the receiving area.
They are also assumed to be sufficiently far away so that all received waves are homogeneous plane waves,
and that movements of the RX within the considered area do not change the amplitudes of these waves.
The different distances and strength of the interactions are taken into account by assigning a random
phase and random amplitude to each wave. We are then creating eight constituting waves E i with absolute
amplitudes |ai|, angle of incidence (with respect to the x axis) φi and phase ϕi :
|ai| φi ϕi
𝐸1(𝑥, 𝑦) = 1.0 exp[−j𝑘0(𝑥𝑐o𝑠(169°) + ysin(169°))] exp(j311°) 1.0 169° 311°
𝐸2(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0.8 exp[−j𝑘0(𝑥𝑐o𝑠(213°) + ysin(213°))] exp(j32°) 0.8 213° 32°
𝐸3(𝑥, 𝑦) = 1.1 exp[−j𝑘0(𝑥𝑐o𝑠(87°) + ysin(87°))] exp(j161°) 1.1 87° 161°
𝐸4(𝑥, 𝑦) = 1.3 exp[−j𝑘0(𝑥𝑐o𝑠(256°) + ysin(256°))] exp(j356°) 1.3 256° 356°
𝐸5(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0.9 exp[−j𝑘0(𝑥𝑐o𝑠(17°) + ysin(17°))] exp(j191°) 0.9 17° 191°
𝐸6(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0.5 exp[−j𝑘0(𝑥𝑐o𝑠(126°) + ysin(126°))] exp(j56°) 0.5 126° 56°
𝐸7(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0.7 exp[−j𝑘0(𝑥𝑐o𝑠(343°) + ysin(343°))] exp(j268°) 0.7 343° 268°
𝐸8(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0.9 exp[−j𝑘0(𝑥𝑐o𝑠(297°) + ysin(297°))] exp(j131°) 0.9 297° 131°
We now superimpose the constituting waves, using the complex baseband notation again. The total
complex field strength E thus results from the sum of the complex field strengths of the constituting waves.
We can also interpret this as adding up complex random phasors. Figure 3 shows the instantaneous value
of the total field strength at time t = 0 i.e., Re{E}, in an area of size 5λ · 5λ.

Figure 3 Instantaneous value of the field strength at time t = 0

 Mathematical Derivation of the Statistics of Amplitude and Phase
After these pseudo experimental considerations, we now turn to a more detailed and more mathematically
sound derivation of Rayleigh distribution. Consider a scenario where N homogeneous plane waves (MPCs)
have been created by reflection/scattering from different IOs. The IOs and the TX do not move, and the RX
moves with a velocity v. We assume that the absolute amplitudes of the MPCs do not change over the
region of observation. The sum of the squared amplitude is:
𝑁

∑ |ai|2 = 𝐶p
i=1

Where CP is a constant. However, the phase ϕi vary strongly and are thus approximated as random
variables that are uniformly distributed in the range [0, 2u]. The real part of the received field strength due
to the ith MPC is thus |ai| cos (ϕi), the imaginary part is |ai| sin (ϕi ). Furthermore, we need to consider the
Doppler shift for computation of the total field strength E(t). If we look at non modulated carrier, we get
𝑁

𝐸(𝑡) = ∑|ai|cos[2ufct − 2u𝑣max. cos (𝛾i)𝑡 + 𝜑i]

i=1
Rewriting this in terms of in phase and quadrature phase components in real pass band notation, we
obtain
𝐸BP(𝑡) = 𝐼(𝑡). cos(2ufct) − Q(t). sin(2ufct)
𝑁

𝐼(𝑡) = ∑|ai|cos[−2u𝑣max. cos (𝛾i)𝑡 + 𝜑i]

i=1
𝑁

𝑄(𝑡) = ∑|ai|sin[−2u𝑣max. cos (𝛾i)𝑡 + 𝜑i]

i=1
Both the in phase and the quadrature phase component are the sum of many random variables, none of
which dominate. It follows from the central limit theorem that the pdf of such a sum is a normal (Gaussian)
distribution, regardless of the exact pdf of the constituent amplitudes i.e., we do not need knowledge of
the ai or their distributions.

 Small Scale Fading with a Dominant Component

 A Computer Experiment
Fading statistics change when a dominant MPC an LOS component or a dominant specular component is
present. We can gain some insights by repeating the computer experiment of small scale fading without a
dominant component but now adding an additional wave with the (dominant) amplitude:
|a9| φi ϕi
𝐸9(𝑥, 𝑦) = 5.0 exp[−j𝑘0(𝑥𝑐o𝑠(0°) + ysin(0°))] exp(j0°) 5.0 0° 0°
𝐸9(𝑥, 𝑦) = 5. e [−jk0(𝑥𝑐o𝑠(0°) + ysin(0°))] e (j0°)
Figure 4 shows the real part of E, and the contribution from the dominant component is visible

Figure 4 Instantaneous value at t = 0, in the presence of a dominant MPC.

 Derivation of the Amplitude and Phase Distribution
The pdf of the amplitude can be computed in a way that is similar to our derivation of the Rayleigh
distribution. Without restriction of generality, we assume that the LOS component has zero phases, so that
it is purely real. The real part thus has a nonzero mean Gaussian distribution, while the imaginary part has
a zero mean Gaussian distribution.
𝑟 𝑟2+𝐴2-2𝑟𝐴𝑐o𝑠(𝑇)
)
𝑝𝑑f(𝑟, 𝑇) = 2
exp 2𝜎2
(− 2𝜋𝜎
Where A is the amplitude of the dominant component. In contrast to the Rayleigh case, this distribution is
not separable. Rather, we have to integrate over the phases to get the amplitude pdf, and vice versa.
 Figure 5 Magnitude of the electric field strength |E| in an example area in the presence of a dominant MPC.
 Doppler Shift
The Doppler Effect (or Doppler shift) is the change in frequency of a wave for an observer moving relative
to the source of the wave. In classical physics (waves in a medium), the relationship between the observed
frequency f and the emitted frequency fo is given by:
𝑣 ± 𝑣r
f=( ) f0
𝑣 ± 𝑣s
Where v is the velocity of waves in the medium, vs is the velocity of the source relative to the medium and
vr is the velocity of the receiver relative to the medium.
S

Ɵ Ɵ

A d v B
Figure 6 Illustration of Doppler Effect.
The Doppler spectrum has described two important parameters:
1. It describes frequency dispersion.
2. It is a measure for the temporal variability of the channel.

 Temporal Dependence of Fading

Temporal dependence of fading can be describe by the following parameters
 Level Crossing Rate
Level crossing rate determine the immediate interpretation of the occurrence of fading. Occurrence of the
fading is known as fading dips and occurrence rate of fading dips is known as the Level Crossing Rate (LCR).
Level crossing rate depends on which level we are considering fading dip.
 Average Duration of Fades
The average duration of fades (ADF) is also use to describe the temporal decencies of the fading. The ADFs
can be simply computed as the quotient of these two quantities:
cdf(r)
ADF(r) =
NR(r)
Where cdf(r) is the cumulative distribution function and NR(r) is the level crossing rate
 Random Frequency Modulation
A random channel leads to a random phase shift of the received signal. In a time-variant channel,
these phase shifts are time variant as well. By definition a temporally varying phase shift is an FM.
  Large-Scale Fading
Large-scale fading occurs as the mobile moves over a
large distance. It is caused by path loss of signal as a
function of distance and shadowing by large objects
such as buildings, intervening terrains, and
vegetation. Shadowing is a slow fading process Base ɶ
Station
characterized by variation of median path loss
between the transmitter and receiver in fixed
locations. The received signal strength may be
different even at the same distance from a Mobile
Station
transmitter, due to the shadowing caused by
obstacles on the path. Figure 7 Shadowing by a building.

 Wideband and Directional Channel Characterization

The effect of multipath propagation in wideband systems can be interpreted in two different ways
(1) Frequency selectivity- Variation in the transfer function of the channel over the bandwidth of interest is
called the frequency selectivity of the channel
(2) Delay dispersion-The impulse response of the channel is not a delta function. The arriving signal has a
longer duration than the transmitted signal this delay is called delay dispersion.
 The Causes of Delay Dispersion
 The Two Path Model
Why does channel exhibit delay dispersion or, equivalently, why are there variations of the channel over a
given frequency range? The simplest picture arises again from the two path model. The transmit signal gets
to the receiver (RX) via two different propagation paths with different runtimes:
τ1=d1/c0 and τ1=d2/c0
We assume now that runtimes do not change with time (this occurs when neither transmitter (TX), RX, nor
Interacting Objects (IOs) move). Consequently, the channel is linear and time invariant, and has an impulse
response:
h(τ)=a1ð(τ-τ1)+ a2ð(τ-τ2)
 The General Case
After the simple two path model, we now progress to the more general case where IOs can be at any place
in the plane. The scenario is static so that TX, RX, and IOs are not moving. We now draw the ellipses that
are defined by their focal points TX and RX and the eccentricity determining the runtime. All rays that
undergo a single interaction with an object on a specific ellipse arrive at the RX at the same time. Signals
that interact with objects on different ellipses arrive at different times. Thus, the channels are delay
dispersive if the IOs in the environment are not all located on a single ellipse. It is immediately obvious that
in a realistic environment, IOs never lie exactly on a single ellipse.

 System-Theoretic Description of Wireless Channels

A wireless channel can be described by its impulse response so wireless channel can be consider as a linear
filter. If the base station (BS), mobile station (MS), and interacting objects (IOs) are all static, then the
channel is time invariant, with an impulse response h(τ ). In this case we can apply theory of linear time
invariant (LTI) systems. But generally wireless channels are time variant with an impulse response h(t, τ )
that changes with time. Due to the difference between the absolute time t and the delay τ the theory of
the Linear Time Variant (LTV) system must be used. Description of wireless channels can be done by
following parameters
1. Characterization of deterministic linear time variant systems
2. Stochastic system functions

 The WSSUS Model

The WSSUS (Wide-Sense Stationary Uncorrelated Scatterers) model is channel model. The correlation
functions depend on four variables, and so it is complicated to characterization of the channel by
Wide-Sense Stationary (WSS) assumption and the Uncorrelated Scatterers (US) assumption alone. WSSUS
model is based on both assumptions simultaneously.
 Wide-Sense Stationarity
WSS means that the statistical properties of the channel do not change with time. The mathematical
definition of wide-sense stationarity is that the auto correlation function (ACF) depends not on the two
variables t, t’ separately but only on their difference t – t’. This must not be confused with a static channel,
where fading realizations do not change with time. For the simple case of a flat Rayleigh-fading channel,
WSS means that the mean power and the Doppler spectrum do not change with time, while the
instantaneous amplitude can change. Practically this is not possible: as the MS moves over larger distances,
the mean received power changes because of shadowing and variations in path loss. Rather, WSS is
typically fulfilled over an area of about 10λ diameter
 Uncorrelated Scatterers
The US assumption is defined as contributions with different delays are uncorrelated. The US condition is
fulfilled if the phase of an MPC does not contain any information about the phase of another MPC with a
different delay. If scatterers are distributed randomly in space, phases change in an uncorrelated way even
when the MS moves only a small distance.
 WSSUS Assumption
The WSSUS assumption is the combination of US and WSS assumptions. US define contributions with
different delays as uncorrelated, while WSS defines contributions with different Doppler shifts as
uncorrelated. We can say that US means that time frequency correlation function (R H) depends only on the
frequency difference while WSS means that RH depends only on the time difference. On combine these
two definitions in the WSSUS condition than the auto correlation function (ACF) has to fulfill the following
conditions:
𝑅h(𝑡, 𝑡 + ∆𝑡, 𝑟, 𝑟′) = 𝑃h(∆𝑡, 𝑟). ð(𝑟 − 𝑟′)
𝑅H(𝑡, 𝑡 + ∆𝑡, f, f + ∆f) = 𝑅H(∆𝑡, ∆f)
𝑅s(𝑣, 𝑣′, 𝑟, 𝑟′) = 𝑃s(𝑣, 𝑟). ð(𝑣 − 𝑣′)ð(𝑟 − 𝑟′)
𝑅B(𝑣, 𝑣′, f, f + ∆f) = 𝑃B(𝑣, ∆f). ð(𝑣 − 𝑣′)
Where 𝑃h ∆𝑡, 𝑟 is delay cross power spectral density, 𝑅H(∆𝑡, ∆f) is time frequency correlation function
( )
𝑃s(𝑣, 𝑟) is scattering function and 𝑃B(𝑣, ∆f) is Doppler cross power spectral density

 Condensed Parameters
The correlation functions are used to describe wireless channels which are very complex. Even when the
WSSUS assumption is used, they are still functions of two variables. A preferable representation would be a
function of one variable, or even better, just a single parameter this parameter is called condensed
parameter. Obviously, such a representation implies a serious loss of information, but this is a sometimes
acceptable for a compact representation. Integrals of the correlation functions, moments of the power
delay profile, coherence bandwidth and coherence time, window parameters are some condensed
parameter used for describing the wireless channels.

 Ultra Wideband Channels

Ultra Wide Bandwidth systems (UWB) spread their information over a very large bandwidth, while at the
same time keeping a very low-power spectral density. Therefore, the transmit band can include frequency
bands that have already been assigned to other services, without creating significant interference.

 Directional Description
In directional description of wireless channel, the directions of the multipath components are also take in
consideration. In wideband channel description only amplitude and delay of the MPCs are consider.
Directional description is useful for two reasons.
• The directional properties are important for spatial diversity and multi element antennas.
• It allows separating the propagation effects from the impact of the antenna.