DyKCo: Dynamic k-Coverage in Wireless Sensor

Networks
Amir Yahyavi Laleh Roostapour Roohollah Aslanzadeh Nasser Yazdani
ECE Department, CEIT Department, CEIT Department ECE Department,
University of Tehran Amirkabir University of Amirkabir University of University of Tehran
Tehran, Iran. Technology, Tehran, Iran Technology, Tehran, Iran Tehran, Iran.
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract— In Wireless Sensor Networks maintaining Several scheduling schemes have been suggested to
complete coverage over an area is one of the fundamental minimize the effect of sleeping nodes on the desired parameter
problems. The network must be able to provide the requested (delay, connectivity, etc) in the network [7], [8], [9]. Coverage
coverage while maximizing the network lifetime through is one of the important parameters that is affected by the
scheduling sleep for extraneous nodes. The network should also scheduling scheme.
be able to configure itself to provide different levels of coverage
for different applications. In this paper we present DyKCo, a How well an area is covered can be considered as a
probabilistic method to provide dynamic k-coverage on the area measure of Quality of Service (QoS) and is subject to a wide
of an event. Our proposed method creates 1-coverage on the range of interpretation due to large variety of sensor networks’
whole sensing area and creates k-coverage on the area of a applications [10].
detected event. Our simulations show that we can achieve very
high energy savings and high coverage which result in longer In surveillance and monitoring applications, it is usually
network lifetime and higher accuracy. Due to probabilistic nature required to have at least k sensors cover each point in the
of our approach it needs much less communication than similar surveillance zone (k-Coverage). In dense networks [11] where
methods to provide k-coverage. there are more than k sensors in each area, putting sensors to
low duty cycle for energy saving, raises the question of which
Keywords— k-Coverage, Wireless Sensor networks, Sleep nodes should be active in order to maintain the same
Scheduling, Intelligent Sensor coverage[4], [12]. It means that we need a coordination
function [13] between neighbor nodes to determine the state of
I. INTRODUCTION each node in each cycle in a way that the total number of
Use of Wireless Sensor Networks with large number of sensors to cover the neighborhood is approximately k.
low-power, short-lived, unreliable sensors for a wide-range of
Reasons for requiring k-coverage [4] include:
potential applications such as battlefield surveillance, machine
failure diagnosis, biological detection, home security, smart Classification of an intruder (person, solider, vehicle),
spaces, inventory tracking, etc [1], [2], [3] has attracted a great making sure that the alarm messages reach the base station
deal of research attention. These nodes usually have a low- (considering high packet loss probability in wireless sensor
bandwidth wireless radio for communication. networks[14]), detection of false alarms due to natural
phenomena or an internal error in the sensor [15], and more
Sensor nodes usually work with small low power batteries
accuracy in estimation of target location and velocity by a
as the source of energy. Individual motes [4] can last only 100-
120 hours on a pair of AA batteries in the active mode[26] and factor of √ .
Battery capabilities are only doubled every 35 years [11]; The need for a mechanism to dynamically configure the
therefore, power efficiency is the main challenge in sensor coverage provided according to the needs of the application is
network applications. mentioned in [9]. Dynamic configuration of sensor network
Putting sensors to periodic sleep in dense sensor networks helps the network to adapt to different applications’
has been suggested as a way to increase the network requirements and maximizes the energy efficiency.
longevity[25]. Sensor nodes in the sleep mode consume only In this paper we present a probabilistic approach for
0.1% of the energy consumed in the active mode [4]. creating dynamic k-Coverage. DyKCo creates coverage (1-
Several methods for putting nodes into low duty cycle have covergae) over all the surveillance zone and k-coverage only on
been proposed [5], [6]. But inactive nodes cause higher delay, the event(s).
lower coverage and connectivity in exchange for power DyKCo saves a lot of energy since generally it wakes only
efficiency. Nodes in the sleep mode are unable to detect events 1 node instead of k-nodes in each area (in case of a detection
in their sensing range and are unable to receive or forward any this number is increased to k nodes in that area). Also
packets (in case only the transmission device is turned off computational and messaging overhead of this approach for
detection is possible). Sleep scheduling addresses this problem.

1-4244-2384-2/08/$20.00 ©2008 IEEE SMC 2008

providing coverage is much lower than similar approaches different degrees of coverage. [17] present a distributed
presented in [9],[16],[17]. algorithm for density control in wireless sensor networks
through local probing of its neighbors. It does not require
Use of MAC protocols such as S-MAC [5] or T-MAC [6] location and topology information of its neighbors.
that support energy saving and sleep scheduling mechanisms is
necessary. These MAC protocols provide synchronous wake Reference [21] presents a method to calculate the coverage
ups in the neighbor nodes which will be discussed latter in this provided over each area in the network which can be used to
paper. determine which areas are not sufficiently covered.
The rest of this paper is as follows: In section II we discuss Most deterministic methods such as [9],[16],[17] use an
the related works. We review several methods proposed to eligibility rule to turn redundant nodes off in the area. In order
provide the coverage requested by the applications. We also to determine which nodes can be turned off they require the
discuss the assumptions, advantages, and disadvantages in location information of their neighbors or they need to probe
some of these methods. In section III, our novel method to the area for other active sensors. This imposes a higher
provide dynamic k-coverage on the events is introduced. We communication and computation overhead in comparison to
also introduce the necessary MAC support for our methods. probabilistic approaches. To the knowledge of authors the only
Also, we introduce the Misplaced k-Coverage problem. In attempt to dynamically configure the sensor network to provide
Section IV we present our analysis of the energy consumption different level of coverage has been made in [9]. Deterministic
and provided coverage of our method. In section V, our methods are usually unable to provide dynamicity due to very
simulation results are presented and we justify our results. Our high overhead (communication, computation) and/or high
conclusions are discussed in section VI. response time.
II. RELATED WORKS In [4], boundary conditions to have k-coverage in a mostly
sleepy network in three distributions (Grid, Random Uniform,
[16]Reference [16] presents a deterministic method for Poisson) are presented. We use the equations presented in [4]
providing coverage on the surveillance zone. This method to dynamically calculate the probability of waking in the sensor
guarantees that the original sensing coverage is maintained nodes which is discussed further below.
after the redundant nodes are turned off. This approach
assumes that all nodes have location information. It also III. DYNAMIC K-COVERAGE
requires techniques to estimate the direction of the received
signal which may require more than one antenna. Moreover, A. Problem Definition and Assumptions
each node requires a mechanism to acquire its neighbors’ We have a set of N sensors S , ,…, , in a two
location information. dimensional area A. Sensors are distributed using Random
Uniform Distribution, Grid Distribution or Poisson distribution.
A recent work [18] discusses how the probability of k-
All sensors have the same sensing range r.
coverage changes with sensing radius and number of sensors
deployed in different distributions (Poisson point process or Also as shown in Fig. 1 sensor nodes support Sleep/Awake
uniform point process). Authors take the boundary effect into periods.
account. Nodes are always active and no sleeping period is
considered. Listen Sleep Listen Sleep
Reference [15] and [19] report the results on actual time
deployments of wireless sensor networks that provide us with Figure
Figure 1. Sensorflow
1. Operation Nodes Duty
of ant Cycle
nodes operation
key lessons on detection, classification, fault models (Node
failure, communication faults, etc), capability of radios, false Sensor nodes in the sleep period can turn off their sensing
alarms, energy consumption in different modes, etc. device and their transmission device to maximize the energy
Reference [12] addresses the Set K-Cover problem in which saving (nodes in listen mode consume nearly as much energy
we are given a finite set of areas, and the objective is to as the receive mode [13]). Turning transmission device on or
partition sensors into covers such that the number of covers that off is controlled by the MAC protocol and the sensing device is
include an area, summed over all areas, is maximized. In fact controlled by the wakeup probability which we will discuss
the number of times the areas are covered is maximized. This later in this paper.
means that by rotating between k covers more than a certain Our assumption are very similar to [11][4]. Our network is
percentage (e.g. 80%) of the areas is covered within the sliding very dense (such that the number of sensor nodes deployed
window of k previous time steps; therefore coverage is not may be orders of magnitude higher than the working nodes)
preserved. [20] solves the maximum set covers problem when a and sufficient sensor nodes are deployed [4] to achieve the
set of known targets are monitored. It also proves that desired k-coverage. Our sensor nodes are synchronized using
maximum set covers problem is np-complete. one of the techniques to provide micro-second level time
Reference [9] shows that in order to have connectivity in a synchronization [22], [23]. We assume that probability of
sensor network that has 1-coverage over an area, parallel occurrence of events in the network is relatively low,
communication range should be equal to or more than twice the since if there are many events that need to be monitored
sensing range 2 . It also presents a method for constantly, dynamicity of coverage is pointless. Sensor nodes
guaranteed connectivity and coverage which can provide radios have different energy consumption in off, listening,

SMC 2008
receiving and transmission modes [13][15]. We assume that awakening in the nodes. All nodes should have the distribution
nodes do not have any location information. Also nodes do not type and number of the deployed sensor nodes in order to be
have any information about their neighbor’s locations or states. able to calculate the wakeup probability for 1-coverage. To
Sensing range of the all nodes is the same and communication calculate the required wakeup probability to achieve k-
range is equal or more than sensing range. Moreover, we coverage the required k should be also flooded in network.
assume if an intruder is in sensing range of an active sensor it These parameters should be flooded in the network only once
will definitely be detected. after it has been deployed. In case there is a change in these
parameters, for example, if the required k or the number of
We propose a method to provide 1-coverage over the entire deployed nodes is changed (using the same distribution) we
surveillance zone. Number of nodes that cover an area is need to re-flood these parameters in the network. All nodes
increased to k in case an event is detected by the only active after receiving these parameters calculate the sleep probability
sensor in that area. Since we don’t want to use any location required for 1-coverage and k-coverage and store them.
information or control messages to provide 1-coverage we use
a probabilistic approach to locally set the state of each node in All nodes primarily set their sleep probability to 1-coverage
each cycle. To determine the sleep probability of each node we level; therefore, since the surveillance zone is 1-covered when
use the equations presented in [4]. an intruder enters the area, it is detected by at least one sensor.
The node that has detected the intruder waits until the end of
Consider that a function is slowly growing if it is the sleep period of its neighbors and sends a broadcast message
monotonically increasing and log log , and goes to alerting others about the intruder.
infinity as ∞. Let

For the Random Uniform Distribution and Poisson

Distribution, for some if

1 

Then all the points are almost always k-covered as n

approaches infinity[4]. Where n is the number of sensors
deployed, p is the probability of being active in each cycle, r is
the sensing radius of each sensor, and k is the level of coverage.
For Grid Distribution for some if

1  Figure 2. A Random Uniform Distribution of Sensor nodes, The area is 1-

covered, By detecting an intruder the active sensor node in the area sends a
broadcast message (filled circles are active nodes in this period).
Then all the points are almost always k-covered as n
approaches infinity. [4] Nodes that receive this broadcast message increase their
Similar to [4], we assume that number of deployed sensors wakeup probability to the k-coverage level. Therefore in the
in the network is sufficiently large; therefore the boundary next duty cycle the number of active nodes in the area is
conditions (1) and (2) hold. We use these boundary conditions increased to approximately k nodes (Fig. 3).
to calculate the wakeup probability of nodes (for a fixed
number of deployed nodes) regarding different levels of
coverage.
Our goal is to find the minimum probability that satisfies
the above boundary condition. Minimizing the probability
results in lower number of active nodes in each cycle which
results in higher energy saving. Of course higher probabilities
are also acceptable, they are less energy efficient, but provide
higher coverage. Using higher probabilities is sometimes
necessary to meet the criteria of the application as we will see
in the next section. We use these boundaries to determine the
probability required to have 1-coverage all over the area and
provide k-coverage on an event detected in the network.
B. DyKCo, Our Approach
As shown in Fig. 2, our goal is to have (at least) one active
node in all the areas to completely cover the surveillance zone. Figure 3. In the next cycle the number of active nodes is increased to k (in
this case 5) nodes. The rest of the network preserves the 1-coverage.
We use the conditions in III.A to set the probability of

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 All active nodes in this cycle that detect the intruder send a
broadcast message at the beginning of the next cycle. In case an
active node with wakeup probability level k-coverage doesn’t
detect an intruder it reduces its probability level to 1-coverage
(Fig. 3).
C. Misplaced k-Coverage Problem
Since only nodes that are in the communication range of the
first node which has detected the intruder can hear its broadcast
message and set their wakeup probability to k-coverage level,
we may have less than k sensors cover the intruder (As shown
in Fig. 2 we have 4 nodes cover the intruder instead of 5).
All the nodes that should set their wakeup probability to k-
coverage level are not able to hear the broadcast message (Fig.
3). Also the intruder may move before the beginning of the Figure 5. Solution to misplaced k-coverage problem, The intruder is covered
next cycle; therefore even less sensors may cover the intruder. by 6 sensors.
We call this problem the misplaced k-coverage problem.
D. MAC Support for our Method
The area that will have k-coverage in the next cycle
Our approach needs support from the MAC layer. MAC
layer should support energy saving modes (Active/Sleep
The area that
modes). S-MAC [5] and T-MAC [6] support such modes. The
should have
The area that should have k-
duty cycle of S-MAC is shown in Fig. 6.
k-coverage in
coverage in the next cycle
the next cycle Listen
if the intruder
doesn’t move
Sync RTS CTS Sleep

time
Figure 6. S-MAC Duty Cycle

Since we use broadcast messages to alert neighbor nodes

about the intrusion we need all the neighbor nodes to be active
at the end of each cycle. S-Mac provides such synchronized
duty cycles between neighbor nodes.
Figure 4. Misplaced k-Coverage problem.
In the SYNC period nodes exchange their sleep schedules
To address this problem, in a pessimistic guess we consider so that neighbor nodes wake up at the same time to be able to
that only half the nodes in the effective area (the area that exchange data messages.
should actually have k-coverage) can hear the broadcast In Data time (RTS/CTS period) nodes use a contention
messages that nodes which has detected the intruder in the last based algorithm similar to 802.11 to reserve the medium for
cycle, send. This is a pessimistic guess since speed of intruder themselves. Those who were able to reserve the medium start
is relatively slow in comparison to the sensing range and duty exchanging data messages at the start of next sleep period.
cycle of nodes. This assumption causes the nodes to calculate Other nodes turn off their transmission device. (For further
higher wakeup probability for the k-coverage level which description please refer to [5], [6]).
results in higher coverage (sometimes two or three time more)
in the area within the communication range of the broadcast Since after the initial synchronization period the SYNC
message and nearly k-coverage on the moving intruder (Fig. 5). period is rarely used (to resynchronize the schedules) we use
this period for our broadcasts. In case there is a SYNC packet
Both our simulations and simulation results in [4] (static k- waiting to be send we can piggy back our ALERT on the
Coverage) show that the actual coverage over the surveillance SYNC message. Otherwise an independent ALERT message is
zone is somewhat lower than the ; Therefore this created and sent (RTS/CTS period can be similarly used).
assumption helps achieve a closer coverage to the desired
coverage. In case the MAC protocol of our choice doesn’t support
synchronized wakeups of neighbor nodes to send the broadcast
Since as approaches infinity, 2 also approaches infinity messages, in order to ensure that all neighbor nodes hear the
the conditions (1) and (2) still hold. Also broadcast message, the node has to wake up at the wakeup time
is log log ; Therefore, this change does not create of each one of its neighbors (similar to [24]) and rebroadcast
dramatic changes in the calculated p, but gives us enough the ALERT message which increases the energy consumption.
higher coverage (in exchange for lower energy efficiency).
E. Why not the maximum possible coverage?
We can wake every node in the neighborhood of the first
node that has detected the intruder to maximize the coverage on

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the intruder. The first reason this is not desirable is energy 8
efficiency. We only need to provide requested coverage from
our application. More coverage is considered as a source of

Minimum Coverage on Target

7
energy loss. The second reason is collision avoidance. As the 6
number of nodes that detect the intruder increases the
5
probability of collision of the data and broadcast packets of Dykco (n/2)
neighbor nodes also increases. 4 Dykco
3 Static K-Coverage
IV. ENRGY CONSUMPTION AND COVERGAE ANALYSIS
2
Our approach presents a new method to provide dynamic k-
coverage over an intruder in the surveillance zone. Since we 1
only provide k-coverage in the area of the intruder and the rest 0
of surveillance zone is 1-covered the number of active nodes in
15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000
each cycle is greatly reduced. According to our simulations we
Number of Deployed Sensors
only keep nearly half the number of active nodes in each cycle
in comparison to the number of active nodes in the static Figure 7. Average minimum coverage over the target
approach where the entire surveillance zone is k-covered. Also
since we calculate higher wakeup probability to solve the Fig. 7 shows that as expected the coverage achieved in the
misplaced k-coverage problem the average coverage provided dynamic method with half the number of deployed nodes has
on the intruder is usually higher than the static method. the highest average minimum coverage. Static k-coverage
Increasing the number of deployed nodes without changing the provides lower coverage. The dynamic method without
required k directly increases the network lifetime since the considering misplaced k-coverage problem has the lowest
number of active nodes in each cycle which are supposed to coverage. The misplaced k-coverage problem’s effect is clear.
provide 1-coverage over a surveillance zone is fixed. The cost
of the broadcast messages sent to alert the neighbors is fairly Fig. 8 depicts the average number of active nodes in
low; because the ALERT message is a small packet and in case different methods. As shown in Fig. 8 number of active nodes
there is a SYNC message it can be piggybacked. The overhead is almost always fixed. This means to have k-coverage in the
of calculating the wakeup probability is also fairly low since area of sensing we need a fixed number of sensor nodes. This
the probability levels only need to be calculated once. Also if also means that adding more nodes directly increases the
tighter boundary conditions in comparison to conditions (1) and network longevity.
(2) are found we can easily replace these boundaries to
calculate the required wakeup probability. Since DyKCo is a 1800
probabilistic approach it doesn’t need any location or probing
Avergae Number of Active Nodes

1600
information unlike [9],[16],[17] to provide the requested 1400
coverage. This approach can be considered stealthy [25]. Also
1200
DyKCo is compatible with current popular MAC protocols in
wireless sensor networks. 1000
800
V. SIMULATION RESULTS
600
In our simulations we deploy sensors in an area of size DyKCo (n/2)
150m x 150m. Sensors’ sensing and communication radius is 400
DyKCo
4m. If nodes have higher communication range than sensing 200 Static K-Coverage
range the number of nodes that wake up in case an intruder is 0
detected, will be higher which results in higher coverage and
15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000
lower energy efficiency. Number of Deployed Sensors
Static k-coverage calculates the probability needed to Figure 8. Avergae number of active nodes in each cycle
achieve k-coverage according to [4]. All nodes have the same
probability of waking. We compare this method to our method The number of active nodes in the dynamic method is
in minimum coverage, and average coverage provided over the nearly half the number of active nodes in the static method.
intruder. We also compare average number of active nodes in
each cycle between these methods. We use the boundary Average coverage on the intruder in 10 runs of the
conditions (1) and (2) for our dynamic method in two ways, in simulation for each method with different number of sensors is
the first one (DyKCo) we use the original number of deployed presented in Fig. 9. Average coverage provided is much higher
nodes and in the second one (DyKCo with /2) we use half than the requested coverage. This shows that assuming that
that number to calculate wakeup probability. nearly half the nodes in the effective area of the intruder are
unable to hear the ALERT message is a pessimistic guess.
The average minimum coverage achieved in 10 runs for
each deployment of the sensor network for each method is
shown in Fig. 7. The requested coverage was 8-coverage.

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