MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS

POLLUTANTS • Pollution is the discharge of materials (pollutants) into air,
water and soil that are detrimental to earth’s ecological
• Water, Soil and Air: their sources and effects. balance or that which lowers the quality of life
• Removal of Specific Pollutants : Sources of Heavy Metal
Pollution,
• Microbial Systems for Heavy Metal Accumulation, Types of
• Biosorption & detoxification mechanisms. Pollution

Water Air Soil

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WATER, SOIL AND AIR POLLUTION: THEIR Types and Sources of Water Pollutants
SOURCES AND EFFECTS • Physical Source
1. Water Pollution i. Turbidity – Large amount of suspended matter like clay, silt
• Introduction into fresh water physical or some finely divided organic in water makes it turbid or
chemical,
biological contaminants that degrade the quality or cloudy in appearance.
water of ii. Colour – Dissolved organic matter
• Sources fromvegetation
decayingor inorganic materials like coloured soils impart
– Industrial, domestic untreated and partially treated wastewater colour to water
– Dissolved particulate forms of metals, toxic contaminants –Excessive growth of algae and aquatic
– Oil spills microbes impart colour to water
– Runoff of pesticides, fertilizers –Objectionable from aesthetic and psychological
– Solid garbage and plastics point of view.
iii. Tastes and odours – Dissolved organic matter or
inorganic salts and dissolved gases like H2S, CH4 impart
taste and odour
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 iv. Temperature – For potable water, temperature of about ii. pH – The normal range for pH in surface water systems is
5. to 8.5 and for groundwater systems 6 to 8.5.
100C is desirable and above 250C is objectionable.
– Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of the water
• Chemical Sources to resists a change in pH that would tend to make
i. Total dissolved and suspended solids – Total dissolved the water more acidic. The measurement of
solids (TDS) comprise inorganic salts (principally calcium, alkalinity and pH is needed to determine the
magnesium, potassium, sodium, bicarbonates, chlorides, corrosivity of the water.
and sulfates) and some small amounts of organic matter – Water with a low pH could contain elevated levels
that are dissolved in water. of toxic metals, cause premature damage to metal
– TDS Originate from natural sources, sewage, piping, and have associated aesthetic problems
urban run-off, industrial wastewater such as a metallic or sour taste, staining of laundry
– Total suspended solids (TSS) are particles
that are larger than 2 microns and include
sediment, silt, sand, plankton and algae as
well as organic particles from decomposing
materials
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iii. Hardness – Caused by presence of

Calcium and vi. Other elements
Magnesium • Iron and Manganese – Concentrations more
than 0.3 mg/L and 0.05 mg/L respectively
– Prevents the formation of sufficient lather or foam cause discolouration of clothes and
when mixed with soap incrustation of water mains due to deposition
iv. Chlorides – Caused by leaching of marine sedimentary of ferric hydroxide and manganese oxide.
deposits, pollution from sea water, industrial and domestic • Copper – Concentrations more than 0.05 -
wastes.• Organic Nitrogen - Indicates pollution and in 1.5 mg/L affect human lungs and respiratory
v. potable water it should not exceed 0.3 mg/L
Nitrogen content organs
• Nitrites – Indicates partly oxidized organic • Fluorides – Less than 0.8 – 1.0 mg/L cause
matter in water and permissible amount is NIL. dental caries due to excessive cavities in
teeth. High concentration more than 1.5 mg/L
• Nitrates – Represents fully oxidized organic
matter and beyond 45 mg/L it causes a disease causes disease “Fluorosis” or deformation of
called “Methamoglobinemia” or “Blue Baby bones.
Disease”
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 2. Air pollution
• Biological Sources • Accumulation in the atmosphere of pollutants that in
– Microbes like Total coliform, Faecal coliforms, sufficient concentration endanger human health and
Faecal streptococcus, Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella typhi cause ill effects on living and non-living substances
• Major air pollutants SOX, NOX, CO, HC,
• Effects include
– Eutrophication particulates
– Fish kills SOURCES
– Water borne diseases (diarrhoea, cholera, jaundice) Types of Mobility of
Sources Interaction of
Sources
Pollutants
Natural Stationary
Primary Air sources
Pollutants
Aerosols Mobile
Secondary Sources
Air
Gases and Pollutants
Vapours
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– Smoke – finely divided particles by incomplete combustion.

I. Types of Sources • Size of coal smoke particles range from 0.01 to 0.2 µ. And oil smoke
particles is 0.03 to 1.0 µ..
a. Natural Contaminants
• Pollen is important contaminant causing irritation to
some individuals causing asthma, bronchitis, dermatitis. – Mist – Low concentration dispersion of liquid particles .
• Size from 40 to 500 µ.
• Size ranges from 5 and 100 µ.

– Fog – Visible aerosols in which dispersed phase is liquid.

b. Aerosols
• Size ranges from 1 to 40 µ.
• Dispersion of solid or liquid particles of microscopic size
in gaseous media like dust, smoke, mist, fog.
c. Gases and Vapour
• Size range from 0.01 to 100 µ.
– Dust – solid particles from crushing, grinding of organic and inorganic – SO2 – Principal constituent of air pollutants.
components • Main source is combustion of fuels like coal as sulphur content varies from less
• Size is over 20 µ, Although some are smaller as well than 1% for good quality anthracite to over 4% for bituminous coal.
• Flyash from chimneys varies from 3 to 180 µ. • Most sulphur dioxide is found in flue gases and ranges from 0.05 to 0.25%.
• Cement from 10 to 150 µ. • Metallurgical operations like smelting of ores like zinc, copper and lead releases
sulphur dioxide of 5 to 10%

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 – CO – Odourless colourless gas and is highly poisonous.
– H 2S – Foul smelling gas found in anaerobic biological decay process
• Chief source is automobile exhausts and other industrial operations like blast
on land, marshes furnaces, petroleum refining operations, gas manufacturing plants, coal mines.
• In industries the main source is Kraft pulp industry which uses sulphide
process for manufacturing process.
• Other industrial sources include petroleum refineries, chemical operations. – Aldehydes – Combustion of gasoline, diesel oil, fuel oil, natural gas
– HF – Important air contaminant even in low concentrations of 0.001 to 0.1 ppm
by volume. – Organic vapours – Produced by combustion process, incinerators, petroleum
processes
• Major sources include manufacture of phosphate fertilizers, aluminium
• Includes large number of chemical compounds like paraffins, olefins,
industry, brick plants, pottery and ferro-enamel works.
acetylenes, aromatic hydrocarbons

– Hydrogen Chloride – Evolved in numerous industrial and chemical

processes involving chlorine containing organic compounds – Radioactive gases – Major source is nuclear power reactor, testing of nuclear
bombs, nuclear fuel reprocessing plant, agricultural, industrial and medical uses of
radioisotopes
– Oxides of nitrogen – Second most abundant atmospheric contaminant in
cities
• High concentrations occur in gaseous emissions where nitric acid is produced in
chemical reactions, automobile exhausts, large power plants.

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b. Secondary Pollutants
II. Interaction of Polutants
• Produced in the air by interaction among two or more
a. Primary Pollutants primary pollutants or by reaction with normal
• Emitted directly from identifiable sources atmospheric constituents with or without
• Examples include photoactivation
– Finer particles less than 100 μ in diameter like aerosols • Examples include
– Coarse particles greater than 100 μ in diameter like cement – Ozone
dust – Formaldehyde
– Sulphur compounds – PAN (peroxy acetyl nitrate)
– Oxides of nitrogen – Photochemical smog
– Carbon monoxide – Formation of acid mists of sulphuric acid due to reaction of
– Haogen compounds sulphur dioxide and dissolved oxygen when water droplets are
– Organic compounds present in the atmosphere

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III. Types of Sources a. Effects of air Pollution on human health

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b. Effects of air pollution on vegetation: c. Effects of air pollution on materials

– Various air pollutants include SO2, Chlorine, HF, HCl, H2S,
Mercury, Ethylene, PAN-peroxy acetyl nitrate, Smog) • Air pollutants can damage materials by five mechanisms:
– Smog, dust reduce the amount of light reaching leaf and clog a. Abrasion
stomata which reduces CO2 intake and thus interfere with – Solid particles having sharp edges, sufficient size and
photosynthesis travelling
at high velocities
b. Deposition can cause abrasive action
and Removal
– Solid and liquid particles deposited on surface may spoil its
appearance
– Removal of these cause deterioration
c. Direct Chemical Attack
– Certain air pollutants react directly and irreversibly with
materials to cause deterioration
– Eg Bleaching of marble by SO2, tarnishing of silver by H2S and
etching of metallic surface by acid mist

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 • Economic losses due to air pollutants are
d. Indirect Chemical Attack
a. Building Materials
– Certain materials absorb pollutants and get damaged when
pollutants undergo chemical changes – Smoke and aerosols adhere to stone, brick and other building
– Eg SO2 absorbed by leather is converted to H2SO4 which surfaces to produce unsightly coatings
deteriorates leather – CO2 in presence of moisture produces carbonic acid which
converts limestone into water soluble bicarbonate which is
e. Corrosion
leached away
– Atmospheric deterioration of ferrous metals is by
an electrochemical process of corrosion – SO2 and SO3 in presence of moisture can react with limestone
(CaCO3) to form calcium sulphate and gypsum, both of which
– This is due to the action of air pollutants in the presence of
moisture are soluble in water and this damage is seen in Taj Mahal at
Agra
b. – Paints
Huge losses occur due to maintenance costs from air pollutants
– Air pollutants like ozone, H2S, SO2, aerosols limit the functions
of pigments (colour and durability) and vehicles (hold the
pigments) in paint, thus damaging the protective coating and
exposing underlying surface to attack
– Areas of high air pollution require more frequent painting
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c. Textiles e. Leather
– SO2 cause deterioration of natural and synthetic textile fibres – SO2 causes leather to lose much of its strength and ultimately
disintegrate
– Eg cotton which is a cellulose fibre is weakened by SO2
– Most common form of permanent damage to textiles has been – Chemical decay of book bindings can be observed by cracking
the deterioration of nylon hose that takes place on the top inside hinges of book and with further
exposure, it disintegrates to reddish brown powder
– Fading of textile dyes by air pollutants like NOX and ozone has f.
been a problem in textile industry Paper
– Small amounts of metallic impurities in modern paper accelerate
d. Rubber the conversion of absorbed SO2 to H2SO4 in presence of
– Rubber cracking is caused by ozone moisture
– Main affected areas are side walls of tyres and various forms of – This makes paper more brittle and decreases their folding
electrical insulation in power transmission sub-stations and resistance
g. Glass and
telephone exchangers
Ceramics
– Hydrogen fluoride is capable of attacking a wide range of
– Problem is acute in Los Angeles and tyre manufacturers add a
ceramic materials and glass through their ability to react with
special anti-ozone compound to all tyres sold in the area
silicon compounds
– Glass windows have been rendered opaque through action of
fluorides
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 SOURCES OF HEAVY METAL POLLUTION:
3. Soil Pollution REMOVAL OF SPECIFIC POLLUTANTS
• Degradation of earth’s surface through misuse of soil
• Heavy metals occur in small amounts naturally and may
• Sources
enter into aquatic system through
– Poor agricultural practices
– leaching of rocks,
– Mineral exploitation – airborne dust,
– Deforestation – forest fires and vegetation
– Industrial and urban waste dumping
• Their occurrence and accumulation in the environment is
• Effects a result of direct or indirect human activities, such as
– Soil erosion removes top soil and decreases farming ability and – Mining and industrial wastes;
enhances suspended solids load of waterways
– Vehicle emissions;
– Sanitary landfills cause groundwater infiltration – Lead-acid batteries;
and contamination
– Fertilizers
– Pesticides persist and bioaccumulate in the environment – Paints
– Treated woods
– Aging water supply infrastructure and
– Microplastics floating in the world's oceans.
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• A toxic heavy metal is any relatively dense metal or • Lead can be used in toys as a stabilizer, color enhancer,
metalloid that is noted for its potential toxicity, especially or anti-corrosive agent.
in environmental contexts – Lead is the most prevalent heavy metal contaminant, used
extensively in gasoline during the 1930s–1970s.
• This includes cadmium, mercury, lead and arsenic all
– Lead (from lead(II) azide or lead styphnate used in firearms)
of which appear in the World Health Organization's list of gradually accumulates at firearms training
10 chemicals of major public concern. contaminating
grounds,the local environment and exposing range
• Other examples include manganese, chromium, cobalt, employees to a risk of lead poisoning.
nickel, copper, zinc, selenium, silver, antimony and • Outbreaks of methyl-mercury poisoning occurred in
thallium several places in Japan during the 1950s due to
• Cadmium is sometimes employed as a stabilizer, or to industrial discharges of mercury into rivers and coastal
increase the mass and luster of toy jewelry. waters.
• Arsenic is thought to be used in connection with coloring – In Minamata alone, more than 600 people died due to what
became known as Minamata disease.
dyes.
– Rat poison used in grain and mash stores may be another
source of the arsenic.

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 • Soils contaminated by heavy metals can be remediated
by one or more of the following technologies:
i. Isolation involves the use of caps, membranes or
below-ground barriers in an attempt to quarantine the
contaminated soil.
ii. Immobilization aims to alter the properties of the soil so
as to hinder the mobility of the heavy contaminants.
iii. Toxicity reduction attempts to oxidise or reduce the
toxic heavy metal ions, via chemical or biological means
into less toxic or mobile forms.
iv. Physical separation involves the removal of the
contaminated soil and the separation of the metal
contaminants by mechanical means.
v. Extraction is an on or off-site process that uses
chemicals, high-temperature volatilization, or
electrolysis to extract contaminants from soils.
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MICROBIAL SYSTEMS FOR HEAVY METAL

vi. Use of microbe-based biosorbents for the elimination
ACCUMULATION
and recovery of toxic metals from industrial wastes can
be an economical and active method for metal • Bioaccumulation is defined as the active and passive
elimination. uptake, transport into the cell and consequent
vii. Bioremediation is progressively gaining prominence concentration within organism to a level much higher than
as an alternative technology, due the benefits it offers: that found in environment) which depends on
simplicity, efficiency and low cost – intrinsic biochemical and structural properties,
– physiological and genetic adaptation,
– environmental modification of metal specification,
– availability and
– toxicity
• Two processes are
– Bioconcentration
– Biomagnification

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 • Bioconcentration is uptake of chemicals • Bacteria and algae have the ability to act as biological
direct from materials to accumulate heavy metals through
environment into organism. metabolically mediated or physicochemical pathways of
• Includes uptake or binding
– Cellular
Chemical uptake by planktons
absorption through skin and gills in aquatic organisms • Bioaccumulation of Zn2+, Cu2+, Cd2+, Al2+ is done by algae
– Chemical uptake by plant roots Chlorella vulgaris, Phacus curvicauda, Oscillatoria
– Respiratory accumulation in higher animals bornettia
• Quantification carried out as dimensionless factor • Bioaccumulation of chromium (VI) is carried out by
BCF =
CsOrganism bacteria Bacillus cereus JQ863364 and
Cs Environment Bacillus
licheniformis JQ863365,
• Biomagnification is the uptake of chemicals by organism • Actinomycetes levoris and Streptomyces
through food and its subsequent accumulation in tissues viridochromogenes can accumulate large amounts of
to levels much higher than found in lower trophic levels. uranium from aqueous systems
• Quantification carried out as dimensionless factor • Heavy metals Cu2+, Cd2+, Co2+, Zn2+ are accumulated by
CsOrganism Rhizopus delemar, Penicillium brevicompactum and
BMF =
Cs FoodSource Saccharomyces cerevisiae
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BIOSORPTION & DETOXIFICATION • That depends, to a certain degree on:

MECHANISMS – the type of biomass,
– the mixture in the solution,
• Under the term metal, “Biosorption” is a passive process – the type of biomass preparation,
of metal uptake and the sequestered – the chemico-physical process environment.
metal is chemical sites naturally by • Broad-range biosorbents can collect all the heavy metals
present and when the biomass is dead. functional even from the solution with a small degree of selectivity among
• The advantage of biosorption is in using biomass raw them.
materials which are either abundant seaweeds or wastes • Concentration of a specific metal could be achieved
from other industrial operations like fermentation wastes either during the sorption uptake by manipulating the
• The unique capabilities of certain types of biomass to properties of a biosorbent, or upon desorption during the
concentrate and immobilize particularly heavy metals can regeneration cycle of the biosorbent.
be more or less selective. • Screening of microbial biomass types for metal
biosorption constitutes an important way of identifying the
most promising types of biomass.
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• Different species of Aspergillus, Pseudomonas,
Sporophyticus, Bacillus, Phanerochaete, etc., have been • In microalgae such as the diatoms Amphora and
efficient chromium and nickel reducers Navicula, copper is localized intracellularly in electron-
dense spherical bodies corresponding to polyphosphate
• Bacteria are used as biosorbents because of their small
granules and in a dense irregular body containing sulfur,
size, ubiquity, and ability to grow under controlled
calcium, and copper
conditions; and their resilience to a wide range of
environmental situations. • The main processes of detoxification are:
– Conjugation of the heavy metal with intracellular compounds
• Heavy metal “Detoxification” is the removal of metallic
– Compartmentation of conjugates
toxic substances from the body
– Degradation to common cell metabolites and finally to carbon
• The study of internal detoxification of heavy metal in dioxide.
algae has received little attention • Those processes can be regulated by environmental
• However, algae are able to activate a definite set of factors such as temperature, salinity, pH, and others,
biochemical and physiological processes to resist the which implies the significance of those interactions with
toxic action of environmental contaminants their self-resistance mechanisms

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• The initial metal ion concentration plays a role in

• In bacteria, detoxification involve particularly determining the bioaccumulative capacity of bacterial
– enzymatic transformation of toxic chemical species by redox
isolate species.
reactions, methylation, alkylation/dealkylation and
– reduction in the sensitivity of cellular targets to metal ions • In microbial populations, the most widely studied
biotransformation mechanism involves enzymatic
• In some plant bacterial association, these organisms
reduction of metal ions to less toxic, volatile element
undergo a variety of plasmid-mediated adaptation
• In some bacteria, the transformation mechanism
• Both microorganisms and algae have adapted to the
involves the presence of genes that form a specific ion-
presence of different metal-toxic environments
resistance operon that not only detoxifies this ion but also
by a variety of mechanisms like
developing
transports and self-regulates resistance
– Bioaccumulation
– Biotransformation • This same set of genes also encodes the production of a
– Biomineralization periplasmic binding protein that regulates the
biomineralization of mercury compounds to less toxic
molecules which can be easily transported to cytoplasm
for detoxification
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