Journal of Urban Ecology, 2023, 9(1), juac030

https://doi.org/10.1093/jue/juac030
Research article

Impact of land use and land cover on urban ecosystem

service value in Chandigarh, India: a GIS-based

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analysis
Sheenu Sharma, Sabir Hussain and Anand Narain Singh *
Soil Ecosystem and Restoration Ecology Lab, Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014,
India
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

Submitted: 26 July 2022; Received (in revised form): 22 November 2022. Accepted: 4 December 2022

Abstract
Assessing the effects of land use and land cover (LULC) on ecosystem service values (ESVs) is critical for public understand-
ing and policymaking. This study evaluated the impacts of LULC dynamics on ESVs in Chandigarh city of India. The assess-
ment of LULC changes was performed by analyzing the satellite imagery of the study area for the years 1990 and 2020 with
different band combinations in ArcGIS (10.8 version software). In addition, we analyzed ecosystem services changes which
were based on the LULC classes of the study area. Five LULC classes were identified in the present study area (Water bodies,
forest and vegetation, built-up, agriculture and shrubland and open spaces). The results demonstrated (from 1990 to 2020)
that the forest cover and agricultural areas decreased by 4.19% and 37.01%, respectively, whereas the built-up area substan-
tially increased by 104.61%. Overall, ESV decreased by 2.54% from 1990 to 2020 due to rapid urbanization. The combination
of LULC and ecosystem services valuation can increase our understanding of different issues of an urban ecosystem. Hence,
we recommend the integration of LULC and ecosystem services valuation as a tool that could provide information to policy-
makers, urban planners and land managers for sustainable use in future.

Key words: land use, land cover, ecosystem services, urbanization, valuation, policymaking

Introduction the evaluation of ecosystem services in monetary terms, as

managing things without value is quite complex (Metzger et al.
Ecosystem services (ESs) refer to the direct and indirect benefits 2006). Therefore, economic or monetary valuation of ecosystem
of the ecosystem to the people (Costanza et al. 1997; MEA 2005). services has become an important facet of ecological economics
These include all kinds of ecosystem services, for example, pro- (Zhang et al. 2017). The ecosystem services value or valuation
visioning (food and raw material), regulating (water regulation, (ESV) is a tool that has shifted our hypothesis of how nature
gas regulation, climate regulation), supporting (soil formation matters to human society (Liu et al. 2010).
and biodiversity) and cultural services (recreation, ecotourism) Measuring the benefits obtained from the ecosystems can be
(Hassan, Scholes, and Ash 2005; Li et al. 2007; Braat and de Groot adequately accomplished by evaluating ESV in monetary terms
2012; de Groot et al. 2012; Costanza et al. 2014; Kindu et al. 2016; (Costanza et al. 2014). In monetary units, quantifying ESV is the
Tandaric, Ives and Watkins 2020). The demand for ESs rapidly most crucial step to improve encouragement and obtaining pay-
increases as the population and standards of living increase ments needed for their conservation and sustainability. Though
(Cumming et al. 2014; Sultana, Selim, and Alam 2022). The im- the concern of framing ecosystems in economic terms started
portance of the ecosystem’s benefits can be understood through in the 1970s and 1980s, interest in ESV in research and

C The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press.

V
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/),
which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

1
 2 | Journal of Urban Ecology, 2023, Vol. 9, No. 1

policymaking processes has grown recently (Li et al. 2007; Hu, 2019). According to Rahman et al. (2012), India’s rapid popula-
Liu, and Cao 2008; Braat and de Groot 2012; Costanza et al. 2017) tion growth causes the establishment of new settlements and
following the establishment of the Ecosystem Service Valuation urban expansion, which alters the LULC. Agriculturally produc-
model by Costanza et al. (1997) and MEA (2005). Farber, tive regions, woodlands, grasslands and water bodies were
Costanza, and Wilson (2002) found different methods for valu- changed to built-up areas that cannot supply ecosystem serv-
ing ecosystem services in monetary units, including the he- ices. The same findings were published by a group of scientists,
donic method, production approaches, contingent valuation, including Costanza et al. (2014), Sharma et al. (2019),
replacement cost and benefits transfer method (BTM). Among Kubiszewski et al. (2017) and Kindu et al. (2016) who studied the
the various methods of ecosystem service valuation, the BTM impact of land use dynamics on ESV changes. Extreme con-
has been widely used because of its feasibility and simplicity sumption of land resources may lead to a severe decline in local
(Costanza et al. 1997, 2014; de Groot et al. 2012). This method or regional ES (Collin and Melloul 2001). Studies have evaluated
refers to using existing values and other information from the the impact of LULC dynamics on ESs worldwide by using the
original study site to estimate the ESV of different locations valuation coefficients provided by Costanza et al. (1997) and
without a site-specific valuation method. The global biosphere Costanza et al. (2014). For example, Makwinja et al. (2021) ana-

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was first classified into 16 sub-ecosystems and 17 ecosystem lyzed the dynamics of LULC and its impact on ESV in Southern
service functions, and the value of each service can be calcu- Malawi. Mamat, Halik, and Rouzi (2018) assessed the effect of
lated through BTM (Costanza et al. 1997). However, many LULC on ESV in the Kashgar Region, Northwest China. For
researchers have criticized their outcomes due to limitations assessing ecosystem services in southwest China, a study of
and uncertainties in their confined use (Li et al. 2007; Kindu LULC changes and their impact on the value of ecosystem serv-
et al. 2016). Recently, valuation has been done based on 300 case ices in Chengdu has significant practical implications for pro-
studies worldwide (de Groot et al. 2012; Costanza et al. 2014). viding food security while preserving ecological civilization
After studying various sites, Costanza et al. (2014) claimed that (Peng et al. 2016). This relationship between LULC changes and
the models and the data they used in their evaluation could be ESV has been investigated in many scientific studies, which
applied at different scales to evaluate alterations in ESV. would help frame decision-making policies for LULC planning
Urbanization leads to economic progress but is also associ- (Tarrasón et al. 2016; Jerome, Lluis, and Jorge 2016).
ated with many serious issues. Acute farmland growth and ur- The study of LULC in Chandigarh was limited to spatial
banization have enhanced land use and land cover (LULC) changes in different land use. It didn’t include the resultant
changes, significantly affecting Chandigarh’s ESs. Based on sat- gain/loss in ESs. This measurement of the number of ecosystem
ellite data and BTM, we measured the ESV for 1990 and 2020. services gained/lost could manipulate the policymaking process
Undoubtedly, cities are expected to account for about 70% of relative to land-related resources. Measurement of ESs by using
India’s GDP by 2030, with a requirement of about 1.2 trillion dol- an ecosystem service database is usually used along with LULC
lars of capital investment needed to meet the projected analysis for different biomes (Costanza et al. 1997, 2014; Li et al.
demands in various sectors such as transport, housing, water, 2007; de Groot et al. 2012; Kindu et al. 2016). Even though these
solid waste disposal and others need (Sankhe et al. 2010). biomes are not precisely similar in their physiognomies and
Several problems related to urbanization include a decline in functions with land cover type in our perspective, they can be
ecosystem services and fragmented landscape (Su et al. 2012), used as alternates for assessing ESV of cover type for our study
destruction of fertile arable land (Fahim et al. 1999), destruction area. The literature survey indicates that no research has been
of habitat (Alphan 2003) and degradation of forest and natural conducted in the study area regarding the impact of LULC on ur-
vegetation cover (Potapov et al. 2012). A recent study has shown ban ecosystem service values (ESVs). Therefore, the main objec-
that due to an increase in urbanization and socioeconomic de- tives of the present study were: (i) to estimate the LULC in
velopment, ESVs have decreased from 1986 to 2017 in Chandigarh during the years 1990 and 2020; (ii) to evaluate
Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macao region located in South changes in the ESV in response to LULC; (iii) to assess changes
China with decrease in water supply and food production in the ESV function in response to LULC; and (iv) to evaluate the
(Hasan, Shi, and Zhu 2020). Although urbanization results in nu- coefficient of sensitivity (CS) of ESV in response to LULC change.
merous socioeconomic and cultural benefits for city residents, Hence, our outcomes could provide policymakers with unique
it also creates a number of barriers in the natural environment suggestions for Chandigarh’s environmental protection and
by changing the urban landscape (Qiu and Lu, 2015). Some of sustainable development.
the fundamental concerns facing by conservationists worldwide
are: (i) How do the urban residents understand the actual mean-
ing of Urban Ecosystem Services (UES)? (ii) How can the effects Materials and methods
of increasing urbanization on ecological and environmental Study area
change be minimized? (iii) How can ecological planning be used
to achieve a sustainable green city development? Therefore, the Chandigarh city is located in the foothills of the Shivalik range
evaluation of UES has become an essential tool to quantify the established as India’s Union Territory (UT) region serves as the
health of the urban environment and has also become a field of capital of two neighbouring states (Punjab and Haryana) as
interest for conservationists (Estoque and Murayama 2013; shown in the location map (Fig. 1). It is also known as ‘City
Ahern, Cilliers, and Niemelä 2014; Alam, Dupras, and Messier beautiful’ planned by French Architect Le Corbusier, due to its
2016; Klement et al. 2022). So practically, the evaluation of UES unique concept, modern architecture and presence of 1400
would be possible by determining the effect of land use changes greenbelts/gardens/parks. With a population of 1.055 million
on UES. (https://chandigarh.gov.in/know-chandigarh/statistics) and a
LULC changes alter the structure and functions of ecosys- decadal growth rate of 17.19%, it is the only planned city in
tems and influence the supply of ecosystem services (Kreuter India. The exact geographical coordinates of Chandigarh are
et al. 2001). However, compared to other nations, India’s LULC 30 440 1400 N and 76 470 1400 E. It covers an area of 114 km2, out of
transition pattern is more intricate and distinctive (Dutta et al. which 36 km2 is rural and 78 km2 is urban. There are 55
 Impact of land use and land cover on urban ecosystem service value | 3

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Figure 1: Study area map: (A) the Chandigarh city bordered by Panjab and Haryana states on the Indian map and (B) a satellite imagery of the study area.

residential sectors in the city. It is 321 m above sea level on av- (Universal Transverse Mercator) coordinate system. This study
erage. Chandigarh’s climate is classified as Koeppen’s Cwg applies a supervised maximum likelihood algorithm using
(Monsoon type with dry winters), which means that it has a hot ArcGIS 10.8 for the LULC classification and the identification of
summer, a cold, dry winter and a subtropical monsoon (Khaiwal corresponding biomes (Table 2).
et al. 2020). May and June are the hot, dry summer months, with
dry bulb temperatures as high as 44 C. January’s coldest month
has the mean and lowest temperatures of 23 and 3.6 C, respec- LULC classification and accuracy assessment
tively. Winters are harsh. Rainfall varies yearly from 700 to 1200 The land cover classification into different classes has been sub-
mm (Manavvi and Rajasekar 2022). Due to the JLPL (Janta Land jected to the value provided by Costanza et al. (1997). In this
Promoters Limited) industrial area, Rajiv Gandhi Technology study, LULC classification has been performed in ArcGIS soft-
Park, the UT has developed mainly in infrastructure and econ- ware (version 10.8) using Supervised Maximum Likelihood
omy. However, due to unstable urbanization and industrial Classification (SMLC). We divided the land cover of the study
growth, UT is growing and needs infrastructure progress. The area into five possible major LULC classes; water bodies, forest
city has experienced a rapid change in LULC dynamics during and vegetation, built-up, agriculture and shrubland and open
the past three decades due to population growth, economic de- spaces (Table 2). More than 30–35 spectral signatures have been
velopment, agriculture expansion and deforestation. The demo- taken for each LULC type. The signatures were taken from two
graphic limit for which the city was planned (half a million different band composites, i.e. false colour composite (FCC),
people) has already traversed the threshold (Finance Secretary used for forest and vegetation, agriculture and shrubland and
2006). open spaces. In contrast, the natural colour composite was used
for built-up and water bodies. The band combinations for FCC of
Data used Landsat 8 and Landsat 5 were bands (5, 4, 3) and (4, 3, 2), respec-
In this study, cloud-free multi-temporal Landsat 5 TM tively. Similarly, band combinations of (4, 3, 2) and (3, 2, 1) were
(Thematic Mapper) and Landsat 8 OLI (Operational Land Imager) used for Landsat 8 and Landsat 5 for natural colour composite.
data for 1990 and 2020, respectively, attained from USGS (United The Kappa coefficient is calculated for the classified images
Nations Geological Survey) have been used for LULC classifica- based on some reference points extracted from Google earth’s
tion (Table 1). First, we checked the Landsat data every month image for measuring accuracy assessment. It is one of the most
for 1990 and 2020 on USGS and then selected the satellite advanced measurements for an adequate understanding of
images of the best resolution with the least cloud cover. Each LULC classes (Ma and Redmond 1995). The Kappa coefficient
year, seven bands (high resolution) were used and processed for value ranges from 0 to 1, where 0 represents the least accuracy
geometric and radiometric correction, layer stacking, super- between real images and classified images, and the value >0.85
vised classification and accuracy assessment. Landsat data are indicates strong agreement between data sets (Monserud and
pre-georeferenced using the WGS 84 datum and the UTM Leemans 1992).
 4 | Journal of Urban Ecology, 2023, Vol. 9, No. 1

Table 1: Description of imaginary data used for LULC change in this study

Satellite images Image ID Acquisition date Resolution (m) Path/row Cloud cover (%)

Landsat 5 TM LT05_147039_19900521_20200915_02_T1 21 May 1990 30  30 147/039 7

Landsat 8 OLI LC08_147039_20201030_20201106_01_T1 30 October 2020 30  30 147/039 7

Table 2: LULC classes, equivalent biomes and their ESV coefficient (as per Costanza et al. 1997)

Equivalent biomes LULC classes Description ESV coefficient (US$ ha1 year1)

River/lakes/ponds Water bodies River, lake, pond, canal, wetland, etc. 8498
Forest Forest and vegetation A land dominated by trees (>5 m in height), with 969
canopy cover more significant than 80%

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Urban Built-up Urban areas, residential, commercial, industrial 0
areas, settlements, roads, transport and other
human-made structures
Cropland Agriculture and shrubland Cropland, pasture, orchards, groves, nurseries, 92
bushes and shrubs and other agricultural lands.
Desert Open spaces Non-vegetated areas, sand, bare lands, play- 0
grounds, etc.

Estimation of Ecosystem Services Values Ak is the area; and VCk is the value coefficient (US$ha/year) for
land use category k, respectively. VCkf is the coefficient value of
In the present study, total ecosystem services value (ESV) is calcu-
the function for land use category k in US$/ha/year.
lated using BTM, which has been used widely to evaluate the ESV
After the estimation of total ESVs in the study landscape, the
in areas where local valuations are missing (Mendoza-González
et al. 2012; Estoque and Murayama 2013; Yi et al. 2017). BTM esti- average ESVs (ESVaverage) will be computed with the help of the
mates the value of ecosystem services by examining single re- following equation:
search or a collection of studies that have already been conducted
ESVt
to evaluate related items or services in associated contexts. ESVavr ¼ (4)
Ua
According to Brookshire and Neill (1992) and Desvousges,
Naughton, and Parsons (1992), the transfer is the application of de-
where ESVavr is the average ESV (US$/ha/year), ESVt is the total
rived values and other information from the initial study site to a
ESV for a particular study year and Ua is the total geographical
policy location. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) use in
area of the urban ecosystem (ha).
BTM is a recent trend (Troy and Wilson 2006). In 1997, Costanza
The change percentage in ESV is calculated using the equation:
et al. evaluated the total economic value of the planet with the
help of the BTM and divided the whole world into 17 ecosystem
ESVnext  ESVprevious
services for 16 biomes based on some previously published studies C¼  100 (5)
ESVprevious
and a few original calculations. To estimate ESVs of the global bio-
mes, the ESV coefficient for the 16 biomes was first proposed by
where C is the change percentage in ESV, ESVprevious is the ESV
Costanza et al. (1997). The biomes were used as a proxy for indi-
at the beginning of the study period, and ESVnext is the ESV at
vidual LULC categories such as urban for built-up, river/lakes/
ponds for water bodies, forest for forest and vegetation, cropland the end of the study period.
for agriculture and shrubland and desert for open spaces, respec-
tively (Fig. 2). In this study, the ESV of five LULC types was quanti- Analysis of CS
fied using the value coefficient proposed by Costanza et al. (1997) There are certain instances when the biomes we selected as
with the help of equation (1) (Table 2). Similarly, ESVf of individual
proxies for the five LULC categories do not precisely fit Costanza
land use categories was also quantified using the value coefficient
et al.’s (1997) ESV model (Table 2), which causes uncertainty in
proposed by Costanza et al. (1997) with the help of equation (3)
evaluating the ESV. Therefore, we assessed the changes in ESV
(Table 3).
in response to 50% adjustments of the ESV coefficients for each
The following equations are used to quantify total ESV (ESVt)
LULC type using sensitivity analysis (Kindu et al. 2016). The CS
and individual ESV function (ESVf), respectively:
was determined using the following formula, which was based
on the expected economic concept of elasticity (Kreuter et al.
ESVk ¼ Ak  VCk (1)
2001; Li et al. 2007; Hu et al. 2008; Cai et al. 2013).
X
ESVt ¼ Ak  VCk (2)
X ðESVj  ESVi Þ=ESVi
CS ¼ (6)
ESVf ¼ Ak  VCkf (3) ðVCjk  VCik Þ=VCik

where ESVk, ESVt and ESVf are the ESV for individual land use where CS is the coefficient of sensitivity, ESV is the estimated
categories, total ESV and individual ecosystem service function; ecosystem service value, VC is the value coefficient, i, j and k
 Impact of land use and land cover on urban ecosystem service value | 5

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Figure 2: Different categories of LULC were used in the present study.

Table 3: The values of ecosystem service value function (ESVf) per unit area for individual land use categories (US$/ha/year) (as per Costanza
et al. 1997)

Ecosystem services Subtypes Waterbody Forest and Built-up Agriculture and Open spaces
vegetation shrubland

Provisioning Food production 41 43 0 54 0

Raw material 138 0 0
0 0
Regulating Gas regulation 0 0
Climate regulation 141 0 0
Disturbance regulation 2 0 0
Water regulation 5445 2 0 0
Water supply 2117 3 0 0
Waste treatment 665 87 0 0
0 0
Supporting Soil formation 10 0 0
Erosion control 96 0 0
Nutrient cycling 361 0 0
Pollination 0 14 0
Biological control 2 0 24 0
Habitat services 0 0
Genetic resources 16 0 0
0 0
Cultural Recreation 230 66 0 0
Culture 2 0 0
Total 8498 969 92

denotes the initial, adjusted values and land use category, re- Results
spectively. Concerning CS, the estimated ESV is elastic if it is
Analysis of LULC changes
more than one (highly sensitive) and inelastic if it is lower than
one (low sensitive). Therefore, findings of the estimation of ESV The city experienced a rapid rate of urbanization in recent
are reliable when CS <1, even if the precision of VC values years. The built-up area of Chandigarh was 2386 ha in 1990,
employed as proxy biomes is low. which has increased to 4882 ha in 2020, respectively. The urban
 6 | Journal of Urban Ecology, 2023, Vol. 9, No. 1

area extended by 104.61% from 1990 to 2020. The city population decreased by 39.77%, 37.01% and 4.19%, respectively. The rapid
has also increased since 1991. According to the census in 1991, increase of built-up area is mainly due to a decrease in open
the total urban population was 642 015, which has grown to spaces followed by agricultural and shrubland and forest and
900 635 in 2001 and 1.055 million in 2011, respectively. vegetation, which declined from 2371 to 1428, 3947 to 2486 and
To calculate the dynamics of LULC changes, a change analy- 2624 to 2514 ha, respectively (Fig. 4).
sis of five LULC classes was carried out based on LULC maps of
1990 and 2020 (Fig. 3). The LULC changes in the study from 1990
Changes in total ESVs
to 2020 revealed that the area of each LULC class had changed
significantly (Table 4). In 1990, agricultural and shrubland domi- According to our estimation, the total ESV in Chandigarh was
nated the area (34.46% of the total area), followed by forest and 3.94 US$million ha1 year1 in 1990 and it has reduced to 3.84
vegetation (22.91%), built-up (20.83%), open spaces (20.71%) and US$million ha1 year1 in 2020 (Table 5). The net ESV of the
water bodies (1.07%). On the other hand, in 2020, built-up in- study area has decreased by 2.54% over the three decades due
creased abruptly and covered 42.63% of the land, whereas forest to a change in land cover composition. Among five LULC clas-
and vegetation, agriculture and shrubland and open spaces ses, forest and vegetation have covered 64.47% (1990) and

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have reduced to 21.95%, 21.70% and 12.4%, respectively. Water 63.28% (2020), corresponding to ESV of 2.54 and 2.43 US$million
cover has increased from 1.07% to 1.23% in that period. During ha1 year1, respectively. The decrease in forest and vegetation
the study period, the highest increase in land use was seen in cover by 4.33% from 1990 to 2020 resulted in the loss of ESV by
built-up, which increased by 104.61% from 1991 to 2020, fol- 0.11 US$million ha1 year1. (Table 5 and Fig. 3). Similarly, the
lowed by water bodies (14.63% increase). The LULC area of open use of agricultural lands for built-up purposes has caused an in-
spaces, agriculture and shrubland and forest and vegetation has crease in built-up cover, thereby reducing the agricultural land

Figure 3: LULC maps of the study area between 1990 and 2020.
 Impact of land use and land cover on urban ecosystem service value | 7

cover by 37.01% and has affected the ESV by the loss of 0.14 Table 6 shows the individual ESV function (ESVf). In the study
US$million ha1 year1. On the other hand, the ESV of the water area, regulating ecosystem services contributed the highest
bodies increased by 14.42% (increase in ESV by 0.15 US$million value of ecosystem services (41.34% in 1990 and 45.30% in 2020),
ha1 year1) from 1990 to 2020 due to an increase in the water followed by supporting services (35.90% in 1990 and 34.02% in
cover by 14.63%. Agriculture and shrubland have covered an ex- 2020), provisioning services (17.24% in 1990 and 15.36% in 2020)
tensive total area, but their contribution to total ESV is relatively and cultural services (4.99% in 1990 and 4.86% in 2020), respec-
low (5.32% in 1990 and 3.4% in 2020) due to the lowest coeffi- tively. The most important individual ESVf in the study area
cient value. In contrast, the coefficient value of water bodies, were nutrient cycling (0.95 US$million ha1 year1 in 1990 and
forests and vegetation is relatively higher, contributing more to US$million ha1 year1 in 2020), followed by water regulation
the total ESV. So, in the study area, water bodies, forests and (0.67 US$million ha1 year1 in 1990 and 0.77 US$million
vegetation are the vital ecosystem services provider, accounting ha1 year1 in 2020), climate regulation (0.37 US$million
ha1 year1 in 1990 and 0.35 US$million ha1 year1 in 2020), the
for about 94.27% of the total ESVs.
raw material (0.36 US$million ha1 year1 in 1990 and 0.35
US$million ha1 year1 in 2020), respectively. Notably, most of

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Changes in ESV functions the ESVf decreased during 1990–2020 except for water regulation
We assessed the changes in the ESV function (ESVf) with the and water supply, which increased by 14.92% and 11.11%, re-
spectively. ESV of biological control declines more rapidly than
help of coefficients proposed by Costanza et al. (1997) (Table 3).
other ecosystem services (32.63%), followed by pollination
services (32%) and food production (24.24%). Also, some serv-
Table 4: LULC changes in the study area (1990–2020)
ices whose ESV did not change during the entire period include
LULC classes Area (ha) Changes in the area (%) disturbance regulation, waste treatment, genetic resources, and
culture services. Hence, each ESVf varied during the study pe-
1990 2020 1990–2020 riod (Fig. 5).
Water bodies 123 141 14.63
Forest and vegetation 2624 2514 4.19 Ecosystem services CS
Built-up 2386 4882 104.61
To check accuracy of the study analysis, the CS was confirmed.
Agriculture and shrubland 3947 2486 37.01
The sensitivity of ESV to changes in value coefficients must be
Open spaces 2371 1428 39.77
relatively low, which means that CS must be smaller than one
Total 11 451 11 451 –
in equation (6) (Kreuter et al. 2001). After a 50% adjustment, the
Overall kappa coefficient and accuracy assessment for 1990 and 2020 are 0.78,
changes in the estimated total ESV and the CS show that the to-
0.80 and 82%, 84%, respectively. tal ESV of the study has been found inelastic. CS ranged from
0.091 to 0.64 (1990) and 0.062 to 0.63 (2020) and the entire ESVs

Figure 4: The percentage of LULC area and ecosystem services values of different land-use types.
 8 | Journal of Urban Ecology, 2023, Vol. 9, No. 1

Table 5: Ecosystem services values of Chandigarh city from 1990 to 2020

LULC classes ESV (US$ million ha1 year1) ESV changes (US$ million ha1
year1)
1990 2020 1990–2020

Water bodies 1.04 1.19 0.15 (14.42%)

Forest and vegetation 2.54 2.43 0.11(4.33%)
Built-up 0 0 0
Agriculture and shrubland 0.36 0.22 0.14 (38.8%)
Open spaces 0 0 0
Total 3.94 3.84 0.10 (2.54%)

Figures in the brackets represent a percentage of change.

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Table 6: Estimated values of different ecosystem service value functions in Chandigarh city from 1990 to 2020

Ecosystem services Sub-types ESVf (US$ million ha–1 year–1) ESVf change ESVf change (%)

1990 2020

Provisioning Food production 0.33 0.25 0.08 24.24

Raw material 0.36 0.35 0.01 2.77
Regulating Gas regulation 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Climate regulation 0.37 0.35 0.02 5.4
Disturbance regulation 0.005 0.005 0.00 0.00
Water regulation 0.67 0.77 0.10 14.92
Water supply 0.27 0.30 0.03 11.11
Waste treatment 0.31 0.31 0.00 0.00
Supporting Soil formation 0.026 0.025 0.001 3.84
Erosion control 0.25 0.24 0.01 4
Nutrient cycling 0.95 0.90 0.05 5.26
Pollination 0.05 0.034 0.016 32
Biological control 0.095 0.064 0.031 32.63
Habitat services 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Genetic resources 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.00
Cultural Recreation 0.2 0.19 0.01 5
Culture 0.005 0.005 0.00 0.00
Total 3.93 3.83

ranged from 0.045% to 0.32% (1990) and 0.031% to 0.32%, respec- of 0.26 US$million ha1 year1 from 1990 to 2017. Li et al. (2019)
tively (Table 7). The relatively highest value of the CS of forest conducted a comparative investigation in Central Asia. They ob-
and vegetation indicates that more attention is needed when served that the ESV of Karakalpakistan, Uzbekistan declined
evaluating the value coefficient compared to other land use 31.08%, with a total loss of 17.36 billion US$, mainly caused by
classes. In this study, the value of CS is less than one for all land the shrinking of water bodies. The present study also reveals
use classes, indicating that the estimated total ESVs are inelas- the decline of ESVs from 3.94 to 3.84 US$million ha1 year1
tic in relation to the ESV coefficient. Hence, the ESV estimation from 1990 to 2020, respectively, as a result of forest and agricul-
is considered reasonable and robust. ture ecosystems (Table 5). The contribution of individual ESV
functions in the study area also changed. The regulating ecosys-
tem services contributed the highest value of ecosystem serv-
DISCUSSION ices (41.34% in 1990 and 45.30% in 2020), followed by supporting
Impact of LULC on ESVs assessment services (35.90% in 1990 and 34.02% in 2020). Another study pub-
lished by He et al. (2021) in ‘Nature’ on spatial-temporal patterns
The literature survey indicates that no research has been con- and the driving force of ESV in the urban area of Guangzhou,
ducted in the study area regarding the impact of LULC on urban China. The findings indicated that there had been considerable
ESVs. This study reveals significant ESV changes during the changes in LULC in Guangzhou’s main metropolitan region be-
study period. Significant positive changes have been examined tween 1987 and 2017, with the large-scale expansion of the
in ESV functions, such as water regulation and water supply, built-up area, which happened through the deterioration of the
which are the dominant contributors. The entire study from forest and cultivated land. ESVs declined by 1.16 billion yuan
1990 to 2020 revealed that the total ESVs have altered due to the (20.61%) between 1987 and 2017. The four main ecosystem serv-
LULC changes. Primarily, ESVs declined over the past 30 years ices that had an impact on all ESVs were gas management, food
when the value coefficient of Costanza et al. (1997) was applied. production, nutrient cycling and water supply. According to a
The previous study also examined the effect of LULC on corre- study by Blumstein and Thompson (2015), increased urbaniza-
sponding ESVs. Das and Das (2019) surveyed a medium-sized tion resulted in a declination of WS (water supply) and FR (flood
town in West Bengal, Eastern India, and estimated a total loss regulation) in Massachusetts, USA, between 2001 and 2011. In
 Impact of land use and land cover on urban ecosystem service value | 9

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Figure 5: Change rate in ecosystem service value function from 1990 to 2020.

Table 7: Total ecosystem service values and sensitivity coefficient changes after adjusting value coefficients in the study area from 1990 to
2020

Adjusted VC Adjusted ESV Change (1990–2020) Effect of changing VC from the original value

1990 2020 1990 2020

ESV% CS ESV% CS

Water bodies þ 50% 1.57 1.89 0.32 6 0.13 6 0.26 6 0.18 6 0.36
Water bodies  50% 0.52 0.69 0.17
Forest and vegetation þ 50% 3.81 3.65 0.16 6 0.32 6 0.64 6 0.32 6 0.63
Forest and vegetation  50% 1.27 1.21 0.06
Agriculture and shrubland þ 50% 0.54 0.34 0.2 6 0.045 6 0.091 6 0.031 6 0.062
Agriculture and shrubland  50% 0.18 0.11 0.07

another study by Wu et al. (2013) from China on LULC changes 1.89% and 0.37–0.87% from 2013 to 2040, respectively. A study
and their relationship to socioeconomic development in the on LULC changes and their relationship with socioeconomic de-
Hangzhou Metropolitan Area (HMA) between 1978 and 2008, it velopment in the HMA from 1978 to 2008 revealed that one of
was shown that the growth of built-up areas (169.85%) is one of the major causes of declining regional ES functions is the ex-
the main factors contributing to the decline of regional ES pansion of built-up (169.85%) (decreased by 24.04%).
functions. Therefore, rapid urbanization may result in the loss of eco-
The loss of ecosystem services due to urbanization is a system services because urban expansion (especially in devel-
worldwide problem, not a local one. Therefore, several studies oping countries like India) would acquire surrounding forest
have been conducted worldwide, and their findings suggest that cover and agricultural land, which supply various ecosystem
urbanization has resulted in the loss of ecosystem services such services. So, in this framework, effective and eco-friendly plan-
as regulating, supporting and provisioning services (Table 8). ning and regulations are required for long-term urban growth to
Zhang et al. (2017) observed the impact of urban expansion on provide sustainable ecosystem services.
ESs in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) urban agglomeration in
China from 2013 to 2040 with the help of the Land Use Scenario
Dynamics-urban (LUSD-urban) model. They found that the
Limitations of the study and future research prospect
value of food production, carbon storage, water retention and There are some uncertainties and limitations in the assessment
air purification will decrease by 1.34–3.16%, 0.68–1.60%, 0.80– of ESV. The BTM we used in the present study has some
 10 | Journal of Urban Ecology, 2023, Vol. 9, No. 1

Table 8: Some previous studies on the declination of ESs due to urbanization

Research site Research period Declination of ESs References

Delhi, India 1998–2018 Nutrient cycling, climate regula- Sharma et al. (2020)
tion, raw materials, food pro-
duction and erosion control
Kolkata Urban Agglomeration 1990–2020 Soil formation, pollination, bio- Das et al. (2022)
(KUA), India logical control
Shanghai, China 2000–20 Hydrological services and biodi- Gong et al. (2022)
versity services
Benin, West Africa 2010–20 biological control, nutrient cy- Tiando et al. (2021)
cling, soil formation, water
supply, waste treatment
Dhaka, Bangladesh 2015–20 Water supply, waste treatment, Rahman and Szabó (2021)

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disturbance regulation
Jakarta, Indonesia 1995–2014 Carbon sequestration, tempera- Maheng, Pathirana, and
ture regulation, runoff Zevenbergen (2021)
regulation

limitations. This method assumes the homogeneity of ESV with 104.6% from 1990 to 2020. The change in urban ESVs indicates
no change in LULC classes. However, the variability and com- that urban expansion directly influenced total ESVs and individ-
plexity of human-environmental systems can eventually cause ual ecosystem services in the city of Chandigarh. Due to the
errors through value transfer and generalization (Song and rapid extension of the urban area, forest cover and agricultural
Deng 2017). This is one of the limitations of the study. Likewise, land declined, which are significant contributors to ESs. Over
Costanza et al. in 2014 estimated that cropland ecosystem serv- the last 30 years, results show that the total area of forest and
ices provided $5567/ha in 2011. However, these researchers pro- vegetation, agriculture and shrubland declined by 4.19% and
vide a common value coefficient for all nations of the world, 37.01%, respectively. In the study, total ESVs (ESVt) decreased
irrespective of having different types of cropland and have of- from 3.94 to 3.84 US$million ha1 year1 from 1990 to 2020.
fered various ecosystem services and functions (Zheng, Zhang, Individual ESVs also changed due to converting agricultural, for-
and Cao 2018). est and open spaces into built-up from 1990 to 2020. Water regu-
As we mentioned, according to the literature survey, there is lation and water supply are the top ecosystem services in
no research conducted in this study area on the impact of LULC service value. Hence, in the study area, continuous expansion of
on ESV. That’s why we divided the city into five LULC classes the urban regions leads to declining ecosystem services due to
according to our and Costanza et al. (1997) estimation, as the area the degradation of natural cover.
of the city is only 114 km2 covers water, forest, agriculture and Being a planned city and having good management of green
some open areas. Therefore, We will do further study to critically and blue spaces, there is a lack of balance between economic
assess and enhance monetary valuation methods to advance sus- development and ecosystem health due to urban expansion. In
tainable land management. Ecosystem services valuation has be- conclusion, ecological planning should focus more on integrat-
come a focus of research in ecology and economics ever since ing urban green infrastructure planning into local and central
Costanza et al. (1997) determined the value of global ecosystem government. In this direction, policymakers should implement
services (Bateman et al. 2013). Benayas et al. (2009) discovered that a reasonable land-use policy that protects all the urban blue
most researchers excluded the value of cost when determining and green spaces with high ESV. Local stakeholders should also
the value of ecosystem services, which could have overestimated understand the importance of individual ESs to balance socio-
the value of natural ecosystem services. This might mislead the economic development and ecosystem function. Furthermore,
planners by ignoring the true cost of the service. Cao et al. (2018) we suggest that anthropogenic activities be considered, which
studied the difference between value of ecosystem services (VES) can have irreversible impacts on ecosystem services.
and net value after accounting for costs (NES) and found when
costs are applied (cost for water resources, investments in ecologi- Acknowledgements
cal conservation, land rent, management to prevent natural disas-
ters), NES values decrease of 36.4%, 114.9%, 52.7% and 70.6% for The authors are grateful to the Chairperson, Department of
wetland, grassland, farmland and forest ecosystems, respectively, Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh, for providing all
from the corresponding VES values. This creates a large gap be- necessary facilities required for work. The first author is
tween the estimated cost and the actual cost of the service. thankful to the University Grants Commission, Government
Therefore, there is an urgent need to create a framework that can of India, New Delhi, for the financial support of the Junior
calculate the actual net worth of ecosystem services needed to al- Research Fellowship [UGC Ref. No.: 453/(CSIR-UGC NET DEC.
locate resources reasonably. 2018)]. The second is supported by the Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research, New Delhi, Government of India, in
Junior Research Fellowship (09/135(0884)/2019-EMR-I).
Conclusion and implications of land use
management in future
Author contributions
The study dealt with the impact of LULC on ecosystem services
from 1990 to 2020 by using remote sensing and GIS approaches. Sheenu Sharma (Conceptualization [equal], Data curation
The urbanization level in the study area has increased by [equal], Formal analysis [lead], Funding acquisition [equal],
 Impact of land use and land cover on urban ecosystem service value | 11

Methodology [equal], Resources [equal], Software [equal], Cumming, G. S. et al. (2014) ‘Implications of Agricultural
Visualization [equal], Writing—original draft [lead]), Sabir Transitions and Urbanization for Ecosystem Services’, Nature,
Hussain (Conceptualization [equal], Data curation [equal], 515: 50–7.
Funding acquisition [equal], Methodology [equal], Resources Das, M., and Das, A. (2019) ‘Dynamics of Urbanization and Its
[equal], Software [equal], Writing—original draft [equal]) Impact on Urban Ecosystem Services (UESs): A Study of a
Medium Size Town of West Bengal, Eastern India’, Journal of
and Anand Narain Singh (Conceptualization [equal],
Urban Management, 8: 420–34.
Investigation [equal], Project administration [lead],
Das, S. et al. (2022) ‘Effect of Urbanization on the Dynamics of
Supervision [lead], Validation [equal], Visualization [equal],
Ecosystem Services: An Analysis for Decision Making in
Writing—review & editing [equal])
Kolkata Urban Agglomeration’, Urban Ecosystems, 25: 1541–59.
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