THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CLASSROOM

ENVIRONMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF

PUPILS IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE PRIMARY SCHOOLS
IN YALA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF CROSS RIVER
STATE

BY

EDET, JOY JOSHUA

REG. NO. 11/CIT/346

SUBMITTED TO
DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTIONAL
TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF EDUCATION
CROSS RIVER UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
(CRUTECH) CALABAR – NIGERIA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELORS OF SCIENCE IN
EDUCATION
(B.ED) DEGREE IN BUSINESS EDUCATION

MAY, 2016

1
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project work entitled “The

Relationship between classroom environment and Academic

achievement of pupils in public and private primary school in

Yala Local Government Area, Cross River State” was carried

out by Edet, Joy Joshua with the Reg. No. 11/CIT/346 and

supervised by

Signature:------------------------------
PROF. KOKO EKPO
Project Supervisor

Date:------------------------------------

2
 DEDICATION

This research works is dedicated to the Almighty God

whose steadfast love and abundant grace has seen me

through this programme. To my father Mr. Joshua Edet for

his moral and spiritual support to My mother Mrs. Margaret

Joshua for her moral support to my second mother Mrs.

Bima Joshua for her advice to my closest friend Mr. James

Ikpi and my brothers and sisters who in one way or the

other supported me throughout my programme, my God

bless you all.

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Nothing else is permanent except change. It was a long

walk, remembering the years before and after admission.

Through the deepest valley, the harsh desert, the torrential

rain and the hot blazing sun, God the almighty! Without

haste my unalloyed gratitude to you the meritorious creator,

who made all things possible through his boundless mercies,

love and grace.

It may not have been possible if not for the love

concern, support, encouragement and constructive criticism

of the following persons that gave me the strength and

enablement.

My deepest appreciation goes to my able supervisor

who former Dean of faculty of education is now the Prof.

Koko Ekpo, who gave ready attention and took time to read

this work in between lines. Dr. Akpan and Dr. Amimi my

lecturers are not forgotten. This appreciation is also

4
extended to Dr. Ntino my academic adviser for listening to

the plight of even strangers.

I acknowledge my beloved parents Mr. & Mrs. Joshua

Edet and my fiancé Mr. James Ikpi moral, financial support

and for putting me in the circumstance that made me so

proud today.

I whole hearted appreciate my admirable friends for

their magnificent standard, Lovina Austine, Godson, Womi

Ibor in the same vain my gratitude goes to Mrs. Agnes Ata,

Mr. Jerome Egberi, Mr. Ekpe Ibom, GOC.

Also not forgetting to thank my computer operator

Enora Computers for doing a neat job on this project and to

all that contributed in any way both financially and morally

towards my academic I am absolutely grateful and I pray

God to reward you all.

5
 ABSTRACT

The study was undertaken to ascertain the influence of

some aspects of classroom environmental factors on
academic achievement of pupils in public and private
nursery/primary schools in Yala Local Government Area of
Cross River State. The study was guided by four research
questions. Also, five hypotheses were tested at .05 level of
significance. The research design is descriptive survey while
the population for the study was all primary six pupils in
public and primary six pupils in public and private primary
schools in Yala. This was selected through the stratified
random sample technique. Hence, the sample was 280
pupils (140 from public primary schools and 140 from
private schools). Data were collected using “Pupils’
Questionnaire on classroom environmental factors” (PQCEF).
The data collected were analyzed using the independent t-
test. The findings indicate that there exist significant
influences of seating position on pupils academic
achievement, learning resources significantly influences
pupils academic achievement, exposure to kindergarten
education significantly influenced pupils academic
achievement, satisfaction with teachers teaching abilities
significantly influenced pupils academic achievement, and
pupils taught by extroverted teachers performed significantly
better in academic than those taught by introverted
teachers. It was concluded that a better classroom
environment be ensured for maximum academic
achievement. Based on the findings it was recommends that
individuals, government and philanthropic organizations
provide functional facilities for good classroom environment;
kindergarten education be made available and seating
arrangement in the classroom should be rotated among
learners.

6
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE - - - - - - - - -
CERTIFICATION - - - - - - - - -
DEDICATION - - - - - - - - -
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT - - - - - - - -
ABSTRACT - - - - - - - - - -
TABLE OF CONTENT - - - - - - - -
LIST OF TABLE - - - - - - - - -

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the problem - - - - - -
1.2 Purpose of the study - - - - - - -
1.3 Statement of Problem- - - - - - -
1.4 Research Questions - - - - - - -
1.5 Statement of Hypotheses - - - - - -
1.6 Significance of the study - - - - - -
1.7 Assumptions - - - - - - - -
1.8 Limitation and Delimitation of the Study - - -
1.9 Definition of terms - - - - - - -

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Studies Related to Academic Achievement - - -
2.2 Studies Related to Parental Encouragement - -

7
2.3 Studies Related to Achievement Motivation - -
2.4 Studies Related to Intelligence - - - - -
2.5.1 Academic Achievement - - - - -
2.5.2 Parental Encouragement - - - - - -
2.5.3 Overview - - - - - - - - -
2.5.4 Achievement Motivation - - - - - -

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design - - - - - - -
3.2 Population of the Study - - - - - -
3.3 Sampling Procedure - - - - - - -
3.4 The Sample - - - - - - - -
3.5 Instrument for Data Collection - - - - -
3.6 Procedure for Data Collection - - - - -
3.7 Scoring Of the Instrument - - - - - -
3.8 Procedure for Testing Of Hypotheses - - - -

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS INTERPRETATION OF

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
4.1 Data Analysis - - - - - - - -
4.2 Hypotheses by Hypotheses Testing and
Interpretation of Results - - - - - -
4.2.1 Hypotheses One - - - - - - -
4.2.2 Hypotheses Two - - - - - - -

8
4.2.3 Hypotheses Three - - - - - - -
4.2.4 Hypotheses Four - - - - - -
4.2.5 Hypotheses Five - - - - - -
4.3 Summary of Finding - - - - - -
4.4 Discussion of Finding - - - - - -

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary of the Study - - - - - -
5.2 Conclusions - - - - - - - -
5.3 Recommendations - - - - - - -
References - - - - - - - -

9
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the problem

The management of human and material resource is

germane to the achievement of education goals

opportunities and services. Therefore the managements of

the learning environment can make or man personal

behaviours towards learning.

Again, educationist have recognized that education is

one of the major needs of human life and through it, man

can adjust to changes in the society as well as cope with

personal and social problem. In fact, this is why

educationists are consistently concerned with the

establishment of good rapport with children for their

development and utilization of their innate tendencies to

enhance satisfaction in classroom activities. This is so

because the satisfaction or otherwise of children in the

education process has crucial effect on the personal

10
perception of his/her environment and his/her performance

in learning.

The need for education by man and their corresponding

guest for satisfactory performance during the transient stage

of life in school has been emphasized to be important form

early childhood in this respect scholars like Fafunwa (1975)

and Mallum (1989) have stresses that early forms of formal

education (from nursery or kindergarten to primary stages)

are necessary for healthy, education development of the

child especially as it serves as the foundation stage of

education development of the child especially as it serves as

it stage of education development of the child Mallum (1988)

further said that the crucial natural of this stage of

education has been recognized in the Nigerian education

system hence, its inclusion in the national policy on

education (NPE, 2004) however it is gleanable from the

policy that the operation of nursery education has been left

to be run mostly by private individual/organization while the

11
primary education is run both public (government) and

private (individual/ organizations). The consequence of this

difference in managerial control is the variations in the

learning readiness of children who are found in the primary

classrooms of the two are district schools. Recognizing the

heavy financial demands on the pupils in business education,

it was contented that it has discriminated agencies child rent

from the relatively peasant (low income/groups) who cannot

afford the exorbitant fees charged by the private school the

children who are in public primary schools may tend to be

slightly disadvantage in term of learning readiness at the

point of entry than those from private school the argument

for the operation of school highlight the need for the

provision of a better more qualitative education using a

better richer and well manage human and material resources

to further educational goals.

In third world countries where such facilities are lacking

from government patronage in schools, the private

12
organization provided them at extra financial cost this

resulted in the variation.

1.2 Purpose of the study

The general goal or purpose of the study was to assess

how academic performance and some aspects of the

classroom environment affect the academic achievement of

students in Business studies. It also aimed at:

a) Finding out the influence of learning resources on

academic achievement of students in business studies

b) Finding out the influence seating position of pupils

affect academic achievement.

c) Finding out whether exposure to kindergarten

education influences academic performance of students.

1.3 Statement of Problem

In any formal organization the effectiveness of its

management is a crucial factor in realizing efficiently the

goals desired by its such effectiveness in leadership results

from the appropriateness in leadership results from the

13
appropriateness of learning, supervision and co-ordination of

available human and materials resources provided to meet

the organizational goals. It is the quest to ensure that the

process is away on course that constant evaluation is

necessary.

In the educational set up the classroom environment

constitutes the workshop where teaching and leading takes

places. The level of productivity derived therefore is

contingent apart the appropriateness of the input into the

teaching learning process, which the management has

brought to bear on teacher and public respectively.

To counteract this trend higher financial input into the

educational setting and effective management were

recommended. Academic achievement can be described as

the realization of the stipulated educational goals. It is as a

consequence of those factors and influence within and

outside the schools environment. An individual is said to

14
contribute to the degree of this achievement by the level of

his/her interaction with the environment.

In the classroom seats are arranged for the pupils to

sit. Seating position can be described as arrangement of

seats are the way pupils sit. Taking cognizance of the

variation in the classroom space and size between private

and primary schools, seating position may become a factor

affecting pupils academic achievement resulting from the

variable in students proximity to their teachers. It may

follow that pupils who sit closer to the teacher may stand at

who sit further from the teacher.

1.4 Research Questions

Based on the statement of the problem and the purpose of

this study, the following research question were raised:-

a) To what extent does seating position in the classroom

affect students academic performance?

15
b) To what extent does the level of availability of learning

resource in the classroom influence academic

achievement of students?

c) Does students perception of the personality of their

teachers affect their academic performance?

d) Do students who pass through the nursery

kindergarten schools perform academically better in

their primary schools education than those who did not

pass though the nursery school?

1.5 Statement of Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were formulated to be

tested in this study:

i) Pupils whose seating position is nearer to the teachers

perform significantly better in academic than those

whose seating position is father away from the teacher.

ii) Pupils who have adequate learning resources in their

schools do not perform significantly better in academic

16
 than those who have inadequate learning resources in

their schools.

iii) Student who pass through the kindergarten classes in

the private nursery primary school do not perform

significantly better academically than those in public

primary schools who did not have kindergarten

education.

iv) Student who are satisfied with their teacher teaching

ability do not perform significantly better in academic

than those who are not satisfied with their teacher

teaching ability.

1.6 Significance of the study

The study would be of benefit in the following ways.

There is a dearth of research literature achievement of

study especially at the primary level of education.

It would be beneficial to educational administrator and

curriculum planners who will be better informed about the

effect of learning environment on academic achievement.

17
 Teacher and counselors who implement the curriculum

and guide students toward effective realization of

educational goals would also benefit from the study.

1.7 Assumptions

The following assumptions were made in the course of

this study.

i) The average academic achievement scores of students

used for this study is reliable and valid.

ii) The curriculum and scheme of work use by both private

and public school at primary school level is the same.

iii) Student used in the study are educable and have

similar level of respectability of learning.

iv) The sample used for the study is a true presentation of

the entire population of student in business studies.

v) Student perception of their teacher in the two types of

school on personality and competence level is the

same.

18
1.8 Limitation and Delimitation of the Study

The study area was limited to Yala Local Government

Area of Cross River State due to manageability of data,

limited financial resource and time factor, student seating

position was based on researchers categorization of pupils

into those occupation front middle and back rows for

instructional purpose such categorization of pupils into those

occupying front, middle and back rows may constitute a

limitation to this study since it is difficult to find all the

classrooms having same spatial distribution.

1.9 Definition of terms

The following terms operation defined

i) Academic achievement refers to the amount of

internalized body of knowledge after being exposed to

a given syllabus in the school. It is determined by the

average scores of students in all subject areas.

ii) Classroom is a room where group of pupils or students

are taught by a teacher in a school, learning resource

19
 means all human, natural and artificial materials

designed and used to enhance learning.

iii) Teacher personally means the ways students perceive

their teacher overall appearance in manipulating the

learning. It is classified into extrovert and introvert

tendencies.

20
 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Educational achievement of students demands urgent

attention to attain their goals. A numerous researcher have

been conducted to contribute to determine the predictors of

educational success of business education students.

A research work always takes the advantages of the

information and the knowledge that had been accumulated

in the pass as a result of constant research endeavours by

mankind. According to Koul (2009) research can never be

undertaken in the isolation of the work that has already been

done on the problem related to the study propose by any

researcher. Every research reviewed the related literature

from the different resources that includes research journal,

articles, books, magazines, encyclopedias, dissertation,

international year books, these and most important in the

present era the internet access. The detailed account of

review of related literature pertaining to variables under

21
study namely academic achievement, parental

encouragement, achievement motivation and intelligence is

presented.

2.1 Studies Related to Academic Achievement

John in 1977 conducted a student non-intellectual

factors and their influence on academic achievement. The

sample comprised of 180 student of sixth to ninth class

studying in community secondary school in Yala Local

Government Area.

Saini 1977 undertook a study on academic

achievement as a function of economic achievement as a

function of economic status and educational standard of

parents. The sample consisted of 196 students from four

schools in Yala Local Government Area. The finding revealed

that educational standard of parents had significant effect on

the academic achievement of business studies students at

the school level.

22
 Ojong Peter 1983 conducted a study on reading ability

in relation to some cognitive and non-cognitive factors. The

sample constituted 200 male and female students

selected randomly from the community secondary school,

Yala local government area by administering reading ability

test to the sample. The result of the study indicated that

female students had better reading ability and higher

academic achievement than male students.

Baker and David 1986 recognized mother strategies for

children school achievement. The investigator collected data

from heterogeneous sample of mother of eight grades

through interview schedule.

The results also indicated that parents actively manage

their children school career in a way that could have direct

consequences for their children academic achievement.

Mother education levels were found to influence academic

achievement of the students through parental involvement

parental encouragement.

23
 Deary 2004 conducted a longitudinal student to

examine the association between psychometric intelligence

and education achievement. The sample comprising of

30,000 schools in Yala local government area participated in

the study academic achievement was taken as the scores

obtained by student in national public examination. The

result shown gender difference in academic achievement.

The finding indicated that the girls performed better than the

boys.

Sunitha 2005 studied academic learning environment

of student from aided and unaided co-educational school the

sample of 240 students was collected from administering

home learning environment scale developed by the

researcher and academic achievement was taken as average

percentage mark of the previous year and two semester of

the current year of the student. The results revealed no

significant different in academic achievement of boys and

girls parental education was also found to have significant

24
and positive relationship with academic achievement of the

student.

2.2 Studies Related to Parental Encouragement

Math in 1980 carried out a study to determine the

relationship between academic achievements with family

size. The sample comprised of 300 students consisted 149

boy and 151 girls studying business studies in JSS 3 class of

secondary schools in Yala Local Government Area. The

result revealed that the relationship between academic

achievement and family size was significant and negative.

Sharma and Shah 1984 conducted a study to

investigate the effect of family climate on students academic

achievement. Data was collected by administering family

climate scale to the sample of 200 children consisting 118

boy and 82 girl of JSS 3 class from the school of Yala local

government area. The result revealed that family

environment was significantly and positively related with

academic achievement of the students.

25
Kazmi 2011 conducted the study to evaluate the impact of

father style of dealing with their children at home and their

children at home and their academic achievement at school.

the sample of the study consisted of 300 students 399 father

and 20 teachers where draw randomly. The indigenously

designed questionnaire was used to collect the data and

academic achievement was taken from classroom records.

The result of this study revealed father involvement had

positive significant relationship with academic achievement

for the academic achievements.

Therefore it can be summed up that home environment

including parental encouragement involvement parental

interest, behaviours, parental aspirations, parenting skills

and parenting styles have direct influence on the academic

achievement of the students. Parenting styles are found to

be more important that influence significantly the

educational achievement of the students. Educated parents

provide conductive home environment that entails parent

26
encouragement that proves to be catalyst in boosting and

maintaining achievement motivation among the students

that in turn influence their academic achievement.

2.3 Studies Related to Achievement Motivation

Jerry 1990 conducted a comparative study of some

educational variable of students of private and government

school. the sample comprised of 1340 students the number

from government schools being 709 and from private school

being 631 from three districts of Karnataka. The results of

the study reported that achievement motivation had no

significant relationship with academic achievement.

Wong and Mihaly 1990 explored the effect of

personality and the quality of experience on motivation and

academic achievement. A sample of 170 school student

consisting 68 male and 102 female students completed the

personality research forum and their experiences were

recorded through experience sampling method. The result

indicated that intrinsic motivation had positive relationship

27
with academic achievement. Studied factors related to

children intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientation and

academic performance. Data were collected from 93 grade

students and their parent from Florida. Achievement score

were obtained from school records extrinsic rewards and

over and Baker and David 1986 recognized mother

strategies for children school achievement. The investigator

collected data from heterogeneous sample of mothers of

eighth graders through interview schedule. The finding of

study showed that mothers encouragement had positive

impact on the academic achievement of the students. The

result also indicated their children school career in a way

that could have direct consequences for their children

academic achievement. The number and types of parental

encouragement strategies suggested by the mothers were

found to be same hence there might be some standard

parental encouragement strategies. Mother encouragement

28
was also found to have positive influence on the academic

performance of the students.

Singh 1986 studied the relationship between socio-

economic and business studies status and perception of

parental behaviour by students. The sample was comprised

of 90 boys and girls of JSS 3 in Yala local government area

data was collected through parent child relation

questionnaire and self-administering test of mental ability to

check parental behaviour and intellectual ability of the

students respectively. The finding indicated that the

dimensions of parental behaviours such as love rejection,

protection and discipline were significantly related with

intellectual ability of the boys only.

Nommay 1998 investigated the effect of family

structure on intelligence and academic achievement the

analyzed 45 studies for the last 15 year and summarized

role in parental education and encouragement were found to

contribute to the cognitive development of the students.

29
Family constellation was appeared to have greater impact on

verbal than non-verbal intelligence.

Sternberg 1992 studied the impact of parenting on

adolescent achievement on a heterogeneous sample of

approximately 300 Yala 14-18 year old student. He

concluded that authoritative parenting lead to better school

performance and stronger cognitive engagement among the

adolescents. Parental encouragement is much more likely to

promote adolescents school success when it occurred in the

context of an authoritative home environment. Authoritative

home environment related positively to the achievement of

students. Under controlling family styles were found to be

related with extrinsic motivation and lower academic

achievement of the students. On the other hand parental

encouragement was associated with intrinsic motivation of

the students.

30
2.4 Studies Related to Intelligence

Worland 1984 carried out a study on intelligence,

classroom behaviours and academic achievement in children

at high and low risk for psychopathology through a structural

equation analysis. The sample included 158 students and

their parents from Yala local government area. The results

indicated that intelligence mediated the influence of parental

psychopathology on academic achievement of the students.

Nommay 1988 recognized the effects of family

structure on intelligence and academic achievement. The

analyzed 45 studies from the last 15 years and summarized

the results as that parental education and encouragement

found to contribute to the cognitive development of their

children. Family constellation was appeared to have greater

impact on verbal than non- verbal intelligence. The result

also indicated that intelligence had positive and significant

relationship with academic achievement. Studied the effect

of home environment on cognitive ability of adolescent

31
children. The sample comprised of 160 children studying in

JSS2 and 3 classes of Yala the result indicated significant

effect of home environment on verbal and non-verbal

intelligence of only male pre-adolescent children. Studied

association of personal and non-cognitive with academic

achievement of African Nigeria. The researcher concluded

through a synthesis of 13 studies that the academic

achievement of undergraduate Africa Nigeria males is highly

associated with personal adnoun-cognitive variables. The

finding indicated that emotional intelligence had a positive

relationship with academic of African Undergraduate males

investigated intellectual ability learning style, personality and

achievement motivation as a predictor of academic success

in higher education in the sample 409 first year psychology

students of Yala were included for the purpose. The result

confirmed that intellectual ability was associated positively

with academic success of the students.

32
 Petrides 2002 studied the role of trait intelligence in

academic in academic performance and deviant behavior at

school on a sample of 650 pupils in secondary education.

The result demonstrated that emotional intelligence was

related to scholastic achievement.

Desmedt 2003 investigated pre-academic and early

academic achievement performance achievement in children

with Valocardio facial syndrome of borderline or average

intelligence in the 13 children from primary school were

tested on reading, spelling. No difference intelligence and

academic achievement were found between the children with

cordial defects ad children with average intelligence while

conducive a study on intelligence as predictors of medical

carrier among the doctors through 20 years prospective

study. Data were gathered among the doctors through 511

doctors who entered west-ministered medical school aas

clinical student. The result indicated intelligence did not

33
independently predict the career outcome or academic

achievement.

Memanus 2003 conducted as study on intelligence as

predictors of medical career among the doctors through 20

years prospective study data were gather.

James Murray 2003 examined cognitive academic and

attitudinal predictors of college grade point average among

college’s student with learning disabilities. The sample

included 84 youth who were attending a large private

university in the Midwestern measures of cognitive and

academic functioning were used to predict college

achievement the result indicated that full scale intelligence

accounted for a significant amount of variables other than

traditional cognitive and academic skill were important for

determining.

Muller (1998) conducted a study on gender differences

in parental involvement and adolescent achievement of

13,881 student of 8 12 class. The relationship between

34
parent involvement and achievement was similar for girls

and boys but diminished over the times of senior classes.

That also revealed that the parent involvement was

significantly related to achievement the initial year of the

student.

Patrick and Kim (1998) studies parenting style

motivation orientation and self perceive academic

competence of high school student. The sample comprised of

404 students of class 8 and 9. The result meditational model

demonstrated that family plays a significant role in

educational outcomes. Authoritative parenting had positive

significant relationship with educational success of student.

2.5 Overview

The review of related literature provides a picture

reflecting on achievement motivation, parental

encouragement, achievement motivation and intelligence.

The review of related literature pertaining to the variable

35
under investigation provides certain indication as under of

children.

2.5.1 Academic Achievement

Difference researchers found significant in academic

achievement of male and female student (Aggarwal, 1983,

Khare and Gerewal 1996, Muller 1998, Josi 2000, Devi and

Mayuri 2003, Deary et al 2004, Bruni 2006, Tella 2007,

Leeson 2008, Elizabeth 2009, Chaturued 2009, Umunadi

2009, Garilcal 2010, Sarsan and Ravi 2010, Agthana 2001).

2.5.2 Parental Encouragement

Difference researchers focused on parental

encouragement and found positive and significant

relationship with academic outcome of their children (Baker

and David 1986, Bank et al 1990, Astone and Sara 1991,

Shah 1993, Aggerwal 1997, Siana 1998, Sacker et al 2002,

Codjole 2007, Murphy 2009, whereas Signh et al 1995,

Muller 1998, Muneal 1999, Izzo et al, Yan 1999, Knhi et al

36
2000, Catsa 1999, Focused on parental involvement and

found positive and significant relationship with educational

outcome. Performance of youth with learning disabilities

during college intelligence test developed by the researcher.

The results suggested that specific emotional intelligence

subscales could indication of future academic success. The

results show that weak relationship of academic achievement

with emotional intelligence.

Adetayo and Kiadese 2011 investigate emotional

intelligence and parental involvement as predictors of

student achievement in Business Studies. Data were

collected from 20 secondary schools student from Nigerian

by survey method. The results of the study revealed

significant relationships between emotional intelligence and

academic achievement of the student. The finding indicated

that both emotional intelligence and parental involvement

both predicted student achievement in business studies.

37
 Husian 2011 conducted a study on 119 B.Ed college

student of the department of educational Devi Ahilya Uishwa

Uidayalaya Hidone in India to evaluate the influence of

intelligence on adjustments of teachers-trainees. Data was

gathered through raven standard progressive matrices test

as the measure of intelligence and Mitta adjustment

inventory as the measure of adjustment of the B.Ed college

student through the result positively but low relationship was

found between intelligence and home college adjustment. It

was also inferred from the finding that the teachers’ trainer

who had better intelligence level are well adjusted.

2.5.4 Achievement Motivation

Different researcher found and significant relationship

between achievement of motivation and academic of the

student Busato et al 2000, Panda and Jena 2000,

Krashnamur-in 2001, Broussard 2003, Frances et al 2004,

Kaur 2004, Nemisters 2004, Tseng 2004, Bansard et al

2006, Llogu 2007 Nauarete et al 2007.

38
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

This study aims at finding out the relationship between

learning environment and academic achievement to pupils

and primary school in Yala Local Government Area.

In an attempt to investigate the factors, this chapter

describes the procedure and strategies employed in this

study under the following heading for easy discussion

i. The research design

ii. Population of study

iii. Sampling procedure

iv. The sample

v. Instrumentation

vi. Data collection and preparation

vii. Scoring of the instrument

viii. Procedure for hypothesis testing

39
3.1 Research Design

Fundamentally, this study appraised the relationship

between academic performance and classroom learning

environment of pupils in different primary school setting. The

variables constituting the learning environment namely

seating position, learning resources, pupil’s satisfaction with

teacher teaching ability and teacher personality as well as

pupil’s academic performance were found, not manipulated.

They were not manipulated because they already have

influence on the pupils. Before the study, hence an attempt

is only being made to find the influence on the variables as

existing. Consequently the study used the was also the

descriptive approach to describe such observed inferential.

The researcher design used was also the survey inferential.

According to Denga and Ali (1983) the survey research

is a form of descriptive design.

40
3.2 Population of the Study

The population of the study included all thee 2008

primary six pupils in all the public and private primary school

in Yala Local Government Area. This population includes both

male and female pupils.

they appraised their teacher personality as they see it and

how satisfied they were with their teacher.

3.3 Sampling Procedure

In order to have a scientific representation of the

population, the random sampling technique was used in the

selection of schools from where the samples were drawn.

This process ensured that private nursery and primary

school had equal representation in the sample used to select

both the schools and subjects in each of the striate

comprising the sample.

3.4 The Sample

The sample comprised two hundred and eighty (208)

primary school pupils drawn from both the public primary

41
and private schools in Yala Local Government Area. Of this

number, 140 pupils were drawn from public school and 140

were 2fromthe private primary schools.

In Yala Local Government Area, there are 18 private

nursery/primary schools and 25 public in primary schools.

Out of these seven public primary school were randomly

selected from each of the primary school types fourteen

schools eventually was selected, twenty primary six pupils

were randomly selected using hat, and drawn method of

random sampling techniques. This resulted in the eventual

sample of 280 studies.

This process of selection ensured that at each point,

every subject in the population had equal and independent

chance of being included with the sample, thus ensuring

representatives. The distribution of the sample is presented

in table 3.1

42
Table 3.1 Distribution of Sample by School Types and

Schools

S/N Private Schools Public schools

Christ the King

1 Ueden private school 20 20
school Okpoma

Holy child convent

2 Olado private school Okpoma 20 20
school Okpoma

St. Paul primary

3 Victory private school Okuku 20 20
school Wanokon

Assurance Nur/Primary Holy trinity primary

4 20 20
school school Ijegu-Yache

St. Josephs school

5 National private school Yala 20 20
Okuku

Ferdy Memorial private John primary school

6 20 20
school Yala

St. Benedicts
Liberty private school
7 20 primary school 20
Ochumode
Mfuma

43
Total 140 140

44
The appropriateness of the sample so selected is assumed

because the subjects belong to same age bracket (between

9 and 13 year) and being in the final year of the primary

classes, they are assumed to be in the same level of

academic ability as well as physical and emotional

development.

3.5 Instrument for Data Collection

To determine the relationship between student

academic achievement and classroom learning environment,

the researcher constructed a questionnaire. The

questionnaire was tow point scale (see Appendix I). The

questionnaire had two parts A and B part of the

questionnaire had two sections.

Section I comprises six items and required subjects

responses on their level of satisfaction with their classroom

teacher.

45
Section II comprises nine items which required the subject

responses on their teacher personality trait (introvert and

extrovert).

Part B consisted of a checklist designed to measure pupils

seating positions, types of school, level of availability of

learning resources which were filled by the researcher and

their assistants based on the observation of students

learning environment.

Student academic performance was measure using the

average score of each of the pupil’s second term

examination scores in the entire subject. This collected

immediately after the administration of the questionnaire.

After modification and correction form the supervisor the

instrument was certified valid.

46
3.6 Procedure for Data Collection

The researcher was the only person solely involved in

the administration of the questionnaire to the pupils in their

classroom. This was to ensure the validity of section B of the

questionnaire.

In each of the schools, the researcher personally

engaged in an item by item explanation of the questionnaire

item to enhance understanding.

To ensure a high degree of reliability of information supplied

by the respondent discussion between two pupils by the

respondents about questionnaire were not allowed while the

administration was in progress.

After administration, the subjects were not asked to be

seated as the researcher collected from each respondent. In

the process, the researcher filled part B of the questionnaire

in respect of seating position and school types, as well

learning resources.

47
This method of administration was deemed appropriate since

it not only increased the validity of information collected but

also ensures that all the questionnaire administered were

returned and filled appropriately.

3.7 Scoring Of the Instrument

The instruments were scored in relation to the

variables. The researcher developed a key to decode every

information received. For part A each response was graded

on a four point scale with strongly Agreed having 4 point

while Agree – 3 points, the sum total of each response on

items 1-6 constituted the level of satisfaction of teachers

while total response on items 7-16 constituted the

evaluation of the teacher personality traits.

For part B item I enabled classification of subject into

types of schools, item II classified the students according to

seating position (front, middle and back row) while item III

evaluated resources (adequate or inadequate).

48
3.8 Procedure for Testing Of Hypotheses

The procedure uses for testing the hypotheses

formulated for this study were as follows.

1. Hypotheses One

There is no significantly influence of pupils seating position

of their academic performance.

Independent variable seating position (front, middle and

back row).

Dependent variable:

Academic performance

Statistical method

One way analysis of variables Statistical techniques was

used.

2. Hypotheses Two

There is no significant influence of classroom learning

resources on pupil’s academic performance independent

variable adequacy of learning resource (adequate or

Inadequate).

49
Dependent variable

Academic performance

Statistical Analysis

Independent T-test statistical was be used.

3. Hypotheses Three

Pupils who passed through the kindergarten classes in the

school do not perform significantly better academically than

those in public school who did not have kindergarten

education.

Independent variable: (kindergarten education) Type of

school attended.

Dependent variable: Academic performance statistical

analysis

Independent t-test: technique was used.

4. Hypotheses four

Pupils who are satisfied with their teacher teaching ability do

not perform significantly better in academic than those who

are not satisfied with their teacher teaching ability.

50
Independent variables: Level of satisfaction with teacher

teaching ability (satisfaction and unsatisfied)

Dependent variables: Academic performance of students

Statistical Analysis.

Independent T-test: technique was used.

5. Hypotheses five

Pupils who are taught by extrovert teachers do not

performance significantly better in academic than pupils

taught by introvert teacher.

Independent variables: Teacher’s personality type

(introvert and extrovert).

Dependent variable: Academic performance of student

statistical Analysis.

Independent T-test: Techniques was used

51
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS AND

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

This study is a comparative analysis of the relationship

between academic achievements and some aspects of

classroom learning environment among students in business

education.

4.1 Data Analysis

This chapter presents the data interpretation of results

and discussion of findings. For the analysis, two statistical

techniques were used to test the five hypotheses formulated.

They are independent t-test and one way analysis of

variances techniques. However, fisher’s least square method

was used to determine the trend of the difference among the

seating position group due to significant t-ratio observed

from analysis of variance was done. All the five hypotheses

52
formulated for this study were tested at 0.05 level of

significant.

4.2 Hypotheses by Hypotheses Testing and

Interpretation of Results

4.2.1 Hypotheses One

The null hypotheses stated that seating position of

student does not significantly influence their academic

performance in school to test this hypotheses, the student

were categorized into seating position (front, middle and

back row) based on the classification in the checklist on the

questionnaire consequently their average scores on their

subject in school was used to calculated the mean (x) score

and standard deviations for each of the groups one-way

analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques was used to

determine whether the difference academic performance

53
among the group was insignificantly as a consequences of

students seating position the result is presented in Table 1.

Table 1:
One Way Analysis Of Variance on Influence of Seating
Position on Students Academic Performance

Group N X SD
Front row
82 72.90 12.03

Middle row 96 59.93 12.49

Back row 102 48.60 13.18

Total
280 59.60 15-95

Sources of sum of degree of mean of f variance square

freedom ration square between 26866.97 2

54
4.2.2 Hypotheses Two

In the null hypotheses stated that there is no

significantly of level of adequacy of learning resources on

student academic performance.

To test this hypotheses, the pupils were classified into

two groups (those who have adequate learning resources

based on the categorization on the checklist on the

questionnaire on the variable consequently the mean score

the standard deviation of the groups were computed testing

the average score of each students performance in school.

The independent – test techniques was used to determine

whether significant difference exist in student academic

performance attributed to level of adequacy of learning

resources. The results is as present in Table 2

55
 Table 2
Independent T-Test Analysis of the Influence of
Adequate of Learning Resources on Pupil’s Academic
Performances

Variable N X SD T

Adequate 120 68.18 13.73 8.49

Inadequate 160 53.59 15.11

Significant at 0.05, df = 278; critical t = 1.97

From table 2 it was observe that student who have adequate

learning resources has a higher mean (x) score of 68.15

standards deviation of 13.73 over those who have

inadequate learning resources who had a mean (x) score of

53.57 and standard deviation of 15.11.

Further analysis of data showed that a calculated t-test

value of 8.49 result resource on student academic

performance. This observed t-value of 8.49 was significant

since it was greater than the critical t-value of 1.97 given

278 degree of freedom at 0.05 level of significance. This lead

56
to the rejection of null hypotheses, which stated that there

exist significantly influence of level of adequacy of learning

resources on academic performances of pupils.

4.2.3 Hypotheses Three

In the null from the hypotheses that stated pupils in

private primary school who had kindergarten education do

not perform significantly different from their colleagues in

student school who did not have kindergarten education

To test the hypotheses, the student where categories

into two groups (those who had kindergarten education

based on the classroom classification) from the checklist in

the questionnaire on the variable. The mean (x) scores and

standard deviation of the group was computer, using

adequate score of each student’s performance in has

subject. Consequently, the dependent t-test techniques t-

test used to determine whether significant difference

whether significant difference in academic performance of

57
students exist attributed to the kindergarten is as presented

in table 3

4.2.4 Hypotheses Four

In the null form the hypotheses stated that students

level of satisfaction with the learning abilities of their teacher

does not significantly influences their academic performance.

To test the hypotheses the student were categorized

into those who are satisfied and those who are unsatisfied

with their teacher teaching abilities based on their response

to the relevant item on the questionnaire.

From the table 4 it was observed that those where

satisfied with their teacher teaching, abilities was a higher

mean (x) score of 70.23 and standard deviation of 12.72 as

against those who were unsatisfied with their teacher

teaching abilities who had a mean (x) score of 51.95 and

standard deviation of 13.93. Further analysis of data showed

that a calculated value of 11.49 result as the influences of

58
level of satisfaction with teacher teaching abilities on student

academic performances. This observed t-valued was

significant since it was greater than the critical t-value of

1.95 given 278 degree of freedom at 0.05 level of

significant. This led to rejection of the null hypotheses and

the relation of the research hypotheses which states that

three exist significantly influences of student level of

satisfaction with their teacher teaching abilities and their

academic performance.

4.2.5 Hypotheses Five

In the null form, the hypotheses state that student who

are taught by extrovert teacher do not performance

significantly different form hose whose where taught by

introvert teacher.

To test the hypotheses the student respondent where

categorized into their perception of teacher personality

(extrovert and introvert) based on their response to the

59
questionnaire the average score of each student

performance was used to calculated the mean (x) scores

standard deviation of the two groups. Consequently the

independent t-test technique mean used to determine

whether significant difference in academic performance of

student exist due to their reception type. The result is in

table 5

Independent t-test Analysis of Influence of Student

Perception of teacher’s personality type on their
academic Performance

Personality
N X SD t-value
type
Extrovert 149 62.95 15.78 3.32

Introvert 131 56.61 15.36

Significant at 05 Df = 278, critical t =1.92.

From the table 5, it was observed that those who were

taught by extrovert teacher had a higher mean (x) score of

62.95 and standard deviation of 15.78 against these who

60
were taught by introvert teacher who had a mean (x) score

of 56.61 and standard deviation 15.36.

Further analysis of data showed that a calculated t-test

value of 3.32 resulted as the influence of perceived teacher

personality type on student academic performances.

This observed t-value of 3.32 was significant since it

was greater than critical t-value of 1.97 given 278 degrees

of freedom at 0.05 level of significance.

This led to the rejection of the null hypotheses and the

retention of the research hypotheses which stipulated that

student who were taught by extrovert teacher perform

significantly difference from those who were taught by

introvert teacher in essence those who were taught by

extrovert teacher performed significantly higher than those

who were taught by introvert teacher.

61
 4.3 Summary of Finding

This research is a comparative study of the relationship

between learning environment and academic performance of

private nursery/primary and school and student in Yala Local

Government Area. The finding and conclusion reached in

hypotheses by hypotheses testing of data were as follows.

i. In hypotheses one the finding revealed that significant

difference in academic performance due to sating

position exist. The research hypotheses was retained (f

= 52.45, df = 2 and 277 p < .05).

ii. Pair wise comparison of group mean (x) showed that

those who occupy the back row perform significantly

lower than those who occupy the front row seating

position and the middle row. Those who occupy the

front row also perform significantly better academic

than those who occupy the middle seating position.

iii. For hypotheses two the finding showed that exist

significantly influence of level of adequacy learning

62
 resource on student academic performance the

research hypotheses was retained. (t = 8.49, df = 278,

p>.05).

iv. For hypotheses three the finding showed that exposure

to kindergarten education significantly influences

academic performance of student the research

hypotheses was retained (t = 6.91, df = 278 p>.05).

v. For hypotheses four the finding showed that student

level of satisfaction with their teachers teaching

abilities significantly influence their academic

performance. The research hypotheses was retained (t

=11.49, df = 278, p>.05).

vi. For hypotheses five the finding showed that student

taught by extrovert teachers perform significantly

better in academic than their counterpart taught by

introvert teachers the research hypotheses was

retained (t = 3.32, df = 278, p < .05).

63
4.4 Discussion of Finding

The result of the analysis of the first hypotheses

showed that seating position of student significantly

influences their academic performance. It was also found out

that the nearer the seating position of the student is the

teacher the better and higher his performance.

The reason for the finding could be that the levels of

attitude try to occupy in the classroom, the more disinterest

and negative valued the student finds education to be the

more he tends to move towards the back seat where he feels

less likely to participate actively in the learning process. This

relatively state of disconnectedness of the classroom

learning environment influence negatively his academic

achievement of students, there tend to be significantly

difference, as found in the study.

The second hypotheses show that there exist

significantly influence of level of adequacy of learning

performances. It was found that those who had adequate

64
learning resource performed academically better than those

who had inadequate learning resources in their classroom.

The finding supports earlier study by Ogar (2007) who

concluded that the resources available in any schools system

have a positive influence on student’s performance other

studies like Weles (1967) Mead (1975) Bender and

Wenlinsky (2002) respectively found that academic

performance of students is significantly influence by the level

of adequacy and for availability learning resources.

The reason for the finding could be that student

interest motivation and attitude may be positively affected

by the adequacy and variety of learning resources used in

their schools. This will lead to whipping up the creative and

inquisitive spirit and the reduction of anxiety level and

frustration which inherit to had mystified the learning

process.

65
 Thus, significantly influences adequacy of learning

resources on academic achievement result when compared

as found in this study.

The third hypotheses revealed that student who had

kindergarten education preceding their primary schools

significantly perform academically perform academically

better than those who did not have kindergarten education

before starting primary school.

This finding contradicts earlier study by Petters (1989)

who found no significant difference in academic performance

of student who passed through kindergarten classes.

However, the possible reason for the finding may be

that those who had kindergarten education mat have been

exposed to basic educational concepts and have laid the

necessary foundation for effective learning in school. Such

enrich foundation is transferred to the primary education

level, to the primary education level, making their

performance. This is contrary to their counterparts who were

66
not exposed to kindergarten education with poor or no poor

foundation; they embark on primary education with lots of

trepidation and later frustration due to inability to relate with

continuous presentation of different concepts to be learnt.

This consequently affects negatively his/her academic

performance. Thus, when those who had kindergarten

education are compared to those who did not have

kindergarten education in term of academic performance,

there tend to be significantly differences as found in this

study.

The fourth hypotheses revealed those students who

were satisfied with their teacher abilities significantly better

than those who were unsatisfied with, there teacher teaching

abilities. This finding contradicts earlier work of Petters

(1989) who found no significant influence of level of

satisfaction with teacher teaching ability no student

academic performance.

67
 However, it supports other work like Nnolim (1986)

who claimed that level of satisfaction with teacher

competence influences students’ performance. He found that

significant relationship exist between student perception of

teacher teaching competence and academic performance.

The reason for the finding may be that the way the

student perceived his teacher teaching ability tend to affect

his rate and level of preparedness to learn from such teacher

where teachers teaching abilities was viewed positively, the

child will continuously want to interact with their the teacher

raising relevant question and be more receptive to learn

whatever the teacher is teaching. This will make him to

improve on his performance on the other hand, where the

student feels dissatisfied with the teacher teaching abilities,

he will likely be uninterested in what the teacher is teaching

and may not want to interact with the teachers to raise

question on issues he may not have understand his lack of

interest in teacher teaching makes him to be disconnected

68
from the learning since he no longer perceived the classroom

to be psychologically conducive for him. This factors in

variably effect his academic performance. Thus when those

who are satisfied with the teachers teaching abilities were

compared to their colleagues who were not satisfied with

teachers teaching abilities, in respect of their academic

performance, there tend to be significant difference. This

accounts for the finding of study.

The fifth hypotheses revealed that students who are

taught by extrovert teacher perform significantly higher in

academic than those who were taught by introvert teacher.

The finding contradicts earlier study by Petters (1989) who

found no significant difference in student academic

performance due to teacher personality type (extrovert and

introvert tendencies). However, the study supports other

studies like Centra (1979) and Theophile and Terezire

(1981) who found that teacher personality type has

significantly influences on study academic achievement.

69
 The reason for the finding could be that those who see

their teachers as an extrovert tend to warm up to him,

befriend him and are at ease in communication with him in

relation to academic with him in relation to academic

explanation. The supposedly personality of such teacher

makes the students to be very interested in this class and

will strive to improve on their academic performance in order

to be in a good books. Even those who are not meeting up to

their expectation in variable due to their teacher interest in

the performance and every ready to help them tackle their

position.

On the other hands where the teacher is seen as an

introvert, the students cringes from interacting with him

since they are afraid to him. Even though he teacher may

not be harsh to them, the student find it difficult to be at

ease with him and have effective communication with him.

They only go to him obviously expressed state of anxiety.

70
This situation tends to affect both their rate of assimilation of

teacher teaching and consequently academic performance.

71
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This research is a comparative study of the relationship

between classroom environment and academic achievement

of students in public and private primary school in Yala Local

Government Area of Cross River State.

This chapter presents the summary of the entire study.

The conclusion derived from the finding and

recommendations were also made.

5.1 Summary of the Study

This a comparative study of the relationship between

classroom environment of student in public and private

primary schools in Yala local Government Area. To meet this

goal, the researcher formulated five null hypotheses to guide

the study.

72
1. Seating of the position of student does not significantly

influence their academic performance.

2. There is no significantly influence of level of adequacy of

learning resource on student academic performance.

3. Student who had kindergarten education preceding

primary education will not significantly perform better in

academic than those did not have kindergarten

education before starting primary school.

4. There is no significantly influence of students level of

satisfaction with teacher teaching abilities on their

academic performance.

5. Student taught by extrovert will not perform significantly

better those were taught by introvert teacher.

The population of the study comprised of all primary six

hundred in the privet nursery/primary and public primary

school in Yala local government area.

The sample comprised 280 subjects obtained through

stratified random sampling technique by which twenty

73
 student were selected from seven randomly selected in

school in private primary and public primary schools

respectively.

The research instrument was the questionnaire

constructed by the researcher as well as the terminal

average scores of the subject. The data collectd was

analyzed using one-away Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

fisher least square method (LSD) and independent T-test

techniques. The hypotheses were tested at OS level of

significance. The result of the analysis were

i. There exists significant influence of seating position on

student academic performance.

ii. Students who occupy the front seats performed

significantly higher than either those who occupy

middle or back row. Again those who occupy middle

seating position perform significantly higher than those

who occupy the back row.

74
iii. Student who have adequate learning resources perform

significantly better in academic than those who have

inadequate learning resources.

iv. Student who had kindergarten education before

primary education perform significantly higher in

academic than those who had no kindergarten

education before primary education.

v. Student who are satisfied with their teacher teaching

abilities perform significantly higher in academics than

those who were not satisfied with their teacher

teaching abilities.

vi. Pupils who were taught by extrovert teacher perform

significantly better in academics than those who were

taught by introvert teacher.

5.2 Conclusions

Based on the finding of this study, the following

conclusions were drawn.

75
 i. Seating position significantly influence students

academic performance.

ii. Availability of learning resource has significant

relationship with student’s academic performance.

iii. Students level of satisfaction with teacher teaching

competences significantly influence their academic

performance.

iv. Kindergarten education significantly improves student

academic performance in primary schools.

v. Student taught by extrovert teachers perform

significantly better than those taught by introvert

teachers.

Finally some aspects f classroom learning environment

has been found to significantly and positively influence

student’s academic performance.

76
 5.3 Recommendations

Based on the finding and conclusions the following

recommendations were made:

i. The stress on qualitative education by present 6.3.3.4

system of education has necessitated recommending that

government education planners, organizations and

proprietors of school should provide adequate ad

functional environment for effective teaching and

learning.

ii. This is without regards to whether the school is a public

or private primary schools.

iii. Teachers should know that seating affects students

academically. They should use appropriate to either

rotate or intermittently change students seating position.

This may succeed in neutralizing the effect of seating

positions of students performance.

iv. Government and private proprietors of schools should

step up finding of schools to enhance the increment of

77
 existing learning facilities. This is with the knowledge of

the essential nature of learning aids to effective learning.

Teachers should also improvise on teaching aids where

possible, as to increase teaching, learning effectiveness.

v. Government should rethink on making kindergarten

education management operation to private proprietors

only with the consequent high fees charge.

vi. The awareness that kindergarten education significantly

influences primary education performance places those

students in public primary school at a disadvantage since

in most situations their parent guardians are unable to

pay the high cost of kindergarten education. Introduction

of preparatory classes in public primary schools, as was

the case during the colonial era, may be necessary to

correct this abnormally.

vii. There is need to attend conference and workshop so as

to important their skill as well as be abreast of current

happening in education. This will help reduce the

78
 dissatisfaction student have about their output and

interactions level with pupils.

viii. There is need to improve on the enrollment dispensation

of teachers, especially in public school. a situation where

salaries are not paid or when paid are not as at when due

makes the society to look down on the teacher who is

unsure of his next salary.

This affects generally the psyche of teacher and

splashes on their level of output.

The teacher level of output interpersonal relationships

(teacher–student and student-relationship). This harnessing

of this relationship will encourage positive attitude toward

teaching and learning especially as he/she will be able to

manipulate the working of group dynamics and classroom

structure.

79
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Alabi, O. (2001). The effect of nursery education on the

Academic Performance of primary three in English
Language: A case study of some public and private
nursery and primary school in Surulere Local
Government Area, Lagos State, unpublished M.Ed
Dissertation University of Ibadan, 59pp.

Basi, B. (1974). Primary socialization language and

education class modes and control. London Rhode and
Kegan.

Bechler, R.F. (1978). Psychology applied to teaching. Boston

Houghton Miflin co.

Bender, B. C & Lewind, J. R (1978). Picture imagery and

regarded children prose learning journal of education
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Brunner, J.S. (1966). Towards a theory of instruction.

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80