EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

LESSON 1: TOPIC CONTROL

The animal kingdom consists of various types of organisms characterized

by being eukaryotic, multicellular and heterotrophic. It is the largest
kingdom comprising more than 1 million species. Considering this massive
number, it is important to categorize them according to shared
characteristics for easy identification. One way is to classify them into
vertebrates and invertebrates. Those animals possessing a vertebral
column or a backbone are called vertebrae. Invertebrates, on the other
hand, do not possess this characteristic. Both vertebrates and
invertebrates are capable of reproduction, with most reproducing sexually.
However, some animal species of this category are also known to
reproduce asexually.

Reproduction in Some Animal Groups (and Their Representatives)

Invertebrates constitute 95 percent of organisms in the animal kingdom.
In addition to having no backbone, most invertebrates lack an
endoskeleton. This is a hard skeleton located within the soft tissues of
animals. Invertebrates are grouped into poriferans (sponges), cnidarians
(jellyfish and corals), annelids (worms), mollusks (octopuses, snails and
clams), arthropods (insects, spiders and lobsters), and echinoderms
(sea urchins and sea stars).

Poriferans
The Phylum Porifera consists of sponges and is known to be among the
simplest of all invertebrates. They do not display tissue-level organization,
unlike other vertebrates. As such, they possess specialized cells for certain
functions to cope with this lacking characteristic. Most sponges live in
marine environments though a few species are known to inhabit freshwater
sources. Adult sponges are sessile animals. They are incapable of moving
on their own, so they spend their life attached to a substratum like rocks
and other submerged objects. The only stage in its life cycle where it is
capable of movement is during its larva stage. To continue their lineage,
sponges reproduce sexually and asexually.

Most sponges that reproduce sexually are hermaphroditic. This means

that they can produce both sperm and egg at different times.

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 Fig. 1. A yellow tube sea sponge
The sexual reproduction of sponges is summarized below.

1. A sponge releases concentrated sperm into the aquatic environment

through the osculum (a large excretory opening of a sponge).
2. The sperm floating in the water is captured by a female sponge of the
same species. The amoebocytes deliver the sperms to the eggs.
3. Fertilization takes place to form a zygote in the mesohyl (a jelly-like
layer found in the body walls of sponges).
4. A larva is developed and released back into the water. Tiny hair-like
projections called cilia help them move in the water.
5. The larva settles in a suitable location and grows into an adult sponge.

Sponges can reproduce asexually through budding. This type of

reproduction happens when an outgrowth, called a bud, grows and
develops from the parent animal. In sponges, budding can be external or
internal. External budding happens when a bud breaks off the parent and
becomes a new individual.

Fig. 2. External budding in a sponge

Internal budding happens when a gemmule is formed. Gemmules are a

mass of unspecialized cells that acts as a survival pod. A parent sponge

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releases gemmules when conditions are harsh and unfavorable.
Gemmules can remain dormant until conditions improve.

Fig. 3. Gemmules produced by a sponge

Cnidarians
Compared to sponges, cnidarians are more complex, although their
body plans are still relatively simple compared to other animal groups.
They are aquatic organisms that exhibit tissue level of organization and are
diploblastic. Organisms with a diploblastic organization possess two
major embryonic tissue layers: the inner layer called the endoderm and
the outer layer called the ectoderm.

Cnidarians have two morphologically distinct body plans called the polyp
(stalk) and medusa (bell). Polyp forms are sessile as adults, while medusa
forms are motile. All cnidarians are aquatic organisms in which most
species are marine. They can be sessile like sea anemones and corals, or
free-moving like jellyfish and box jellies.

Cnidarians, like corals ,are capable of reproducing sexually and asexually.

Similar to sponges, corals asexually reproduce through budding. New
clonal polyps bud off from parent clonal polyps to become new individuals.
Through this, they can begin or expand a new colony.

Fig. 4. Cnidarians are composed of more than 10,000 diverse species.

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 Fig. 5. Budding in hydra

About 75 percent of stony corals can produce male or female gametes.

Spawning in corals is a mass synchronized event in which coral species
in the area release sperm and eggs at the same time. The release of a
massive number of gametes ensures wide coverage of geographic area as
corals cannot move into reproductive contact with each other. The sexual
reproduction of corals is summarized as follows.

1. Coral species in an area release a massive number of eggs and sperm

in the water.
2. Egg and sperm join to form a planula larva, a free-floating larvae. Large
numbers of planulae are produced to ensure survivability.
3. The planulae will swim upwards and exhibit positive phototaxis to take
advantage of the light. It enters surface waters and is carried by surface
currents.
4. The planulae swim back to the bottom and settle if conditions are
favorable.
5. The planulae metamorphose into polyps and form colonies.

Fig. 6. Life cycle of corals

Annelids
Annelids are free-living or parasitic organisms that live in aquatic or
terrestrial habitats. They exhibit an organ-system level of body
organization and are characterized by their segmented body surface. They
possess an excretory system, a closed circulatory system, a complete
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digestive system, and a coelom, a large space where internal organs
form. There are roughly 15,000 species of annelids in which most can
either belong to the two classes: Polychaeta (marine worms) or Clitellata
(earthworms and leeches). Clitellata is further subdivided into other
subclasses, with earthworms falling under Oligochaeta and leeches under
Hirudinea.

Fig. 7. Polychaete (left) , oligochaete (center), Hirudinea (right)

Polychaete and oligochaete species can undergo sexual and asexual

reproduction; however, Hirudinea species can only reproduce via sexual
means. Asexual reproduction in marine worms and earthworms can either
be by budding or fission. Fission is a type of asexual reproduction
wherein two individuals will form as the parent divides.

Oligochaetes exhibit simultaneous hermaphroditism, which means they

possess male and female reproductive organs. However, they are
incapable of self-fertilization. For a new organism to form via sexual
means, mating is required. The process of sexual reproduction in
earthworms is summarised as follows.

1. Two earthworms mate by lining up against one another facing opposite

directions.
2. A slime tube forms around the body as they secrete mucus. The slime
tube is where the earthworm ejaculates sperms from its sex organ.
3. The sperm is deposited in the earthworm’s receptacle.
4. A gland-like structure seen as bands called the clitellum secretes a
viscous fluid to form a cocoon.
5. Egg and sperm from the mating process are stored in the cocoon where
fertilization occurs.
6. The earthworm separates from the cocoon once the eggs are safely
fertilized. Each cocoon can have one to five worms. As there are no larval
stages in oligochaetes, the embryo develops and emerges from the
cocoon looking like small adult earthworms.

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 Fig. 8. Life cycle of an earthworm

Mollusks
Considered the second-largest animal phylum, mollusks are terrestrial or
aquatic organisms characterized by a body covered with a calcareous
shell and is unsegmented. They have a distinct head, muscular foot, and
a visceral mass. There are more than 10,000 known species of mollusks,
of which the majority are gastropods. Like annelids, they have a coelom, a
complete digestive system, and a circulatory system.

Fig. 9. Snail (gastropod), oyster (bivalve), squid (cephalopod)

The life cycle of mollusks also includes a larval stage that is very different
from its adult form called a trochophore larva. This larva is characterized
by a band of cilia wrapped around its body which aids in swimming and
movement. Some mollusks have a second larva stage called a veliger.
Mollusks can either be dioecious (separate sexes) or hermaphroditic.
Though some distinct species are known to asexually reproduce, most
mollusks undergo sexual reproduction. The process below shows the
sexual reproduction of land snails, a mollusk.

1. A snail’s gonad produces both sperm and egg.

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2. The sperm is placed in a package called spermatophore. This is then
transferred from the donor’s penis to the receiver’s vagina. The genital
pore is a reproductive opening found on the right side of the snail’s head.
3. The spermatophore releases the sperm once inside the receiver snail,
and fertilization occurs.

4. The egg passes down the sperm oviduct to coat the egg with jelly-like
albumen. This provides a protective outer coating and feeds the
developing snail.
5. The snail then lays an egg either in a damp area or in the parent dug
hole.

Fig. 10. Snails inspecting each other prior to mating.

In some cases, snails can undergo self-fertilization. As hermaphroditic

snails possess both gonads, they can fuse their own sperm and egg. The
resulting offspring from this process is a clone of the parent. This is
disadvantageous as genetically harmful mutations are passed on to the
offspring, which likely decreases the chances of survival. Studies reveal
that snails undergoing self-fertilization are those who cannot find a partner,
or those who are threatened by external factors like the presence of
predators or drastic environmental changes. Though there are exceptions,
some species of snails like pond snails intentionally undergo self-
fertilization.

Insects
Insects are organisms belonging to the largest phylum called the
arthropods. The main physiological features of insects are their
exoskeleton and body regions. The strong multi-layered exoskeleton
protects the organism from predators and the environment. Their bodies
are divided into three regions: head, thorax, and abdomen. Their internal
anatomy is characterized by an open circulatory system, many breathing
tubes, and a three-chambered digestive system.

Insects are known to have high fecundity and high fertility. Female
insects produce a large number of eggs, most of which will successfully
hatch. A typical female lays 100 to 500 eggs in her lifetime, but some lay
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thousands or even millions. Most insects reproduce sexually in which the
female produces eggs and the male fertilizes them. After some time, the
eggs hatch, and the offspring must grow and develop until adulthood. This
significant developmental change as they grow from immature to adults is
called metamorphosis.

There are two types of metamorphosis, namely, complete and

incomplete. Complete metamorphosis is an insect development in
which the egg, larva, pupa, and adult stages greatly differ in morphology.
Examples of insects that undergo complete metamorphosis are butterflies,
beetles, and ants. Below is the life cycle of a beetle that shows the process
of complete metamorphosis.

1. A female beetle creates a burrow where eggs will be deposited. After

laying eggs, the female beetle covers it to discourage predators.
2. The newly-hatched larvae (first instar) enlarge the hole in the burrow.
3. The larvae continue to grow and develop (second instar). It waits in its
burrow to ambush small arthropods.
4. The third-stage larvae (third instar) form a pupa cell, and the larva
prepares by plugging the burrow entrance with soil.
5. The pupa does not feed for weeks and will slowly transition into an
adult.
6. An adult emerges from the pupa. The adult waits for some time for its
exoskeleton to harden before it goes out of the burrow.

Fig. 11. Complete metamorphosis in beetles

Incomplete metamorphosis, on the other hand, incomplete

metamorphosis is an insect development in which gradual changes occur
in the insect during its life cycle. Dragonflies, grasshoppers, and
termites are examples of insects undergoing incomplete metamorphosis.
Below is the life cycle of a dragonfly that shows the process of incomplete
metamorphosis.

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1. After mating, a female dragonfly lays eggs in the water or in an aquatic
plant. The egg hatches in one to five weeks, depending on the species.
2. Tiny creatures with six legs, wing-sheaths, hinged jaws, and the ability
to breathe while underwater will emerge from the eggs called a naiad or a
nymph. This is the longest stage in the life cycle of a dragonfly.
3. The naiad will continuously molt to accommodate growth.
4. The naiad will prepare for its final molt and will start breathing air.
5. Once ready, the larva will find vegetation and emerge into an adult
dragonfly.

Fig. 12. Incomplete metamorphosis in dragonflies.

The table below sums up the difference between the two types of
metamorphosis in insects.

Table 14.2.1. Difference between complete and incomplete metamorphosis

Complete metamorphosis Incomplete metamorphosis

● Consists of four stages: egg, larva, ● Consist of three stages: egg,
pupa, and adult nymph or naiad and adult.

● Has a very active, ravenously ● Has a naiad which resembles a

eating larva and an inactive pupa miniature adult

● Larva is the immature form, ● Growth occurs during the naiad

remains similar in form but increases stage
in size
● Certain portions of the exoskeleton
● Exoskeleton is completely molted remain throughout the lifetime

Aside from sexual reproduction, some insects like bees are capable of
asexually procreating their species via parthenogenesis. Parthenogenesis
is the reproduction of offspring without fertilization. The unfertilized egg

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develops into an adult animal. The resulting offspring can be either
haploid (containing half a set of genetic materials from one parent) or
diploid (containing one complete set of genetic materials from both
parents). Bees use parthenogenesis to produce haploid drones or males,
and diploid female workers. The process of parthenogenesis in bees is
summarized as follows.
1. If ever an egg is fertilized, a queen is produced. The diploid queen bee
controls the reproduction of the entire beehive to regulate the type of bees
being produced.
2. The queen sexually reproduces once in her lifetime and holds the sperm
inside her body.
3. The female workers build cavities or honeycombs where the queen
deposits her eggs.
4. The queen then selectively deposits the sperm in some of the cavities.
The egg and sperm in the cavities represent sexual reproduction. They
unite and develop into female workers.
5. In the cavities with no sperm, the eggs undergo parthenogenesis and
develop into male drones.

Fig. 13. Caste system in honeybees due to parthenogenesis process

Echinoderms
Echinoderms are marine organisms characterized by a distinct water
vascular system which aids in movement, food capture and transport,
and respiration. They have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles,
which gives their spiny skin appearance. They consist of 7,000 living
species, and are considered the largest phylum without freshwater or
terrestrial members. Echinoderms lack respiratory, excretory, and
centralized nervous systems. However, they have a complete digestive
system and can regenerate a missing body part like annelids.

Fig. 14. Starfish (left), sea cucumber (center), and sea urchin (right) are echinoderms.

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Like their invertebrate cousins, echinoderms are capable of producing
sexually and asexually. Most echinoderms reproduce asexually through
fission and fragmentation. Fission is a type of asexual reproduction
wherein two individuals will form as the parent divides in half.
Fragmentation, on the other hand, is a type of reproduction that involves
breaking body parts into fragments, followed by regeneration and regrowth
of lost parts. Each broken piece grows into a new whole individual. Many
starfish exhibit this form of reproduction. For instance, if the arm of an
individual sea star is damaged and broken, the separated piece tends to
regenerate and form a new sea star. In some cases, autotomy or self-
amputation, a defensive mechanism of an organism to detach a part of
itself to escape a predator rather than being eaten, leads to asexual
reproduction.

Fig. 15. Fragmentation in starfish

Majority of the echinoderms reproduce sexually and are gonochoric. They

have separate sexes and undergo external fertilization. In external
fertilization, the union of the egg and sperm occurs outside the female
reproductive tract. This type of fertilization is common in aquatic
organisms. The process summarized below details the sexual reproduction
of sea urchins, an echinoderm. Interestingly, sea urchins also undergo
metamorphosis in which the larvae undergo rapid transformation to
become a juvenile adult.

Fig. 16. Life cycle of a sea urchin

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1. Male and female sea urchins release a vast number of sperms and eggs
in water.
2. Eggs are fertilized and develop into an echinopluteus, a free-swimming
microscopic larva.
3. The echinopluteus migrates on the upper surface of the water to capture
phytoplanktons and feed on them.
4. The rudiment, a cluster of cells in the lower left-hand side of the body,
starts to differentiate.
5. Adult features start to develop while larva features are reabsorbed and
will eventually be lost.
6. The metamorphosed juvenile sinks to the bottom and begins adult life.
● Planktotrophic describes sea urchins that pass through a feeding larva
stage.
● Lecithotrophy describes sea urchins in which the larva develops
directly into the adult form without needing to feed.

Representative Vertebrates
Vertebrates are the largest group of chordates with more than 62,000
living species. The living vertebrate species as of the current represents
only a fraction of vertebrates known to have existed. Aside from the
distinguishable presence of a vertebral column, vertebrates are the only
members of Phylum Chordata that possess a brain. Like invertebrates, this
group can be generally categorized into mammals, reptiles, birds,
amphibians, and fishes. Majority of vertebrates reproduce sexually as
some species of fish, amphibians, and reptiles are capable of asexual
reproduction.

Except for fishes and some amphibian species, most vertebrates undergo
internal fertilization. In internal fertilization, the union of egg and sperm
occurs within the female reproductive tract. In this type of reproduction,
the male parent releases the sperm cells into the reproductive tract of the
female parent. Animals that undergo internal fertilization produce offspring
in any of the following ways: oviparity, ovoviviparity, and viviparity.
The differences between the three types are shown in the table below.

Table 14.2.2. Differences between oviparity, ovoviviparity, and viviparity

Ways of Offspring Characteristics Example vertebrates
Production
Oviparity ● Eggs are fertilized ● Some bony and
internally, but they will cartilaginous fishes like
complete their clownfish and blue
development outside the tangs, most reptiles, some
mother’s body amphibians, all birds, and

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 a few
● Eggs receive their mammals(monotremes).
nourishment through their
yolk
Ovoviviparity ● Eggs are fertilized ● Some bony fishes
internally, but they will (mollies, guppies, and
complete their mosquito fish), some
development outside the cartilaginous fishes,
mother’s body and many reptiles
● Zygotes grow into
embryos, which receive
their nourishment through
the yolk
● Organisms are fully
developed when they
hatched and released by
the mother
Viviparity ● Eggs are fertilized ● Cartilaginous fishes
internally (including lemon
● Embryos receive sharks), some
nourishment directly from amphibians, a few
the mother’s reptiles, and almost all
blood through the mammals including
placenta rather than from humans
the yolk

In most vertebrates, similar events follow after fertilization and are

summarized as follows.
1. The fertilized egg undergoes a series of cell divisions called cleavage.
Cleavage is a series of extremely rapid mitotic divisions wherein large
volumes of cellular materials are divided into multiple smaller cells.
2. The number of cells in the embryo increases until it forms a hollow ball
of cells called a blastula.
3. The blastula further differentiates into gastrula, allowing the layering of
cells in the developing embryo.
4. The developing embryo will require time to differentiate and form the
different parts of the new individual offspring. This becomes the juvenile
individual that will grow into adult form.

Fig. 17. Cleavage formation in a developing embryo

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Fishes and some amphibians undergo external fertilization. As
mentioned in the previous sections, external fertilization is common among
aquatic organisms in which the male and female release gametes in water
and fertilization occurs externally. A good example of this type of
fertilization happens in salmon. The life cycle of a salmon and the process
of external fertilization are summarized as follows.

1. During spawning season, a female salmon digs a depression in the

gravel with her tail to deposit her eggs.
2. One or more males release sperms over the falling eggs to fertilize. The
female quickly covers the fertilized eggs with gravel, and an embryo
develops over time.
3. Eggs will hatch, and alevins will emerge. Alevins are tiny fish with the
yolk sac of the egg attached to their bellies.
4. A fry emerges in the gravel when alevins grow and consume their yolk
sacs.
5. A fry develops into parr with vertical stripes and spots for camouflage.
6. The parr undergoes a physiological pre-adaptation to life in seawater by
smolting. Smolts leave rivers and will migrate to seas.
7. Over time, they will grow into adult salmon and return to the rivers to
spawn.

Fig. 18. The life cycle of a salmon.

LESSON 15.1 : GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering is the process of modifying genes in a living

organism to produce genetically modified organisms (GMOs) also known
as transgenic organisms. It is a modern type of genetic modification. In this
process, the gene of interest is physically removed and placed in an
organism to be modified.

This method is more rapid and specific than the traditional plant breeding,
because a gene coding for a specific trait is transferred to an organism.
Genetic engineering is an application of biotechnology which uses
biological systems, processes, or organisms to create products that
improve the quality of human life.

Historical Background of Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering traces its roots back in the 12 000 BC, where humans
first tried agriculture breeding and domesticated livestock. Recently, the
definition of genetic engineering was revised and referred to as the direct

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transfer of external DNA from an organism to another. This process was
first performed by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen in early 1972.

Fig. 1. From left to right: Herbert Boyer (1936–present), Stanley Cohen

(1922–2020), Rudolf Jaenisch (1942–present)

In 1974, the first genetically modified mouse was created by Rudolf

Jaenisch. This was followed by the insertion of the antibiotic resistant
gene in tobacco that produced the very first genetically engineered plant.
Several advances followed this milestone in the field of genetic
engineering that aimed to manipulate and introduce external genes in
organisms to improve its variety and form a wide range of different effects
in the traits of the modified individuals.

The first commercialization of transgenic products or genetically modified

organisms was done in 1976. One example is the artificial production of
insulin from bacteria through insertion of genes in bacteria that allowed it to
produce insulin. The first plant to be commercialized was the virus
resistant tobacco in China and followed by the tomato. Other products like
rice, corn, and other livestock were also released as approved by the food
and drug authority.

Fig. 2. Transgenic tobacco

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General Process of Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering is performed by using copies of the recombinant
plasmid—a circular, double-stranded DNA molecule in bacteria which is
isolated and transferred to other organisms. There are four general steps
in genetic engineering: DNA isolation, ligation, transformation, and
selection.

DNA Isolation
In DNA Isolation, the plasmid and gene of interest are isolated. For
example, Bt corn, a genetically modified pest-resistant plant, was grown in
the Philippines against Asian corn borer (Ostrinia furnacalis), a major pest
of corn. The first step in creating a pest-resistant plant is to isolate the
plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens and the pest-resistant gene from a
bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). A. tumefaciens is a Gram-negative
soil bacterium that causes crown gall disease in plants. Its tumor-
inducing plasmid (Ti plasmid) is often used in genetic engineering
because of its ability to integrate its DNA into a plant’s gene. The pest-
resistant gene is obtained from the DNA of B. thuringiensis. This bacterium
produces a protein known as the cry1Ab toxin that is lethal to the larval
stage of lepidopterans (moth
family).

Fig. 3. General process of genetic engineering in plants

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 Fig. 4. The process of DNA isolation in the creation of BT corn

Ligation
In ligation, the gene is inserted into the plasmid. The next step is
connecting the external gene to the plasmid through the use of DNA
ligase enzyme. This enzyme catalyzes DNA fragments and permanently
joins the nucleotides of the plasmid and the external gene. The pest-
resistant gene obtained from the DNA of B. thuringiensis is inserted into
the tumor-inducing plasmid.

Fig. 5. The process of DNA ligation in the creation of BT corn

Transformation
In transformation, the recombinant plasmid is inserted back to the
bacterium. Most of the time, the transformation of the plasmid is inserted in
E. coli as the expression vector. The plasmid is inserted to the bacteria
through electrolysis or electric shock that opens the membrane of the
bacteria and allows the entry of the plasmid. Another alternative is through
the use of heat shock that forms temporary pores in the cell membrane
and allows the entry of the plasmid containing the exogenous DNA.

Fig. 6. The process of DNA transformation in the creation of BT corn

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The expression vector in the form of E. coli will then be cultured and
selected to get cells that perfectly express the target gene. In selection, the
desired clone is identified. The transformed bacteria contain the
recombinant plasmid with the gene of interest. These are normally
selected using special galactose sugar called X-gal. The selected
bacterium shall be used to infect the cell of corn and integrate the gene
into the plant’s DNA. When the genetically modified cell divides, each
daughter cell obtains the new gene. The transformed corn plant is now
pest-resistant. The inserted gene in the genetically modified crop must
result in the production of the toxin that is only lethal to specific target
pests.

Fig. 7. Selection of the transfected E. coli vector in the creation of BT corn

LESSON 15. 2 USES OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

A genetically modified organism or GMO is the product of the introduction
of genes from one species that is artificially isolated and placed in an
unrelated organism. The external gene may come from other organisms
like bacteria, insects, or animals that exhibit the desired trait.

Genetically modified organisms have raised a lot of social, ethical, and

even political issues. However, the process of making GMOs is still
considered a revolutionary step in improving the quality of life. Genes of
bacteria, plants, and animals are modified to improve the quality of human
life. Depending on the gene of interest, GMOs have many uses in the
fields of agriculture and medicine.

GMOs in Agriculture
By modifying the genes of crops and livestock through genetic
engineering, the plants and animals become more resistant to diseases.
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Genetically modified crops and livestock have improved quality in terms of
their use (e.g., as food or feeds) and increased productivity.Crops are
usually genetically modified to increase their resistance to pests and
diseases by incorporating genes that code for insect or pathogen
resistance. Therefore, the use of pesticides is lessened by genetically
engineering crops.

Bt Corn
Bt corn is a pest-resistant plant against corn-infesting larvae. Insect
resistance is expressed by introducing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin in
the crops. In maize, the cry1Ab gene is inserted against corn borers. The
cry1Ab gene encodes for the release of toxins in the root exudates of
maize. This toxin specifically affects larval lepidopterans (the corn borers).
It does not affect other insects such as earthworms and nematodes,
animals, and even humans.

Fig. 1. A corn borer that infects corn crops in the Philippines

Golden Rice
Golden rice is genetically modified rice that produces beta-carotene. This
genetically modified rice is created to improve the nutritional value of rice
through increased vitamin A content. Genes which code for phytoene
synthase (psy) from Narcissus pseudonarcissus (commonly known as
daffodil, a perennial flowering plant with bright, yellow flowers) and
carotene desaturase from Erwinia uredovora (a soil-borne bacterium) are
integrated in rice. As a result, yellow beta-carotene-bearing rice
endosperm is produced from this combination of genes.

Fig. 2 Normal and golden rice

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Genetically Modified Animals
Unlike in crops, genetically modified animals are much more restricted in
terms of production and consumption. The aim of GM animals is to
improve the yields in animal breeding, genetics, and reproduction.
AquAdvantage Salmon is the world’s first genetically modified animal
developed for human consumption. This species of salmon has the main
characteristics and traits of the Atlantic salmon and Chinook, a salmon
endemic in the Pacific Ocean. Consequently, this species has twice the
growth rate of the Atlantic salmon, where instead of having a harvestable
size in three years, the AquAdvantage salmon can be harvested in 18
months.

Fig. 3. Common Atlantic salmon product in the market

GMOs in Medicine
Genetic engineering is commonly used to produce biopharmaceutical
drugs in the field of medicine. Different organisms are manipulated to
produce the needed drug products. Most of the time, bacteria are used to
produce the needed compound that has the potential to be a drug. The
mass production is easy due to the asexual nature of their reproduction.
The very first genetically manipulated drug that was approved for
commercialization in the market was insulin. The gene that is responsible
for the production of insulin in mice is cloned and transferred to bacteria to
allow it to produce the same compound. In 2000, a total of 100 genetically
engineered drugs were available in the American market. Common
products include Remicade, Avastin, and Neulasta.

GMOs in Environmental Remediation

Bioremediation describes the process that uses living organisms to clean
and restore contaminated terrestrial or aquatic areas. This method usually
uses microorganisms like bacteria and yeasts that consume contaminants
and use it for their cellular metabolic pathways. Bioremediation has certain
limitations since the organism being used can die due to overexposure to

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the contaminant because of its tolerance limit. Genetic engineering aids in
bioremediation by inserting tolerance genes to the remediating organism
and allowing it to have a wider range of tolerance to common contaminants
in the environment. Scientists usually increase the tolerance level of
bacteria and yeast to high temperature, acidic environment, low oxygen
levels, and high nutrient content.

Fig. 5. Common yeast that is used for remediation

LESSON 15. 3: BENEFITS AND RISKS OF USING GMOS

Genetically modified organisms have posed a lot of political and ethical
issues, especially in the production and consumption of these products.
Public and private sectors in different parts of the world have expressed
their opposition to GMOs. Critics impose that there might be serious and
harmful outcomes from the production and consumption of GMOs. They
even propose human health and environmental risks.

Benefits of Using GMOs

GMOs offer many benefits to humanity. Some of these are discussed
below.
Increased Productivity GMOs enable farmers to have higher crop yields.
Because GM crops are modified for a specific pest, the use of pesticide-
specific for that pest is reduced. In the Philippines, common examples of
this benefit include the development of the Bt corn and talong. These
modified plants have the capacity to regulate corn borers even without the
use of commercial pesticides in the farmland. However, currently, the
Supreme Court of the Philippines is strictly regulating the distribution of
these products in the market.

Improved Nutrition
Genetically modified crops such as Golden Rice are improved in terms of
nutrition (high in beta carotene) to prevent eye-related problems such as
blindness due to undernutrition. The development of artificially fortified
crop products is an emerging method of solving food security issues in
third-world countries. This allows the higher intake of nutrients from the
crops by giving it ways to develop its own additional nutrients. Other

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nutrients that are commonly induced in GMO products are vitamin C,
vitamin D, and vitamin B complexes.

Fig. 1. Corn as one of the primary crop produce of the Philippines

Aided Disease Detection

Diseases can be identified because of protein trackers in bioluminescent
animals. These are the most common techniques being utilized for the
detection of chronic disease. The method provided more accurate and
more specific means of diagnosis for various diseases that usually take
time before the symptoms appear. This benefits humans through early
detection of the disease and gives more time to prevent the worsening of
the patient’s condition.

Fig. 2. Bioluminescent yeasts that are being used for experiments

Risks of Using GMOs

GMOs also raised concerns from people because of their possible harmful
impacts on the environment and human health. Some of these are
discussed below.

Reduced Biodiversity of Common Insects

Pest resistant crops such as Bt corn leads to unintended harm to non-crop
damaging insects such as larvae of monarch butterflies, which are affected
by the pollen of Bt corn. Because GM crops and animals have a higher
tolerance to natural pests and harsh environmental conditions, they tend to
dominate and overpopulate in a certain area. Consequently, the growth of
other species of plants and animals is inhibited because of competition
with the GMOs. Once this lasts for a long period of time, the decline in
population number and extinction might happen to other species. This
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could wipe out normal organisms that are not transfected with external
genes.

Fig. 3. Monarch butterflies were heavily affected by the production of BT crops.

Decreased Pesticide Effectivity

Pest resistant crops seem to reduce the need for pesticides at first, but the
need might increase later on due to the triggered allergic reactions. Some
people develop an allergic response to GM crops after exposure. Cases
have been reported in the United States of America, wherein people who
consumed the GMO products have experienced tightening of the airways
and dermatitis after ingestion of the products. The presence of some
unpredicted allergens in the form of proteins might have been overlooked
along the process of creating the GMO.

Fig. 4. The common label being used to indicate the presence of allergens
in crop products

Higher cost for GM seeds

Farmers have to buy new seeds every year. The GM seeds are patented
products. Therefore, farmers cannot use second-generation seeds, or such
use would lead them to the Supreme Court with a charge of patent
infringement. Monsanto is the most famous company that produces seeds
of GM crops such as corn and eggplant. The company experienced
several setbacks as anti-GMO product advocates filed a petition to ban
their products in several countries including the Philippines.

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 Fig. 5. Sign being used by anti-GMO activists against Monsanto.

Religious and Ethical issues

Several religious and ethical issues were raised by different groups around
the globe regarding the existence of genetic modification of organisms.
This goes beyond the concept of God being the sole creator of all things
present on Earth. Activists and ethics experts state that scientists do not
have the right to manipulate things that were created by their God. In the
Philippines, the catholic church even released an order to their members to
avoid consumption and advocacy of GMO products.

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