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 DG 436-1
Revised 2015

Digest

Determining wind actions using Eurocode 1

Licensed copy from CIS: uliverpool, University of Liverpool, 10/02/2019, Uncontrolled Copy.

Part 1: Guidance on the use of BS EN 1991-1-4

Paul Blackmore

Eurocode 1 for wind actions, BS EN 1991-1-4 [1] , replaces

BS 6399-2[2] , which was withdrawn in 2010. The scope
of BS EN 1991-1-4 is much wider than BS 6399-2: where
BS 6399-2 was limited to building structures and mildly
dynamic response, BS EN 1991-1-4 includes buildings
and civil engineering works and a more comprehensive
approach to dynamic response, including vortex
shedding and other aerodynamic instabilities. There
are a number of significant differences between these
standards, particularly with respect to dynamic response,
which will be unfamiliar to UK engineers. It was therefore
felt that some additional background information and
worked examples would be beneficial.

This three-part Digest will help the user to understand

the new approach to wind loading used in the
Eurocode. It is aimed at engineers, architects and other
professionals who need to understand how to calculate
the effect of wind on buildings and design options to
interpretation of some clauses and additional pressure coefficient
minimise it. Wind loads on bridges are not covered in this
data for building forms outside of the scope of the standard.
Digest.
It also includes Annex A (Vortex shedding and aerodynamic
instabilities), which replaces Annex E in BS EN 1991-1-4.
Part 1 of this Digest gives guidance on the use of
PD 6688-1-4 does not have the status of a British Standard.
BS EN 1991-1-4, its UK National Annex[3] and the non-
conflicting complementary information published in
In this Digest we will refer to BS EN 1991-1-4 as the ‘EN’, the UK
PD 6688-1-4 [4]. Parts 2 and 3 give worked examples of the
National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-4 as the ‘NA’ and PD 6688-1-4
Eurocode methodology, including dynamic response. This
as the ‘PD’.
update to Part 1 replaces the guidance published in 1999.

Using BS EN 1991-1-4 Structural factor cscd

The structural factor cscd accounts for the dynamic response
In the UK, BS EN 1991-1-4 must always be used in conjunction
of the structure and the correlation of the wind gusts over the
with the UK National Annex. There are over 60 nationally
surface of the structure. The factor cscd may be taken as 1.0 in
determined parameters (NDPs) in the standard. Member states
the following cases:
may provide alternative procedures or values for each of these
NDPs. The National Annex gives guidance on these NDPs and • all buildings with a height < 15 m
their application in the UK. The Eurocode system also allows • framed buildings < 100 m high with structural walls and
non-conflicting complementary information (NCCI) to be with height/crosswind breadth < 4
used; in the UK this is found in PD 6688-1-4. This published • circular chimneys < 60 m high and with height/diameter
document includes background information, commentary on < 6.5.
 2 Determining wind actions using Eurocode 1 – Part 1: Guidance on the use of BS EN 1991-1-4 DG 436-1

The NA allows the structural factor cscd to be separated into a buildings and obstructions is high. The wind gusts will therefore
size factor cs, which accounts for the non-simultaneous action be less correlated over the building surfaces, giving smaller
of gusts over external surfaces, and a dynamic factor cd, which values of the size factor cs. In open country or at the top of tall
accounts for the effects of turbulence in combination with the buildings in town terrain, the turbulence is much lower and the
resonance of the structure. scales of turbulence are larger. This results in more correlation
of the gusts over the building surfaces, resulting in larger values
In most cases there will be benefit in separately determining of cs.
cd and cs. For example, large low-rise buildings will generally
Licensed copy from CIS: uliverpool, University of Liverpool, 10/02/2019, Uncontrolled Copy.

have a cd factor close to 1.0 but the cs factor could be 0.7 or less The reference height for determining cs and cd is either 60%
(depending on the height and massing), giving a potential 30% of the building height for overall loads (EN Figure 6.1) or the
reduction in the wind force. height to the top of the building or to the top of the part being
considered for cladding and structural loads (EN Figure 7.4).
For cladding panels and elements and the majority of low-rise
buildings such as those listed below, the cd factor may be taken
as 1.0:
• framed buildings ≤ 20 m high with structural walls around
Calculating peak velocity pressure
lifts and stairs and with internal masonry walls qp(z) using the directional approach
• masonry buildings ≤ 20 m high
• timber-frame housing ≤ 20 m high. The NA includes directional factors cdir for 30º increments
of wind direction. This implies that the standard calculation
procedure is to use 12 wind directions. However, this is not the
For buildings and structures outside of this range,
case. It can be time-consuming to carry out hand calculations for
NA Figure NA.9 gives values of cd for four representative generic
12 wind directions so it may be worth considering simplifications
classes of structure based on values of the logarithmic
to the full directional method. Three alternative approaches are
decrement of damping Gs. Table 1 gives a description of these
outlined below:
generic structural types appropriate to these values of Gs.
Structural damping will often be given as a percentage of critical • The simplest and most conservative approach is to calculate
damping ], which is related to the logarithmic decrement of a single value of peak velocity pressure irrespective of
damping by the following equation: wind direction. In this approach, cdir is taken as 1.0 for all
wind directions and the closest distance to the shore in
]= any direction is taken. For sites in town terrain the closest
distance to the edge of the town is taken. This approach will
be the most conservative choice and if the structure can be
justified using this approach then no further calculation is
For the normal range of damping found in buildings, this
necessary. This is referred to as ‘Option 3’ below.
equation can be simplified to the following equation:
• The most accurate and least conservative approach is to
Gs consider 12 wind directions and calculate the peak velocity
]= pressure for each. This can be time-consuming if calculating
2π by hand. This is referred to as ‘Option 1’ below.
• The best compromise between complexity and conservatism
It is important to realise that NA Figure NA.9 gives cd only for
is to consider four wind directions. For this approach the
the alongwind response in the fundamental mode for a mode
worst-case value of cdir is taken for each 90º sector under
shape of constant sign, ie a cantilever mode shape. Crosswind
consideration. It is often most convenient to align these
and torsional response and second- and higher-order modes are
wind sectors to be orthogonal to the principal building
not included; the effect of the omission of these is discussed in
axes. Within each sector the nearest distance to the shore
Part 3 of this Digest.
and to the edge of town is determined, taking the lowest
surrounding building height and largest separation distance.
Values of the size factor cs are given in NA Table NA.3. The
This is referred to as ‘Option 2’ below.
value to use depends on whether the building is in Zone A,
B or C. These zones are related to the wind turbulence and
depend on the height of the building (or building part) and Table 2 shows an example of the relative conservatism for each
terrain roughness. The wind is most turbulent in Zone C (ie 90º sector of the three approaches for the house example from
low-rise buildings in towns), where the scale of the turbulence Part 2 of this Digest; see Part 2 for more details of how these
is small and the turbulence intensity generated by surrounding values are obtained.

Table 1: Description of generic building types included in NA Figure NA.9

Damping values
Type of structure
Logarithmic decrement (Gs) % of critical damping (] × 100)

Welded steel unclad frames 0.025 0.4

Bolted steel and reinforced concrete unclad frames 0.05 0.8

Framed buildings with structural walls around lifts and stairs 0.1 1.6

Framed buildings with structural walls around lifts and stairs 0.2 3.2
with internal masonry walls
 DG 436-1 Determining wind actions using Eurocode 1 – Part 1: Guidance on the use of BS EN 1991-1-4 3

Table 2: Relative conservatism for the three options for determining peak velocity pressure

Wind direction (°) Option 1 Option 2 Option 3

(east of north) 12 directions (Pa) 4 quadrants (Pa) Irrespective of direction (Pa)

0–90 287 311 511

90–180 331 369 511

Licensed copy from CIS: uliverpool, University of Liverpool, 10/02/2019, Uncontrolled Copy.

180–270 445 459 511

270–360 436 498 511

the nearest distance to the edge of the water, although this will
always give a ‘safe’ result. Figure 1 illustrates some examples for
Wind direction a 30° sector; in each case the distance to the shore is shown by
considered the red arrow. The sites are defined as follows:
• Site A: Where the distance to the water and the fetch of
land upwind of the water are both greater than the distance
30° sector across the water.
• Site B: Where the distance to the water is less than the
distance across the water.
• Site C: Where the distance across the water is greater than
A the fetch of land upwind of the water.
B
In cases where the site is less than 1 km from a body of inland
water or estuary that extends for more than 1 km upwind, it is
C
recommended that the distance to the shore be taken to the
edge of the water.
Figure 1: Determining distance to shore

Calculating altitude factor calt

Terrain categories and distance to The altitude factor calt is related to the orography factor co.
The altitude factor accounts for large-scale, slowly changing
shore topographic effects, whilst the orography factor accounts
for the local effects of wind flow over hills, escarpments etc.
The EN has five terrain categories, each of which is assumed
Because the altitude factor and orography factor both account
to be a fully developed equilibrium boundary layer; such a
for topographic effects, the PD recommends that, in all cases
boundary layer typically requires an upwind fetch of up to
when using the orography factor, the altitude factor at the
100 km to develop, depending on height above ground. A
site should also be determined, and then the most onerous
procedure is given in EN Annex A2 for determining the effect
of these two factors used. The NA gives two equations for
of transitions between the terrain categories. The EN approach
the altitude factor. NA Equation NA.2a may be used for any
does not work well in the UK because much of this country
building height but with increasing conservatism for heights
is less than 100 km from the coast and it can be difficult to
> 10 m. NA Equation NA.2b may be used for building heights
distinguish between the various terrain categories. Therefore
> 10 m. Figure 2 illustrates the altitude factor derived from
EN Annex A2 is not permitted within the UK. The NA has
these two equations, showing the conservatism if using
simplified the five EN terrain categories to sea, country and
NA Equation NA.2a for building heights > 10 m. It should be
town. Factors are given in NA Figures NA.3, NA.5 and NA.7 to
noted that the height z used in the calculation of altitude factor
account for the distance of the site from the shore in country
can be: the top of the building (or the height of the element
terrain. NA Figures NA.4, NA.6 and NA.8 give correction factors
under consideration if using division by parts); or, for overall
for sites in town terrain.
loads, the height to the centre of pressure, which for most
structures will be 60% of the building height. This means that
The closest distance to the shore or edge of town should be
if using NA Equation NA.2b, the altitude factor based on the
determined for each wind sector considered. For example, if
overall height of the building and used in the design of cladding
Option 1 is used then 30º sectors are chosen and the distances
panels will be smaller than that used for overall structural
within ±15º either side of the approaching wind direction should
stability. If using division by parts, the altitude factor used for
be used. If Option 2 is used, then 90° sectors are used and
cladding panels near the bottom of the structure will be higher
the distances within ±45º either side of the approaching wind
than the factor used for panels near the top of the structure,
direction should be used. In some cases, eg when the site is
although this effect is offset by the increase in wind speed with
close to an estuary or lake, it can be unduly conservative to take
height.
 4 Determining wind actions using Eurocode 1 – Part 1: Guidance on the use of BS EN 1991-1-4 DG 436-1

300 300 this range the orography factor may be taken as 1.0. However,
outside this range the orography factor can, in some cases, still
exceed 1.05, as shown in Figures 3 and 4. These figures show
the orography factor for a range of slopes for z/Le = 0.1. For
example, on an orographic feature with an effective upwind
slope (Le) of 100 m, this would equate to a building height (z) of
10 m or a height of 20 m for an upwind slope length of 200 m.
250 250
Licensed copy from CIS: uliverpool, University of Liverpool, 10/02/2019, Uncontrolled Copy.

The orography procedure has been developed for isolated

topographic features and it can be non-conservative in
undulating terrain. The PD gives an empirical approach for
applying the procedure in undulating terrain. However, as an
alternative to the full method given in the PD, in undulating
terrain the base of the topographic feature can conservatively
200 200 be taken as the lowest ground level within a distance of 8 km
measured upwind from the site.

Height of structure z (m)

Determining external pressure
Altitude (m)

150 150
coefficients
The EN includes external pressure coefficients for loaded areas
of 1 m2 (cpe,1) and for 10 m2 (cpe,10) with logarithmic interpolation
required for areas between 1 m2 and 10 m2. This interpolation
procedure is an NDP. Member states are therefore allowed to
use national choice in the determination of this parameter. The
UK has decided that the cpe,10 pressure coefficients should be
100 100
used for all loaded areas > 1 m2; this maintains consistency with
the pressure coefficients given in BS 6399-2. However, the PD
(Clause 2.12) makes it clear that for loaded areas ≤ 1 m2 the cpe,1
pressure coefficients must be used in the UK.

The EN and NA only give orthogonal external pressure

coefficients, ie pressure coefficients determined for wind normal
50 50 to the principal faces and roofs of rectangular plan-shaped
buildings. The PD in Clauses 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4 extends the range
of orthogonal pressure coefficients to other non-rectangular
building shapes. Orthogonal pressure coefficients are the
worst-case values within ±45º about each face of the building.
When carrying out directional calculations it can be overly
conservative to use orthogonal pressure coefficients. The PD
0 0 (Clause 3.9.3) includes directional pressure coefficients for
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 vertical walls of buildings but not for roofs. The directional roof
Altitude factor calt pressure coefficients given in BS 6399-2 are consistent with the
EN approach so these can be treated as NCCI and used with the
Equation NA.2a EN and NA.
Equation NA.2b
External pressure coefficients on buildings with re-entrant
Figure 2: Altitude factor corners, irregular or inset faces, inset storeys, open-sided
buildings and open-topped silos are not included in the EN or
NA but are often required. These are given in the PD.

Determining orography factor co

The procedure for determining the orography factor co is Division by parts
essentially the same as the procedure for determining the
topography factor in BS 6399-2. However, it should be noted The EN allows division by parts for determining overall wind
that the EN limits use of the orography factor to upwind hill loads (EN Figure 7.4) based on the height-to-breadth ratio (h/b).
slopes of ≤ 0.3 (where the slope is the ratio of the height of For h/b ≤ 1 no division is allowed, for 1 < h/b ≤ 2 the building
the topographic feature divided by its upwind length). The NA may be subdivided into two parts and for h/b > 2 the building
removes this restriction and allows its use with any upwind hill may be divided into two or more parts. The reference height is
slope. The EN does not impose any restrictions on downwind then taken to the top of each part considered. However, division
hill slopes. EN Clause 4.3.3 requires the orography factor to by parts can only be applied to the pressures on the windward
be applied when the slope exceeds 0.05 (3º) and/or where it wall, not the side walls or the leeward wall. This is because the
increases the wind velocity by > 5%. The shaded region shown wind flows in the separated flow regions around the sides and
in NA Figure NA.2 (and reproduced in Figures 3 and 4 opposite) rear of a building tend to be independent of the approaching
defines the range about the crest of the orographic feature vertical velocity profile. When using division by parts the overall
where the effects of orography should be considered; outside load is derived from summation of the windward and leeward
 DG 436-1 Determining wind actions using Eurocode 1 – Part 1: Guidance on the use of BS EN 1991-1-4 5

1.6
0.5 Ld for Ø < 0.3
When Ø ≥ 0.05 (3˚ slope), orography
should be considered for sites in 1.6 H for Ø ≥ 0.3
shaded area

1.5 Hills and ridges

H/2
H
Steep slope ≥ 0.3 (17˚) H/2

Upwind and downwind

1.4 slopes Ø
Orography factor co
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Lu Ld

1.3

1.2 Moderate slope = 0.2 (11˚)

1.1 Shallow slope = 0.1 (6˚)

1.0
-1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Distance from crest X/Le
Figure 3: Orography factor for hills and ridges for z/Le = 0.1

1.6
When Ø ≥ 0.05 (3˚ slope), orography 1.5 Lu for Ø < 0.3
should be considered for sites in 5 H for Ø ≥ 0.3
shaded area

1.5
H/2
Steep slope ≥ 0.3 (17˚)
H
H/2 Cliffs and escarpments

1.4 Upwind slope Ø

Orography factor co

Lu

1.3

Moderate slope = 0.2 (11˚)

1.2

Shallow slope = 0.1 (6˚)

1.1

1.0
-1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Distance from crest X/Le
Figure 4: Orography factor for cliffs and escarpments for z/Le = 0.1

wall pressures; the net pressure coefficients given in the figure

in NA Clause NA.2.27 Note f cannot be used with division by
Calculating internal pressure
parts. Example 2 in Part 2 of this Digest gives a calculation coefficients
using division by parts. Division by parts is unlikely to give any
significant benefit in wind loads compared with using the net For buildings with openings that are normally shut in the design
pressure coefficients. The increased calculation effort involved situation, the internal pressure coefficients are calculated using
in a division-by-parts calculation is generally only justified where EN Figure 7.13 and Expression 7.3. This approach is intended
individual storey-height forces are required. to be used in buildings where there are no dominant openings
and the air leakage is from background-distributed permeability
The cladding loads on windward faces of buildings may be through the facade or around service entry points, around doors
determined using division by parts based on the reference and windows etc, and from small non-dominant openings such
height at the top of each part considered. as ventilators and chimneys.
 6 Determining wind actions using Eurocode 1 – Part 1: Guidance on the use of BS EN 1991-1-4 DG 436-1

If a building has large openings then two checks must be made of +0.2 and -0.3 to be used in cases where it is not possible or
to determine how to calculate the internal pressure coefficient. not considered justified to calculate μ. In most cases, taking an
The first check depends on the percentage area of openings. internal pressure coefficient of +0.2 will be conservative when
If a building has openings in two or more sides (including the considering the wind loads on the roof and facades exposed to
roof) that amount to more than 30% of the area of that side suction forces.
or roof, then for the purposes of calculating internal pressure
the EN (EN Clause 7.2.9 Note 2) advises that the building be For the majority of building types, the actual permeability of
treated as a canopy roof (EN Clause 7.3) or free-standing wall the walls and roof do not need to be determined and μ can be
Licensed copy from CIS: uliverpool, University of Liverpool, 10/02/2019, Uncontrolled Copy.

(EN Clause 7.4). However, depending on the building form calculated based on the relative wall and roof areas. The examples
it might be more appropriate to use the internal pressure below show the calculation procedure for wind blowing onto the
coefficients for open-sided buildings given in PD Clause 3.6. two principal faces of a flat-roofed commercial building with a
plan aspect ratio of 1:3 clad with structural insulated panels on the
The second check is to assess whether the opening is a walls and roof. In this case the permeability of the walls and roof
dominant opening. For this assessment the areas of all openings will be approximately the same.
in a face are summed to give the total area of openings for that
face. A check is then made to determine whether that face is
a dominant face. If the ratio of the area of the openings in the
Wind blowing onto the long face
face divided by the area of all other openings and background When the wind is blowing onto the long face of the building, the
permeability in the building is ≥ 2 then the face is dominant end walls (area = 1 unit each), the rear wall (area = 3 units) and the
and cpi = 0.75 cpe. If the ratio is ≥ 3 then cpi = 0.9 cpe. Where roof (area = 3 units) will all have negative pressures, so the ∑ area
the openings extend over more than one cpe zone, the area- of surfaces where cpe is negative or -0.0 is 1 + 1 + 3 + 3 = 8 units,
weighted average of the cpe values over the openings should the ∑ area of all surfaces will include the front wall (area = 3 units)
be taken. To assess whether a face is a dominant face, the plus all other walls and the roof = 11 units. μ is therefore 8/11 =
background leakage through the building envelope needs to 0.73 and from EN Figure 7.4 cpi = -0.1 (assuming h/d = 0.25).
be determined. NA Table NA.9 gives some typical values of
background permeability for UK construction as a ratio of the
total area of a building. To calculate the equivalent opening area
Wind blowing onto the short face
of the building permeability, the appropriate permeability value When the wind is blowing onto the short face of the building,
is multiplied by the area of the building envelope. For example, the ∑ area of surfaces where cpe is negative or -0.0 is 1 + 3 + 3 +
the permeability of office curtain walling is given as 3.5 × 10 -4; if 3 = 10 units. The ∑ area of all surfaces = 11 units. μ is therefore
the area of the building envelope, excluding the dominant face, 10/11 = 0.91 and cpi = -0.3 (assuming h/d < 0.25).
is 2000 m2, then the equivalent opening area of the background
permeability is 3.5 × 10 -4 × 2000 = 0.7 m2. In this particular example, the cladding loadings would be
based on an internal pressure coefficient of either -0.1 or -0.3
Due to modern methods of construction and the trend for depending on the wind direction. This gives significant load
more airtight buildings, the air permeability values given in the reductions compared with taking the most onerous value of
NA may be too high for new buildings, so using these values +0.2 or -0.3 for each wind direction. The additional calculation
will overestimate the effective opening area. This could give a effort is therefore well worthwhile.
non-conservative result when assessing dominant openings.
In modern well-sealed buildings even a small opening could Where the permeability of the individual faces is different, this
become dominant so, where available, specific air permeability simplified approach can still be used by applying a factor to each
values for the building type should be used. For most new face to account for the variation in permeability. For example, in
buildings there is a requirement under Approved Document L of the case above, if the windward gable end wall had twice the
the Building Regulations 2010 [5, 6] to carry out whole-building permeability per unit of area of the other walls then its relative
airtightness testing. Results from such tests on similar buildings area can be assumed to be doubled and the calculation above
can often be used to determine the background permeability. for wind onto that end of the building is ∑ area of surfaces
where cpe is negative or -0.0 = 1 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 10 units. The
If there are no dominant faces in the building and the ratio of ∑ area of all surfaces = (1 × 2) + 1 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12 and μ is
openings in two or more faces does not amount to more than therefore 10/12 = 0.83 and from EN Figure 7.13 cpi = -0.23
30% of the area of those faces, then the internal pressure (assuming h/d = 0.25). For wind onto the wide face the ratios are
coefficient can be determined using EN Figure 7.13. The EN 9 units and 12 units respectively, giving μ = 9/12 = 0.75 and cpi =
approach has been derived from application of the continuity -0.12 (assuming h/d < 0.25).
equation for mass flow and uses the opening ratio μ given in
EN Expression 7.3: As expected, for wind onto the now-more-permeable open end,
the internal pressure is less negative because the area of positive
∑ area of openings where cpe is negative or -0.0 external pressure has increased. For wind onto the side face, the
μ=
area of negative external pressure has now increased and hence
∑ area of all openings
the internal pressure is more negative. The changes in the internal
pressures due to the increased permeability of the end wall are
Note: The concept of pressure coefficients of -0.0 and +0.0 has small. This shows the relative insensitivity of the internal pressure
been introduced in the EN and NA to aid interpolation between coefficient to changes in wall permeability, hence accurate
pressure coefficients of the same sign. In both cases the pressure estimation of the wall permeability is not generally required.
coefficient is taken as zero. This method of determining internal
pressures is a departure from all previous British wind loading It is possible that dominant openings could occur during wind
standards or codes of practice, which simply prescribed internal storms due to the unintentional breakage of a window or failure
pressure coefficients of +0.2 or -0.3, regardless of the building of, for example, a large roller shutter door. In this case the
form or permeability. The internal pressure in a building is likely building should be designed with the openings closed in the
to vary with wind direction; this new approach now means that ultimate limit state and the effect of these openings should be
the internal pressure must be calculated for each wind direction treated as an accidental design situation (EN Clause 2 Note 4).
considered. The EN still allows the most onerous default values The PD gives more information on this in Clause 2.15.
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 8 Determining wind actions using Eurocode 1 – Part 1: Guidance on the use of BS EN 1991-1-4 DG 436-1

Pressures on internal walls References

Differences of internal pressures between rooms can, under
1. BSI. Eurocode 1 – Actions on structures – General actions – Wind
some circumstances, be large enough to cause damage
actions. BS EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1:2010. London, BSI, 2005.
to finishes or even failure of a partition wall. Providing the
permeability of the internal walls and partitions (including gaps 2. BSI. Loading for buildings – Code of practice for wind loads.
around door openings) is at least three times that of the external BS 6399-2:1997. London, BSI, 1997.
walls, the internal pressures will tend to equalise and the net
Licensed copy from CIS: uliverpool, University of Liverpool, 10/02/2019, Uncontrolled Copy.

3. BSI. UK National Annex to Eurocode 1 – Actions on structures –

loads on the walls will be small. If, however, the internal walls
General actions – Wind actions.
and doors are well sealed, then differences in internal pressures
NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1:2010. London, BSI, 2008.
between rooms can develop. Often it is internal walls of corner
rooms with openings onto the two adjacent external walls or 4. BSI. Background information to the National Annex to
shed-type buildings divided into two units that will experience BS EN 1991-1-4 and additional guidance. PD 6688-1-4:2009.
the largest pressures across internal walls. For buildings without London, BSI, 2009.
dominant openings the maximum net pressure coefficient
5. Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG).
on internal walls can be taken as ±0.5; this assumes internal
The Building Regulations 2010 (England). Approved Document L:
pressure coefficients on either side of the wall of +0.2 and -0.3.
Conservation of fuel and power. Available at:
For multi-room buildings the internal pressure in each room may
www.planningportal.gov.uk.
be determined from flow continuity, which requires that the air
inflow and outflow into each room balances. This is an iterative 6. Welsh Government. The Building Regulations 2010 (Wales).
calculation, an example of which is given in BRE Digest 346 Approved Document L: Conservation of fuel and power. Available
Part 8 [7]. at: http://gov.wales.
7. BRE. The assessment of wind loads. Part 8: Internal pressures.
BRE DG 346-8. Bracknell, IHS BRE Press, 1990.

Acknowledgements

The research and writing for Digest has been funded by

BRE Trust.

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ISBN 978-1-84806-423-2 (Part 1)
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