Universidad Veracruzana

Facultad de Fı́sica

Tarea 1: Introducción y motivación

a Topologı́a
I-2024

Profesor: Dr. Julio A. Méndez Zabaleta

José Blanco Valdés

5 de marzo de 2024
Métodos Matemáticos Tarea 1

Exercise 1

Considering the non-relativistic charged particle dynamics moving in the pre-

sence of an electromagnetic field, prove the following
1. The Lorentz force law of motion can be derived from the Lagrangian
1
L = mẋi ẋi − j µ Aµ
2
where the dot derivative stands for the derivative with respect to time.
2. Show explicitly weather this equations of motion are gauge invariant.
3. Now consider the relativistic particle whose lagrangian is given by
r
2 dxµ dxν
L = −mc ηµν − j µ Aµ ,
dτ dτ
where now τ is a parameter along the world line which could be taken as the
proper time of the particle. If now the current is taken as j µ = (cq, qdxµ /dτ ),
derive the relativistic equations of motion. Remember that now the genera-
lized coordinates are the xµ .

a) Solution
First, let’s note that the explicit form of the provided Lagrangian is equivalent to:
1
L= mẋi ẋi − ρϕ + ρẋi Ai (1)
2
Let’s find the equations of motion from the Euler-Lagrange equations, such that:
 
d ∂L ∂L
i
− i =0 (2)
dt ∂ q̇ ∂q

Then, we obtain the derivatives of the components, such that:

∂L ∂ϕ ∂Aj
= −ρ i + ρẋj
∂xi ∂x ∂xi
∂L
= mẋi + ρAi
∂ ẋi   
d ∂L ∂Ai ∂Ai k
= mẍi + ρ + ẋ
dt ∂ ẋi ∂t ∂xk

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Substituting, we get:   
∂ϕ ∂Ai j ∂Aj k ∂Ai
mẍi = −ρ + + ẋ − ẋ (3)
∂xi ∂t ∂xi ∂xk
We can note that:
∂Aj ∂Ai
(v × B)i = ẋj − ẋk k (4)
∂xi ∂x
And taking into account that  
∂ϕ ∂Ai
Ei = − i
+ (5)
∂x ∂t
We can conclude that
mẍ = ρ(Ei + (v × B)i ) (6)
Which turns out to be the expression for the Lorentz force.

b) Solution
Let’s remember that Gauge transformations in this case can be defined as:
1 ∂Ω
ϕ′ = ϕ − (7)
c ∂t
A′i = Ai + ∂i Ω (8)
Let’s apply it to the Lorentz force equation:
    
∂ ′ ∂Ω ∂ ′ j ∂ ′

k ∂ ′
Fi = −ρ ϕ + + (A − ∂i Ω) − ẋ Aj − ∂j Ω − ẋ (A − ∂i Ω) (9)
∂xi ∂t ∂t i ∂xi ∂xk i
Where Fi is the Lorentz force. If we take into account the following relationships:
      
∂Ω ∂ ∂Ω ∂Ω
−ρ ∂i − (∂i Ω) = −ρ ∂i − ∂i (10)
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t

−ẋj ∂i (∂j Ω) + ẋk ∂k (∂i Ω) = −ẋj ∂i ∂j Ω + ẋk ∂i ∂k Ω = 0 (11)

we arrive at
Fi′ = ρ(Ei′ + (v × B)) (12)
We conclude the invariance of the Lorentz force under Gauge transformations.

c) Solution
Starting from the variational principle given by:
Z
δs = δLdτ = 0 (13)

Expanding, we arrive at:

−mc2
δL = p µ ẍν δ ẍν − (δj µ )Aµ − j µ δAµ (14)
ẍ ẍµ
Taking into account
d ν
δ ẍν = δx
dτ
we get ! !
d −mc2 d −mc2
p ẍµ δxν − p ẍµ δxν − (δj µ )Aµ − j µ δAµ
dτ ẍµ ẍµ dτ ẍµ ẍµ

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Due to the dependencies of j µ = j µ (ẍν ) and Aµ = Aµ (xn u), we arrive at
! ! !
−mc2 2
 µ 
−mc
Z
d d d d j ∂A µ
δs = ẍν δxν − − ẍµ δxν − Aµ δxν − j µ ν δxµ dτ
dτ dẍν
p p
dτ ẍµ ẍµ dτ dτ ẍµ ẍµ ∂x
Simplifying and factoring δxν , where we know that δxν , we can deduce the equations of motion, which
are: !
∂j µ d d ∂j µ
   
2 d 1 ∂Aµ
mc p ẍν + ν
Aµ + ν
Aµ − j µ ν = 0
dτ µ
ẍ ẍµ ∂ ẍ dτ dτ ∂ ẍ ∂x
Notice the following relations:
∂j µ
 
d ∂Aν Aν
Aµ = q µ ẍµ + q
∂ ẍν dτ ∂x ∂τ
 µ
d ∂j
Aµ = 0
dτ ∂ ẍν
∂Aµ ∂ϕ ∂Ai
ν
jµ= −q ν + qẍi ν
∂x ∂x ∂x
So we conclude    
∂Aν ∂ϕ i ∂Ai ∂Aν α
−q + + ẍ − ẍ
∂τ ∂xν ∂xν ∂xα
This result shows explicitly the desired outcome.

Exercise 2
Show that the following results are true:
1. Fundamental theorem of line integral or Gradient theorem:
Z ⃗x1
∇φ(⃗y ) · d⃗y = φ(⃗x1 ) − φ(⃗x0 ),
⃗
x0
3
where γ is a curve in R with starting and ending points ⃗x0 and ⃗x1 , respec-
tively, and φ is a smooth scalar field.
2. Z ⃗
x 
∇ F⃗ (⃗y ) · d⃗y = F⃗ (⃗x) − F⃗ (⃗x0 ),
⃗
x0
where γ is a curve in R3 . State carefully what assumptions are needed for
this to hold.

a) Solution
Let’s develop the expression of the integrand:
∂φ(⃗y ) ∂φ(⃗y ) j ∂φ(⃗y ) j
∇φ(⃗y ) · d⃗y = êi i
· d(xj êj ) = i
dx êi · êj = dx δij = dφ(⃗y ) (15)
∂x ∂x ∂xi
Then,
Z ⃗
x
F⃗ (⃗y ) · d⃗y = F⃗ (⃗x) − F⃗ (⃗x0 ) (16)
⃗
x0
Which is exactly what we wanted to show.

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b) Solution
We will use the ansatz
F⃗ = ∇φ(⃗y ), (17)
Directly substituting the ansatz,
!
Z ⃗
x1
∇ ∇φ(⃗y ) · d⃗y = ∇(φ(⃗x) − φ(⃗x1 )) = F⃗ (⃗x1 ) − F⃗ (⃗x0 ) (18)
⃗
x0

Exactly what we wanted to demonstrate.

Exercise 3

The Schrödinger equation that describes the non-relativistic case of problem 1

is given by  
1  q 2 ∂
Pi − Ai (X) − qϕ(X) |ψ⟩ = iℏ |ψ⟩ .
2m c ∂t
Show explicitly that a gauge transformation accompanied by a state transfor-
mation |ψ ′ ⟩ = eiconstΩ(t,X) |ψ⟩ leaves the equation form invariant, where Ω(t, X) is
an arbitrary function. (Determine the constant in terms of ℏ, q, and c.)

Solution
By setting the Schrödinger equation to zero
 2 
1  q ∂
Pi − Ai (X) − qϕ(X) − iℏ |ψ⟩ = 0.
2m c ∂t

This equation must remain unchanged if

 2 
1  q ∂
Pi − A′i (X) − qϕ′ (X) − iℏ |ψ ′ ⟩ = 0,
2m c ∂t

where A′i (x) and ϕ′ are the gauge transformations, such that

1 ∂Ω
ϕ′ = ϕ −
c ∂t
A′i = Ai + ∂i Ω
we will work in the configuration space so that our equation can be written as:
 2 
1  q ′ ′ ∂
−iℏ∂i − Ai (X) − qϕ (X) − iℏ ϕ′ (xj , t) = 0,
2m c ∂t

Substituting the gauge transformations and simplifying, we obtain:

2  
1  q q q ∂Ω ∂
−iℏ∂j − Aj − ∂j Ω eidΩ Ψ + qϕ − − iℏ eidΩ Ψ = 0
2m c c c ∂t ∂t

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where d, will be the constant to find. We will analyze the problem in two parts, the first to work on will
be:  
q ∂Ω ∂
qϕ − − iℏ eidΩ Ψ (19)
c ∂t ∂t
   
q ∂Ω idΩ ∂Ω idΩ ∂Ψ idΩ
= qϕ − e Ψ − iℏ id e Ψ+ e
c ∂t ∂t ∂t
q ∂Ω idΩ ∂Ω idΩ ∂Ψ
qϕeidΩ Ψ − e Ψ + ℏd e − iℏeidΩ
c ∂t ∂t ∂t
Notice that the expression
q ∂Ω idΩ ∂Ω idΩ
e Ψ + ℏd e =0
c ∂t ∂t
if and only if
q
ℏd =
ℏc
Which leads us to    
q ∂Ω ∂ idΩ q
i ℏc Ω ∂
qϕ − − iℏ e Ψ=e qϕ − iℏ Ψ. (20)
c ∂t ∂t ∂t
Now let’s work with the term 2
 q q
−iℏ∂j − Aj − ∂j Ω eidΩ
c c
Ψ Let’s substitute our value for d
 q q 2 q
−iℏ∂j − Aj − ∂j Ω ei ℏc Ω Ψ
c c
 q q   q q  q
−iℏ∂j − Aj − ∂j Ω −iℏ∂j − Aj − ∂j Ω ei ℏc Ω Ψ (21)
c c c c
Following the development, the expression
 q q  q q
h q i
−iℏ∂j − Aj − ∂j Ω ei ℏc Ω Ψ = ei ℏc Ω −iℏ∂Ψ − Aj Ψ (22)
c c c
Substituting in 21 we arrive at
 q q  q h q i
−iℏ∂j − Aj − ∂j Ω ei ℏc Ω −iℏ∂Ψ − Aj Ψ
c c c
Developing
a2
 
q iℏq iℏ
ei ℏc Ω −ℏ2 ∂j Ψ + (∂j Aj )Ψ + 2 Aj ∂j Ψ + 2 A2j Ψ
c c c
Notice that
iℏq iℏ a2  q 2
−ℏ2 ∂j Ψ + (∂j Aj )Ψ + 2 Aj ∂j Ψ + 2 A2j Ψ = −iℏ∂j − Aj Ψ
c c c c
So we arrive at 2
 q q q
 q 2
−iℏ∂j − Aj − ∂j Ω eidΩ Ψ = ei ℏc Ω −iℏ∂j − Aj Ψ (23)
c c c
Then substituting the results of 23 and 20 we arrive at
 
1 i q Ω q 2 q ∂
e ℏc −iℏ∂j − Aj Ψ + ei ℏc Ω qϕ − iℏ Ψ=0
2m c ∂t
 
1  q 2 ∂
−iℏ∂j − Aj Ψ + qϕ − iℏ Ψ=0 (24)
2m c ∂t
Therefore we can ensure that the Schrödinger equation is invariant under Gauge transformations.

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Exercise 4

To be discussed in class, next Wednesday 28/02 Define what is a metric space

in agreement with the line we were following during the last lecture. Provide
a precise definition of continuity of maps. Cite all definitions and theorems
you might need. Also, recall the axioms of a vector (or linear) space and the
algebraic structures it have.

Solution
The solution of this exercise was presented in class.

Exercise 5

the graphical prescription we have used so far to identify the quotient space of R2 / ∼ accor-
ding to the following equivalent relations

1. (x1 , y1 ) ∼ (x2 = x1 + 2nx π, y2 = y1 + 2ny π) with nx , ny ∈ Z

2. Take the unit disk D = {(x, y) ∈ R2 |x2 + y 2 ≤ 1} First, define the set that constitutes
its boundary ∂D. What space is obtained through the identification (x1 , y1 ) ∼ (x2 , y2 ) if
x21 + y12 = x22 + y22 , where x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ∈ ∂D.

a) Solution
For this exercise, we will only present the graphical interpretation. Firstly, we observe that the points on
the Cartesian plane appear as shown below:

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By establishing the relationship between them, we notice that we arrive at:

which is equivalent to S 1 × S 1 (Torus):

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b) Solution
The identification points can be visualized as:

Thus, we can relate the equivalence with S 2 (Sphere):

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Exercise 6

Define the following set with a funny name

n o
a b
o
SL(2, Z) = a, b, c, d ∈ Z and ad − bc = 1
c d
show that the if z belongs to the upper half complex plane ( Im(z) ≥ 0 ),
if there exists a matrix in SL(2, Z) such that two complex are related by
z ′ = (az + b)/(cz + d), this defines an equivalence relation.

Solution
A relation of equivalence denoted as ∽ must fulfill three properties:

i a∽a

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ii if a ∽ b, then b ∽ a
iii if a ∽ b and b ∽ c, then a ∽ c
To demonstrate this, we will consider that
     
a b z a·z+b
· =
c d 1 c·z+d

First property z ∽ z
The first property is evident, given that we can propose the identity matrix I such that
 
1 0
I=
0 1
Then:      
1 0 z z
· =
0 1 1 1

Second property z ∽ z ′
For this step, we will calculate the inverse of the matrix
 
a b
c d
It is straightforward to demonstrate that the inverse is
 
d −b
−c a
Where we have used the property given in the statement ad − bc = 1. It is also easy to notice that the
determinant of the inverse is ad − bc = 1, from which we can ensure that it belongs to the set with the
amusing name. Finally, let’s apply
  ′ 
d · z′ − b
 
d −b z
· =
−c a 1 −c · z ′ + a
We notice that
d · z′ − b
=z
−c · z ′ + a

Third property z ∽ z ′ and z ′ ∽ z ′′

Let’s propose      ′
a b z z
· =
c d 1 1
and   ′   ′′ 
e f z z
· =
g h 1 1
Where we will consider ad − bc = 1 and eh − f g = 1. Then,
      ′′ 
e f a b z z
=
g h c d 1 1
it follows that      ′′ 
ae + cf be + df z z
=
ag + ah bg + dh 1 1
A quick calculation of the determinant of the matrix ((ad − bc)(eh − f g) = 1) leads us to conclude that this
matrix also belongs to the set with the amusing name.

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Exercise 7
Let A and B be subsets of another set X. If we define a collection T =
{∅, X, A, B}, investigate all conditions that arise if we require T to define a
topology over X.

Solution
The conditions for T to define a topology are:
i X and ∅ belong to T .
ii Union of elements Ui ∈ τi is in T .
iii Finite intersection of subsets of T is in the topology.

First property
By definition of T , it holds that X and ∅ are contained in T .

Second property

∅ ∪ X = X, X ∪ A = X, X ∪ B = X
∅ ∪ A = A, ∅ ∪ B = B
A∪B =X

For the case of A ∪ B, we have considered that A and B are sets different from ∅ and X.

Third property

∅ ∩ X = ∅, X ∩ A = A, X ∩ B = B
∅ ∩ A = ∅, ∅ ∩ B = ∅
A∩B =∅

For the case of A ∩ B, we have considered that A and B are sets different from ∅ and X.
Therefore, T defines a topology.

Exercise 8
(Weierstraß theorem) L2 spaces are a particular kind of Banach spaces (metric
and complete vector space), which has additional mathematical structure. This
structure is important as to allow the functions f ∈ L2 to be approximated
with arbitrary precision by a polynomial. This is the base behind the theory
of classical orthogonal polynomials. (a) Define the L2 spaces in the style we
followed in class. Hint: You’ll need to get familiar with measurable spaces and
sigma-algebras. (b) With this understanding, research and state the Weierstraß
theorem [in a way you fully understand it! :) ] (c) Discuss how the whole
structure of L 2 grants the conditions for this theorem to exist.

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a) Definition of L2 Spaces
L2 spaces are a mathematical framework used to study functions, especially in contexts like signal pro-
cessing, quantum mechanics, and probability theory. They are built upon the idea of measurable spaces,
which consist of a set of points (such as real numbers) along with a way to measure subsets of those points.
Here’s a breakdown:
1. Measurable Space: Imagine you have a set of points, like the real numbers. Now, you want to unders-
tand how ’big’ certain subsets of these numbers are. For example, what’s the ’size’ of all numbers between
0 and 1? This concept of ’size’ is captured by something called a measure.
2. Sigma-Algebra: To work with measures in a nice way, we often group together certain subsets of points
into what’s called a sigma-algebra. This collection of subsets has some special properties that make it ea-
sier to handle mathematically.
3. Measure: Now, a measure is like a ruler that tells you the ’size’ of different subsets of points. For exam-
ple, it can tell you the length of an interval on the real number line.
In L2 spaces, we consider functions defined on these measurable spaces. But not just any functions — we
focus on those that have a special property: their square (technically, the square of their absolute value)
is integrable. Integrable means you can add up their values over certain subsets of points, and the total is
finite (not infinite). This ensures that these functions don’t behave too wildly, and we can work with them
in a nice, mathematical way.
Furthermore, if two functions differ only on a ’small’ set of points (what mathematicians call ’almost everywhe-
re’), we consider them equivalent in L2 .

b) Weierstrass Theorem
Now, the Weierstrass theorem is a powerful result in calculus that says, essentially, you can approximate
any ’nice’ function (like a continuous one) with polynomials. Imagine you have a smooth curve on a graph.
The theorem says that, no matter how wiggly or curvy that curve is, you can draw a polynomial (which
is much simpler) that gets very close to it, even if you zoom in really close. This is super useful because
polynomials are much easier to work with in calculations.

c) Role of L2 Structure
The L2 structure — which includes the completeness of Banach spaces and the orthogonality of functions
— is crucial for understanding why the Weierstrass theorem works.
Completeness means that ’gaps’ are filled in nicely: if you have a sequence of functions that gets closer and
closer to some limit function, that limit function actually exists within the space. This property is essential
because it ensures that our approximation using polynomials doesn’t leave any ’holes’ or ’missing pieces.’
The orthogonality aspect is like having a set of ’nice’ building blocks that we can use to construct our ap-
proximating polynomials. These building blocks (functions) are nicely ’perpendicular’ to each other in a
sense, making it easier to fit them together in just the right way to approximate any function we want.
So, in summary, the L2 structure provides the mathematical foundation that allows us to make sense of
the Weierstrass theorem and its powerful implications for approximating functions with polynomials.

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