The load line plots all possible

combinations of diode current (ID)

and voltage (VD) for a given circuit.
The maximum ID equals E/R, and
the maximum VD equals E.

The point where the load line and

the characteristic curve intersect is
the Q-point, which identifies ID and
VD for a particular diode in a given
circuit.

2
 Forward Bias
Constants
 Silicon Diode: VD = 0.7 V

 Germanium Diode: VD = 0.3 V

Analysis (for silicon)

 VD = 0.7 V (or VD = E if E < 0.7 V)
 VR = E – VD

 ID = IR = IT = VR / R

3
 Reverse Bias
Diodes ideally behave as open circuits

Analysis
 VD = E

 VR = 0 V

 ID = 0 A

4
 Determine VD VR and ID

VD = 0.7 V

VR = E – VD 8V
= 8 V – 0.7 V
= 7.3 V 2.2 KΩ

ID = I R = VR / R
= 7.3 V / 2.2 KΩ
= 3.32 mA
V = 0.7 V
D
V =V = V = 0.7 V
D1 D2 O
V = 9.3 V
R
E−V 10 V − .7 V
I = D = = 28 mA
R R .33kΩ
28 mA
I =I = = 14 mA
D1 D2 2

6
The diode only
conducts when it is
forward biased,
therefore only half
of the AC cycle
passes through the
diode to the
output.

The DC output voltage is 0.318Vm, where Vm = the peak AC voltage.

7
Because the diode is only forward biased for one-half of the AC cycle, it is
also reverse biased for one-half cycle.

It is important that the reverse breakdown voltage rating of the diode be

high enough to withstand the peak, reverse-biasing AC voltage.

PIV (or PRV) > Vm

• PIV = Peak inverse voltage

• PRV = Peak reverse voltage
• Vm = Peak AC voltage

8
The rectification process can be improved by
using a full-wave rectifier circuit.

Full-wave rectification produces a greater

DC output:

• Half-wave: Vdc = 0.318Vm

• Full-wave: Vdc = 0.636Vm

9
Center-Tapped Transformer
Rectifier
Requires
• Two diodes
• Center-tapped transformer

VDC = 0.636Vm

10
 VDC = 0.636Vm
 PIV rating ≥ 2Vm
 A much better scheme for changing ac to dc is to use both
halves of the ac cycle. Suppose you want to convert an ac
wave to dc with positive polarity. Then you can allow the
positive half of the ac cycle to pass unchanged, and flip the
negative portion of the wave upside-down, making it positive
instead. This is the principle behind full-wave rectification.
Bridge Rectifier

 Four diodes are connected in a

bridge configuration
 VDC = 0.636Vm

12
 VDC = 0.636 Vm
 PIV rating ≥ Vm
 The bridge circuit does not need a center-tapped transformer
secondary. This is its main practical advantage. Electrically, the
bridge circuit uses the entire secondary on both halves of the wave
cycle; the center-tap circuit uses one side of the secondary for one
half of the cycle, and the other side for the other half of the cycle.
For this reason, the bridge circuit makes more efficient use of the
transformer.
 Rectifier Ideal VDC Realistic VDC

Half Wave Rectifier VDC = 0.318Vm VDC = 0.318Vm – 0.7

Bridge Rectifier VDC = 0.636Vm VDC = 0.636Vm – 2(0.7 V)

Center-Tapped Transformer
VDC = 0.636Vm VDC = 0.636Vm – 0.7 V
Rectifier

Vm = peak of the AC voltage.

In the center tapped transformer rectifier circuit, the peak AC voltage

is the transformer secondary voltage to the tap.

14
 The diode in a series clipper “clips”
any voltage that does not forward
bias it:
 •A reverse-biasing polarity
•A forward-biasing polarity less than
0.7 V (for a silicon diode)

•A circuit which removes the peak of a

waveform is known as a clipper.

15
Adding a DC source in
series with the clipping
diode changes the
effective forward bias of
the diode.

16
The diode in a parallel clipper
circuit “clips” any voltage that
forward bias it.

DC biasing can be added in

series with the diode to change
the clipping level.

17
 more…

18
19
Anti-parallel diodes clip both positive and negative peak,
leaving a ± 0.7 V output.

Diode D1 clips at -0.7 V as it conducts during negative peaks.

D2 conducts for positive peaks, clipping at 0.7V.
 A practical application
of a clipper is to prevent
an amplified speech
signal from overdriving
a radio transmitter in
the Figure.
 Over driving the
transmitter generates
spurious radio signals
which causes
interference with other Clipper prevents over
stations. The clipper is a driving radio transmitter by
voice peaks
protective measure.
A diode and capacitor can be
combined to “clamp” an AC
signal to a specific DC level.

A clamper is a circuit that is

designed to shift a waveform
above or below a dc reference
voltage without altering the
shape of the waveform. This
results in a change in the dc
average of the waveform.

22
The input signal can be any type
of waveform such as sine, square,
and triangle waves.

The DC source lets you adjust

the DC camping level.

23
 A clamper with its input and (ideal) output waveforms.

There are two basic types of clampers:

• A positive clamper shifts its input waveform in a positive direction, so

that it lies above a dc reference voltage. For example, the positive
clamper in Figure shifts the input waveform so that it lies above 0 V (the
dc reference voltage).

• A negative clamper shifts its input waveform in a negative direction, so

that it lies below a dc reference voltage.
25
 The Zener is a diode operated
in reverse bias at the Zener
Voltage (Vz).

 When Vi  VZ
◦ The Zener is on
◦ Voltage across the Zener is VZ
◦ Zener current: IZ = IR – IRL
◦ The Zener Power: PZ = VZIZ

 When Vi < VZ
◦ The Zener is off
◦ The Zener acts as an open circuit

26
If R is too large, the Zener diode cannot conduct because the available amount of
current is less than the minimum current rating, IZK. The minimum current is
given by:
I Lmin = I R − I ZK

The maximum value of resistance is:

VZ
RLmax =
I Lmin

If R is too small, the Zener current exceeds the maximum current

rating, IZM . The maximum current for the circuit is given by:
VL V
I L max = = Z
RL RL min
The minimum value of resistance is:
RV Z
RL min =
Vi − V Z

27
A voltage multiplier provides a dcoutput voltage that is
a multiple of the circuit’s peak input voltage.
Voltage multiplier circuits use a combination of
diodes and capacitors to step up the output voltage of
rectifier circuits.

 Voltage Doubler
 Voltage Tripler
 Voltage Quadrupler

28
This half-wave voltage doubler’s output can be calculated by:

Vout = VC2 = 2Vm

where Vm = peak secondary voltage of the transformer

29
• Positive Half-Cycle
o D1 conducts
o D2 is switched off
o Capacitor C1 charges to Vm

• Negative Half-Cycle
o D1 is switched off
o D2 conducts
o Capacitor C2 charges to Vm

Vout = VC2 = 2Vm

30
Voltage multipliers reduce source current by roughly the same factor that they
increase source voltage. For example, a voltage tripler produces a dc output voltage
that is approximately three times the peak source voltage. At the same time, its
maximum output current is roughly one-third the value of the source current. As
such, voltage multipliers are commonly used in high-voltage, low-current
applications. They can also be used to produce dual-polarity output voltages in power
supply applications.

31
 Rectifier Circuits
◦ Conversions of AC to DC for DC operated circuits
◦ Battery Charging Circuits

 Simple Diode Circuits

◦ Protective Circuits against
◦ Overcurrent
◦ Polarity Reversal
◦ Currents caused by an inductive kick in a relay circuit

 Zener Circuits
◦ Overvoltage Protection
◦ Setting Reference Voltages

32