Ion Channels: Methods and Protocols

Methods in
Molecular Biology 998
Nikita Gamper Editor
Ion Channels
Methods and Protocols
Second Edition
METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY™
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University of Hertfordshire
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Ion Channels
Methods and Protocols
Second Edition
Edited by
Nikita Gamper
School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
Editor
Nikita Gamper
School of Biomedical Sciences
University of Leeds
Leeds, UK
ISSN 1064-3745 ISSN 1940-6029 (electronic)

ISBN 978-1-62703-350-3 ISBN 978-1-62703-351-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-62703-351-0
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Preface
Every cell in our body contains a great variety and number of permeability pathways for
various organic and inorganic ions, water, metabolites, nutrients, and signaling molecules.
Maintenance and precise control of gating within these pathways are fundamental principles
of life as these underlie basic cellular functions such as communication, contractility, and
metabolism. This book focuses on the strategies, approaches, methods, and protocols for
studying a large family of proteins that form ionic channels in the plasma membrane and
intracellular membranes of cells. Like other permeability pathways of biological membranes,
ion channels are essential for life as they generate action potentials and regulate synaptic
transmission in neurons and muscle cells, underlie intracellular Ca2+ signalling, and
contribute to the charge separation across plasma membranes. Not surprisingly, genetic
deficiencies or acute deregulations of ion channel activity, trafficking, or degradation often
cause or contribute to severe human disorders (often called “channelopathies”) and
pathologies, e.g., arrhythmias, epilepsies, chronic pains, deafness, diabetes, and many
others. Conversely, ion channels are increasingly recognized as therapeutic targets.
Slightly over half a century ago, ion-selective channels in the plasma membrane were
postulated by Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley as a purely theoretical concept. Now, at
the beginning of the twenty-first century, hundreds of ion channel genes are cloned, and
the currents conducted by many of them are exhaustively characterized. Some ion channels
are assigned with clear physiological functions while some are linked to human diseases,
and, for a handful of them, functional structures are proposed. This is tremendous prog-
ress, yet there is even more that we do not know. The aim of the present book is twofold:
firstly, using practical examples from the cutting-edge current research, we will take a look
back at the major methods and approaches that allowed us to progress to our current
understanding of ion channel function, structural design, and biological roles; and sec-
ondly, we will try to look forward and identify approaches that will lead us to future
discoveries.
This book will be of interest to specialists in academia and industry looking for specific
methodology in studying ion channels. It will be helpful for lecturers and advanced stu-
dents in the university classroom as well as for anyone interested in the state-of-the art
biomedical toolkit.
Leeds, UK Nikita Gamper
v
Contents
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
PART I CLONING AND HETEROLOGOUS EXPRESSION OF ION CHANNEL GENES
1 Approaches to Cloning of Pain-Related Ion Channel Genes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Armen N. Akopian
2 Mammalian Expression Systems and Transfection Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Daunia Laurenti and Lezanne Ooi
3 Use of Escherichia coli for the Production and Purification
of Membrane Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Vincent G.L. Postis, Andrea E. Rawlings, Amelia Lesiuk,
and Stephen A. Baldwin
4 Transient Overexpression of Genes in Neurons Using Nucleofection. . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Hannah M. Kirton, Louisa Pettinger, and Nikita Gamper
5 Viral Gene Delivery: Optimized Protocol for Production
of High Titer Lentiviral Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
James Hewinson, Julian F.R. Paton, and Sergey Kasparov
PART II ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS TO STUDY ION

CHANNEL FUNCTIONS
6 Two-Electrode Voltage Clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Bingcai Guan, Xingjuan Chen, and Hailin Zhang
7 Conventional Micropipette-Based Patch Clamp Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Jonathan D. Lippiat and David C. Wrighton
8 Recording of Ion Channel Activity in Planar Lipid Bilayer Experiments. . . . . . . . . . 109
Eleonora Zakharian
9 Recording Macroscopic Currents in Large Patches
from Xenopus Oocytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Tibor Rohacs
10 Combined Single-Channel and Macroscopic Recording
Techniques to Analyze Gating Mechanisms of the Large Conductance
Ca2+ and Voltage Activated (BK) Potassium Channel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Nguyen V. Nguyen, Aleksandra Gruslova,
Wojciech A. Kosiba, and Bin Wang
11 Perforated Whole-Cell Patch-Clamp Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
John E. Linley
12 Piezo-Electrically Driven Mechanical Stimulation of Sensory Neurons. . . . . . . . . . . 159
Jizhe Hao, Jérôme Ruel, Bertrand Coste, Yann Roudaut,
Marcel Crest, and Patrick Delmas
vii
viii Contents
13 Automated Planar Patch-Clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Carol J. Milligan and Clemens Möller
14 Recording Single-Channel Currents Using
“Smart Patch-Clamp” Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Anamika Bhargava and Julia Gorelik
PART III IMAGING AND FLUORESCENCE METHODS TO STUDY ION CHANNELS
15 Using Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy

to Observe Ion Channel Trafficking and Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Sarah Schwarzer, Gregory I. Mashanov, Justin E. Molloy,
and Andrew Tinker
16 Förster Resonance Energy Transfer-Based Imaging
at the Cell Surface of Live Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Sonya M. Bierbower and Mark S. Shapiro
17 The Use of Dansyl-Calmodulin to Study Interactions
with Channels and Other Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Alessandro Alaimo, Covadonga Malo, Pilar Areso,
Kerman Aloria, Oscar Millet, and Alvaro Villarroel
18 Imaging and Quantification of Recycled KATP Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Christopher J. Cockcroft
PART IV BIOCHEMICAL AND STRUCTURE-FUNCTIONAL APPROACHES

IN ION CHANNEL STUDIES
19 Generation of Antibodies That Are Externally Acting

Isoform-Specific Inhibitors of Ion Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Jacqueline Naylor and David J. Beech
20 Site-Directed Mutagenesis to Study the Structure–Function
Relationships of Ion Channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Wei Yang and Lin-Hua Jiang
21 Cysteine-Based Cross-Linking Approach to Study
Inter-domain Interactions in Ion Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Lin-Hua Jiang
22 Analysis of Ca2+-Binding Sites in the MthK RCK Domain
by X-Ray Crystallography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Frank J. Smith and Brad S. Rothberg
23 Isotope Labeling Strategies for Analysis of an Ion
Channel Cytoplasmic Domain by NMR Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Karin Abarca-Heidemann, Elke Duchardt-Ferner,
Jens Woehnert, and Brad S. Rothberg
PART V STUDYING ION CHANNELS IN NATIVE TISSUES

24 Recording Dendritic Ion Channel Properties and Function
from Cortical Neurons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Mala M. Shah
Contents ix
25 M-Current Recording from Acute DRG Slices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

Kirstin E. Rose, Sylvain Gigout, and Nikita Gamper
26 Studying Ion Channels in Human Erythrocytes
by Direct and Indirect Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Stephan M. Huber
27 Recording Ion Channels in Isolated, Split-Opened Tubules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Elena Mironova, Vladislav Bugay, Oleh Pochynyuk,
Alexander Staruschenko, and James D. Stockand
28 Single-Channel Analysis of TRPC Channels
in the Podocytes of Freshly Isolated Glomeruli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Daria V. Ilatovskaya and Alexander Staruschenko
29 Ca2+ Imaging as a Tool to Assess TRP Channel Function
in Murine Distal Nephrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Mykola Mamenko, Oleg Zaika, Roger G. O’Neil, and Oleh Pochynyuk
30 Patch-Clamping Drosophila Sensory Neurons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Volodymyr Kucher, Benjamin A. Eaton,
James D. Stockand, and Nina Boiko
PART VI ION CHANNELS AS RESEARCH TOOLS

31 Production and Validation of Recombinant Adeno-Associated Virus
for Channelrhodopsin Expression in Neurons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
John Y. Lin
32 Optical Control of Ligand-Gated Ion Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Stephanie Szobota, Catherine McKenzie, and Harald Janovjak
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Contributors
KARIN ABARCA-HEIDEMANN • Department of Biochemistry, Temple University School of

Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
ARMEN N. AKOPIAN • Department of Endodontics, Dental School, University of Texas
Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
ALESSANDRO ALAIMO • Unidad de Biofísica (CSIC-UPV/EHU), Universidad del País
Vasco, Leioa, Spain
KERMAN ALORIA • Proteomics Core Facility-SGIKER, Universidad del País Vasco,
Leioa, Spain
PILAR ARESO • Faculty of Medicine and Odontology, Department of Pharmacology,
Universidad del País Vasco, Leioa, Spain
STEPHEN A. BALDWIN • Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology,
School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
DAVID J. BEECH • Faculty of Biological Sciences, Multidisciplinary Cardiovascular
Research Centre, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK; Faculty of Medicine and Health,
Multidisciplinary Cardiovascular Research Centre, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
ANAMIKA BHARGAVA • Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, National Heart and
Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
SONYA M. BIERBOWER • Department of Physiology, University of Texas Health Science
Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
NINA BOIKO • Department of Physiology, University of Texas Health Science Center at
San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
VLADISLAV BUGAY • Department of Physiology, University of Texas Health Science
XINGJUAN CHEN • The Key Laboratory of Neural and Vascular Biology, Ministry of
Education, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China; The Key Laboratory of
Pharmacology and Toxicology for New Drugs, Ministry of Education, Shijiazhuang,
Hebei Province, China; Department of Pharmacology, Hebei Medical University,
Shijiazhuang, China
CHRISTOPHER J. COCKCROFT • Faculty of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical
Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
BERTRAND COSTE • Centre de Recherche en Neurobiologie et Neurophysiologie de
Marseille, UMR 7286, CNRS, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France
MARCEL CREST • Centre de Recherche en Neurobiologie et Neurophysiologie de Marseille,
UMR 7286, CNRS, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France
PATRICK DELMAS • Centre de Recherche en Neurobiologie et Neurophysiologie de
ELKE DUCHARDT-FERNER • Institute for Molecular Biosciences, Center for Biomolecular
Magnetic Resonance (BMRZ), Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt am
Main, Germany
BENJAMIN A. EATON • Department of Physiology, University of Texas Health Science
xi
xii Contributors
NIKITA GAMPER • Faculty of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences,

University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
SYLVAIN GIGOUT • Faculty of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences,
JULIA GORELIK • Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, National Heart and Lung
Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
ALEKSANDRA GRUSLOVA • Department of Physiology, University of Texas Health Science
BINGCAI GUAN • The Key Laboratory of Neural and Vascular Biology, Ministry of
Education, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China; The Key Laboratory of
Pharmacology and Toxicology for New Drugs, Ministry of Education, Shijiazhuang,
Hebei Province, China; Department of Pharmacology, Hebei Medical University,
Shijiazhuang, China
JIZHE HAO • Centre de Recherche en Neurobiologie et Neurophysiologie de Marseille,
JAMES HEWINSON • School of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Bristol,
Bristol, UK
STEPHAN M. HUBER • Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Tübingen,
Tübingen, Germany
DARIA V. ILATOVSKAYA • Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin,
Milwaukee, WI, USA; Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences,
St. Petersburg, Russia
HARALD JANOVJAK • Institute of Science and Technology, Klosterneuburg, Austria
LIN-HUA JIANG • Faculty of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences,
SERGEY KASPAROV • School of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Bristol,
Bristol, UK
HANNAH M. KIRTON • Faculty of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences,
WOJCIECH A. KOSIBA • Department of Physiology, University of Texas Health Science
VOLODYMYR KUCHER • Department of Physiology, University of Texas Health Science
DAUNIA LAURENTI • Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute,
School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
AMELIA LESIUK • Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, School of Biomedical
Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
JOHN Y. LIN • Department of Pharmacology, University of California San Diego,
San Diego, CA, USA
JOHN E. LINLEY • Faculty of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences,
JONATHAN D. LIPPIAT • Faculty of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences,
COVADONGA MALO • Unidad de Biofísica (CSIC-UPV/EHU), Universidad del País
Vasco, Leioa, Spain
Contributors xiii
MYKOLA MAMENKO • Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology,

University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
GREGORY I. MASHANOV • MRC National Institute for Medical Research, London, UK
CATHERINE MCKENZIE • Institute of Science and Technology, Klosterneuburg, Austria
OSCAR MILLET • Proteomics Unit, CIC bioGUNE CIBERehd, Derio, Spain
CAROL J. MILLIGAN • Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health,
Melbourne Brain Centre, Kenneth Myer Building, Royal Parade, Melbourne,
VIC, Australia
ELENA MIRONOVA • Department of Physiology, University of Texas Health Science
CLEMENS MÖLLER • Life Sciences Faculty, Albstadt-Sigmaringen University,
Sigmaringen, Germany
JUSTIN E. MOLLOY • MRC National Institute for Medical Research, London, UK
JACQUELINE NAYLOR • Xention Limited, Cambridge, UK
NGUYEN V. NGUYEN • Department of Radiology, University of Miami School of
Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
ROGER G. O’NEIL • Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology,
LEZANNE OOI • Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Biological
Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
JULIAN F.R. PATON • School of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Bristol,
Bristol, UK
LOUISA PETTINGER • Faculty of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences,
OLEH POCHYNYUK • Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology,
VINCENT G.L. POSTIS • Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, School of
Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
ANDREA E. RAWLINGS • Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology,
School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK;
School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
TIBOR ROHACS • UMDNJ, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA
KIRSTIN E. ROSE • Faculty of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences,
BRAD S. ROTHBERG • Department of Biochemistry, Temple University School of
Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
YANN ROUDAUT • Centre de Recherche en Neurobiologie et Neurophysiologie de
JÉRÔME RUEL • Centre de Recherche en Neurobiologie et Neurophysiologie de Marseille,
SARAH SCHWARZER • Barts and The London School of Medicine & Dentistry,
Queen Mary, University of London, London, UK; William Harvey Heart Centre,
Queen Mary, University of London, London, UK
MALA M. SHAH • Department of Pharmacology, UCL School of Pharmacy,
University College London, London, UK
xiv Contributors
MARK S. SHAPIRO • Department of Physiology, University of Texas Health Science

FRANK J. SMITH • Department of Biochemistry, Temple University School of Medicine,
Philadelphia, PA, USA
ALEXANDER STARUSCHENKO • Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin,
Milwaukee, WI, USA
JAMES D. STOCKAND • Department of Physiology, University of Texas Health Science
STEPHANIE SZOBOTA • Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine,
New Haven, CT, USA
ANDREW TINKER • Barts and The London School of Medicine & Dentistry, Queen Mary,
University of London, London, UK; William Harvey Heart Centre, Queen Mary,
University of London, London, UK
ALVARO VILLARROEL • Unidad de Biofísica (CSIC-UPV/EHU), Universidad del País
Vasco, Leioa, Spain
BIN WANG • Department of Physiology, University of Texas Health Science Center at
San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
JENS WOEHNERT • Institute for Molecular Biosciences, Center for Biomolecular
Magnetic Resonance (BMRZ), Johann Wolfgang Goethe University,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany
DAVID C. WRIGHTON • Faculty of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences,
WEI YANG • Department of Neurobiology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine,
Hangzhou, China; Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of the Ministry of Health,
Hangzhou, China; Faculty of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences,
OLEG ZAIKA • Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology,
ELEONORA ZAKHARIAN • Department of Cancer Biology and Pharmacology,
University of Illinois College of Medicine, Peoria, IL, USA
HAILIN ZHANG • Department of Pharmacology, Hebei Medical University,
Shijiazhuang, China; The Key Laboratory of Neural and Vascular Biology,
Ministry of Education, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China;
The Key Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology for New Drugs,
Ministry of Education, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China
Part I
Cloning and Heterologous Expression of Ion Channel Genes

Chapter 1
Approaches to Cloning of Pain-Related Ion Channel Genes

Armen N. Akopian
Abstract
Molecular pain research is a relatively new and rapidly expanding field that represents advancement in
conventional pain research. One of the fundamentals of molecular pain involves the cloning of genes and
especially the ion channels specifically involved in nociceptive processing at the periphery and centrally.
A variety of approaches were used to isolate these critically important genes. Cloning of these genes
involved innovative strategies based on existing molecular approaches. This review will discuss well-utilized
cloning approaches and their exploitation in molecular pain research.
Key words Molecular pain research, Subtractive cloning, Differential cloning, Functional cloning,
Expression cloning, Homology cloning
1 Introduction
Substantial advances in our understanding of pain mechanisms

during the past two decades can be traced to the application of
molecular biology in pain research (1, 2). This new period, which
can be labeled as molecular pain research, gave rise to a fully recog-
nized category in the pain field, leading to the creation of dedi-
cated and specialized journals including Molecular Pain. In regard
to the field of pain, molecular biology can offer several powerful
approaches, including methods and tools to identify genes and the
underlying molecular mechanisms specifically involved in variety of
physiological and pathophysiological acute and chronic pain con-
ditions. Thus, modern molecular biology has following main
approaches:
1. Cloning: Cloning methods were developed through a string of
seminal discoveries in the 1970s and early 1980s (3, 4). The
application of modern cloning approaches and methods to
pain research led to the identification of new transcription fac-
tors, cytoplasm proteins, adapter proteins, receptors, and ion
channels involved in generating, modulating, and propagating
Nikita Gamper (ed.), Ion Channels: Methods and Protocols, Methods in Molecular Biology, vol. 998,
DOI 10.1007/978-1-62703-351-0_1, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2013
3
4 Armen N. Akopian
action potentials along the nociceptive pathways (5–13).

Cloning of the genes involved in certain physiological condi-
tions is considered a primer and ultimately a starting point for
all further functional studies on the underlying molecular
mechanisms. Eventually these functional studies, which also
utilize molecular biology approaches, result in a true apprecia-
tion of the importance of cloned genes (1).
2. Identification of regulatory pathways: Molecular biology
approaches are utilized to identify transcriptional, posttran-
scriptional (i.e., splice variants), translational, and posttransla-
tional changes in gene expressions after pathological painful
conditions such as tissue damage, inflammation, and nerve
damage (14, 15). These alterations underlie neural reorganiza-
tion (i.e., “plasticity”) in the nociceptive signal transduction
pathways, which include sensory neurons, spinal cord and
brain stem neurons, and certain brain regions including the
hypothalamus. It is presumed that chronic pain conditions are
manifestations of neuronal plasticity and therefore, uncovering
the genes and molecular mechanisms contributing to the gen-
eration of this plasticity could support discoveries of novel
analgesic targets and promote designs of novel anti-pain thera-
peutic strategies (16).
3. Identification of mutated genes using genetics: Molecular genet-
ics tools are widely used to identify genes responsible for par-
ticular phenotypes in defined animal lines or genetic mutations
in humans leading to diseases, such as congenital insensitivities
to pain (17, 18). As the human genome project approaches
completion, “new” genes involved in specific pain conditions
or chronic pain diseases may be uncovered (19, 20). Moreover,
molecular genetics approaches can help to identify determi-
nants of individual differences in pain and analgesia in animals
and humans (21, 22).
4. Generation of genetically modified animals: Molecular biology
provided advanced tools for pharmacological investigations.
Molecular genetics manipulations allow for the generating of
animal lines with deleted genes or gene segments, called con-
ventionally “knockout” mutations. Knockout mice are useful
in investigating the contributions of particular proteins to
nociception. Thus, functions of many important proteins for
the pain pathway were assessed using these knockout mice
(23–26). One of the main drawbacks of knockout technology
is that the gene of interest is ablated in every cell type where it
is expressed. To bypass this drawback, the conditional knock-
out technology (i.e., Cre–lox null-mutants) was developed.
This method allows for the ablation of genes in specific cell
types. The specificity of ablation is defined by expression pat-
tern of Cre-recombinase. Recently, mouse lines expressing
Cloning Pain Related Genes 5
Cre-recombinase only in subsets of sensory neurons were

generated (27, 28).
5. Gene therapy and gene delivery technologies: Molecular biology
provides anticipation for pain control through the application of
gene therapy. Gene therapy can correct genetic defects by replac-
ing or substituting the defective gene with a new, functional
copy. Studies exploring gene therapy in pain control are just
beginning (29, 30). Hopefully, in the near future, gene therapy
using the antisense strategy or delivery of genetic material using
viral vectors into the pain pathway may be applied clinically.
The listed molecular biology approaches contribute to our
understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying nocicep-
tive transmission. However, cloning of novel genes involved in
nociceptive transmission is a critically important step in studies of
molecular mechanisms of nociception. This step provides the
required tools (i.e., the genes themselves) for a plethora of studies,
including molecular, biochemical, pharmacological, and physio-
logical research. In this chapter, I will review a variety of strategies
and methods used in pain research to clone genes, especially those
encoding ion channels which play vital roles in the nociceptive pro-
cessing. Among multiple cloning strategies, three stand out: sub-
tractive, differential, and functional cloning. The use of these
strategies allowed researchers to not only identify new genes but
also characterize previously recognized genes who then became
founding members of novel gene families. Accordingly, we will
review these strategies in detail.
2 Subtractive and Differential Cloning
There are many variations of the subtractive and differential cloning

strategies. However, every modification follows the same principle:
obtaining gene(s) which is expressed in a chosen cell type but not
in other selected cell type(s). The original method was developed
and utilized by Davis and colleague to make a seminal finding—
cloning of the elusive antigen receptor expressed specifically on the
surface of T lymphocytes (31, 32). The basic sequence of steps for
the subtractive cloning strategy is as follows: single-stranded cDNA
generated from mRNA isolated from a cell type of interest is
hybridized with mRNA from cell type(s) in which the targeted
gene should not be expressed; un-hybridized cDNA is then sepa-
rated and is used for cDNA library construction. In an ideal case,
every clone in the library could represent the specific gene for a
chosen cell type. In reality, an additional step is required; the cDNA
library needs to be differentially screened for final identification of
specific clones. These approaches have been used in pain research
to identify several critically important ion channels and other types
6 Armen N. Akopian
of proteins: TTX-resistant voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.8

(originally known as SNS; (5)), sensory neuron-specific ATP-gated
channel (P2X3; (6)); sensory neuron-specific proton-gated chan-
nel (ASIC; (33)); TRPV1 adapter protein Pirt clone B4 (12, 34);
and mechano-gated Piezo1 and Piezo2 channels (35).
Figure 1 shows schematically one of the approaches for isolation
of these genes (34). The main aim of this study was to isolate genes
that are expressed in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) sensory neurons,
but not in kidney, liver, cerebellum, and cortex (34). Accordingly,
single-stranded cDNA from DRG mRNA (polyA+ RNA fraction)
was synthesized using oligo (dT)/NotI primer-adapter. This cDNA
was purified from unincorporated nucleotides and primers (Fig. 1).
This purification step is essential if the cDNA is used for PCR
Fig. 1 Schematic representation of subtractive cloning and differential screening

that has yielded many sensory neuron-specific genes, including P2X3 and NaV1.8
(aka SNS) channels. Different critical steps of procedure are illustrated as sepa-
rate blocks
amplification in the following steps. The DRG cDNA was hybrid-

ized in two rounds with 100-fold excess amounts of photobiotiny-
lated mRNA from liver, kidney, cerebellum, and cortex (Fig. 1).
Photobiotinylation was an innovative step in the subtractive cloning
procedure (34). This allowed for the effective separation of un-
hybridized DRG cDNA on a streptavidin–avidin column. Amounts
of remaining enriched DRG-specific cDNA were too small for direct
construction of a cDNA library. Therefore, several PCR amplification
cycles were used to accumulate a sufficient amount of double-
stranded cDNA for construction of subtractive DRG cDNA library.
Unfortunately, small-sized cDNA are naturally PCR amplified more
effectively. Therefore, a majority of long cDNA, which encode many
channels, will be lost on this stage. To counteract this phenomenon,
during every cycle of cDNA amplification, the cDNA pool was
enriched with long-sized amplified cDNA (34). This step is the cor-
nerstone of the procedure represented in Fig. 1. Sufficient insert
lengths of DRG-specific cDNA library cannot be achieved without
the enrichment of cDNA pool with long-sized cDNA molecules
during multistep PCR procedure. Finally, the constructed DRG-
specific cDNA library was deferentially hybridized with extremely
high P32-radio-labeled DRG, cortex + cerebellum, or liver + kidney
cDNAs (Fig. 1). Replica clones that showed hybridization with
labeled DRG cDNA, but not other labeled cDNAs were selected for
further analysis (34). Sequence analysis revealed that isolated clones
contained many known sensory neuron-specific genes such as periph-
erin, gamma-synuclein and villin, and one unknown gene with
homology to voltage-gated sodium channel, which later was revealed
to be NaV1.8 (i.e., SNS; (5)), and six totally unknown genes, four of
which have become known as P2X3, DRASIC and ASIC-β chan-
nels, and Pirt (6, 12, 33, 36). This strategy (Fig. 1) contained many
previously described and utilized steps; however, photobiotinylation
and differential amplification of enriched cDNA were innovative
approaches, promoting the generation of subtractive cDNA library
from miniscule amounts of tissue (34).
Differential cloning is a simplified version of the subtractive
cloning strategy. In this approach, a subtractive cDNA library is
not constructed. In the original differential cloning experiments,
direct differential screening of conventional cDNA library has been
utilized (37). However, this approach in its original version is not
very sensitive, and only abundantly expressing proteins can be
cloned. In addition, differential screenings of conventional cDNA
libraries generate hundreds of positive signals, which make analysis
cumbersome and time-consuming. To tackle these two obvious
disadvantages, the differential cloning approach has substantially
been redeveloped. First, a conventional cDNA library is not
constructed anymore; libraries are now represented by large pools
of single-stranded oligonucleotides attached to solid matrixes
(named “chips” or “microarray”; (38)). Positions of each defined
8 Armen N. Akopian
oligonucleotide on chips are known. Second, differential screenings

of chips are performed with fluorophore-labeled single-stranded
cDNAs, and hybridization results are revealed by use of scanning.
Third, analyses of differential screenings are performed by special-
ized software, designed for these particular types of chips. These
developments simplified differential cloning tremendously. Thus,
the full experiment can be performed within 1–2 weeks, unlike the
original differential cloning approach that consumed at least
4–6 months of extensive bench-work.
Modern differential cloning approaches exploiting oligonucle-
otide-containing chips has been employed to isolate two of the
most coveted channels in pain research—mechano-gated Piezo1
and Piezo2 channels (35). First, cell lines expressing and non-
expressing functional mechano-gated channel(s) were identified.
Then, differential cloning using chips was performed between
these lines. A set of genes which are specific for cell lines containing
functional mechano-gated channel(s) was isolated. Finally, full-
length cDNA clones for unknown genes were isolated and expressed
in a heterologous system and whole-cell and single-cell mechano-
gated currents were recorded from one of the clones named Piezo-
1. Altogether, this differential cloning yielded two proteins, Piezo1
and Piezo2, having very large sizes and belonging to an unknown
family of genes (35). Beside this classical work, modern differential
cloning on chips is widely used to identify genes up- or down-
regulated during some physiological or pathophysiological acute
or chronic pain conditions (39).
3 Functional Cloning
Functional cloning could be divided into three separate approaches:

expression cloning, cloning of interacting protein(s), and isolation
of mutated genes using genetic mapping. Each of these approaches
will be reviewed separately.
3.1 Expression The expression cloning strategy to isolate genes of interest was
Cloning widely utilized in pain research. Notable discoveries of ATP-gated
P2X2 (40), capsaicin-/heat-gated TRPV1 (7), and menthol/cold-
gated TRPM8 channels (9) were made using expression cloning
strategies. To successfully accomplish expression cloning, three
parameters should be defined: (a) decision on the use of a particu-
lar expression system needs to be made; (b) agonists activating
proteins of interests have to be known; and (c) methods for detec-
tion of protein activation should be selected. A majority of expres-
sion cloning experiments were performed either by injection of
mRNA in Xenopus oocytes (40) or transfection of cell lines (such
as HEK, COS-7, or CHO) with expression cDNA libraries (7).
However, occasionally these direct approaches could not be
fruitful. Thus, mechano-gated channels Piezo1 and Piezo2 are

very large proteins; therefore, it is almost impossible to generate
full-length cDNA library that will express functional Piezo1 or
Piezo2 proteins. To overcome this difficulty, differential cloning
on cell lines naturally expressing and not expressing Piezo1 and
Piezo2 were utilized (see above and (35)). Selection of ligands
appears straightforward for a bulk of expression cloning experi-
ments. However, in some cases, difficulties have been met, and
imaginative adjustments and presumptions have been made. Thus,
to clone a cold-gated channel, cool-like sensation produced by
menthol has been selected as a “ligand” to activate a putative cold-
gated channel in an expression system (9). Decision on selection of
a mechanical stimulus was required to clone a mechano-gated
channel, which is distinct from stretch- and osmotic pressure-acti-
vated channels. Coste and colleagues (35) selected a pinching
device driven by precisely graded and calibrated piezo elements,
which has previously been utilized to characterize mechano-gated
currents in sensory neurons (41). Selection of methods for detec-
tion of protein activation is a most critical step for successful accom-
plishment of expression cloning. Expression cloning is naturally
not a sensitive approach, as the activities of the proteins of interests
need to be detected in a large pool containing thousands of differ-
ent cDNAs or mRNAs. For example, an ATP-gated current was
recorded from Xenopus oocytes injected with whole polyA+ RNA
fraction from smooth muscle cells (40). In contrast, attempts to
record capsaicin-gated current after injection of Xenopus oocytes
with polyA+ RNA fraction from DRG did not yield the desired
result. Hence, Caterina and colleagues employed Ca2+-imaging to
detect capsaicin-evoked Ca2+ accumulations in individual HEK
cells transfected with DRG cDNA pools (7). This innovative and
imaginative approach increased sensitivity of the expression clon-
ing experiment by 50–100-fold, as an entire DRG cDNA library
was divided into >20 pools. In addition, Ca2+ imaging is a sensitive
detection method for activation of Ca2+ channels.
Figure 2 illustrates schematically the approach used for isola-
tion of the capsaicin-/heat-gated channel, TRPV1 (7). The same
approach was used to clone menthol/cold-gated channel, TRPM8
(9). At the start, conventional DRG cDNA library was constructed
using an expression vector (Fig. 2; Step 1). Whole cDNA library
was divided into >20 pools each of which contains 5,000–10,000
independent clones. Each pool was transfected into a mammalian
expression system, such as HEK or CHO cells (Fig. 2; Step 2), and
then transfected cells were probed with capsaicin and Ca2+-
accumulation was registered (Fig. 2; Step 3). HEK and CHO cells
are capable of uptaking thousands of independent cDNA clones,
but each transfected cell contains a unique pool of transfected
cDNA. This, in turn, increased detection sensitivity, as each cell
expresses lesser clones than in an initial cDNA pool (7). A positive
10 Armen N. Akopian
Fig. 2 Schematic representation of expression cloning employed to isolate TRPV1 (aka VR1). Positive clones
are marked as dark circles on dishes
pool was again divided into ten cDNA pools, and expression
screening procedure was repeated (Fig. 2; Step 4). Step-by-step,
positive cDNA pool diminished (in increment of ten) and only one
capsaicin or menthol-sensitive clone remained. The capsaicin-sen-
sitive clone became the founding member of a novel gene family,
the TRPV-family (7), while the menthol-sensitive clone expressed
a novel member (TRPM8) of the TRPM-family (9).
3.2 Isolation of There are two separate groups of genetic diseases, which are char-
Mutated Genes Using acterized by alterations in pain perceptions in patients. One group
Genetic Mapping is congenital insensitivity to pain (CIP), which is a rare syndrome
with various clinical expressions, characterized by a dramatic
reduction (or ablation) in pain perception since birth. According
to some classifications, there are five major types of CIP (42).
CIP types I–IV are manifested by hereditary sensory and auto-
nomic degeneration (i.e., neuropathy; HSAN) involving the Aδ
and C-fiber nociceptors (43). However, some CIP patients show
normal morphology for nerve biopsies (44). Another group
including inherited erythromelalgia (IEM) and paroxysmal

extreme pain disorder (PEPD) are characterized with severe
episodes of pain (45)).
Identification of the molecular basis of CIP, IEM, and PEDP
could lead to a better understanding of the mechanisms involved in
the functioning, development, and survival of nociceptors.
Determining the genetic bases of certain disorders is performed in
two steps. First, the loci responsible for a disorder are established
by the genetic linkage analysis relatively to known genetic markers (46).
Second, molecular analysis of the identi fi ed genetic loci is
performed to discover mutation(s) (i.e., deletion, missense, or
additional incorporation of nucleotides) in particular gene(s). This
classical and now standard approach has been used to define molec-
ular bases of several CIP, IEM, and PEDP. Hereditary sensory
radicular neuropathy (aka HSAN type I) has been associated with
a mutation in the SPTLC1 gene which encodes for serine palmi-
toyltransferase—the enzyme for the synthesis of the sphingolipids,
ceramide, and sphingomyelin (47, 48 ). Congenital sensory
neuropathy (aka HSAN type II) gene is located on chromosome
12, but its molecular nature is not very clear as yet. Familial dysau-
tonomia (FD)/Riley–Day syndrome (aka HSAN type III) has been
linked to a single point mutation on the IKBKAP gene encoding
IKAP, a subunit of the highly conserved complex involved in tran-
scriptional elongation (49). CIP with anhidrosis or partial anhidrosis
(aka HSAN type IV) is caused by mutations in the NTRK1 (trkA)
gene which is the receptor for NGF (17). Recently, mutations of
the gene coding for the sodium channel Nav1.7—a voltage-gated
sodium channel expressed preferentially on nociceptors and sym-
pathetic neurons—have been found to be the cause of CIP in
patients with a normal nerve biopsy, IEM, and PEDP. CIP with
intact sensory nerves is associated to loss-of-function mutations of
Nav1.7 (44). Other sensory modalities and the remainder of the
central and peripheral nervous systems in these patients were
preserved (44). IEM is associated with several “gain-of-function”
mutations of the same ion channel (45, 46). Finally, a different set
of “gain-of-function” mutations that impair inactivation of Nav1.7
lead to PEDP (19).
3.3 Cloning of Genes Channels are often presented in cells as multi-subunit proteins.
Encoding Interacting Some channel-associated proteins promote functional channel
Proteins expressions (50). Thus, NaV1.8 channel transfection into superior
cervical ganglion (SCG) neurons shows exactly the same biophysi-
cal properties as those observed in DRG neurons (23). In contrast,
the NaV1.8 channel cannot be effectively and properly expressed in
popular mammalian cell lines such as HEK and CHO, even in the
presence of auxiliary β-subunits (51). Therefore, it could be sug-
gested that NaV1.8 channel requires an adapter protein or auxiliary
subunit for correct functioning.
12 Armen N. Akopian
There are several cloning strategies to isolate adapter proteins,

additional or auxiliary subunits for defined channels. In 1980s and
early 1990s, a biochemical approach was the most popular. This
approach relies on direct isolation of interacting proteins using
affinity chromatography (52, 53). A major disadvantage of the
method is low sensitivity, as substantial amounts of tissue are
required for purification of interacting proteins. To increase sensi-
tivity and efficiency of this cloning procedure, it was suggested that
approaches involving expression cloning and detection of interact-
ing proteins could be combined. This basic idea eventually brought
to discovery and development the two-hybrid cloning system for
identification of genes via protein–protein interactions (54). This
approach was improved within the last two decades; however, gen-
eral principles remained the same (Fig. 3). In normal yeast cells,
Gal4 transcription factor consists of two subunits (BD and AD).
Interaction of these subunits leads to binding of an activation
sequence (AS) and transcription of genes. This way Gal4 can acti-
vate a reporter gene such as LacZ (Fig. 3a). A yeast line without
Gal4 and with LacZ reporter was generated. A critical step is the
creation of an interaction domain on the protein of interest called
the “bait.” Bait fused to BD subunit of Gal4 does not produce
activation of LacZ (Fig. 3b). A cDNA library is constructed in a
specialized vector containing the AD subunit of Gal4. Transfection
of the yeast line with the cDNA–AD library should not produce
LacZ activation (Fig. 3c). However, the cDNA–AD library con-
tains a candidate clone, named “prey” (the one which is the object
of identification), which can interact with the “bait.” The yeast line
is co-transfected with cDNA–AD library and “bait”–BD construct.
Hopefully, in some yeast cells, “pray”–AD and “bait”–BD will
copresent, and this will result in activation LacZ reporter (Fig. 3d).
The LacZ activation can be detected by a staining procedure, which
will turn yeast cells blue. The yeast clone will be selected and
“prey”–AD cDNA can be isolated, sequenced, and analyzed. This
approach was used to clone an adapter protein for NaV1.8 channel (51).
The two-hybrid system is now widely used. However, it has two
deficiencies: (1) cloning transmembrane proteins is problematic
with this approach and (2) false-positive clones can be identified
and, thus, these need to be filtered out with further detailed
biochemical studies. Nevertheless, it offers the possibility to clone
proteins that control channels’ activities in the nociceptive path-
ways. These proteins could provide potentially attractive and novel
analgesic targets, because channel activities could be regulated by
disrupting interactions of channels with newly discovered adapter
proteins or auxiliary subunits.
3.4 Biochemical Although fairly outdated now, in the early days of molecular cloning,
Approach to many classical channels were cloned using biochemical approaches.
Functional Cloning The biochemical approach is based on cloning genes encoding
Fig. 3 Schematic representation of two-hybrid cloning of interacting proteins.

This approach was utilized to clone adapter protein for NaV1.8 sodium channel
particular purified proteins. Thus, the first step of this approach is to

isolate and purify the required amount of protein of interest. The
next step involves short (10–20 aa) sequences of a purified protein
from the start codon (Met) as well as any 2–3 regions within the
protein. To achieve this, a peptide map of the protein is resolved
using a variety of proteases, as well as several peptide fragments of
the purified protein are generated, isolated, and sequenced (10–20 aa)
from N-terminal parts. It is expected that enough of the purified
protein is generated for these procedures. On the basis of the protein
sequences, degenerate oligonucleotides (20–40 p) are synthesized.
In this case, degenerate oligonucleotides are a mixture of all possible
14 Armen N. Akopian
oligonucleotides that will encode a determined protein sequence.

Finally, the degenerated oligonucleotides are labeled and used for
conventional screening of cDNA library. Such screening with degen-
erated oligonucleotides offers low sensitivity. Hence, to achieve
enough sensitivity, small cDNA libraries (up to 100,000 clones) are
utilized. Further, cDNA libraries should be full length as much as
possible, because the protein sequence encoded by degenerated oli-
gonucleotides belongs to the deep N-terminal part of open reading
frames. To filter off false clones, isolated clones are probed with
other degenerated primers encoding other determined protein
sequences (usually 2–3 belonging to a variety of parts of the pro-
tein). This approach was used to clone such classic channels as sub-
units of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (55–57), voltage-gated
sodium channel (type I; (58, 59), and voltage-gated calcium channel
(L-type; (60, 61)).
4 Homology Cloning
Homology cloning is an extremely productive approach for clon-

ing of genes. A majority of channels were cloned using this
approach. Thus, many members of channel families including P2X,
ASIC, TRPV, TRPC, TRPM, and voltage-gated sodium, potas-
sium, and calcium channel families were cloned using homology
cloning approaches (62–73). The original cloned genes could have
origins from mammal, fly, or worm. For example, the original nic-
otinic acetylcholine receptor and voltage-gated sodium channels
have been cloned from squid neurons (55, 74), and voltage-gated
potassium channels from flies (75). Their mammalian orthologs
were isolated using homology cloning approaches (58, 63, 76).
The main principle of homology cloning is to isolate gene(s)
that has homology to already cloned genes. Homology cloning can
be conducted two ways: screening conventional cDNA library with
homologous probes or finding homologous genes using bioinfor-
matics software and genome sequences databases generated by the
Human Genome Project.
To screen cDNA library with homologous probes, several param-
eters should be taken into account. First, it should be defined in what
tissue to look for homologous cDNA. Base on this presumption (or
information), a cDNA library is constructed from mRNA isolated
from this particular, selected tissue (or cell lines). Second, one of the
most critical steps for successful homology cloning is to select (or
decide on) probe(s) for homology screening and decide on hybridiza-
tion temperature during screening. Such probes can cover a conserva-
tive domain (62) or a part of gene(s) (76, 77). All in all, homology
screening can involve trial and error to succeed in cloning.
Homology cloning based on the bioinformatics approach is
straightforward. Genome sequences available from different data
bases are screened for homology to particular sequences using spe-

cialized software. Here, a critical step is the algorithm for software
used to locate homologous sequences in whole genomes. Often,
several software packages with different algorithms are used to find
homologous sequences in genomes. Homologous sequences usu-
ally do not cover an entire cDNA. Therefore, this partial cDNA
sequence is used for direct screening of cDNA libraries. Alternatively,
there are software packages which are able to identify intron–exon
structure of an entire gene. In this case, full-length cDNA can be
PCR amplified from total mRNA. This procedure is much faster
and more cost-effective. Homology cloning based on bioinformat-
ics approaches has been employed to clone such notable channels
as TRPV3 (78) and TRPA1 (8).
5 Conclusion
It is well accepted that molecular biology revolutionized many

research fields. Molecular pain research is not the exception to this
rule. Cloning of genes involved in physiological and pathophysio-
logical processes requires molecular biology approaches. Initially,
many genes important for nociceptive processing were cloned with
other goals in mind. Take for example the TTX-sensitive sodium
channels type III and type VI and subunits of nicotinic acetylcho-
line receptors. They play critical roles in many neuronal processes
including nociceptive signal processing. ATP-gated channel, P2X3,
could be considered the first gene cloned specifically for nocicep-
tive processing (6). The following decades produced many notable
discoveries related to cloning of genes involved in nociceptive pro-
cessing in periphery and centrally: PN1, SNS, and NaN voltage-
gated sodium channels; TRPV1, TRPM8, and TRPA1
temperature-gated channels; Piezo1 and 2 mechano-gated chan-
nels; and ASIC 1 and 3 proton-gated channels (5, 7, 8, 19, 33–36,
44, 67, 79). Almost all existing cloning approaches have been used
to clone pain genes. Although the application of molecular cloning
techniques to discovery of pain-specific genes has probably passed
its peak, the discussed approaches can be used to pinpoint genes
involved in a variety of acute and chronic pain conditions in ani-
mals and humans (17, 44). Furthermore, advances in gene therapy
could eventually make examination of molecular mechanisms uti-
lizing the above techniques invaluable.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank to members of my lab Dr. Belugin, Mr. Patil,

Ms. Salas, and Ms. Phoebe as well as collaborators Drs. Wood,
Hargreaves, Henry, Jeske, Diogenes, Gamper Staruschenko,
16 Armen N. Akopian
Brooks, Dube, Nikita Ruparel, Shivani Ruparel, and Patwardhan

for helping me in contribution to molecular pain research.
Supporting grants are DE014928 and DE019311.
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Chapter 2
Mammalian Expression Systems and Transfection

Techniques
Daunia Laurenti and Lezanne Ooi
Abstract
To delineate the function of a single ion channel subtype amongst the multitude that normally constitutes
a signalling pathway, it is often insightful to study the function or signalling of that one ion channel in
the absence of the others. Mammalian cell lines that do not normally express the gene of interest can be
manipulated to do so via plasmid DNA expression vectors. However, large and highly charged molecules
like DNA cannot passively diffuse through cell membranes. Therefore introducing nucleic acid into mam-
malian cells may involve introducing pores transiently into the cell membrane to allow the passage of
circular plasmid DNA. This is relatively easily carried out using cationic lipids that form liposomes around
the DNA and fuse with the cell membrane to introduce the DNA inside the cell. Alternatively, a highly
successful mechanism for introduction of DNA involves utilizing viral vectors. These take advantage of
the molecular mechanisms that viruses have evolved to efficiently transport their genome inside cells.
Lipid-based transfection techniques and adenoviral delivery of plasmids encoding large genes (such as ion
channel genes) for expression in mammalian cells are the focus of this chapter.
Key words Transient transfection, Stable transfection, Adenovirus, Transfection efficiency, Reporter
gene, Bicistronic vector
1 Introduction
Since many ion channels are regulated by diverse posttranslational
modifications (such as phosphorylation, glycosylation, disulfide
bond formation) that can differ between species, in order to study
mammalian ion channel function in a heterologous system, it is
beneficial to use a mammalian expression system. Mammalian
cells can be transfected with plasmid DNA encoding ion channel
genes. Plasmid DNA may either be introduced into the cells in a
transient fashion or may integrate into the cell genome. Cells that
have incorporated the plasmid DNA into their genome can be
selected via the use of antibiotic resistance genes to generate stable
clones that express a protein of interest. This chapter focuses on
the methods of transient and stable transfection by lipid-based
21
22 Daunia Laurenti and Lezanne Ooi
transfection and transient expression by adenoviral delivery. Three

methods of assessing transfection efficiency and identifying trans-
fected cells are also discussed.
1.1 Using Reporters The efficiency of transfection is a major concern for many applica-
to Analyze the tions and should be monitored using a reporter, such as a
Efficiency of fluorescent protein, e.g., enhanced green fluorescent protein
Transfection (eGFP), to confirm the transfer of nucleic acid to the cell. This can
be achieved by (1) transfecting two separate plasmids, one of
which encodes eGFP. This is the weakest of the three options pre-
sented here; although it is likely that if one plasmid was able to
transit through a particular cell membrane then both plasmids
were able to do so, it cannot be guaranteed (see Note 1).
(2) Generation of a fusion protein, using a plasmid such as pEGFP-
N1 or pEGFP-C1 (Clontech), in which your protein of interest is
tagged with eGFP (as one continuous protein). Careful consider-
ation should be given as to the position of the eGFP relative to the
protein of interest (i.e., N-terminal or C-terminal) since the
27 kDa eGFP may affect folding, localization, or function of your
target protein. (3) Another option would be to use a bicistronic
vector (generates a single mRNA that encodes two proteins), such
as pIRES2-eGFP (Clontech). This vector contains an internal
ribosomal entry site (IRES) sequence, a nucleotide sequence that
promotes translation initiation in the middle of an mRNA and
thus allows the simultaneous expression of the protein of interest
and eGFP (as a separate protein) from the same mRNA transcript.
With this method eGFP expression can be used to determine
efficiency of transfection and identify those cells that are positively
transfected (since all cells expressing the eGFP were successfully
transfected) without the eGFP affecting the folding of the protein
of interest. One other important consideration is that the expres-
sion of any reporter may affect the expression of other proteins or
the function of the cell, thus control transfections should be car-
ried out in which the eGFP (in the absence of your protein of
interest) is expressed (see Note 2).
1.2 Transient Versus The type of transfection method used, the size of the DNA plas-
Stable Transfection mid to be transfected, the amount of DNA transfected relative to
the amount of reagent, and the number of cells plated will all
affect the efficiency of transfection. Many ion channel genes are
relatively large, often leading to low-transfection efficiencies in
mammalian cells. Particularly in cases where the efficiency of trans-
fection is an issue, or to standardize experiments, you may want to
consider generating a stable cell line, in which the plasmid has
integrated into the genome of the cell. This means that the cell
line stably expresses your protein(s) of interest through successive
rounds of division. With transient transfections, expression of the
proteins will reduce as the plasmid is lost through cell division.
Expression Systems and Transfection 23
For this reason, cells are often used for experiments 24–48 h after
transfection (division approximately once every 24 h in many
mammalian cell lines). Although more time consuming initially,
generating stable cell lines can save a large amount of time and
money throughout the project and may also lead to more consis-
tent results. Plasmids such as pEGFP-N1 and pIRES2-GFP con-
tain a neomycin resistance gene for selection of stably transfected
cells. Selection of stable clones is achieved by incubating the cells
with G418 (also known as geneticin) over a period of weeks. Cells
that have not integrated the plasmid into the genome die follow-
ing extended exposure to G418. Individual cells expressing the
reporter gene can then be picked and diluted to single cells that
then undergo clonal expansion.
1.3 Adenoviral Viral vectors permit high levels of transgene expression in many
Delivery cell types, often without affecting cell viability. Since the adeno-
viral DNA does not integrate into the genome and is not repli-
cated during cell division, adenoviral delivery mediates transient
expression of transgenes. The adenoviral DNA vector contains a
portion of the viral genome plus a gene of interest cloned into a
multiple cloning site inserted into the early region 1A (E1A) of
the genome. Recombinant adenoviral vectors are generated using
this viral DNA vector and a packaging cell line (e.g., HEK293,
which have been stably transfected with the E1A region of the
adenoviral genome). Via a method adapted from He and col-
leagues (1), we have previously successfully prepared adenoviral
vectors to transiently express genes and reporters in cell lines
(2, 3) and primary cells, including neurons (4) and cardiac myo-
cytes (5). The gene of interest is cloned into the pAdTrack-CMV
vector, linearized, and transformed into an Escherichia coli strain
BJ5183 that expresses pAdEasy adenoviral vector (pAdEasy-1).
The recombinant adenoviral construct is then transfected into a
packaging cell line (e.g., HEK293) for virus production. During
the generation of the HEK293 cell line, normal human embryonic
kidney cells were transformed with adenovirus five DNA and this
cell line can be utilized for the propagation of adenoviral vectors.
Since adenoviruses are pathogenic it is important to use adenoviral
vectors in which certain genes are deleted so that the viruses are
unable to replicate after entering a cell. HEK293 can be safely used
in combination with the adenoviral vector pAdEasy, in which the
E1 and E3 genes have been deleted (1). Using this system viral
production and transgene expression can be monitored with the
reporter eGFP.
In this chapter, we outline the lipid-based methods used to
transfect mammalian cells transiently and following on from this
how to generate stable cell lines. We then outline how to prepare
adenovirus particles, which can be used to infect mammalian cells
to express genes of interest.
2 Materials
1. Cell culture medium: Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium
(DMEM), 10% fetal bovine serum, 2 mM glutamine, strepto-
mycin (10 g/L), and penicillin (10 g/L); pre-warmed to
37°C.
2. Serum-free media (e.g., Opti-MEM).
3. Lipid transfection reagent [e.g., Lipofectamine 2000,
Lipofectamine LTX (Invitrogen)].
4. Cell culture plates.
5. Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS).
6. Sterile, round bottomed 14 mL centrifuge tubes.
7. Purified plasmid DNA (e.g., pIRES2-GFP, pAdTrack-CMV).
8. Cell line for transfection, e.g., HEK293, CHO, Neuro2A
For stable transfection:
9. G418 (Sigma).
10. 96-well cell culture plates.
For adenovirus preparation:
11. Restriction enzymes PmeI, PacI.
12. Bacterial strain BJ5183 containing pAdEasy-1.
13. Bacterial strain XL1 Blue.
14. Electroporation cuvettes, electroporator (option to use chemi-
cally competent cells and heat shock for electroporation).
15. Luria-Bertani Media (LB Broth: Tryptone 1.0%, Yeast Extract
0.5%, NaCl 1.0%) + kanamycin (10 μg/mL) or ampicillin
(25 μg/mL). For plates, 10% agar.
16. Tris–HCl pH 8.0 0.1 M.
17. Sodium deoxycholate 5%.
18. Magnesium chloride 2 M.
19. DNaseI (100 mg DNaseI in 10 mL of 20 mM Tris–HCl pH
7.4, 50 mM NaCl, 0.1 mM DTT, 0.1 mg/mL BSA, and 50%
glycerol).
20. Cesium chloride 1.5 g/mL (90.8 g CsCl and 109.2 g 10 mM
Tris pH 8).
21. Cesium chloride 1.35 g/mL (70.4 g CsCl and 129.6 g 10 mM
Tris pH 8).
22. Cesium chloride 1.25 g/mL (54 g CsCl and 146 g 10 mM
Tris pH 8).
23. Polyallomer tubes.
24. Dialysis buffer (10 mM Tris–HCl pH 8, 10% glycerol).
25. Slide-a-lyzer dialysis cassette.
3 Methods
3.1 Transient 1. Seed cells at a density of 1.5 × 106 cells per well of a 6-well plate
Transfection 24 h prior to transfection.
2. Dilute 10 μg of plasmid in 250 μL of Opti-MEM (mix A).
3. Dilute 30 μL of Lipofectamine 2000 in 250 μL Opti-MEM
(mix B).
4. Incubate at room temperature for 20 min.
5. Add mix A to mix B.
6. Incubate for 25 min at room temperature.
7. Wash the cells with PBS.
8. Add the mix A + B to cells.
9. Incubate for 1 min with gentle agitation.
10. Add 500 μL of Opti-MEM medium.
11. Incubate for 1 h at 37°C.
12. Add 1.5 mL of DMEM: 10% fetal bovine serum and glutamine
added—NO ANTIBIOTICS.
13. Incubate the cells for 24 h at 37°C 5% CO2.
14. Change medium or add 1 mL of DMEM: 10% fetal bovine
serum and glutamine WITH antibiotics (if required).
15. After 24 h change medium and check fluorescence under
microscope.
3.1.1 Optimization Cell lines that transfect easily and show high levels of transfection
of Transfection Efficiency efficiency (>80%) using this method include human embryonic
kidney 293 (HEK293) and Chinese hamster ovary (CHO). Other
cell lines that show reduced transfection efficiencies may be required
for use, e.g., the mouse neuroblastoma cell line Neuro2A. In this
case, it is extremely important to optimize transfection; some hints
for this are included below. We tested Lipofectamine LTX (which
is suggested by the manufacturer for high-efficiency transfection of
Neuro2A cells) and Lipofectamine 2000 (which is not specifically
recommended by the manufacturer for transfection of Neuro2A
cells). Based on the original protocol from both products two dif-
ferent transfections were tested. For each, a control transfection
was carried out with the “empty plasmid” pEGFP-N1 (4.7 kb)
(control plasmid) and the test plasmid containing the cloned gene
of interest in pEGFP-GOI (11 kb).
A. Lipofectamine 2000, following the manufacturer’s protocol
for general transfection of 1 × 106 murine cells in a 6-well plate.
The protocol was as above except for:
1. Transfection with 4 μg DNA and 10 μL Lipofectamine
2000.
2. Incubate mix A and B at room temperature for 5 min.

3. Incubate mix A + B with cells at room temperature for 1 h.
4. Add 1 mL of DMEM 10% FBS + glutamine without
antibiotics.
5. Incubate cells for 24 h at 37°C 5% CO2.
6. After 24 h add 1 mL of DMEM with antibiotics.
B. Lipofectamine LTX, following the manufacturer’s protocol for
transfection of 2.5 × 105 Neuro2A cells in a 6-well plate.
1. Aspirate media and wash cells with PBS.
2. Add 1.5 mL DMEM: 10% FBS and glutamine without
antibiotics.
3. Incubate 1.25 μg DNA in 500 μL of Opti-MEM.
5. Add 20 μL Lipofectamine LTX to the mix.
7. Add mix to cells.
8. Incubate cells for 24 h at 37°C 5% CO2.
9. Change medium after 24 h with DMEM with antibiotics.
The transfection efficiencies achieved with these two protocols
of Neuro2A cell transfection with pEGFP-N1 and pEGFP-GOI
are given in Table 1. Increased efficiencies for transfection were
identified by optimization of the following steps:
1. Increased number of cells seeded (2 × 106 cells in a 6-well plate)
(step 1 of Subheading 3.1).
2. Increased Lipofectamine 2000 (30 μL was the optimal volume;
the results were similar with 35 μL but lower with 25 μL) (step 3
of Subheading 3.1).
3. Increased time of separate incubation for mix A and mix B in
Opti-MEM (up to 25 min) (step 4 of Subheading 3.1).
4. Increased time of incubation after transfection (2–3 h) (step 11
of Subheading 3.1).
Table 1
Transfection efficiencies vary with plasmid size and reagent used
Lipofectamine + plasmid Efficiency of transfection (%)

Lipofectamine 2000 + plasmid pEGFP-N1 4.7 kb (empty, control) 20
Lipofectamine 2000 + plasmid pEGFP-GOI 11 kb 15
Lipofectamine LTX + plasmid pEGFP-N1 4.7 kb (empty, control) 15
Lipofectamine LTX + plasmid pEGFP-GOI 11 kb 5
Table 2
Transfection efficiencies vary with ratio of DNA:lipophilic reagent and incubation time
Plasmid size (kb) Incubation time DNA (mg) Lipofectamine (mL) Efficiency of transfection (%)
4.7 10 10 30 10–15
4.7 20 10 30 15–20
4.7 25 10 30 20–30
4.7 30 10 30 20–30
4.7 35 10 30 10–15
11 10 10 30 5–10
11 20 10 30 15–20
11 25 10 30 20–30
11 30 10 30 30–35
11 35 10 30 30–35
The efficiencies of transfection for the 11 and 4.7 kb plasmid

were both increased to 40% with these changes (see Table 2 and
Note 3).
3.2 Stable 1. After transfection of Neuro2A cells with Lipofectamine 2000

Transfection and Clone as above, add G418 to a final concentration of 400 μg/mL.
Selection 2. Incubate for 2 days with G418.
3. Change medium and incubate without G418 for 4–5 days.
4. After 5 days change medium to include G418 to a final con-
centration of 600 μg/mL.
5. Increase the concentration of G418 up to a final concentration
of 800 μg/mL for a further 2 weeks (see Note 4).
6. Trypsinize cells and dilute to the appropriate volume to yield
single cells in a 96-well plate and allow clones to expand
(Fig. 1). To do this perform dilutions in a 96-well plate, starting
with 2 × 105 cells in A1 then serially diluting in the first column
of the plate by a dilution of 1:2. Perform a second dilution
series, beginning from column 1 and serially diluting by 1:2 in
columns 2–12. Incubate the 96-well plates in a 5% CO2 incu-
bator at 37°C.
7. Identify wells containing single clones (generally rows F–H
columns 10–12), transfer each clone to a single well in a 24-well
plate, and incubate with G418 at a final concentration of
600 μg/mL for 2 weeks.
Fig. 1 Dilution of transfected cells to isolate single clones. Perform dilutions in a

96-well plate, starting with 2 × 105 cells in A1 then serially diluting in the first
column of the plate by a dilution of 1:2. Perform a second dilution series, beginning
from column 1 and serially diluting by 1:2 in columns 2–12. Wells containing
single cells are generally within the bottom right-hand corner of the plate, e.g.,
rows F–H, columns 10–12
8. Transfer single clones to a single well in a 24-well plate and

allow to proliferate for 5 days (see Note 5). Treat with G418 at
400 μg/mL to maintain stably transfected cells.
3.3 Adenovirus 1. Digest 0.5–1.0 μg of pAdTrack-CMV plasmid with PmeI and

Particle Preparation purify by agarose gel purification. Resuspend DNA in 50 μL
purified water.
3.3.1 pAdEasy
Recombination 2. Set up 5 mL overnight culture of BJ5183 (pAdEasy-1) in
LB + ampicillin at 37°C shaking at 225 rpm on an orbital
shaker.
3. Grow for several hours until reaching an OD of 0.6–0.8.
4. Pellet cells at 2,000 × g 10 min at 4°C.
5. Resuspend in 10 mL ice cold water.
6. Pellet cells at 2,000 × g 10 min at 4°C.
7. Resuspend in 1 mL of ice cold water and transfer to Eppendorf
tube.
8. Pellet cells in microfuge for 10 s.
9. Wash pellet two times with ice cold water.
10. Pellet cells in microfuge for 10 s.
11. Resuspend cells in 25 μL of digested DNA.
12. Warm 1 mL SOC media per transformation.

13. Place cell suspension in 2 mm cuvettes.
14. Electroporate at 2.5 kV, 200 , and 25 μF in a Bio-Rad Gene
Pulser T.
15. Immediately transfer cells to 1 mL warm SOC.
16. Incubate at 37°C with shaking for 1 h.
17. Plate onto LB + kanamycin plates and incubate at 37°C
overnight.
18. Pick a colony and grow overnight in 5 mL LB + kanamycin at
37°C and prepare DNA by standard miniprep kit (e.g., Qiagen).
Identify pAdEasy clones and transform into XL1 Blue.
3.3.2 Transfection 1. Prepare pAdEasy recombinant plasmid DNA from a 50 mL

of pAdEasy culture from a colony from step 18 (XL1 Blue transformed).
2. Digest 5 μg of DNA with PacI in 100 μL volume at 37°C for
1 h.
3. Purify DNA and resuspend in 10 μL water.
4. Transfect HEK293 cells with purified DNA, as per
Subheading 3.1 above.
5. Culture cells for 7–10 days, until the majority of cells are
floating and expressing GFP (the adenovirus infected cells
will also change morphology and become rounded). Harvest
free-floating cells by centrifugation.
6. Resuspend in 1 mL PBS and transfer to Eppendorf tube.
7. Freeze/thaw to lyse cells by transferring from −70 to 37°C for
three cycles and vortex.
8. Pellet cell debris at 18,000 × g for10 min at 4°C.
9. Transfer supernatant to fresh tube and store lysate at −70°C.
3.3.3 Amplification 1. Take the lysate from step 9 of the previous section and use to
and Purification of Virus infect 2 × 10 cm tissue culture dishes of HEK293.
(See Note 6) 2. After 7–10 days the majority of cells will be floating and
expressing GFP. Harvest free-floating cells by centrifugation.
Resuspend cell pellet in 1 mL PBS per 10 mL media.
3. Freeze/thaw three times in −70°C/37°C, vortexing each
time.
4. Pellet cell debris at 18,000 × g 10 min at 4°C.
5. Transfer supernatant to fresh tube and store at −70°C.
6. Use the second lysate to infect 20 × 10 cm dishes of HEK293.
Lyse cells as above.
7. Use the third lysate to infect 40 × 15 cm dishes of HEK293 and
harvest and purify adenoviral particles as below.
8. Collect cells in 400 mL centrifuge tubes and pellet by centrifu-

gation at 10,000 × g for 20 min at 4°C.
9. Resuspend cells in 10 mL 0.1 M Tris pH 8 per 15 cm dish.
10. Pellet cells by centrifugation at 10,000 × g for 20 min at 4°C.
11. Resuspend cells in 0.5 mL 0.1 M Tris–HCl pH 8 per 15 cm
dish.
12. Add 100 μL of 5% Na deoxycholate per mL of cell lysate.
13. Incubate 30 min at room temperature to produce a clear,
highly viscous suspension.
14. Add 10 μL 2 M MgCl2 and 5 μL DNase (10 mg/mL) per mL
of lysate.
15. Mix and incubate 37°C for 60 min, agitating every 10 min.
Viscosity should reduce.
16. Centrifuge at 18,000 × g for 20 min at 4°C.
17. Prepare a discontinuous cesium chloride (CsCl) gradient in a
polyallomer centrifuge tube (do not disturb gradients once
formed). To do this, add the following volumes of CsCl of dif-
ferent densities slowly down the side of the tube in this order:
(a) Add 0.5 mL of 1.5 mg/mL CsCl.
(b) Overlay with 3.0 mL of 1.35 mg/mL CsCl.
(c) Overlay with 3.0 mL of 1.25 mg/mL CsCl.
18. Apply 5 mL of supernatant to the CsCl gradient. Prepare further
gradients for the remainder of the supernatant.
19. Centrifuge at 28,000 × g at 10°C for 1 h. Do not use the
brake.
20. Collect viral bands which should be visible as white/purplish
bands:
(a) Put the tube in a stand in the tissue culture hood above a
beaker.
(b) Remove several mL of CsCl from the top of the tube to
reduce the pressure when you puncture the tube.
(c) Place a piece of tape vertically on the side of the tube.
(d) Using an 18 gauge needle on a 2 mL syringe, carefully
puncture the tube just below the viral band with the bevel
of the needle facing upwards (make sure to only puncture
one side of the tube, do not push through the other side,
insert needle tip to the middle of the tube, directly under-
neath the viral band).
(e) Extract the viral band (approx 1–1.5 mL volume).
21. Transfer the pooled virus to a fresh tube and top up with
1.35 g/mL CsCl.
22. Centrifuge at 28,000 × g for 16–24 h at 10°C. Do not use
brake.
23. Collect viral band as above in about 0.5–1.0 mL volume and

transfer to a slide-a-lyzer dialysis cassette.
24. Dialyse for 3 × 1 h in 1 L 10 mM Tris–HCl pH 8 10% glycerol
in a beaker with a magnetic stirrer.
25. Aliquot and store at −70°C.
26. Titrate virus in cell culture media to infect cells. Test dilutions
at 1:50–1:50,000. Incubate cells for 24 h at 37°C 5% CO2
then monitor GFP expression.
4 Notes
1. Consider increasing the amount of the plasmid encoding your
protein of interest compared to the plasmid encoding eGFP
(e.g., 2:1 or 3:1) to increase the likelihood of expression of
your protein of interest in eGFP-positive cells. This may be
especially important if the plasmid encoding your protein
of interest is much larger than the plasmid encoding eGFP.
For efficient DNA transfection into cells, preparation of high-
quality plasmid DNA is essential. It is best to prepare DNA
using a commercial kit based on ion exchange chromatogra-
phy. Removal of endotoxins during the plasmid isolation pro-
cedure also enhances transfection efficiency and many
companies supply plasmid isolation kits that will remove endo-
toxin contamination.
2. Transfection can result in changes in gene expression and con-
sequently in altered cellular responses and/or morphology. It
is always advisable to compare responses to control transfected
cells. In the case of transfection with liposomes, the transfec-
tion reagent on its own can affect the cell membrane (and any
membrane proteins, such as ion channels); it may therefore
also be necessary to include a “transfection reagent” control in
experiments, in which transfection reagent is added as per the
above protocol but in the absence of plasmid DNA.
3. The incubation time of the single mixes affects transfection
efficiency (6). The “empty plasmid” pEGFP-N1 (4.7 kb) (con-
trol plasmid) was negatively affected by long incubation times
but the larger test plasmid containing the cloned gene of inter-
est pEGFP-GOI (11 kb) showed improved efficiency by
increasing the incubation time. Lipofectamine volume was
chosen based on the amount of cells transfected and the toxic-
ity to cells (confluence of cells compared with the initial
confluence). Finally, decreasing the amount of plasmid reduced
efficiency.
4. With the use of G418 for selection of resistant clones it may be
important to titrate the antibody concentration depending on the
cell line and plasmid used; concentrations between 200 μg/mL

and 1,400 μg/mL are recommended for testing. We also found
that G418 reduces proliferation and at low densities the cells
were particularly susceptible to death. Therefore we found it
unnecessary to split the cells more than once per 2–4 weeks
during the time of treatment.
5. We have found that treating the cells with G418 in this single
cell state (even very low concentrations) results in high levels
of cell death. It is advisable to allow the cells to proliferate
before repeating treatments with G418. G418 treatment
should be used periodically to maintain selection, since even
plasmids that were integrated into the genome can be lost.
6. Exposure to adenovirus (even replication-deficient adenovirus)
may cause acute respiratory illness. Adenoviruses are biohaz-
ards and appropriate biosafety procedures should be adhered
to. Work with virus in a certified Class II biosafety cabinet.
Discard of all virus in bleach (1% sodium hypochlorite, made
fresh) or similar for at least 15 min and disinfect all plasticware
contaminated with virus in bleach for at least 15 min, followed
by autoclaving.
References
1. He T-C, Zhou S, da Costa LT, Yu J, Kinzler KW, 4. Mucha M, Ooi L, Linley JE, Mordaka P, Dalle
Vogelstein B (1998) A simplified system for gen- C, Robertson B, Gamper N, Wood IC (2010)
erating recombinant adenoviruses. Proc Natl Transcriptional control of KCNQ channel genes
Acad Sci U S A 95:2509–2514 and the regulation of neuronal excitability.
2. Ooi L, Belyaev ND, Miyake K, Wood IC, Buckley J Neurosci 30:13235–13245
NJ (2006) BRG1 chromatin remodeling activity 5. Bingham AJ, Ooi L, Kozera L, White E, Wood
is required for efficient chromatin binding by IC (2007) The repressor element 1-silencing
repressor element 1-silencing transcription factor transcription factor regulates heart-specific
(REST) and facilitates REST-mediated repression. gene expression using multiple chromatin-
J Biol Chem 281:38974–38980 modifying complexes. Mol Cell Biol
3. Johnson R, Gamblin RJ, Ooi L, Bruce AW, 27:4082–4092
Donaldson IJ, Westhead DR, Wood IC, Jackson 6. Dalby B, Cates S, Harris A, Ohki EC, Tilkins
RM, Buckley NJ (2006) Identification of the ML, Price PJ, Ciccarone VC (2004) Advanced
REST regulon reveals extensive transposable transfection with Lipofectamine 2000 reagent:
element-mediated binding site duplication. primary neurons, siRNA, and high-throughput
Nucleic Acids Res 34:3862–3877 applications. Methods 33:95–103
Chapter 3
Use of Escherichia coli for the Production and Purification

of Membrane Proteins
Vincent G.L. Postis, Andrea E. Rawlings, Amelia Lesiuk,
and Stephen A. Baldwin
Abstract
Individual types of ion channels and other membrane proteins are typically expressed only at low levels
in their native membranes, rendering their isolation by conventional purification techniques difficult.
The heterologous over-expression of such proteins is therefore usually a prerequisite for their purification
in amounts suitable for structural and for many functional investigations. The most straightforward expres-
sion host, suitable for prokaryote membrane proteins and some proteins from eukaryotes, is the bacterium
Escherichia coli. Here we describe the use of this expression system for production of functionally active
polytopic membrane proteins and methods for their purification by affinity chromatography in amounts up
to tens of milligrams.
Key words Membrane protein, Protein expression, Nonionic detergent, Protein purification, Affinity
chromatography, Size exclusion chromatography
1 Introduction
Twenty to thirty percent of genes in most living organisms encode
membrane proteins (1), which play critical roles in many aspects
of biology, ranging from cell signalling to nutrition. Moreover,
such proteins represent the targets of more than 50% of currently
used therapeutic drugs (2). Isolation of membrane proteins for
structural and functional analysis is therefore of great biological
and medical importance. However, individual types of ion channels,
transporters, and other membrane proteins typically represent
less than 1% of the total protein content of natural biological mem-
branes and this low level of expression hinders their purification.
Moreover, the nonionic detergents required to solubilize the
proteins can interfere with purification by conventional approaches,
such as ion-exchange chromatography, by shielding some of the
charged groups on the protein surface within the hydrophilic head
33
34 Vincent G.L. Postis et al.
groups of the detergents in the protein-detergent micelle. Typically,

isolation of membrane proteins in amounts sufficient for structural
and other investigations therefore requires their over-expression,
bearing an affinity tag, in a suitable heterologous expression system.
Choice of the type of affinity tag and the location of its attachment
must be carefully considered, because these can influence the
synthesis and insertion of the protein in the membrane (3). Choice of
expression system is also important. For example, while some human
membrane proteins can be functionally expressed in bacteria (4),
high-level expression usually requires a eukaryotic host (5).
Additionally, the choice of detergent used for protein solubilization
is often critical in order that the protein not only remains in a sol-
uble, non-aggregated state for prolonged periods of time but also
that it retains its native structure and function.
Here we describe methods that can be employed for the expres-
sion of membrane proteins in Escherichia coli and for their subse-
quent purification. Whilst most applicable to prokaryote membrane
proteins, including homologues of human ion channels and trans-
porters, the procedures involved can be adapted for the purification
of proteins expressed in eukaryotic systems such as mammalian and
insect cells or yeasts.
2 Materials
2.1 Reagents and 1. E. coli host strains: BL21-gold(DE3) (Stratagene), BL21 Star™
Buffers for Bacterial (DE3) (Invitrogen), and C43(DE3) (Lucigen Corporation),
Cell Culture and all harboring the plasmid pRARE2 (Novagen) if required
Membrane Preparation (see Note 1).
2. Expression constructs: These should contain the open reading
frame (ORF) for the protein of interest, bearing appropriate
N- and/or C-terminal affinity tags, under the control of a lactose-
inducible tac promoter (i.e., in a derivative of the vector
pTTQ18 (6)) or another suitable promoter (see Note 2).
3. 1 M isopropyl-β-D-thiogalactoside (IPTG): Dissolve 2.38 g
IPTG in a final volume of 10 mL H2O, sterilize by passage
through a 0.22 μm filter, and store at −20°C.
4. 100 mg/mL carbenicillin: Dissolve 500 mg carbenicillin in a
final volume of 5 mL H2O, sterilize by filtration through a
0.22 μm filter, and store in the dark at −20°C.
5. 30 mg/mL chloramphenicol: Dissolve 150 mg chlorampheni-
col in 5 mL 100% ethanol and store at −20°C.
6. 50× 5052: 25% (w/v) glycerol, 2.5% (w/v) glucose, 10% (w/v)
α-lactose monohydrate. Weigh 25 g glycerol into a beaker and
then add 73 mL H2O, 2.5 g glucose, and 10 g α-lactose. Stir
until dissolved (see Note 3) then sterilize by filtration through
a 0.22 μm filter.
Membrane Protein Purification 35
7. 20× NSPC: 0.5 M Na2HPO4, 0.5 M KH2PO4, 0.1 M Na2SO4,

1 M NH4Cl. Dissolve 7.1 g Na2HPO4, 6.8 g KH2PO4, 1.42 g
Na2SO4, and 5.35 g NH4Cl in 75 mL H2O. Adjust to pH 7.0
using NaOH then make volume up to 100 mL. Sterilize by
autoclaving.
8. 1 M MgSO4: Dissolve 24.65 g MgSO4·7H2O in a final volume
of 100 mL H2O then sterilize by autoclaving or filtration
through a 0.22 μm filter.
9. 1 M CaCl2: Dissolve 14.7 g CaCl2·2H2O in a final volume of
100 mL H2O then sterilize by autoclaving or filtration through
a 0.22 μm filter.
10. 50% (w/v) glycerol: Dissolve 100 g glycerol in H2O to give
a final volume of 200 mL. Sterilize by autoclaving.
11. 40% (w/v) glucose: Dissolve 40 g glucose in H2O to give a
final volume of 100 mL. Sterilize by filtration through a
0.22 μm filter.
12. 20× M9 salts: Dissolve 120 g Na2HPO4, 60 g KH2PO4, 10 g
NaCl, and 20 g NH4Cl in 800 mL H2O and adjust pH to 7.4
with 10 M NaOH. Make up volume to 1 L then sterilize by
autoclaving.
13. 20% (w/v) casamino acids: Dissolve 20 g casamino acids in H2O
to give a final volume of 100 mL then sterilize by autoclaving.
14. Standard M9 medium (for IPTG induction): To 924 mL sterile
H2O add 50 mL 20× M9 salts, 0.2 mL 1 M CaCl2, 2 mL 1 M
MgSO4, 20 mL 20% casamino acids, and 4 mL 50% glycerol.
Add carbenicillin (100 μg/mL) and chloramphenicol (30 μg/mL)
as appropriate before use (see Note 4).
15. M9 medium for autoinduction: Dissolve 6 g Na2HPO4, 3 g
KH2PO4, 1 g NH4Cl, 1 g casamino acids, and 0.003 g
CaCl2·2H2O in a final volume of 1 L H2O then sterilize by
autoclaving.
16. Standard Lysogeny Broth (LB) medium: Dissolve 10 g tryp-
tone, 5 g yeast extract, and 10 g NaCl (omit NaCl if the
medium is to be used for autoinduction experiments) in
800 mL H2O and adjust to pH 7.4 by addition of 1 M NaOH.
Make up volume to 1 L then sterilize by autoclaving. Add
carbenicillin (100 μg/mL) and chloramphenicol (30 μg/mL)
17. Non-inducing LB medium (LBglucose): Mix 92.4 mL LB medium
(lacking NaCl) with 100 μL 1 M MgSO4, 2.5 mL 40% glucose,
and 5 mL 20× NPSC. Add carbenicillin (100 μg/mL) and
chloramphenicol (30 μg/mL) as appropriate before use
(see Note 4).
18. Standard Superbroth (SB) medium: Dissolve 32 g tryptone,
20 g yeast extract, and 5 g NaCl (omit NaCl if the medium is
to be used for autoinduction experiments) in 800 mL water
and adjust pH to 7.4 by addition of 1 M NaOH. Make up

volume to 1 L with H2O then sterilize by autoclaving. Add
carbenicillin (100 μg/mL) and chloramphenicol (30 μg/mL)
19. Complete media for autoinduction (M9auto, LBauto, and SBauto)
(per L): To 929 mL M9 medium for autoinduction, or LB
or SB medium lacking NaCl, add, in the following order, 1 mL
1 M MgSO4, 20 mL 50× 5052, and 50 mL 20× NSPC (see
Note 5). Add carbenicillin (100 μg/mL) and chloramphenicol
(30 μg/mL) as appropriate before use (see Note 4).
20. 10× Phosphate-buffered saline, pH 7.4 (10× PBS): 100 mM
Na2HPO4, 18 mM KH2PO4, 1,370 mM NaCl, 40 mM KCl, pH
7.4. Dissolve 80 g NaCl, 3 g KCl, 14.4 g Na2HPO4, and 2.4 g
KH2PO4 in 800 mL water, adjust pH to 7.4, and make up the
volume to 1 L. Sterilize by autoclaving for long-term storage.
21. Cell lysis solution: 50 mM HEPES, 5 mM MgCl2, 1% (v/v)
Triton X-l00, 25% sucrose, 10 U/mL OmniCleave endonu-
clease, 0.1 mg/mL lysozyme, pH 8.0. Dissolve 1.192 g
HEPES, 25 g sucrose, 0.048 g MgCl2, and 1 mL Triton X-100
in 80 mL H2O, adjust pH to 8 with 5 M NaOH, then make up
volume to 100 mL. Store in aliquots at −20°C. Just before use,
add 10 U/mL OmniCleave endonuclease (Epicentre
Biotechnologies) and 0.1 mg/mL lysozyme.
22. 200 mM Tris–HCl, pH 8.0: Dissolve 2.42 g Tris in 800 mL
H2O, adjust pH to 8.0 with HCl, and then make up volume
to 1 L.
23. Sucrose buffer: 200 mM Tris–HCl, 1 mM EDTA, 1 M sucrose,
pH 8.0. Dissolve 0.037 g Na2EDTA·2H2O and 34.23 g sucrose
in 200 mM Tris–HCl, pH 8.0, to give a final volume of
100 mL.
24. Denaturing solution for dot blotting: 100 mM Tris–HCl, 8 M
guanidinium chloride, pH 8.0: Dissolve 76.4 g guanidine
hydrochloride in 50 mL 200 mM Tris–HCl, pH 8.0, plus
sufficient H2O to give a final volume of 100 mL (see Note 6).
25. 10× Tris-buffered saline (10× TBS): 500 mM Tris–HCl, 1.5 M
NaCl, pH 7.5. Dissolve 60.57 g Tris and 87.66 g NaCl in
900 mL H2O, adjust pH to 7.5 with HCl, and then make up
volume to 1 L.
26. Tris-buffered saline Tween (TBST): 50 mM Tris–HCl,
150 mM NaCl, 0.1% Tween 20, pH 7.5. Dilute 100 mL of
10× TBS and 1 mL Tween 20 to 1 L with H2O.
27. Blocking buffer: 3% bovine serum albumin (BSA) in TBST.
Dissolve 3 g BSA in 100 mL TBST.
28. Bicinchoninic acid (BCA) reagent (Thermo Scientific).
29. cOmplete, EDTA-free Protease Inhibitor Cocktail Tablets
(Roche Diagnostics Ltd.).
2.2 Reagents 1. HisPur™ cobalt resin (Thermo Scientific).

and Buffers for 2. n-dodecyl-β-D-maltoside (DDM) (GLYCON Biochemicals
Purification of GmbH): 25% (w/v) solution in H2O. Store at −80°C.
His-Tagged Proteins
3. 3 M imidazole, pH 7.4: Dissolve 20.42 g imidazole in ~80 mL
by Immobilized Metal
H2O, adjust pH to 7.4 with 1 M NaOH then make up to a
Affinity
final volume of 100 mL. For making buffers with low concen-
Chromatography trations of imidazole, make a 1 M sub-stock by dilution in
water.
4. 3 M NaCl: Dissolve 87.66 g NaCl in H2O to give a final volume
of 500 mL.
5. 2× Immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) solu-
bilization buffer: 20 mM Na2HPO4, 3.6 mM KH2PO4, 8 mM
KCl, 574 mM NaCl, 15 mM imidazole, 20% glycerol, protease
inhibitor cocktail without EDTA, pH 7.4. Dissolve 1 tablet
protease inhibitor cocktail without EDTA in a mixture of
10 mL 50% glycerol, 2.5 mL 3 M NaCl, 375 μL 1 M imida-
zole, 5 mL 10× PBS plus sufficient H2O to give a final volume
of 25 mL.
6. IMAC wash buffer 1: 10 mM Na2HPO4, 1.8 mM KH2PO4,
4 mM KCl, 287 mM NaCl, 7.5 mM imidazole, 10% glycerol,
0.05% DDM, pH 7.4. Dilute 10 mL 50% glycerol, 2.5 mL
3 M NaCl, 375 μL 1 M imidazole, 5 mL 10× PBS, and 100 μL
25% DDM to a final volume of 50 mL with H2O.
7. IMAC wash buffer 2: 10 mM Na2HPO4, 1.8 mM KH2PO4,
4 mM KCl, 287 mM NaCl, 15 mM imidazole, 10% glycerol,
3 M NaCl, 250 μL 3 M imidazole, 5 mL 10× PBS, and 100 μL
25% DDM to a final volume of 50 mL with H2O.
8. IMAC elution buffer: 10 mM Na2HPO4, 1.8 mM KH2PO4,
4 mM KCl, 287 mM NaCl, 250 mM imidazole, 10% glycerol,
3 M NaCl, 4.17 mL 3 M imidazole, 5 mL 10× PBS, pH 7.4
and 100 μL 25% DDM to a final volume of 50 mL in H2O.
9. IMAC dialysis buffer: 10 mM Na2HPO4, 1.8 mM KH2PO4,
4 mM KCl, 137 mM NaCl, 10% glycerol, 0.03% DDM, pH
7.4. Dilute 200 mL 50% glycerol, 100 mL 10× PBS, pH 7.4
and 1.2 mL 25% DDM to a final volume of 1 L in H2O.
2.3 Reagents and 1. Strep-Tactin® Superflow® resin (IBA GmbH).

Buffers for Purification 2. D-Desthiobiotin.
of Strep-Tagged
3. 1 M 2-(p-Hydroxyphenylazo)benzoic acid (HABA): Dissolve
Proteins by Strep-
2.422 g HABA in a final volume of 10 mL H2O. Store at
Tactin Affinity
4°C.
Chromatography
4. cOmplete, Mini Protease Inhibitor Cocktail Tablets (Roche
Diagnostics Ltd.).
5. 1 M Tris–HCl, pH 7.4: Dissolve 60.57 g Tris in 400 mL H2O.

Adjust the pH to 7.4 with HCl then make up to a final volume
of 500 mL.
6. 0.5 M EDTA, pH 7.4: Dissolve 9.307 g Na2EDTA.2H2O in
about 40 mL H2O. Warming will probably be necessary. Cool
to room temperature, adjust pH to 7.4 by addition of 1 M
NaOH, then make up volume to 50 mL. Store at 4°C, or frozen
for extended periods.
7. 2× Strep-Tactin affinity chromatography (SAC) solubilization
buffer: 100 mM Tris–HCl, 200 mM NaCl, 2 mM EDTA, 20%
glycerol, protease inhibitor cocktail, pH 7.4. Dissolve 1 tablet
protease inhibitor cocktail in a mixture of 2.66 mL 3 M NaCl,
4 mL 1 M Tris–HCl, pH 7.4, 160 μL 0.5 M EDTA, pH 7.4
and 16 mL 50% glycerol plus sufficient H2O to give a final
volume of 40 mL in H2O.
8. SAC wash buffer: 50 mM Tris–HCl, 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM
EDTA, 10% glycerol, 0.05% DDM, pH 7.4. Dilute 5 mL 1 M
Tris–HCl, pH 7.4, 3.33 mL 3 M NaCl, 200 μL 0.5 M EDTA,
pH 7.4, 20 mL 50% glycerol, and 200 μL 25% DDM to a final
volume of 100 mL in H2O.
9. SAC elution buffer: 50 mM Tris–HCl, 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM
EDTA, 2.5 mM D-Desthiobiotin, 10% glycerol, 0.05% DDM,
pH 7.4. Dissolve 5.4 mg D-Desthiobiotin in 10 mL SAC wash
buffer.
10. SAC dialysis buffer: 50 mM HEPES, 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM
EDTA, 5% glycerol, 0.05% DDM, pH 7.5. Dissolve 11.915 g
HEPES in ~800 mL H2O. Add 33.3 mL 3 M NaCl and 2 mL
0.5 M EDTA, pH 7.4 then adjust pH to 7.5 using NaOH.
Add 100 mL 50% glycerol and 2 mL 25% DDM then make up
volume to 1 L.
11. SAC regeneration buffer: 50 mM Tris–HCl, 100 mM NaCl,
1 mM EDTA, 1 mM HABA, pH 7.4. Dilute 5 mL 1 M
Tris–HCl, pH 7.4, 3.333 mL 3 M NaCl, 200 μL 0.5 M EDTA,
pH 7.4 and 0.1 mL 1 M HABA to a final volume of 100 mL
in H2O.
2.4 Equipment 1. Temperature-controlled orbital shaker for multiwell plates.

and Materials 2. 24 Deep-well and 96-well plates.
3. Breathable seals for deep-well plates.
4. Temperature-controlled orbital incubator for flasks.
5. Mechanical homogenizer, e.g., T18 basic ULTRA-TURRAX®
homogenizer (IKA).
6. Cell disruptor, e.g., TS series continuous cell disruptor
(Constant Systems, UK).
7. Refrigerated bench centrifuge capable of centrifuging 96-well

plates.
8. Refrigerated high-speed centrifuge.
9. Refrigerated ultracentrifuge.
10. Handheld glass/Teflon homogenizer.
11. UV spectrophotometer.
12. Chromatography columns.
13. Dialysis tubing.
14. Centrifugal concentrators.
15. Apparatus for SDS-PAGE and for electrophoretic transfer of
proteins to nitrocellulose membranes for Western blotting.
16. Äkta Fast Protein Liquid Chromatography (FPLC) system
(GE Healthcare) or equivalent.
3 Methods
Design of constructs for expression of membrane proteins in E. coli
needs to take into account both the origin of the gene to be
expressed and the topology of protein. For example, for proteins
from organisms in which codon usage differs from that of E. coli
use of host strains harboring a plasmid encoding tRNAs for rarely
used codons can sometimes improve expression levels (7) and is
the method described here. Alternatively, the corresponding gene
can be produced synthetically, a process that allows not only codon
optimization but also control of other features, such as mRNA
secondary structure and the beneficial presence of rare codon
clusters, which may influence membrane protein biogenesis (8).
Knowledge of the topology of the membrane protein of interest
is also useful in deciding how the sequence should be tagged; if
the topology has not yet been established experimentally it can be
predicted with reasonable success using a range of algorithms such
as TOPCONS (9). For the majority of membrane proteins, which
have cytoplasmic C-termini (10), addition of a C-terminal octahis-
tidine tag typically allows good expression and affinity purification.
An added advantage of C-terminal tagging is that, in combination
with N-terminal sequencing, the detection of the tag by Western
blotting indicates that the protein produced is full length.
Co-purification of endogenous histidine-rich E. coli proteins, such
as AcrB (11), can be avoided by incorporating a protease cleavage
site between the tag and the membrane protein, and rechromato-
graphing the protein after protease treatment (12). However,
addition of an oligohistidine tag to a protein terminus normally
located on the periplasmic/extracellular side of the membrane
typically results in misfolding and/or reduced levels of expression
of membrane proteins, probably because the positively charged

nature of the tag interferes with topogenesis (3). To circumvent
this problem a C-terminal Strep-tag II affinity tag (Trp-Ser-His-
Pro-Gln-Phe-Glu-Lys), which bears a much smaller net charge,
can instead be used (3). Alternatively, for proteins with a periplasmic
N-terminus, the latter can be fused to a maltose binding protein
tag bearing a signal sequence (13).
In our laboratory expression vectors derived from the plasmid
pTTQ18, bearing a tac promoter, have been successfully used to
express many membrane proteins (3, 14). Expression using these
constructs can be achieved either using induction with isopropyl-
β-D-thiogalactoside (IPTG) or by autoinduction with lactose (15).
Alternatively, pET vectors (Novagen), bearing a T7 promoter, and
E. coli (DE3) host strains can be employed. Use of this strong
promoter can sometimes result in misfolding of a proportion of
the expressed protein, but expression can be “tuned” using the
Lemo21(DE3) strain of E. coli in order to maximize the amount of
correctly folded protein (16).
3.1 Initial The following procedure is designed for rapid screening of a range
Optimization of host strains and culture media, using autoinduction (15), to find
of Protein Expression those in which expression is optimal.
1. Freshly transform E. coli strains BL21-gold(DE3), BL21 Star™
(DE3), and C43(DE3) with a pTTQ18-derived expression
construct encoding an affinity-tagged ORF of the protein of
interest.
2. Inoculate 2 mL samples of LBglucose in a 24 deep-well plate
with single colonies from plates streaked with the above
transformants. Seal the plate with breathable seal then incu-
bate overnight at 37°C in a humidified plate shaker at
1,300 rpm.
3. Inoculate 3 mL samples of M9auto, LBauto, and SBauto in a 24
deep-well plate with 15 μL samples of the overnight cultures.
Seal the plate with breathable seal then incubate for 24 h at
37°C in a humidified plate shaker at 1,300 rpm.
4. Transfer 400 μL samples of the autoinduced expression cul-
tures to a 96-well plate and pellet the cells by centrifugation at
2,000 × gav for 15 min at 4°C.
5. Pour off the medium and tap on clean dry tissue to remove any
remaining liquid.
6. Freeze the cell pellets at −80°C for 1 h then add 100 μL cell
lysis reagent per well and incubate on a plate shaker at 1,000 rpm
for 30 min at room temperature.
7. Take duplicate 5 μL samples for assay of protein concentration
by the bicinchoninic acid (BCA) assay (17).
Fig. 1 Effect of host strain and culture medium on expression of a C-terminally

His8-tagged construct of the Escherichia coli nucleoside transporter NupG. The
E. coli strains indicated, harboring a pTTQ18-based expression construct of
NupG, were cultured at 37°C for 18 h in the autoinduction media shown. Following
cell lysis samples (4 μg protein) were spotted onto nitrocellulose membrane and
then the His8-tagged protein visualized by incubating with a horseradish peroxi-
dase conjugate of a monoclonal antibody against oligohistidine, followed by
chemiluminescent detection
8. Mix 12.5 μL of cell lysate with 37.5 μL denaturing solution for

dot blotting, incubate for 1 h at room temperature, and then
spot 3 μL samples onto nitrocellulose membrane.
9. Block free protein binding sites on the membrane by incubation
with blocking buffer for 1 h at room temperature or in a cold
room overnight and then detect the affinity-tagged protein by
standard Western blotting procedures, using an antibody
appropriate for the tag (see Note 7).
An example of typical results is shown in Fig. 1.
3.2 Further The small-scale culture and dot blotting procedures described
Optimization of Protein above should provide an initial idea of the best expression host and
Expression growth medium required to achieve the desired expression level of
the protein of interest. However, before embarking on large-scale
expression it is wise to determine the optimum time of induction
and to compare yields obtained using autoinduction with those
obtained using IPTG induction, by performing cultures in flasks as
follows (see Note 8):
1. Inoculate 50 mL LBglucose in a 250 mL baffled flask with single
bacterial colony from a freshly streaked plate and incubate
overnight at 37°C with orbital shaking at 200 rpm.
2. Measure the D600nm of the overnight culture and inoculate a
series of 250 mL baffled flasks, each containing 50 mL of the
appropriate autoinduction medium identified as detailed in
Subheading 3.1 and supplemented with antibiotics as appropri-
ate, to give a theoretical D600nm value of 0.05. Incubate at 37°C
with orbital shaking at 200 rpm for 24, 36, 48, and 60 h then
prepare cytoplasmic membranes as detailed in Subheading 3.3
for analysis of expression levels by Western blotting.
3. In parallel, inoculate a series of 250 mL baffled flasks, each

containing 50 mL of the appropriate standard medium (M9,
LB, or SB) and supplemented with antibiotics as appropriate,
to give a theoretical D600nm value of 0.05. Incubate at 37°C
with orbital shaking at 200 rpm until a D600nm value of 0.7 has
been reached. Then, either harvest the cells immediately for
use as un-induced controls or induce expression by addition of
25 μL 1 M IPTG to give a final concentration of 0.5 mM.
Continue incubation of the latter samples at 37°C with orbital
shaking at 200 rpm for 3, 6, and 16 h then prepare membranes
from these cultures and from the un-induced controls as
detailed in Subheading 3.3 for analysis of expression levels by
Western blotting.
3.3 Small-Scale 1. Take 50 mL of an IPTG-induced culture and collect the cells by
Preparation of centrifugation at 12,000 × gav for 10 min at 4°C (see Note 9).
Membranes and 2. Resuspend the pellet in 10 mL 200 mM Tris–HCl, pH 8.0,
Analysis of Expression using a handheld homogenizer, then shake in an orbital incu-
Levels by Western bator at 250 rpm for 20 min at 25°C.
Blotting 3. At time zero add 4.85 mL sucrose buffer and briefly mix by
vortexing.
4. At 1.5 min add 65 μL 10 mg/mL lysozyme (freshly prepared
in the sucrose buffer) and briefly mix by vortexing.
5. At 2 min add 9.6 mL H2O, vortex briefly, and continue shaking
for 20 min to allow spheroplast formation (see Note 10).
6. Collect the spheroplasts by centrifuging at 25,000 × gav for
20 min at 4°C.
7. Discard the supernatant then resuspend the spheroplasts in
15 mL H2O using a handheld homogenizer and allow to stand
at room temperature for 30 min to ensure complete lysis.
8. Collect the resultant membranes by centrifuging as in step 6.
9. Wash the membranes three times by resuspending each time in
15 mL 1× PBS, pH 7.4, using a handheld homogenizer, then
centrifuging as in step 6.
10. Resuspend the final membrane pellet in 0.2–1.0 mL 1× PBS,
pH 7.4.
11. Measure the protein concentration using the BCA assay (17)
then snap-freeze and store in aliquots at −80°C.
12. Assess the expression level of the protein of interest by Western
blotting, using an appropriate antibody (see Note 11).
3.4 Large-Scale Once the optimal combination of host strain, medium, induction
Expression and method, temperature, and time of induction has been determined,
Membrane Preparation expression can be scaled up either in flask culture or, if available, in
a fermenter (14) to enable sufficient material to be produced for
protein purification (see Note 12). As an example, the following

method is employed in our laboratory for production of E. coli
membranes containing the peptide transporter PepTSo from
Shewanella oneidensis (18):
1. Transform E. coli strain BL21-gold(DE3) with a pTTQ18-
derived plasmid encoding PepTSo bearing a C-terminal hexa-
histidine tag. Streak onto an LB-agar plate supplemented with
carbenicillin (100 μg/mL) and incubate overnight at 37°C.
2. Inoculate 50 mL LB medium, supplemented with carbenicillin
(100 μg/mL) and 1% glucose, with a single colony from the
plate and incubate overnight at 37°C with orbital shaking at
200 rpm in a 250 mL baffled flask.
3. Measure the D600nm of the overnight culture and inoculate the
required number of 2.5 L baffled flasks, each containing
500 mL LB medium supplemented with carbenicillin (100 μg/
mL), with a volume sufficient to give a theoretical D600nm value
of 0.05, and then incubate at 37°C with orbital shaking at
200 rpm. Monitor the D600nm and when it reaches 0.7 induce
protein expression by adding IPTG to give a final concentra-
tion of 0.5 mM (see Note 13). Incubate for a further 3 h under
the same conditions.
4. Harvest the cells by centrifugation at 9,000 × gav for 40 min at
4°C then resuspend the cell pellets (6 mL buffer/g cells) in
ice-cold 1× PBS, pH 7.4, containing 1 tablet protease inhibitor
cocktail without EDTA (see Note 14) per 50 mL.
5. Homogenize the cell suspension using a mechanical homoge-
nizer to ensure that no lumps are present and then lyse the cells
by passage through a cell disruptor operating at 30 kPSI and
4°C (see Note 15).
6. Pellet the cell debris by centrifugation at 14,000 × gav for 45 min
at 4°C.
7. Collect the membranes by centrifugation of the supernatant at
100,000 × gav for 2 h at 4°C.
8. Resuspend the membranes in a minimal volume (a few mL) of
1× PBS, pH 7.4, or other buffer appropriate for the required
downstream processing (e.g., 1× IMAC solubilization buffer,
without detergent), using a handheld homogenizer. Take a
small sample for measurement of the protein concentration
using the BCA assay (17), then snap-freeze and store at −80°C
(see Note 16). The typical yield is 150 mg membrane protein
per liter of culture.
3.5 Purification A necessary first step in membrane protein purification is solubili-

of His-Tagged zation of the membrane in a nonionic or zwitterionic detergent.
Proteins by IMAC Commonly used detergents include alkyl glucosides (e.g., octyl
Fig. 2 Structures of detergents commonly used for membrane protein purification
glucoside) and maltosides (e.g., n-dodecyl-β-D-maltoside; DDM),

polyoxyethylene glycols (e.g., octaethylene glycol n-dodecyl ether;
C12E8), and lauryl dimethylamine oxide (LDAO) (Fig. 2). For
efficient solubilization of membranes, not only must the detergent
concentration be greater than the critical micellar concentration
(CMC) but also a sufficiently high ratio of detergent to membrane
concentration must be employed. The optimal detergent and its
concentration for solubilization of a particular membrane protein
must be determined empirically by incubating membranes, typi-
cally at a protein concentration of 2 mg/mL, on ice with a range
of detergent concentrations (e.g., 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2% (w/v)) for
1 h. After centrifuging at 100,000 × gav to remove insoluble mate-
rial the amount of the desired protein in the supernatant can then
be assessed by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-
PAGE) and Western blotting. In the case of His6-tagged PepTSo,
which is used as an example below, the optimal detergent for solu-
bilization is DDM. Indeed, in our hands DDM solubilizes many
prokaryote membrane proteins efficiently.
All purification steps should be done on ice or at 4°C as
appropriate.
1. Dilute 100 mg of membrane protein with 10 mL ice-cold 2×
IMAC solubilization buffer (see Note 17) then add ice-cold
H2O to give a final volume of 19.2 mL. Homogenize using a
handheld homogenizer, then add 0.8 mL 25% DDM, to give a
final detergent concentration of 1% and a protein concentra-
tion of 5 mg/mL; incubate with gentle mixing for 1 h (see
Note 18). Take a small sample (e.g., 100 μL), snap-freeze, and
store at −80°C for subsequent SDS-PAGE/Western blotting
to assess the total amount of PepTSo in the starting material.
2. Pellet the insoluble fraction in an ultracentrifuge at 100,000 × gav
for 1 h. Carefully remove the supernatant from the pellet and
keep this on ice. If desired, solubilize the pellet in SDS-PAGE
sample buffer (it is hard to get an even resuspension if ordinary
buffer is used) and snap-freeze for subsequent SDS-PAGE/

Western blotting to assess the amount of PepTSo that has not
been solubilized. Similarly, take a small sample (e.g., 100 μL)
of the supernatant to assess the amount of PepTSo that has
been solubilized.
3. Pre-equilibrate 1.2 mL HisPur™ cobalt resin (50% slurry, i.e.,
0.6 mL packed resin) (see Note 19) in a 50 mL plastic tube by
washing three times with 10 mL H2O and then three times
with 3 mL IMAC wash buffer 1. Do this by gently inverting
the tube then centrifuging at 700 × gav for 5 min each time.
4. Add the supernatant from the ultracentrifugation step to the
resin and allow protein binding to occur for 2 h with gentle
mixing on a roller mixer (see Note 20).
5. Centrifuge the resin slurry again at 700 × gav for 5 min, and
remove and discard the supernatant (but first keep a sample for
SDS-PAGE/Western blotting to assess the amount of PepTSo
that has remained unbound). Wash the resin in the same fash-
ion twice with 6 mL IMAC wash buffer 1, then resuspend in
3 mL IMAC wash buffer 1.
6. Next, pack the resin into a column of appropriate dimensions
with a tap on the outlet, then wash the resin under gravity with
18 mL (i.e., 30 column volumes (CV)) of IMAC wash buffer
1, followed by 18 mL IMAC wash buffer 2 (see Note 21).
7. Close the column outlet and gently add 0.6 mL IMAC elution
buffer, without disturbing the top of the resin. Open the column
again and collect ~0.5 mL of the eluate (see Note 22) before
closing the column outlet again.
8. With the column outlet still closed, add a further 1 mL elution
buffer, resuspend the resin with a pipet tip, cap the column,
and incubate for 10 min on a rotary mixer.
9. Return the column to the vertical position, open the outlet
and collect the eluate, plus that generated by subsequent gen-
tle addition of 0.6 mL elution buffer, in a single tube. Close
the outlet again. Measure the A280nm of the eluted fraction to
provide an indication of protein concentration, using elution
buffer as the blank.
10. Repeat steps 8 and 9 until all the protein has eluted. Pool the
peak fractions, as indicated by their absorbance (see Note 23).
11. To remove the imidazole, dialyze overnight against at least
2 × 500 mL IMAC dialysis buffer (see Note 24).
12. Assess the progress of the purification and the purity of the
final material by SDS-PAGE and Western blotting (see Note 11).
13. If necessary, concentrate the dialyzed sample using a centrifugal
concentrator with a 100 kDa molecular weight cutoff by cen-
trifugation at 3,800 × gav (see Note 25). The homogeneity of
the purified protein can then be investigated by size exclusion

chromatography, as discussed for the protein MPSIL0347 in
Subheading 3.6.
14. Assess the functional state of the purified protein using a suitable
assay (see Note 26).
3.6 Purification In cases where protein topology precludes the use of an oligohisti-
of Strep-Tagged dine affinity tag, we have successfully used an attached Strep-tag II
Proteins by SAC sequence for membrane protein purification (3). This approach
circumvents the problem of co-purification of the protein with
endogenous His-rich proteins, sometimes seen in IMAC
purifications (11), although the relatively low affinity of the tag for
the Strep-Tactin affinity resin can result in low yields for some pro-
teins, especially if they are monomeric. The following method is
used in our laboratory for purification of MPSIL0347, a homo-
logue of the mammalian bestrophin family of chloride channels
(19), encoded by the gene alr2987 from the cyanobacterium Nostoc
sp. PCC 7120.
All purification steps should be done on ice or at 4°C as
appropriate.
1. Solubilize membranes as detailed in step 1 of Subheading 3.5,
except using 2× SAC solubilization buffer and incubating with
gentle mixing overnight.
2. Separate the detergent-soluble from the insoluble protein by
ultracentrifugation as detailed in step 2 of Subheading 3.5.
3. Pre-equilibrate 1 mL of a 50% slurry of Strep-Tactin® Superflow®
resin slurry (i.e., 0.5 mL packed resin [see Note 27]) in a
50 mL plastic tube by washing twice with 10 mL SAC wash
buffer. Do this by gently inverting the tube then centrifuging
at 700 × gav for 5 min each time.
4. Add the supernatant from the ultracentrifugation step to the
resin and allow protein binding to occur for 1 h with gentle
mixing.
5. Centrifuge the resin slurry again at 700 × gav for 5 min, remove
and discard the supernatant (but first keep a small sample, e.g.,
1 mL, for SDS-PAGE/Western blotting to assess the amount
of MPSIL0347 that has remained unbound), then gently
resuspend the resin in 5 mL of SAC wash buffer.
6. Next pack the resin into a column of appropriate dimensions,
then wash the resin under gravity with 20 mL (i.e., 40 CV) of
SAC wash buffer, collecting the eluate for further analysis if
required.
7. Elute the bound protein by successive addition of ten 0.5 mL
volumes of SAC elution buffer, collecting 0.5 mL fractions.
8. Measure the A280nm of the eluted fractions to provide an indication

of protein concentration, using elution buffer as the blank.
Pool the peak fractions, as indicated by their absorbance.
9. Assess the progress of the purification and the purity of the
final material by SDS-PAGE and Western blotting. Results for
a typical purification are shown in Fig. 3.
10. To remove the desthiobiotin, dialyze overnight against
2 × 500 mL SAC dialysis buffer.
11. If necessary, concentrate the dialyzed sample to a volume
of ~250 μL using a centrifugal concentrator with a 100 kDa
molecular weight cutoff by centrifugation at 3,800 × gav for
30 min.
12. As an additional purification step, and to assess the oligomeric
state of the purified protein, the dialyzed sample can be subjected
Fig. 3 (a) Coomassie blue-stained SDS-polyacrylamide gel and (b) corresponding

Western blot stained with an antibody against the Strep-tag II, illustrating the
purification of a Strep-tag II modified form of the bestrophin homologue
MPSIL0347 using SAC, as detailed in the text. Lanes were loaded with 10 μL
samples from the following stages of the purification process: M Escherichia coli
membranes used as starting material, S supernatant following incubation of the
membranes with the detergent DDM and subsequent ultracentrifugation, FT flow
through fraction that remained unbound following passage of the supernatant
through a column of Strep-Tactin® Superflow® resin, W wash fraction resulting
from passage of SAC wash buffer through the column, E1–E4 fractions eluted
using a buffer containing 2.5 mM D-Desthiobiotin. Lane A contained protein
markers with the indicated molecular masses
Fig. 4 Size exclusion chromatography of the purified bestrophin homologue

MPSIL0347 on a Superose 6 10/300 column. The arrow indicates the void volume
of the column
to size exclusion chromatography on a Superose 6 10/300

column in SAC dialysis buffer (see Note 28), at a flow rate of
1 mL per min, monitoring A280nm to detect protein and collect-
ing 0.5 mL fractions. Typical results are shown in Fig. 4.
13. Assess the functional state of the purified protein using a suit-
able assay (see Note 26).
14. To regenerate the column, wash it three times with 5 CV of
SAC regeneration buffer. The color change from yellow to red
indicates the progress of the regeneration process, which is
complete when the intensity of the red color is uniform
throughout the column. The column can then be stored at
4°C in the same buffer, which should be removed by washing
the column two times with 4 CV of SAC wash buffer before
the next purification run.
4 Notes
1. E. coli BL21 strains are used for protein expression because
they lack the proteases OmpT and Lon, so minimizing protein
degradation. (DE3) strains are employed because they carry a
chromosomal copy of the T7 RNA polymerase gene under the
control of the lacUV5 promoter. They are thus intended for
expression of proteins under the control of a T7 promoter,
e.g., in pET vectors (Novagen), but are also suitable for

expression under the control of other promoters, such as the
tac promoter found in plasmid pTTQ18 (6). Strain BL21
Star™ (DE3) bears a truncated RNAse E gene to enhance
mRNA stability (20), while strain C43(DE3) bears a mutation
in the lacUV5 promoter, decreasing T7 polymerase levels and
in consequence sometimes yielding improved levels of cor-
rectly folded membrane proteins (16). The pRARE2 plasmid
encodes tRNAs for seven codons rarely used in E. coli and its
presence can thus enhance translation efficiency of genes with
codon usage different from endogenous E. coli ones (7).
2. In our laboratory we primarily utilize pTTQ18 (6) derivatives
as expression vectors for membrane proteins. However, other
inducible vectors, such as the pET series (Novagen), are also
widely employed for membrane protein production.
3. Dissolving the lactose may take a considerable time, and can be
speeded up by gentle warming.
4. Carbenicillin is used to select for pTTQ18 and its derivatives,
which harbor a β-lactamase gene that confers ampicillin resis-
tance. It is used because it is more stable than ampicillin. Other
antibiotics, such as kanamycin, may be required to select for
other expression vectors, such as some members of the pET
series. Chloramphenicol is used to select for the pRARE2 plas-
mid, which harbors a chloramphenicol resistance gene.
5. Instead of making up autoinduction media from their individ-
ual components, they can also be purchased from a number of
suppliers, including ForMedium™, although media from the
latter do not contain glycerol.
6. If crystallization proves to be a problem the guanidine solution
can be stored at 37°C.
7. An estimate of the amount of expressed protein per unit vol-
ume of culture can be obtained by comparison of the intensity
of the spots seen with those for known amounts of a purified,
water-soluble protein bearing the same affinity tag. The amount
expressed per mg total protein can then be calculated using the
results of the BCA assay performed in step 7. Alternatively, the
latter can be used in order to load equal amounts of protein
rather than equal volumes of culture onto the blot.
8. In our experience, although autoinduction usually gives bet-
ter yields of expressed protein, for some membrane proteins
IPTG induction is better. The temperature at which induction
is performed can also be explored, lower temperatures
(e.g., 16 or 25°C) sometimes yielding greater levels of natively
folded, membrane-inserted protein that can be solubilized
with mild nonionic detergents, and less protein in the form
of inclusion bodies.
9. An IPTG-induced culture will typically have a D600nm of ~1.

For autoinduced cultures, which can reach much higher cell
densities, measure the D600nm and prepare membranes from a
volume of cells equivalent to 50 mL of an IPTG-induced
culture.
10. Formation of spheroplasts (spherical cells lacking an intact cell
wall) can be confirmed by examination using phase-contrast
microscopy at a magnification of 800×.
11. Heating membrane proteins in SDS-containing sample buffer
for SDS-PAGE typically promotes their aggregation. Samples
in SDS should therefore be prepared either at room tempera-
ture or by heating at 37°C for 20 min. Aggregation is also
minimized by using a preparation of SDS containing a pro-
portion of 14C and 16C alkyl sulfates in addition to dodecyl
sulfate (21).
12. Following optimization, expression levels for the membrane
protein of interest of up to ~25% of total cytoplasmic mem-
brane protein are routinely achieved in our laboratory.
However, because cytoplasmic membrane proteins represent
only about 6% of the total protein in E. coli, typical yields of
purified membrane protein per liter of culture are in the
1–10 mg range, necessitating larger cultures than for water-
soluble protein expression.
13. We typically find that 0.5 mM IPTG gives good induction
whilst minimizing cost and toxicity. Although some laborato-
ries recommend testing a range of IPTG concentrations, the
concentrative uptake of the inducer via the lactose transporter
LacY means that there is no simple relationship between the
extracellular and intracellular concentrations. If necessary,
induction of expression by IPTG can however be titrated in
E. coli BL21 Tuner™ strains (Novagen), which are lacZY
deletion mutants. In these strains IPTG enters the cells pas-
sively and so induction can be achieved in a concentration-
dependent fashion.
14. The susceptibility of individual types of membrane proteins to
proteolytic degradation varies and so the requirement for inclu-
sion of protease inhibitors during membrane preparation and
protein purification must be tested empirically. If IMAC is to
be used for purification, an inhibitor mix lacking EDTA should
ideally be employed to avoid loss of metal ions from the col-
umn. However, a number of manufacturers, such as Roche,
have recently introduced new affinity resins (e.g., complete
His-Tag Purification Resin) which are reportedly stable in the
presence of both EDTA and thiols.
15. If a cell disruptor is not available, cells can be lysed by sonication,
although this is more laborious and typically not as efficient.
16. Snap-frozen samples should be stored at −80°C rather than at

−20°C to prevent protein degradation.
17. Buffers used for solubilization and chromatography of mem-
brane proteins typically contain up to 10% glycerol because of
its stabilizing effect on membrane proteins (22).
18. In the case of PepTSo and MPSIL0347, extensive solubilization
of the protein can be achieved using 1% detergent (10 mg/
mL) and a membrane protein concentration of 5 mg/mL, i.e.,
a detergent to protein weight ratio of 2:1. However, the opti-
mal ratio of detergent to protein must be determined empiri-
cally and for other proteins a larger ratio is required. A good
rule of thumb is to start with a protein concentration of 2 mg/
mL. Typically solubilization can be achieved by incubation
with detergent for 1 h but for some proteins, such as
MPSIL0347, overnight incubation results in more complete
solubilization.
19. Although both Ni-charged and Co-charged resins can be used
for purification of His-tagged proteins, we find that the latter
typically are more selective for the protein of interest in com-
parison to endogenous His-rich proteins, and so yield a purer
protein preparation. The binding capacity of HisPur™ Co resin
for His-tagged proteins is ~360 nmol/mL and so 0.6 mL resin
should bind ~12 mg His6-tagged PepTSo (Mr 57962.5). The
amount of resin required should be established empirically and
the minimum quantity employed, in order to minimize
nonspecific binding of endogenous His-rich proteins. The lat-
ter is also minimized by the inclusion of 7.5 mM imidazole in
the IMAC solubilization buffer.
20. Binding of detergent-solubilized membrane proteins to IMAC
resins can be slow, possibly because the detergent micelle steri-
cally hinders access to the binding sites on the resin. Whatever
the cause, we have found that binding in batch mode as
described here is typically superior to loading the protein onto
the resin in a column, even if recirculation is employed.
Dissociation of the bound protein can also be slow, hence the
inclusion of an extended incubation of the resin with elution
buffer, as detailed in step 8.
21. The tightness with which membrane proteins bind to the
IMAC resin can differ between different proteins, despite their
bearing identical tags. The concentration of imidazole in the
wash buffers required to elute weakly bound, endogenous
His-rich proteins without elution of the tagged protein must
therefore be determined empirically, and may differ from that
described here. All buffers should contain a detergent concen-
tration above the CMC to maintain protein solubility: the
CMC for DDM in 0.2 M NaCl is ~0.12 mM (0.006%, w/v).
22. This fraction should contain just the IMAC wash buffer 2
displaced by the elution buffer from the column, i.e., it should
not contain eluted protein, but it should be kept just in case!
23. Most batches of imidazole from commercial sources absorb
light at 280 nm. Thus, the first fraction will have an anoma-
lously low absorption, because it will contain a mixture of wash
and elution buffer, but the subsequent fractions will contain
only elution buffer and so the latter will represent an appropri-
ate blank. Imidazole with a low A280nm can be purchased,
although it is of course more expensive.
24. In our experience, slow removal of imidazole by dialysis is
preferable to its rapid removal by passage down a desalting
column, because the latter can result in precipitation of the
protein. A low concentration of DDM, at or above the CMC,
is included in the dialysis buffer to prevent loss of detergent
and thus precipitation of the membrane protein.
25. DDM forms roughly spherical micelles of reported size ranging
from about 40–75 kDa. To prevent concentration of free deter-
gent, a concentrator with a molecular weight cutoff (MWCO) of
100 kDa must therefore be used, and even so some increase in free
detergent concentration is to be expected. Because the protein-
detergent micelle is much larger than the protein alone, there is
usually little loss of proteins with molecular masses of ³ 50 kDa.
26. The methods used to assess whether the purified protein
remains in its native folded state and retains function will of
course depend on the identity of the particular protein under
investigation. In some cases, function can be assessed directly
using the detergent-solubilized protein, an example being the
use of scintillation proximity assays to measure substrate bind-
ing to transporters (23). Alternatively, function can be assessed
following reconstitution of the protein into a proteoliposome
and measurement, for example, of the influx of radiolabelled
substrate in the case of a transporter (24). The latter type of
assay confirmed that PepTSo purified by the method described
retains its expected peptide transport activity. In the case of ion
channels, electrophysiological assays are possible if the protein
is reconstituted into giant unilamellar vesicles (25) or planar
lipid bilayers (see Chapter 8 of this book).
27. The binding capacity of Strep-Tactin® Superflow® resin for
Strep-tagged proteins is 50–100 nmol per mL, so 0.5 mL resin
should bind between 1 and 2 mg Strep-tagged MPSIL0347
(Mr 38543).
28. In the case of MPSIL0347, the SAC dialysis buffer was deter-
mined to be the optimum for maintaining protein stability,
using the assay described by Postis et al. (26). Once such an
optimum buffer has been identified by this assay, it can also be
employed to good effect throughout the purification itself.

The lack of any aggregated material eluting in the column void
volume during size exclusion chromatography and the sym-
metrical appearance of the absorption peak (Fig. 4) indicates
that the protein is monodisperse and suitable for further struc-
tural and functional investigations.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the U.K. BBSRC (grant

BBS/B/14418; Membrane Protein Structure Initiative) and by
the Wellcome Trust (ref. 019322/7/10/Z). Additional support
from the University of Leeds is acknowledged. We are grateful to
Michael McPherson, Peter Henderson, Sarah Deacon, Gareth
Wright, Gerard Huysmans, Peter Roach, Jean Ingram, and David
Sharples for their many contributions to the development of
membrane protein expression and purification technologies in
our laboratory.
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Chapter 4
Transient Overexpression of Genes in Neurons

Using Nucleofection
Hannah M. Kirton, Louisa Pettinger, and Nikita Gamper
Abstract
Nucleofection is a transfection method used to introduce substrates such as cDNA plasmids into primary
cells or other cell lines. The method can be successfully applied to cells that are considered difficult to
transfect or suffer from low transfection efficiency as seen with traditional transfection techniques. Neurons
in primary cultures retain many properties of their in vivo state and therefore, in many instances, are con-
sidered better experimental systems than immortalized cell lines, thus becoming increasingly desirable cell
types for biomedical research. However, being post-mitotic, primary neuronal cultures are particularly
difficult to transfect using routine transfection reagents. There is therefore a growing need for the efficient
delivery of expression vectors into such neuronal cultures. In this chapter we will discuss the application of
nucleofection for the heterologous expression of genes in primary neuronal cultures. We also discuss the
advantage of this technique relative to other conventional methods, and describe a reliable method for
transfection of cultured rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and trigeminal (TG) neurons.
Key words Nucleofection, Neurons, Transfection efficiency and optimization
1 Introduction
Efficient delivery of an expression vector is an important tool in

the study of neuronal biology. However, the expression of exog-
enous genes into nondividing cells such as neurons has become
somewhat of a challenge due to the necessity to deliver genetic
material directly into the cell nucleus (thus it has to cross both
plasma and nuclear membranes). In contrast, in dividing cells,
such as immortalized cell lines, successful transfection can be
achieved by the delivery of constructs into the cytosol from where
it can translocate into the nuclei during mitosis. Conventional
55
56 Hannah M. Kirton et al.
nonviral transfection methods such as lipophilic transfection

reagents have proven difficult and failed to deliver reasonable
transfection efficiency with most primary neuronal cultures. While
the viral-mediated gene transfer methods produce higher trans-
duction efficiencies, these proved time consuming and require
high levels of safety. Other transfection techniques used to trans-
fect primary cultures include “physical transfection” methods such
as direct nuclear injection of plasmid DNA (1) and the biolistic
“gene gun technique” (2). The biolistic particle delivery system
for heterologous expression of genes into primary neurons bom-
bards neurons at high velocity with DNA-coated gold particles.
Although it is reliable, it is time consuming and causes physical
damage to the neurons. In addition, transfection efficiency of
biolistic transfection is usually no greater than 10%.
The recent development of nucleofector technology is the first
highly efficient nonviral gene transfer method that has vastly
enhanced the number of cell types that are amenable to transfec-
tion. Nucleofection has the ability to transfect cDNA plasmids
directly into the cell nucleus of nondividing cells by delivery of a
defined set of electrical pulses to cells in suspension (3, 4). The
newer modification of the nucleofector device also enables the
transfection of adherent cultures. This technique is fast, reliable,
and reproducible with a transfection success rate reaching 80–90%
in some preparations (although transfection of neuronal cultures
usually yields lower transfection rates).
Primary cultures of murine peripheral somatosensory neu-
rons, such as neurons of the dorsal root or trigeminal (DRG and
TG, respectively) ganglia, provide an invaluable in vitro system
for studying the molecular processes that underlie somatosensory
signalling and pain. Yet, as with most primary neuronal cultures,
transfection of these neurons proves a considerable challenge. In
this chapter we describe the nucleofection technique for the
delivery of cDNA vectors into DRG and TG neurons that we
have successfully applied to investigate the regulation of ion chan-
nels by G protein-coupled receptors in these neurons (5–8). This
technique was also used for siRNA gene knock-down in sensory
neuron cultures (8). The development of transfection methods,
such as nucleofection, enabled the efficient transfection of ion
channels, neuropeptides, G protein-coupled receptors as well as
optical reporters of various intracellular signalling cascades which,
in turn, greatly enhanced the “toolkit” available for the interro-
gation of neuronal signalling. Here we describe how to perform
efficient nucleofection of cDNA in dissociated DRG and TG
neurons from rats.
Nucleofection of Primary Neurons 57
2 Materials
2.1 Dissociation of 1. 7-day-old male Wistar rat (see Note 1).

Rat DRG (TG) Neurons 2. Cell culture medium: 50 mL DMEM (Invitrogen) pre-supple-
mented with GlutaMAX (see Note 2), 10% fetal bovine serum
and 5% penicillin (50 U/mL), streptomycin (50 μg/mL) pre-
warmed to 37°C.
3. 2 mL of dissection solution: dispase (10 mg/mL) and collage-
nase type 1A (1 mg/mL) dissolved in Ca2+- and Mg2+-free
Hanks’ balanced salt solution (HBSS).
4. Syringe filter (Millipore, 0.22 μM).
5. Ca2+- and Mg2+-free HBSS.
6. 2 mL of 100% Isoflurane (Merial Animal Health Ltd).
7. Sterile polypropylene falcon tubes, 15 mL containing
ice-cold DMEM medium (supplemented with serum and
antibiotics).
8. Sterile U-bottomed falcon tube, 15 mL.
9. Dissection tools (see Note 3):
Microdissection forceps (Dumont #5 and #55 stainless steel
forceps).
DeBakey forceps with atraumatic teeth grip to prevent damage
to tissue.
Economy tweezers style 4.
Dissecting scissors.
Scalpel blade.
Vannas scissors.
10. Box of ice.
11. Styrofoam pad (i.e., icebox cover), sprayed with 70% alcohol,
four hypodermic needles.
12. Greiner sterile cell culture dishes (35 × 10 and 55 × 15 mm)
filled HBSS.
2.2 Nucleofection 1. Lonza 2B or 4D Nucleofector® device (formerly known as

of Rat DRG Neurons Amaxa Nucleofector).
2. Lonza rat neuron Nucleofector® kit: Certified cuvette, plastic
pipette, and supplemented nucleofector buffer solution at
room temperature.
3. Plasmid cDNA.
4. Tissue culture plate (Nunclon) with pre-coated poly-D-lysine

and laminin glass coverslides stored at 37°C until required
(see Note 4).
5. Hemocytometer (optional).
6. Sterile microcentrifuge tubes, 1.5 mL.
3 Methods
All procedures are carried out under sterile conditions using a class
II inflow hood (unless indicated otherwise).
3.1 Dissociation of 1. Thoroughly spray the procedure table and all the instruments
Rat DRG (TG) Neurons with 70% alcohol.
2. Dissection solution is prepared by dissolving dispase (10 mg/mL)
and collagenase type 1A (1 mg/mL) in HBSS. The solution is
then sterilized by filtering through a 0.22 μM syringe filter and
stored at 37°C (tissue culture incubator) until required.
3. Rat is sacrificed using isoflurane overdose (or similar approved
method).
4. The spine is removed and cut in two halves in the transverse
plane. Each part is then cut in the sagittal plane using fine scis-
sors and placed into the small cell culture dish filled with Ca2+-
and Mg2+-free HBSS and kept on ice (see Note 5 for TG
dissociation).
5. Pin one of the four spine sections to the Styrofoam pad using
hypodermic needles with spinal canal facing up. Remove spinal
cord with fine (Dumont #55) forceps.
6. Pool DRG from all levels with fine forceps and place into a
small cell culture dish filled with the ice-cold Ca2+- and Mg2+-
free HBSS. Repeat the procedure for the remaining sections of
the spine. Refer to Chapter 25 of this book for further advice
on DRG extraction.
7. Under sterile conditions DRG (or TG) are transferred into the
U-bottomed tube containing the dissection solution, and incu-
bated for 10–30 min (see Note 6) in a humidified incubator
(37°C, air supplemented with 5% CO2).
8. After 10–30 min gently triturate the cell suspension with a
sterile 1 mL Gilson pipette to dissociate the ganglia (avoid
excessive trituration as this may damage the neurons due to
mechanical stress) (see Note 7).
Fig. 1 Schematic representation for the nucleofection of cultured neurons using

the Lonza Nucleofector® technique
9. Add cell suspension to a 15 mL polypropylene falcon tube

containing 10 mL of ice-cold DMEM containing serum and
antibiotics. This will inactivate the digestion enzymes and pre-
vent further dissociation of the cell suspension (see Note 8).
10. Wash the cell suspension by centrifugation at ~800 × g for
5 mins at 4°C.
11. Remove the supernatant and repeat washing steps 8 and 9.
12. (Optional) Use a hemocytometer to check for appropriate cell
culture density (approximately 2 × 106 cells per transfection is a
recommended amount but see Note 9).
3.2 Nucleofection of The overview of transfection procedure is schematically depicted in

Rat DRG (TG) Neurons Fig. 1.
1. After the final wash (see Note 10) resuspend the cells in 100 μL
of nucleofector buffer (pre-warmed to room temperature—it
is essential to ensure that the buffer is warm; keep it at room
temperature for a minimum of 30 min prior to use; failure to
do so will reduce transfection efficiency). Do not remove the
debris (see Note 8), and gently triturate 1–3 times.
2. Gently remove all the cell suspension and transfer to a clean
1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube containing 2 μg of total DNA
(see Note 11).
3. Immediately transfer all the cell/DNA suspension into a
certified cuvette, ensuring no bubbles are present in the sample
and the sample is inserted to the bottom of the cuvette.
4. Insert the cuvette into the Nucleofector device and immedi-
ately apply the transfection program. For rat DRG and TG
neurons the recommended program is O-03 using Lonza 2B.
5. Using a Pasteur pipette (provided by the Lonza kit), gently but
without delay (see Note 12), transfer the sample into a sterile
1.5mL microcentrifuge tube containing 600 µL of DMEM
media containing serum and antibiotics (pre-warmed to 37°C
in a humidified CO2 incubator).
6. Finally, plate 100 μL of the sample into the prepared culture
dish with pre-coated coverslips, and incubate the cells in a
humidified incubator (37°C, air supplemented with 5% CO2).
7. After 4–6 h gently flood the culture dish wells with fresh culture
medium that has been pre-warmed to 37°C (see Note 13).
8. Incubate the cells in a humidified incubator (37°C, air supple-
mented with 5% CO2) for 24–48 h until analysis (see Note 13).
Examples of successfully transfected DRG and TG neurons are
given in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 Transfection of primary sensory neurons using nucleofection. (a, b) TG neurons transfected with GFP-
tagged delta-opioid receptors (DOR-GFP). Bright-field image (a) shows two neurons one of which overex-
presses DOR-GFP visible in epi-fluorescence illumination (b). (c, d) DRG neurons transfected with Venus-tagged
neuropeptide Y (Venus-NPY). Bright-field image (c) shows two neurons and several satellite glial cells; one
neuron displays vesicularly localized Venus-NPY fluorescence as imaged in total internal reflection fluorescence
(TIRF) mode. Imaging was performed using Nikon TE200E swept-field confocal/TIRF microscope
4 Notes
1. This technique may also be applied to younger and older ani-

mals. Generally, the viability of neurons decreases with age;
viable neuronal cultures can however still be achieved using
this protocol from adult rat DRG neurons.
2. It is best to aliquot a desired amount of DMEM medium into
a 50 mL polypropylene falcon tube and refrigerate to avoid
metabolization of the GlutaMAX to glutamate which is known
to be neurotoxic.
3. This dissection instrument list has been carefully chosen to
ensure minimal damage to the tissue during (1) removal of the
spinal column, (2) cutting of the column into two halves in the
transverse plane, and (3) cutting of the column in the sagittal
plane. Ganglia can be pulled out using the forceps or can be
cut out using the forceps and fine vannas scissors (the latter
becomes necessary if older animals are used). Dorsal roots can
be cut out if necessary (especially for older animals). We do not
remove dorsal roots for preparation from 7-day-old rats.
4. Coated sterile cell culture coverslips need to be prepared before
dissociation, preferably on the previous day. Sterile coverslips of
desired size are placed into each well of a 6- or 24-well plate and
subsequently coated with solution of laminin (50 μg/μL) and
poly-D-lysine (0.001%) in HBSS. Plates are incubated in a
humidified incubator for 6 h, and washed thereafter three times
with sterile culture-grade water or sterile HBSS and allowed to
thoroughly dry before storing at 4°C. On the day of the dissocia-
tion plates are pre-warmed to 37°C in a humidified incubator.
5. In the case of TG dissociation, the animal is decapitated (after
isoflurane overdose). The cranium is opened at the back of the
head and the brain is removed. Trigeminal ganglia are excised
using vannas scissors. The rest of the procedure is similar for both
TG and DRG. Each trigeminal ganglion hosts over 50,000 neu-
ronal cell bodies (9) while each DRG neuron contains ~6,000
neuronal cell bodies (10). Therefore, one pair of TG provides an
equivalent quantity of neurons comparable to that of 17 DRG.
6. This step is crucial for a good-quality culture. The timing of
incubation depends on (1) age of the animal (the older the
animal, the longer incubation time is required) and (2) the
strength of the collagenase (this will decline with time of stor-
age). For a 7-day-old Wistar rat and a fresh collagenase the
recommended time of incubation is 10–12 min. After incuba-
tion ganglia are gently triturated using a 1 mL Gilson pipette
(for even gentler trituration a disposable pipette tip can be cut
at the very end of the tip to enlarge the opening) 1–3 times. If
ganglia are still compact and there is little sign of dissociation, a
further 5 min incubation is recommended (dissociation is char-
acterized by a “cloudy” appearance to the media and few large
clumps of cells). Alternatively it is suggested to gently “flick”
the bottom of the tube to encourage the cells to de-aggregate.
When dissociation of the ganglia becomes apparent, ganglia are
triturated ten times in a similar manner as previously described.
Important: there will be visible threads of undigested tissue—
do not try to achieve a completely homogenized suspension as
this will lead to the overexposure of neurons to the digestion
enzymes and, as a result, lead to significant cell death. Presence
of undigested tissue will not impair quality of culture.
7. Many DRG and TG neurons are mechanosensitive (that is, they
express mechanosensitive ion channels that excite neurons upon
mechanical stimulation). Excessive trituration may therefore
overexcite and kill mechanosensitive neurons. In cases where the

aim of the experiment is to enrich the culture with polymodal
nociceptors (which are not low-threshold mechanosensors),
stronger trituration can be used to kill mechanosensitive neu-
rons. On the contrary, if the mechanosensitive neurons need to
be preserved, an extreme precaution should be taken when trit-
urating the suspension. See Chapter 12 of this book for further
advice on isolation of mechanosensitive DRG neurons.
8. Addition of ice-cold DMEM pre-supplemented with serum
inactivates the digestion enzymes. Trituration dissociates the
neurons from the ganglia, which increasingly exposes the neu-
rons to the enzymes. The overexposure of the neurons to the
enzyme increases cell damage. It is therefore important that
the time between the dispersion of ganglia and addition of the
ice-cold DMEM is kept to a minimum.
9. The high cell count required for transfection is needed for reduc-
ing the resistance of the solution in the transfection cuvette. If
the resistance is too high (too few cells) the voltage applied by
the device, to reach standard parameters of transfection, will
increase, thus increasing the likelihood of cell death. Tissue
debris, in addition to DRG neurons and glia, also lowers the
resistance of the solution (therefore do not try to remove undi-
gested tissue from the suspension as the presence of the debris
can make up for the low cell count!). Empirically we have esti-
mated that extraction of DRG from all spinal levels of one rat
allows isolation of up to 600,000 cells (neurons and glia together);
however with the undissociated tissue threads and debris this is
enough for successful transfection. In the case of TG it is recom-
mended to use two 7-day-old rats for one transfection.
10. After the final wash drain the pellet via gentle aspiration, fol-
lowed by a further drain using a 1 mL disposable pipette tip. It
is important to thoroughly drain the pellet prior to resuspend-
ing the pellet in nucleofector buffer since the DMEM medium
can reduce efficiency of the transfection.
11. Transfection efficiency depends on the concentration of DNA
in the transfection media. However, different constructs or
their combination will have different optimal concentrations.
It is suggested to start with 2 μg of total DNA. If optimization
is required, this amount can be increased or decreased slightly
(do not exceed total volume of 15 μL for DNA solution). The
properties of the vector in which the cDNA is inserted can also
affect the efficiency of transfection. It has been reported by
Lonza that IRES plasmids generally give lower efficiencies as
compared to other popular vectors.
12. The nucleofector buffer is mildly toxic and it is therefore highly
recommended that the cell suspension should not be kept in
the nucleofector buffer for more than 15 min as this may reduce
cell viability. Reducing the time the cells spend in this buffer is
beneficial to cells. In addition, take care not to triturate cells

when transferring and plating them immediately following
transfection, as the membranes are weakened by the process.
13. Although it is common practice to use DMEM medium during
the culturing of neurons our group have also used Neurobasal
medium to reduce the production of satellite glial cells (SGC).
Suppression of SGC proliferation can also be achieved by sup-
plementing the culture media with the antimitotic drug, cyto-
sine arabinoside (ara-C), at a concentration of 10 μM, for 24 h
post-dissociation (8). For some studies it is necessary to include
nerve growth factor (NGF) in the culture media as it promotes
neuronal differentiation and neurite outgrowth (11). NGF (at
25 ng/mL) can be added at step 7 of the transfection protocol.
We do not routinely use NGF in DRG/TG cultures since NGF
is a potent inflammatory mediator (12) and our studies are often
focused on the inflammatory mechanisms in sensory neurons.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the MRC, BBSRC and Wellcome

Trust.
References
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MP (1997) Use of antisense-generating plas- proteases: a signaling pathway mediating
mids to probe the function of signal transduc- inflammatory nociception. J Neurosci 28:
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Biol 83:217–225 8. Liu B, Linley JE, Du X, Zhang X, Ooi L,
2. Gamper N, Shapiro MS (2006) Exogenous Zhang H, Gamper N (2010) The acute noci-
expression of proteins in neurons using the ceptive signals induced by bradykinin in rat
biolistic particle delivery system. Methods Mol sensory neurons are mediated by inhibition of
Biol 337:27–38 M-type K+ channels and activation of Ca2+-
3. Gresch O, Engel FB, Nesic D, Tran TT, activated Cl− channels. J Clin Invest 120:
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Wolf J, Müller-Hartmann H, Nix M, trigeminal ganglion of the albino rat: a quanti-
Siebenkotten G, Kraus G, Lun K (2004) New tative autoradiographic study. J Comp Neurol
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cells. Methods 33:151–163 10. Arvidsson J, Ygge J, Grant G (1986) Cell loss
4. Gartner A, Collin L, Lalli G (2006) in lumbar dorsal root ganglia and transgangli-
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Enzymol 406:374–388 in the rat. Brain Res 373:15–21
5. Linley JE et al (2012) Reactive oxygen species 11. Ernsberger U (2009) Role of neurotrophin
are second messengers of neurokinin signaling signalling in the differentiation of neurons from
in peripheral sensory neurons. Proc Natl Acad dorsal root ganglia and sympathetic ganglia.
Sci U S A 109(24):E1578–E1586 Cell Tissue Res 336:349–384
6. Linley JE, Pettinger L, Huang D, Gamper N 12. McMahon SB, Bennet DLH, Bevan S (2006)
(2012) M channel enhancers and physiological Inflammatory mediators and modulators. In:
M channel block. J Physiol 590:793–807 McMahon SB, Koltzenburg M (eds) Wall and
7. Linley JE, Rose K, Patil M, Robertson B, Melzack’s textbook of pain. Elsevier Churchill
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Chapter 5
Viral Gene Delivery: Optimized Protocol for Production

of High Titer Lentiviral Vectors
James Hewinson, Julian F.R. Paton, and Sergey Kasparov
Abstract
HIV-derived lentiviral vectors (LVV) are among the most commonly used gene delivery vehicles. Their
production in high quantities, which enables concentration of viral particles to high titers, is important for
their successful application in both biomedical research and gene therapy. LVV are produced by co-trans-
fection of three or more plasmids into a packaging cell line followed by several purification and concentra-
tion steps. Protocols currently in circulation differ from each other but the direct comparison of their
efficacy based on the published information is extremely difficult because more than one variable may be
changed and essential information may be omitted. We systematically evaluated three protocols and found
that one single modification described here, using FuGene® 6 in the co-transfection step, increase LVV
output almost 20 times as compared to the most commonly used calcium phosphate (CaPO4) transfection
technique. Unexpectedly FuGene® 6 was also much more efficient than another widely used reagent,
Superfect. Dependent on requirements, this permits a dramatic downscaling of the packaging stage of viral
production, and/or super-concentration of LVV to achieve stronger expression. For example we were able
to prepare ~25 μL of high titer LVV suitable for injections into rodent brain using a single T75 cm2 cell
culture flask of packaging cells. The same output would require up to 20 times more packaging cells and
reagents following conventional protocols. We illustrate the potential of our approach using transfection
of primary neuronal cultures with LVV expressing an optogenetic actuator channelrhodopsin-2. Our
observations should help to achieve reproducible production of high titer LVV for experimental and
potential therapeutic applications.
Key words Lentivirus, High titer, FuGene, Transfection, Gene delivery, Transduction, Neuron,
Channelrhodopsin
1 Introduction
Lentiviral vectors (LVV) are widely used for gene delivery in vitro
and in vivo. They are non-immunogenic, fast to produce and offer a
significant packaging capacity for complex expression cassettes (1).
The most commonly used LVV are derived from HIV, and pseudo-
typed with the VSV-G protein from vesicular stomatitis virus. In the
brain LVV can help to achieve high levels of transgene expression
65
66 James Hewinson et al.
making them suitable for experiments where this feature is critical.

Recent introduction of optogenetic actuator proteins, such as
Channelrhodopsin-2 (Chr2), which allow control of neuronal activ-
ity and signalling with light (2–6), has made this feature particularly
important because these proteins need to be present in cells at fairly
high levels. The titer of the vector has a direct impact on the level of
expression and therefore the protocol used for LVV production is
decisive for the success of many applications.
Presently, LVV are prepared by co-transfection of three or four
separate plasmids into a packaging cell line (7–9). In combination
the plasmids encode the proteins sufficient to generate replication-
deficient, self-inactivating LVV particles (individually the plasmids
do not encode the necessary proteins to generate a functional virus).
Functional LVV are capable of transducing mammalian cells deliv-
ering genetic material for the expression of genes of interest. The
packaging cells are induced to produce viral vector particles for a
period of time, followed by several steps of vector concentration.
Concentration in most cases is achieved using ultracentrifugation
although affinity purification methods are also available. If the ini-
tial production step is not efficient the only way to compensate for
that is to start with large quantities of packaging cells and media
and then to concentrate the diluted LVV using complex purification
protocols (7, 8). Approaches adopted by different laboratories for
production as well as titration of LVV vary significantly. Since mul-
tiple parameters are usually different and not all relevant informa-
tion is presented, it is difficult to directly compare the efficiency of
published protocols. We sought to optimize LVV production,
focusing on the stage of transfection of the packaging cell line. The
absolute majority of studies currently use calcium phosphate
(CaPO4) precipitation (7, 8) to introduce plasmids into packaging
cell lines. Here we evaluate other transfection reagents and present
the optimized protocol. In order to compare various methods and
directly titer the purified LVV we used a construct, LVV EF1α-
PLAP, which encodes placental alkaline phosphatase (PLAP),
under control of the human elongation factor-1α promoter (EF1α)
as a model (9). When PLAP is expressed in LVV-transduced cells
its enzymatic activity can be visualized by a simple and highly sensi-
tive reaction providing a direct and quantitative measure of viable
transducing LVV particles.
2 Materials
2.1 Components 1. Lenti-X™293 T Cell Line (Clontech) (see Notes 1 and 2).
for Lentiviral Vector 2. Full Media: Remove 55 mL Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium,
Preparation high glucose, with GlutaMAX™ (D-MEM; Invitrogen,) from a
500 mL bottle. Add 50 mL heat inactivated fetal bovine serum
(FBS; Invitrogen) and 5 mL penicillin–streptomycin (10,000
High Titer Lentiviral Production 67
units of penicillin and 10,000 μg of streptomycin per mL;

Invitrogen). Store at 4°C.
3. Trypsin, 0.05% (1×) with EDTA 4Na salt (Invitrogen).
4. Lentivirus Plasmids: pNHP, pHEF-VSVG, pCEP4-tat, and
pTYF-EF1α-PLAP (available from AddGene or contact cor-
responding author).
5. FuGene® 6 Transfection Reagent (Promega).
6. Prepare 20% sucrose (Fisher Scientific) in phosphate buffered
saline (Fisher Scientific) and sterilize using a 0.22 μm pore size
syringe filter (Fisher Scientific). Store at 4°C.
7. Corning® 75 cm2 rectangular canted neck cell culture flask
with vent cap (Corning).
8. Filter unit with polyethersulfone membrane, 0.45 μm pore size
(e.g., from Fisher Scientific).
9. Ultracentrifuge and rotor that can carry 28 mL centrifuge
tubes and is capable of achieving 74,000 × g. [for example we
use: Sorvall Discovery 90SE Ultracentrifuge with Sorvall
AH-629 Swinging Bucket Aluminum Rotor (ThermoFisher)].
10. Ultracone thin wall ultracentrifuge tubes (e.g., from Seton
Scientific).
2.2 Components 1. TE671 cell line (ATCC) (see Note 3).

for Lentiviral Vector 2. Full Media, as described in Subheading 2.1.
Titration Using
3. Formaldehyde 37–41% (Fisher Scientific): dilute to 4% work-
Placental Alkaline
ing solution in PBS when required.
Phosphatase Staining
4. Hexadimethrine bromide (Sigma) stock: 0.8 mg/mL in PBS,
store at −20°C.
5. Levamisol (Sigma) stock: 50 mM in PBS, stored at −20°C.
6. 5-Bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl phosphate disodium salt (BCIP;
Sigma) solution: 10 mg/mL in dimethylformamide, stored at
−20°C.
7. Nitro Blue Tetrazolium (NBT; Sigma) stock: 10 mg/mL in
PBS, stored at −20°C.
8. Reaction Buffer: 100 mM Trizma-base (Sigma), 100 mM
NaCl, 50 mM MgCl2 (pH adjusted to 9.5 with NaOH); pre-
pared as a 500 mL volume (see Note 4).
9. Levamisol working solution: Add 130 μL levamisol stock to
12.87 mL Reaction Buffer.
10. Reaction Solution: Add 130 μL NBT stock, 65 μL levamisol
stock, and 65 μL BCIP stock to 6.24 mL Reaction buffer
(see Note 5) 11. 12-well tissue culture treated plates
(e.g., Greiner Bio-one).
11. Oven capable of maintaining 75°C.
12. Transmitted light microscope, we use Leitz Fluovert FU

microscope with 10× objective (Wild Leitz, type.
090–128.017).
3 Methods
The following method details the optimization of the classical LVV

generation protocol that was carried out by us. Batches of LVV EF1α-
PLAP were produced by transient co-transfection of pNHP, pHEF-
VSVG, pCEP4-tat, and pTYF-EF1α-PLAP plasmids (available from
Addgene) into the Lenti-X™293 T Cell Line. Transfection was car-
ried out using CaPO4 (8), Superfect (9), or FuGene® 6. In each exper-
iment at least two different protocols were run in parallel. LVV were
purified using sucrose gradient and titered by recording the number
of purple–blue diformazan precipitate-positive TE671 cells transduced
with LVV EF1α-PLAP (see Fig. 1). Figure 1 demonstrates that the
FuGene® 6—based protocol is approximately 20 times more efficient
that CaPO4 and also significantly outperforms the Superfect-based
method (titers increase approximately seven times). Detailed proto-
cols are described below.
Fig. 1 Comparison of LVV production using FuGene® 6 with commonly used trans-
fection reagents. Multiple preparations of LVV EF1α-PLAP were made and titered
directly using the PLAP enzymatic assay in TE671 cells. Using the protocol described
here, we found that transfection with FuGene® 6 resulted in an LVV titer approxi-
mately sevenfold higher compared to that using Superfect, and about a 20 times
higher compared with CaPO4. n = 7, 14, and 15 for LVV EF1α-PLAP preps using
CaPO4, Superfect, and FuGene® 6, respectively. Error bars are SEM. Unpaired t-tests:
CaPO4 versus Superfect, p = 0.06, Superfect vs FuGene® 6, p = 0.0002, CaPO4 ver-
sus FuGene® 6, p = 0.0025. Out of 15 preparations with FuGene® 6 protocol, the
lowest titer obtained was 1.2 × 109, while the highest titer was 1.5 × 1010
It is important to highlight that while FuGene® 6 is a

comparatively expensive transfection reagent, however, if all the
costs are taken into account the updated protocol may overall be
more economical than CaPO4 use. First, it requires much less
media and highly purified plasmid DNA. Second, it saves on the
time required to handle large numbers of cell culture flasks. Finally
it is also more eco-friendly since the requirement of disposable
materials and laboratory plastics is greatly reduced.
To compare “classical” and optimized methods, batches of
LVV encoding humanized Channelrhodopsin-2 (hChR2) fused to
yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) under the control of the calcium/
calmodulin-dependent kinase II promoter (LVV CamKII-
hChR2:YFP) were prepared using FuGene® 6 and CaPO4.
Following transduction of 1-week-old primary neuronal cultures
the percentage of transduced cells and fluorescence intensity of
hChR2:YFP was compared. The percentage of cells transduced
and fluorescence intensity within transduced cells significantly
increased using LVV generated following the optimized protocol
presented below compared to the traditional CaPO4-based proto-
col (Fig. 2).
3.1 Optimized Passage Cells (Day 1, pm)

Lentiviral Vector
1. Dissociate one confluent T75 flask of Lenti-X 293 T cells using
Preparation Using
3 mL trypsin-EDTA solution.
FuGene®6 Transfection
Reagent 2. Use 25% of the resulting cell solution to inoculate one T75
flask and bring volume to 10 mL using full media.
Transfection of Cells (Day 2, am)
The optimized transfection protocol is described here. For
comparative purposes established transfection methods for
LVV production were run in parallel, i.e., using Calcium
Phosphate or Superfect. Descriptions of how these transfec-
tion methods were performed can be found in
Subheading 3.1.1.
3. Approximately 17 h postinoculation cells should be approxi-
mately 60% confluent.
4. To prepare transfection mix, in a 1.5 mL centrifuge tube, add
20 μL FuGene® 6 directly to 400 μL serum- and antibiotic-
free D-MEM; do not pipette FuGene® 6 onto the side of the
1.5 mL tube. Vortex by three 1 s pulses and allow to stand for
5 min at room temperature with no agitation.
5. Add plasmids pNHP (7.5 μg), pHEF-VSVG (3.1 μg), pCEP4-
tat (0.7 μg), and pTYF-EF1α-PLAP (3.9 μg) to D-MEM-
FuGene® 6, mix and vortex by three 1 s pulses. Allow to stand
for 15 min at room temperature with no agitation.
6. Transfer transfection mix into 5.5 mL full media and gently mix.
Fig. 2 Comparison of LVV transduction of primary neuronal cultures. Batches of

LVV CamKII-hChR2:YFP were produced using the CaPO4 and FuGene® 6-based
protocols (three virus preparations for each protocol) and 1-week-old cortical
neuronal cultures were infected with equal volumes of the LVV generated.
Following 72 h incubation, cultures were analyzed under transmitted light for cell
number, and for YFP fluorescence using a Leica Confocal TCS SP2 microscope
(Leica Microsystems, Heidelberg, Germany). Six fields of view were randomly
chosen for each virus preparation. The total number of cells analyzed were; 430
cells from cultures infected with CaPO4—produced viruses and 380 cells from
cultures infected with FuGene® 6—produced viruses, of which 20.7 and 52.6%
cells were positive for YFP fluorescence, respectively. (a) Representative images
of cortical neurones infected with LVV CamKII-hChR2:YFP prepared using the
CaPO4 and FuGene® 6—based protocols. (b) Average fluorescence intensity
within individual YFP-positive cells was assessed using Leica Confocal Software
(Version 2.61, Build 1537) and data were normalized to cultures infected with
LVV produced using the CaPO4-based protocol. Fluorescence intensity was
significantly higher in cells infected with virus generated using the FuGene®
6-based protocol, (unpaired, two-tailed t-test, error bars represent SEM,
***p < 0.0001). Higher numbers of integrated viral copies were observed when
FuGene® 6-based protocol was utilized
7. Aspirate media from Lenti-X 293 T cells and add transfection

mix to the flask. Incubate cells under standard cell culture con-
ditions overnight.
First Harvest (Day 3, pm)
8. Approximately 30 h following the application of the transfec-
tion mix collect media above cells (first harvest) and store at
4°C (see Note 6).
9. Add 7 mL fresh full media to each flask.
10. Place ultracentrifuge buckets, rotor, and filter unit at 4°C.
Second Harvest and Purification (Day 4, am)
11. Approximately 18 h following first harvest collect media above
cells and pool with first harvest.
12. Filter the pooled lentivirus suspension through a 0.45 μm PES
vacuum filter incubated on ice.
13. In an ultracentrifuge tube, overlay filtered lentivirus suspen-
sion over 0.5 mL 20% sterile sucrose in PBS, keep tubes on ice
(see Notes 7 and 8).
14. Centrifuge at 74,000 × g for 2 h.
15. Aspirate medium from above the virus pellet and wipe excess
medium from the side of tube using tissue paper.
16. Add 25 μL sterile PBS to the virus pellet, cover the tube, and
incubate at 4°C overnight.
Virus Resuspension (Day 5, am)
17. Resuspend lentivirus pellet by trituration (3–5 passes through
the pipette are sufficient to resuspend the lentivirus pellet).
18. Aliquot the lentiviral suspension and store at −80°C.
3.1.1 Alternative For comparative purposes the optimized protocol described above
Transfection Protocols was run in parallel with established methods, i.e., using calcium
(Day 2) phosphate or Superfect-based transfection of the packaging cell
line (outlined below), producing LVV EF1α-PLAP or LVV
CamKII-hChR2:eYFP.
Calcium Phosphate: Procedures for days 1 and 3–5 are identical to the protocol for
Based Transfection FuGene® 6 described above (steps 1, 2, 8–18 of Subheading 3.1).
(Adapted from (8)) The volumes used in the calcium phosphate protocol described
in (8) were scaled down for use in a single T75 flask containing
packaging cells.
Transfection of Cells (Day 2):
1. Approximately 17 h postinoculation cells should be 60–70%
confluent.

lentiviral plasmids (see FuGene 6 procedure) to 57 μL 2 M
CaCl2, mix gently, and bring the volume to 238 μL with DNase
free water.
3. Add 238 μL 2× HBS [50 mM HEPES, 1.5 mM NaHPO4,
280 mM NaCl (Sigma)], mix quickly then transfer to 5.5 mL
full media.
mix to the flask.
Superfect-Based Procedures for days 1 and 3–5 are identical to the protocol for
Transfection (Adapted FuGene® 6 described above (steps 1, 2, 8–18 of Subheading 3.1).
from Coleman et al. (9))
Transfection of Cells (Day 2):
1. Approximately 17 h postinoculation cells should be 60–70%
confluent.
lentiviral plasmids (see FuGene 6 procedure) to 400 μL serum-
and antibiotic-free D-MEM.
3. Add 30 μL Superfect (Qiagen) and vortex for three-1 s pulses
to mix. Allow to stand for 15 min at room temperature with no
agitation.
4. Transfer transfection mix into 5.5 mL full media and gently
mix.
mix to the flask.
6. Incubate cells for 6 h.
7. Aspirate transfection mix and replace with 6 mL full media.
3.2 Lentiviral Vector LVV EF1α-PLAP can be prepared in parallel with your virus of
Titration: Placental interest and be used in the titration procedure describe below,
Alkaline Phosphatase therefore giving an indication of the titer of your virus of interest.
Staining Alternatively your virus of interest can be titered using commer-
cially available quantitative real-time PCR or viral capsid p24
ELISA kits (for example from Clontech).
Seed Cells (Day 1, pm)
1. Dissociate TE671 cells (see Note 3) using trypsin-EDTA and
seed into a 12-well cell culture plate at a density of 175,000
cells/well in a final well volume of 1 mL full media.
Infect Cells with Lentiviral Vector (Day 2, am)
2. Prepare a hexadimethrine bromide working solution by adding
100 μL hexadimethrine bromide stock to 9,900 μL full
media.
3. Remove media from above TE671 cells and add 500 μL

hexadimethrine bromide working solution to each well
(Caution: To maintain an even distribution of TE671 cells care
should be taken not to dislodge cells during media addition).
4. Dilute the lentivirus in hexadimethrine bromide working solu-
tion as follows:
(a) 100× dilution: 2 μL lentivirus + 198 μL hexadimethrine
bromide working solution.
(b) 1,000× dilution: 20 μL 100× dilution + 180 μL hexadime-
thrine bromide working solution.
(c) 100,000× dilution: 5 μL 1,000× dilution + 495 μL hexadi-
methrine bromide working solution.
5. Gently apply diluted lentivirus to individual wells of TE671
cells as follows (each dilution should applied in duplicate):
(a) 10 μL 100× dilution.
(b) 10 μL 1,000× dilution.
(c) 100 μL 100,000× dilution.
(d) 10 μL 100,000× dilution.
(e) No virus.
6. Gently tilt the plate to distribute the lentivirus.
Media Change (Day 3, am)
7. 24 h following the addition of lentivirus, remove media above
cells and replace with 1 mL full media.
Placental Alkaline Phosphatase Stain (Day 4, am)
8. Warm 25 mL PBS in oven set at 75°C.
9. 48 h following the addition of lentivirus remove media above
cells and wash cells in 1 mL PBS per well.
10. Remove PBS, add 1 mL 4% formaldehyde to each well, and
incubate at room temperature for 10 min.
11. Remove formaldehyde and wash cells three times with 1 mL
PBS.
12. Add 2 mL warmed PBS to each well and place plate at 75°C
for 90 min.
13. Remove PBS, add 1 mL levamisol solution to each well, and
incubate for 30 min at room temperature.
14. Remove levamisol, add 600 μL Reaction Solution to each well,
and incubate at room temperature overnight to allow the pur-
ple-blue diformazan precipitate to form (see Note 5).
Cell Count (Day 5, am)
15. The number of positively stained cells should be recorded
under six fields of view per well (see Note 9).
16. The lentiviral titer, expressed as Transducing Units per mL

(TU/mL1), can be derived from the equation:
TU/mL = (A × B)/(C × D)
where,
A = Average positive cell count per field of view
B = Total fields of view per well (for the microscope and objec-
tive lens described there are 157 fields of view per well of
the 12-well plates used, therefore B = 157. The total fields
of view per well will need to be calculated if a different
microscope and objective lens are used.)
C = Dilution factor expressed as a decimal fraction (i.e., 100,000
times dilution = 0.00,001)
D = The volume of virus added in mL
4 Notes
1. Lenti-X 293 T cells should be routinely cultured in D-MEM

containing 10% FBS and 100 U/mL Penicillin and 100 μg/
mL streptomycin (full media), and incubated in a humidified
atmosphere containing 5% CO2 at 37°C. To passage, when
Lenti-X 293 T approach confluence cells should be dissociated
using trypsin-EDTA and 10% of the cell suspension should be
used to inoculate a new cell culture flask of equal surface area.
For lentivirus preparation, Lenti-X 293 T cells should be used
at low passage number (<p20).
2. The described protocol uses Lenti-X™ 293 T cells; however,
similar results can be obtained with a more standard 293FT
cell line (data not shown).
3. TE671 cells are cultured under the same conditions as described
for Lenti-X 293 cells, see Note 1.
4. Store reaction buffer at 4°C to prevent/slow precipitation.
5. NBT is light sensitive, cover plate in foil during incubations
with Reaction Solution.
6. All LVV-contaminated waste should be disposed of following
local Waste Disposal Rules.
7. The simplest way to overlay the viral suspension over sucrose is
to add the viral suspension to the centrifuge tube then carefully
pipette 0.5 mL sucrose into the bottom of the tube.
8. A longer and more complicated iodixanol ultracentrifugation
protocol (9) offered no obvious benefits over the sucrose gra-
dient used here (data not shown).
9. To get an accurate cell count, only wells containing viral

dilutions resulting in approximately 5–50 positive cells are used
in the lentiviral titration calculation.
Acknowledgments
Funded by the British Heart Foundation RG07/006 and

PG/08/009/24411.
References
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Part II
Electrophysiological Methods to Study

Ion Channel Functions
Chapter 6
Two-Electrode Voltage Clamp

Bingcai Guan, Xingjuan Chen, and Hailin Zhang
Abstract
Two-electrode voltage clamp (TEVC) is a conventional electrophysiological technique used to artificially
control the membrane potential (Vm) of large cells to study the properties of electrogenic membrane proteins,
especially ion channels. It makes use of two intracellular electrodes—a voltage electrode as Vm sensor and a
current electrode for current injection to adjust the Vm, thus setting the membrane potential at desired values
and recording the membrane current to analyze ion channel activities. Here we describe the use of TEVC
in combination with exogenous mRNA expression in Xenopus oocytes for ion channel recording.
Key words Voltage clamp, Membrane potential, Voltage electrode, Current electrode, Xenopus
oocytes, Ion channel
1 Introduction
Ion channels of cell membranes may be gated by the membrane
potential (Vm) and/or by specific chemicals. Those belonging to
the superfamily of voltage-dependent ion channels are gated by the
Vm directly, whereas others, classified as ligand-gated ion channels,
are gated by their binding with specific chemicals called ligands.
On the other hand, voltage-dependent ion channels can be subject
to the modulation by chemical factors such as neurotransmitters,
hormones, intracellular messengers or exogenous drugs; and some
ligand-gated ion channels (such as NMDA receptors) are also
affected by the change in Vm. Thus, to study the voltage dependent
characteristics of ion channels readily, or to distinguish between
the effects of Vm versus chemicals, an experimental procedure is
needed to control the Vm (i.e., to change Vm in a desired pattern or
set it at a desired level). This procedure, known as voltage clamp,
was first designed by Cole and Marmont and improved by Hodgkin,
Huxley and Katz for application to giant axons of squids as two-
electrode voltage clamp (TEVC) in late 1940s (1). It utilizes two
intracellular electrodes, one to monitor Vm and the other to inject
79
80 Bingcai Guan et al.
a current to adjust Vm to desired values (the injected current being

equal to the membrane current). Although the use of TEVC is
limited to giant axons or large cells such as skeletal muscle cells,
much of our understanding of the basic biophysical properties of ion
channels has been acquired by using this approach. It was based on
this method in combination with experiments using extracellular
electrodes that Neher and Sakmann developed the currently widely
used single electrode patch clamp technique (2). Nowadays popular
though the latter is, it’s only suitable for clamping relatively small
cells, but unfit for large cells; for the large currents would cause a
significant voltage drop across the recording electrode that cannot
be compensated to an acceptable extent. Thus, TEVC is still irre-
placeable in voltage clamping large cells, especially Xenopus oocytes
which are often used for exogenous expression of ion channels or
receptors. The Xenopus oocyte is a convenient expression system
widely employed to study the structure and function of ion channels
and receptors using TEVC in combination with various molecular
biological approaches, since its membrane has low expression of
endogenous channels and receptors.
The basic principle of TEVC recording from an oocyte is
schematically depicted in Fig. 1. Vm is monitored by connecting the
voltage electrode (electrode 1) to the input of a voltage follower
(A1), which has very high input impedance and draws negligible
Fig. 1 Conventional two-electrode voltage clamp (TEVC) on an oocyte (see text

for detail)
Two-Electrode Voltage Clamp 81
current from the cell. The output of A1, the potential at which is
approximately equal to Vm, is connected to one input terminal of a
clamping amplifier (A2), which is a high gain differential amplifier
and compares Vm with the voltage command signal (Vc) applied to
the other input terminal. The resulting output voltage of A2 forces
a current proportional to the difference (e) between Vm and Vc,
usually by means of a voltage-controlled current source mecha-
nism, to flow through the current electrode (electrode 2) into the
cell. The direction of the current is decided by the polarity of the
voltage at the output of A2, always reducing e. As long as the gain
(m) of A2 is sufficiently high (³103), Vm can approach Vc very closely
and thus achieves Vm clamp. Meanwhile, the current that passes
through electrode 2 is measured (either upstream of electrode 2 or
at the virtual grounding circuit) as the membrane current, since it
counterbalances the Vm deviation the membrane current would
have caused (3, 4).
Below we exemplify the TEVC procedures with the recording
of Kv7.2/7.3 voltage-gated potassium channel currents.
2 Materials
All solutions are prepared using analytical grade reagents and ultra-
pure water (resistivity 18 MW·cm). Stock solutions and working
solutions are stored at 4°C, and are used within 1 month. Longer
time of storage is not advised. All waste materials, especially the
discarded glass electrodes that may cause injury, should be securely
disposed of in accordance with local laboratory regulations.
2.1 Equipment 1. TEVC amplifier (e.g., GeneClamp 500B, Molecular Devices).

and Materials 2. Digitizer (e.g., Digidata 1440A, Molecular Devices).
3. TEVC software (e.g., Clampex 10, Molecular Devices).
4. Micromanipulators (e.g., M3301, World Precision Instruments).
5. Faraday cage (custom-made).
6. Vibroisolating table (e.g., Newport).
7. Stereomicroscope (e.g., PZMIII-BS, World Precision
Instruments).
8. Perfusion system (e.g., ALA-VM8, ALA Scientific Instruments).
9. Perfusion chamber (custom-made).
10. Aspiration system (e.g., vacuum pump, ZT-I, Shaoxing Medical
Apparatus).
11. Micropipette puller (e.g., P-97 Micropipette Puller, Sutter
Instruments).
12. Glass capillaries (e.g., B10024F, VitalScan Scientific
Instruments).
13. Laboratory microwave oven.

14. Water bath.
15. Microinjector (e.g., Nanoliter Injector 2000, World Precision
Instruments).
2.2 Preparation 1. Oocyte Ringer 2 solution (OR-2): 82.5 mM NaCl, 2 mM KCl,

of External Solutions 1 mM MgCl2, 5 mM HEPES, pH7.4. Weigh 4.82 g of NaCl
and 1.19 g of HEPES and transfer them to a 1 L glass beaker,
add 800 mL of ultrapure water, add 2 mL of 2 M KCl and
1 mL of 1 M MgCl2 stock solutions, mix and dissolve them
completely with the aid of a magnetic stirrer. Adjust the pH of
OR2 to 7.4 with NaOH. We usually prepare 1,000 mL of this
solution using a volumetric flask (see Notes 1 and 2).
2. ND96: 96 mM NaCl, 1 mM KCl, 1.8 mM CaCl2, 1 mM
MgCl2, 5 mM HEPES, pH 7.4. First prepare 1 L of ND96
stock (5×): weigh 28.05 g of NaCl, 372.75 mg of KCl,
998.91 mg of CaCl2, 1,016.5 mg of MgCl2, 5,957.5 mg of
HEPES, respectively, and put them into a 1 L beaker. Add
water and stir to dissolve them completely, and then bring the
volume to 1,000 mL with water. The stock solution is stored
at 4°C. Prepare the final solution before use by dilution; adjust
the pH to 7.4 with NaOH (5) (see Note 3).
2.3 Preparation 1. Preparation of Ag/AgCl wires. Immerse silver wires (4–5 cm

of Electrodes long and 0.25 mm thick) in chlorine bleach with only a short
end (less than 1 cm) of each wire left in the air, until the
immersed part becomes uniformly blackened (see Note 4).
For making Ag/AgCl wires to be used in the voltage elec-
trode and the current electrode, straight silver wires are used;
for Ag/AgCl wires used for grounding the bath solution, it is
better to coil part of the silver wire before coating, with narrow
intervals left between adjacent turns of the coil. An alternative
for grounding the bath solution is to use Ag/AgCl pellets
(see Note 5).
2. Preparation of glass electrodes. The instructions below refer
to the popular P-97 puller from Sutter Instruments; if using a
different puller, refer to the instruction manual. Install a boro-
silicate glass pipette onto a P-97 puller, and run RAMP TEST
to determine the heat value (RAMP value) for melting the
glass (see Note 6). Repeat the determination and get an aver-
age RAMP value. Install a glass pipette of the same type and lot
number, set the parameters of the puller as follows:
HEAT = RAMP + 15, PULL = 150, VELOCITY = 100,
TIME = 150, PRESSURE = 500 (see the P-97 puller manual
for details) (6), and pull the pipette into two symmetric glass
electrodes. Trim the tips of the glass electrodes using a pair a
fine scissors if needed (see Note 7), and store them in an electrode
container.
3. Prepare 100 mL of 3 M KCl in a beaker, add 1 g of agarose,
and microwave the mixture until the agarose is dissolved. Place
the beaker containing agarose–KCl solution into a 80°C water
bath to avoid agarose gelation. Warm up the syringe and its
needle, with which the agarose–KCl solution is then injected into
the glass electrode (see Note 8). Store the filled glass electrodes
in a container (see Note 9).
4. Install a filled glass electrode onto the electrode holder (see
Note 10), which, with Ag/AgCl wire pre-installed, has been
secured to the headstage, the latter having been installed on a
micromanipulator. Adjust the position of the tip of the glass
electrode using the micromanipulator.
5. Measure the resistance of the electrode after its tip has been
lowered into the bath solution with the micromanipulator.
The electrode resistance should be in the range of 0.5–1 MW
(see Note 11). If the electrode resistance is not within this
range, adjust the parameters of the puller or modify the length
of the tip for truncation.
2.4 Preparation 1. Preparation of Xenopus oocytes

of Xenopus Oocytes Anesthetize the clawed toad by freezing it with ice until it
with Channels or is immobilized. Make a small longitudinal incision (0.5 cm)
Receptors Expressed about 0.5 cm apart from the midline at the lower abdomen,
and cut several ovarian lobes off. Stitch up the incision with
5–0 gauge suture. Position the toad in a basin until it regains
consciousness and then place it back to water.
Cut the ovarian lobes into cubes of 3–4 mm in size, and
digest them with OR2 containing collagenase (2 mg/mL) in a
shaker at room temperature for 1.5–2 h. Stop digestion when
most oocytes have been released and there are no connective
tissues and capillaries left on the surface of the oocytes. Wash
the oocytes repeatedly with OR2, and then wash them with
ND96 three times. Select the large, healthy oocytes under a
dissecting microscope, and keep them in ND96 at 18°C for a
few hours before RNA injection.
2. Injection of mRNA into oocytes
Fill a glass needle (which has a long tip truncated to
20–30 mm in OD at the tip opening) with corn oil, and install
it onto the injector (Nanoliter Injector 2000, WPI). Drop
1–3 mL of mRNA solution onto a piece of clean parafilm,
and draw it into the glass needle with the injector under the
microscope. Make sure that the mRNA is free from RNAse
contamination and no air has been drawn into the needle.
Transfer the oocytes together with ND96 solution onto a
Petri dish with meshes at its bottom with a sucking glass pipette
(its opening fire-polished). Position the tip of the glass needle

close to the surface of the oocyte and then impale it by using a
micromanipulator. If the oocyte is in a good state, a resistance
can be felt when the tip of the needle touches the oocyte mem-
brane, and a “dimple” can be seen at the oocyte membrane
before the needle can be inserted into the oocyte (in contrast,
with unhealthy oocytes the impalement is much easier). Inject
46 nL of KCNQ2 or KCNQ3 mRNA solution (i.e., 3 ng
mRNA) into each oocyte (the amount of injection of mRNA
for other channels or receptors varies with the degree of
difficulty in their expression and the status of the oocytes).
After injection of an oocyte, wait for 1–2 s and then withdraw
the needle carefully. Before turning to inject another oocyte,
do an out-of-oocyte injection with the needle tip in the medium
to make sure of the accuracy of next oocyte injection. After
finishing the injection of all the oocytes, transfer them into
ND96 solution containing gentamicin (50 mg/L) and sodium
pyruvate (2.5 mM) and store at 18°C in an incubator. After
1–2 days TEVC experiments can be performed.
3 Methods
(All the following operations are carried out at room temperature).
3.1 Checkup of the 1. Check the perfusion system making sure that there is no block-
Recording System age within it. Load solutions for the experiment, adjust the
perfusion rate to about 2 mL/min (or to the value required for
the specific experiment to be performed).
2. Check the aspiration system and drain tubing to make sure that
they work properly so that the surface of the bath solution is
stable.
3. Check the arrangement of the voltage headstage and current
headstage installed on the micromanipulators, and make
sure that they are positioned at a wide angle of over 90° (see
Note 12).
4. Check the shielding and grounding of the apparatus around
the input of the headstages to avoid introduction of external
interferences, especially the power line frequency pickup (see
Note 13).
5. Adjust the dissecting microscope so that the bath chamber to
accommodate the oocyte is well within the visual field and
clearly seen.
6. Turn on the system: turn the power of the digitizer on, and
then turn on the power of the voltage clamp amplifier.
7. Configure the acquisition software and edit the voltage com-
mand protocol. For users of Clampex: open the software, click
“File” → “Set Data File Names” to designate the file name for-
mat and the folder to store the data to be recorded. Click
“Configure” → “Digitizer” to change the configuration status
from “Demo” to the digitizer being used. Create/edit the
voltage command protocol for stimulation of an oocyte.
3.2 Load the Oocyte Transfer a Xenopus oocyte expressing exogenous ion channel(s)
and/or receptor(s) of interest gently to the bath chamber using a
sucking pipette.
3.3 Observation and Steps described below are specific to Geneclamp 500B amplifier
Recording of Currents and the Clampex software; however, other TEVC hardware and
software packages will have analogous steps/commands.
1. Lower the tips of the voltage electrode and current electrode
into the bath using the micromanipulators, and position the
electrode tips near (but not in contact with) the surface of
the oocyte.
2. Zero offset potentials: press the buttons “ZERO V1” and
“ZERO V2”on the front panel of the amplifier, and the “DC
METERS” will read 0.
3. Measure electrode resistances: Press buttons “R1” and “R2”
respectively, and the resistance of the electrodes will be dis-
played. The most appropriate values are within 0.5–1 MW
(see Note 11).
4. Impale the oocyte: Under the dissecting microscope, press the
tips of the electrodes against the surface of the oocyte gently
using the micromanipulator, and impale the oocyte by
further advancing the electrode tip slowly until it pops in (first
do cell impalement with the voltage electrode and then
with the current electrode) (see Note 14) (Fig. 2) (7).
Fig. 2 The visual field of the stereomicroscope showing the Xenopus oocyte in
the bath chamber and the two glass electrodes
“DC METERS” will display the resting membrane potential

(RMP) of the oocyte; for example, the RMP of oocytes with
overexpressed exogenous Kv7.2/7.3 heteromeric voltage-
gated K+ channels is around −50 mV.
5. Position a grounded metal shield between the voltage and
current electrodes if necessary (see Note 15).
6. Switch to voltage clamp mode: preset the holding potential at
the RMP value (see Note 16). Then press button “VOLTAGE
CLAMP.”
7. Gain and stability adjustment: Apply a series of test voltage
pulses of −10 mV in amplitude and observe the current
response flowing through the current electrode. Increase the
GAIN of the clamping amplifier and the transients at the onset
and the finish of the test pulses will sharpen up and even begin
to oscillate. Then increase phase lag with the STABILITY
control, and the oscillation will disappear. Repeat the operation,
that is, increase the GAIN and the phase lag iteratively until
the clamping amplifier operates at the minimum phase lag that
permits the use of the maximum gain (see Note 17) (8). Then
turn off the test pulses.
8. Observation of currents before formal recording: click button
“View Only” to run the voltage command protocol and
observe Kv7.2/7.3 mediated potassium currents (Fig. 3). If the
leak currents are not small enough to be negligible compared
with the active Kv7.2/7.3 currents, use “LEAK SUBTRACT”
to remove the leak currents for better observation of the active
currents.
9. Recording of currents: when the currents have become stable,
use “RECORD” command to record the currents, and apply
drugs to test their effects according to the experimental design.
Full wash-out of one drug with the normal external solution
such as ND96, which takes at least 2 min, is needed before
testing another drug. When the recording of an oocyte is
finished and another oocyte is to be recorded, press “STOP”
Fig. 3 Exemplary Kv7.2/7.3 mediated currents and the voltage clamp protocol
used to induce the currents
to stop recording. Then press “SETUP” to stop voltage clamp

and switch to setup mode, and then slowly withdraw the
electrodes (see Notes 18 and 19). Repeat the aforementioned
procedure to record currents from another oocyte.
3.4 Turning Off the First close the software, then turn off the power of the digitizer
Recording System and and the amplifier respectively. Empty the remaining liquid in the
Cleaning the Setup perfusion system, and wash the system thoroughly with water
in case its tubing(s) may be obstructed. Empty the waste liquid
collected from the outlet of the vacuum pump.
4 Notes
1. OR2 is used to dissolve collagenase II for digestion of the layer
of follicular cells surrounding the oocyte. It does not contain
Ca2+ so as to avoid calcium overload in the oocyte during the
digestion.
2. Only after all reagents are completely dissolved forming a
clear solution by stirring the mixture should the pH adjustment
be done.
3. The osmolality of normal external solutions for oocytes is
~189 mOsm/kg.
4. Silver wires can be well coated with AgCl layer after immersion
in newly purchased or well sealed chlorine bleach for 20–30 min.
Using outdated or poorly preserved bleach may take longer
time or even produce no visible AgCl layer.
5. For recording large currents, a virtual ground circuit is gener-
ally used. Its voltage sensing electrode should be placed in
the bath near the cell surface, so that the bath potential at the
outside of the cell membrane can be clamped at zero without
being affected by the large current flowing through the bath
solution.
6. The result of the first RAMP test should be discarded because
it often significantly deviates from those of the following tests
due to some destabilizing factors.
The RAMP value should be determined for three times to
get a mean value as reference for HEAT value setting.
7. This is because the opening of the electrode tips should not be
too thin. Otherwise the electrodes would have a large resistance
after being filled (see Note 11).
8. For filling the electrodes, the agarose–KCl solution should not
occupy more than half the total electrode length in case the
solution may spill out of the electrode and spoil the holder.
Care should be taken not to have air bubbles left in the agarose
between the electrode tip and the AgCl coated silver wire.
9. The filled glass electrodes can be used repeatedly. With a small

amount of water at the bottom of the electrode container,
the filled electrodes can be stored for a few weeks without the
agarose inside the electrode drying up.
10. If the amount of agarose filled into the electrode is more
than needed, the excess can be squeezed out of the electrode
using a silver wire before installing the electrode onto the
holder. Note that the upper end of the silver wire (uncoated
with AgCl) should be well in contact with the input of the
headstage.
11. If the resistance of the electrode is too large, the electrode tip
can be truncated using a pair of fine scissors such as ophthalmic
scissors. A current electrode of too large resistance will affect
the passage of currents, while a voltage electrode of too large
resistance will affect its frequency response and distort the Vm
unless electrode capacitance neutralization (which may cause
oscillation) is used.
12. Enlargement of the angle between of the two headstages (i.e.,
between the two electrodes to be installed) reduces their cou-
pling capacitance, thus reducing the possibility of current
oscillation.
13. Take care not to ground the case of the headstage (such as the
HS-2A- × 1 LU for GeneClamp 500B amplifier) that uses a
driven shield.
14. The tips of the two electrodes that have been inserted into the
oocyte should be kept apart by some distance so as to reduce
the error in Vm pick-up introduced by coupling between the
two electrodes.
15. The grounded metal shield is used for reducing the coupling
capacitance between the two electrodes, because this coupling
capacitance is a destabilizing factor for TEVC. However, this
shield should not contact the bath solution.
16. Presetting the holding potential at the RMP value can avoid
the large current transient at the switch from SETUP mode to
VOLTAGE CLAMP mode and large DC current after the
switch. These currents may affect the cell becoming stable
for recording.
17. The time constant (t) for the change in Vm after a step voltage
command is:
t = Re2 × C m / m
in which Re2 is the resistance of the current electrode, Cm is the
membrane capacitance, and m is the gain of the clamping
amplifier (Fig. 1). It can be seen that increasing the gain of the
clamping amplifier can make the Vm more close to Vc, thus
improving its fidelity and speed of response. Whereas, increasing

phase lag decreases the high-frequency gain, and the clamping
speed will be compromised when Vc jumps.
18. Generally, each glass electrode that has been filled and installed
onto the headstage can be used repeatedly, i.e., on a few oocytes
in succession. However, the electrode should not be used too
many times for its resistance would become larger or unstable
due to the blockade by intracellular components. Check the
resistance of the electrode before reusing it on another oocyte.
If its resistance value appears unstable or is out of the acceptable
range, replace it with another electrode.
19. After recording large currents or after long time of use,
the AgCl coated silver wire will become white, indicating the
exhaustion of the AgCl coat. This may occur either at the
grounding silver wire or at that connected to the headstage
input, depending on the current direction. Take the silver wire
off, rinse it, clean it carefully with tissue paper and then with
fine sandpaper, and re-chloride it.
References
1. Hodgkin AL, Huxley AF, Katz B (1952) techniques, 3rd edn. Axon Instruments, Inc.,
Measurement of current–voltage relations in the Foster City, CA
membrane of the giant axon of Loligo. J Physiol 5. Du X, Zhang H, Lopes C, Mirshahi T, Rohacs T,
116:424–488 Logothetis DE (2004) Characteristic interac-
2. Neher E, Sakmann B, Steinbach JH (1978) The tions with phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate
extracellular patch clamp: a method for resolving determine regulation of Kir channels by diverse
currents through individual open channels in modulators. J Biol Chem 279:37271–37281
biological membranes. Pflugers Arch 6. Operation manual P-97 Flaming/Brown
375:219–228 micropipette puller. (2009). Sutter Instrument
3. Halliwell JV, Plant TD, Robbins J, Standen NB Company, Novato
(1994) Voltage clamp techniques. In: Ogden D 7. Bierwirtz A, Schwarz W (2007) Two-electrode
(ed) Microelectrode techniques: the Plymouth voltage-clamp (TEVC). http://www.biophys.
workshop handbook, 2nd edn. Company of uni-frankfurt.de/~wille/prakt/anleitungen/03_
Biologists, Cambridge, pp 17–35 elektrophys.pdf. Accessed 20 May 2012
4. Sherman-Gold R (ed) (2008) The axon guide 8. GeneClamp 500B theory and operation (2002)
for electrophysiology and biophysics laboratory Axon Instruments, Inc, Union City
Chapter 7
Conventional Micropipette-Based Patch Clamp Techniques

Jonathan D. Lippiat and David C. Wrighton
Abstract
The patch clamp technique revolutionized the study of ion channels and is considered the gold standard
of measuring ion channel activity, from the academic laboratory to industrial-scale drug screening.
This technique enables the study of ion channels, from single molecules up to the whole-cell ion channel
population, and in their native environment. Whilst the study of single protein molecular behavior is the
ultimate goal of biophysicists from all fields, this is a routine ability for ion channel specialists. This chapter
is aimed at helping the beginner to design patch clamp experiments and to obtain the fundamental micropi-
pette configurations with mammalian cells: cell-attached patch, whole cell, inside-out patch, and outside-
out patch.
Key words Patch clamp, Electrophysiology, Ion channel, Whole-cell, Single channel
1 Introduction
The patch clamp technique was originally developed in order to
record ionic currents from a tiny patch of membrane (1).
A micrometer-aperture glass micropipette was pressed against a
cell membrane and currents were recorded using a high-quality
electronic amplifier. This revealed unitary currents in the picoam-
pere range that fluctuated between discrete and quantal levels that
were interpreted as the opening and closing of single ion-perme-
able pores in the membrane. We now know these pores or perme-
ation pathways as the integral membrane proteins that we call ion
channels. The two defining ion channel properties are permeation,
which describes the types of ion that pass through the open pore
and the speed at which this occurs, and gating, which describes the
stimuli that cause the ion channel to spend more or less time with
the pore open. Sometimes ion channels are further classified
according to the ligands or drugs that activate or inhibit them.
Patch clamp techniques enable us to determine all of these proper-
ties from cell membranes and much more. Even with automated
chip-based or planar patch clamp equipment now available with
91
92 Jonathan D. Lippiat and David C. Wrighton
ever-increasing throughput, there has been no noticeable decrease

in the amount of manual or conventional micropipette-based patch
clamp techniques being used, particularly in academic laboratories.
It is this latter, conventional form of the techniques that is the sub-
ject of this chapter.
The headstage is at the heart of the patch clamp apparatus and
it is to this that the micropipette holder and electrode wire are con-
nected. This is where the current measurement and, importantly,
where the voltage-clamping take place. The cell membrane where
the ion channels reside is located at the tapered end of the micropi-
pette, attached by a high-resistance (gigaohm) seal. The net charge
movement between the pipette and bath electrodes, which are sepa-
rated by the membrane and its complement of ion channels, is the
recorded current. In the whole-cell configuration they will also be
separated by the access resistance that lies in series with the mem-
brane, which affect the reliability of macroscopic current recording.
Unlike other voltage-clamp methods, in particular continuous
two-electrode or discontinuous single-electrode (switch) voltage
clamp, there is no feedback from the cell membrane of the actual
transmembrane voltage. This always begs the question does the
transmembrane voltage faithfully follow the command voltage clamped
at the headstage? In whole-cell patch clamp recording, which is the
most commonly used variation of the technique, the answer to this
question is invariably negative to extents that may or may not be
significant to the experiment in progress. It is important to under-
stand the nature of this disparity and other issues associated with
this technique, and to determine whether any adjustments to the
experiment need to be made.
A comprehensive description of the various forms and applica-
tions of the patch clamp technique is beyond the scope of this
chapter. Here, the basic configurations for current measurement,
cell-attached patch, whole cell, inside-out patch, and outside-out patch
(2), will be considered. Further methods can be found in this and
previous volumes of Methods in Molecular Biology, e.g., perforated
patch whole-cell recording (3), macropatch recording from Xenopus
oocytes (4), and planar lipid bilayer recording of reconstituted
channels (5). It is assumed that the reader has a sound theoretical
understanding of ion channel biophysics and electrophysiological
techniques. The reader is also advised to seek the support of cowork-
ers, supervisors, or attend a practical workshop. These techniques
are both theoretically and technically demanding to the beginner,
there will be variations in the apparatus and biological material
used, and these are skills that develop over a long time, if not a
whole career. For the purpose of this chapter the recording of
endogenous currents from HEK293 cells is described. A consid-
eration of the range of experimental protocols and analysis meth-
ods used throughout the discipline is also beyond the scope of
this chapter and so the reader is directed to research papers in
their field.
Patch Clamp Techniques 93
2 Materials
2.1 Cell Culture 1. HEK293 cells cultured in 25 cm2 flasks.

2. Culture medium: DMEM, supplemented with 10% fetal bovine
serum (FBS) and antibiotics if required.
3. Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) without Ca2+ and Mg2+.
4. Trypsin-EDTA cell dissociation solution.
5. 35 mm plastic Petri dishes (see Note 1) and other sterile generic
tissue culture and laboratory plasticware.
2.2 Micropipette 1. Thin-walled 1.5 mm diameter borosilicate glass capillaries

Fabrication (Harvard Apparatus) for low-resistance pipettes for whole-cell
recording.
2. Thick-walled 1.5 mm diameter borosilicate glass capillaries
(Harvard Apparatus) for higher resistance and lower noise
micropipettes for excised and cell-attached patch recording.
3. Micropipette puller (e.g., PP-830, Narishige).
4. Microforge (e.g., MF-830, Narishige).
2.3 Recording These solutions approximate to physiological ionic conditions, but

Solutions should be adjusted according to the channels and conditions under
investigation (see Note 2). Highest quality purified water and
chemicals should be used.
1. Extracellular solution: 137 mM NaCl, 5.6 mM KCl, 2.6 mM
CaCl2, 1.2 mM MgCl2, 10 mM HEPES, pH 7.4 with NaOH
(see Note 3). Solutions will have osmolarity typically in the
300–320 mOsm range. This solution is stable at 4°C for sev-
eral months and can be sterile-filtered. Check the pH and clar-
ity of the solution before use for evidence of contamination.
2. Intracellular solution: 140 mM KC1, 10 mM EGTA, 1 mM
MgCl2, 1 mM CaCl2, 10 mM HEPES, pH 7.2 with KOH (see
Note 3). If conducting whole-cell recording, adjust the osmo-
larity to 10 mOsm below that of the extracellular solution using
an inert substance, such as mannitol (see Note 4). This solution
is stable at 4°C for several months and can be sterile-filtered, but
first check the pH and clarity of the solution before use for
evidence of contamination. If small amounts of intracellular
solution are used at a time as pipette solutions (e.g., for whole-
cell experiments) then this solution can be frozen in aliquots,
particularly if unstable substances such as ATP are included.
3. 5 mL syringe.
4. Syringe filter disc, 20 μm holes.
5. Microloader pipette tips (Eppendorf).
6. 200 μL pipette tips (generic type).
2.4 Patch Clamp The manufacturers of the following items are given as examples
Apparatus and are those presently in use in our laboratory. The whole sys-
tem should be assembled and tested thoroughly with the model
cell and then with micropipette and bath. Background noise and
50 Hz electrical noise should be eliminated to below 1 pA
(see Note 5).
1. Antivibration (air) table (e.g., Linos, Thorlabs) and compressed
air/gas supply.
2. Faraday cage. This could be supplied with the antivibration
table or custom-made in-house if workshop facilities are
available.
3. Inverted microscope (e.g., Nikon TE-2000) equipped with
4×, 10×, and 40× objective lenses (see Note 6).
4. Micromanipulators (e.g., Luigs-Neumann; microscope-specific
mount and fixings can usually be provided by the manufacturer
or fabricated in-house).
5. Patch clamp amplifier with headstage and micropipette holder
(e.g., HEKA EPC 10).
6. Model cell (provided with amplifier).
7. Reference electrode: Ag/AgCl pellet (e.g., World Precision
Instruments) soldered to thin wire and headstage pin
connector.
8. Benchtop or mini-tower computer, fitted with interface if sup-
plied with patch clamp amplifier, and installed with acquisi-
tion (e.g., Patchmaster, HEKA) and data analysis (e.g.,
Fitmaster, HEKA) software. If amplifier does not directly con-
nect to the computer then digital-analogue interface hardware
and software is required to be installed (e.g., Axon Digidata,
Cambridge Electronic Design, National Instruments, etc.) to
allow two-way communication between computer and
amplifier. The computer-based acquisition system also acts as
an oscilloscope.
9. Perfusion system: gravity-fed system fabricated in-house from
syringe reservoirs, silicone tubing, two- or three-way stopcocks,
and manifolds, or specialist system purchased from supplier
(e.g., Automate Scientific, Biologic, etc.).
10. Recording chamber or mount for 35 mm Petri dish (fabricated
in-house or supplied by World Precision Instruments, Warner
Instruments, ALA Scientific Instruments, etc.).
11. 1 mL syringe, three-way syringe stopcock, and silicone tubing
to attach to micropipette holder side-port to provide suction/
pressure to the micropipette.
3 Methods
3.1 Cell Culture All procedures should be carried out using aseptic technique and in
and Preparation a sterile vertical flow cabinet suitable for mammalian cell culture.
Procedures should also conform to local and national rules for
disposal of contaminated microbiological or genetically modified
material waste.
1. Aspirate culture medium from the culture flask.
2. Wash cells twice with PBS and harvest by adding trypsin-EDTA
dissociation solution. 200 μL of trypsin-EDTA solution in one
25 cm2 flask should suffice.
3. Rock the flask so that the dissociation solution covers the entire
surface area and observe cells on an inverted microscope.
4. Once cells appear rounded and become loosely adherent, add
5 mL of culture medium and transfer cell suspension into a
sterile plastic centrifuge tube (e.g., 15 mL).
5. Centrifuge cell suspension for 1 min at 200 × g.
6. Aspirate supernatant and resuspend in culture medium, diluting
if necessary.
7. Seed cells into a fresh 25 cm2 flask in a final volume of 6 mL for
further propagation of the cell line and so that the cells have
been diluted five- to tenfold.
8. Add 2 mL of cell suspension to each of the required number
of 35 mm Petri dishes and incubate overnight (see Note 1).
3.2 Micropipette 1. If required, cut capillary glass into shorter lengths (e.g.,
Fabrication and Filling 150 mm capillaries should be cut into two approximately equal
lengths). The capillary ends can be gently fire polished over a
Bunsen flame to prevent damage to the electrode wire.
2. Optimize pipette puller settings (heat, pulling distance, force)
for the specific device and for the type of glass capillary. For
micropipettes fabricated from thin-walled glass and intended
for whole-cell recording a final resistance as measured during
the experiment should typically be 2–3 MΩ, whilst patch (cell-
attached or excised) micropipettes are typically higher at
5–8 MΩ and are pulled from thick-walled glass. This resistance
is proportional to the cross-sectional area of the micropipette
tip and should be optimized to the cell type or size and channel
density (see Note 7).
3. Polish the tip of the micropipette using the microforge. This
enables fine control over the size of the aperture and makes a
clean, smooth, tip surface that enhances seal formation.
4. Fill the 5 mL syringe with the solution to be loaded into the
micropipette and attach a filter disc. For most experiments this
will be the intracellular solution, but variations will be described

below. Attach the microloader pipette tip to the filter disc,
making use of a regular 200 μL pipette tip cut to size as an
adapter, if required. Label the syringe.
3.3 Cell-Attached This is the starting point for each of the different patch clamp
Configuration configurations described in this chapter. It can also be used to
monitor currents across the enclosed patch of membrane in the
intact cell. This is a particularly useful technique when determining
whether particular ion channels are regulated by cytosolic second
messengers, such as Ca2+ or cAMP, since the channels enclosed by
the patch pipette would be isolated from membrane-impermeant
receptor agonists applied by bath perfusion.
1. Check that the electrode wire in the micropipette holder has
an adequate coating of silver chloride otherwise the offset volt-
age will drift (see Note 8).
2. Replace tissue culture medium with extracellular solution and
mount Petri dish with cells onto microscope stage (or place
coverslip with adherent cells into recording chamber).
3. Position reference electrode directly into the dish or connect
by means of an agar bridge (see Note 9).
4. Fill a polished patch microelectrode with pipette solution
(see Subheading 3.2) and mount into the micropipette holder,
ensuring an airtight seal.
5. Position the micropipette above the bath solution and in the
field of view on the microscope.
6. Using the 1 mL syringe and tubing connected to the side-port
of the microelectrode holder, apply positive pressure. As an
example, depress the syringe plunger from 0.2 to 0.1 mL. This
prevents flow of debris from the bath into the micropipette
that might prevent seal formation.
7. Lower the micropipette into the bath solution and position the
tip in the proximity of the cells (see Note 10).
8. Zero the patch clamp amplifier using the control software
(“LJ,” in Patchmaster), or DC-offset if a manual amplifier (see
Note 11).
9. Apply a 1 mV pulse and observe or calculate the pipette resis-
tance (Fig. 1a).
10. Under high power magnification (40× objective) position the
micropipette so that the tip is touching the cell membrane.
11. Using the 1 mL syringe and/or stopcock, release the positive
pressure and apply negative pressure to the micropipette (e.g.,
retract syringe plunger by 0.1 mL). This should increase the
resistance of the seal between the micropipette and the cell
membrane, which will be reported by the control software
Fig. 1 Establishing the cell-attached (a–c) and whole-cell (d–e) configurations.

(a) Current recorded with 0 mV holding potential and a 5 ms pulse to 1 mV. To
“zero” the amplifier, the DC offset voltage is set so that current at 0 mV is zero
either manually or automatically, depending on the amplifier. The 400 pA current
at 1 mV gives, using Ohm’s law, the pipette resistance as 2.5 MΩ. (b) Currents
recorded following seal formation with the holding potential at −80 mV and a
5 ms pulse to 10 mV. The transient currents are caused primarily by the “fast”
capacitance provided by the glass micropipette. (c) The transient currents can be
cancelled using the fast capacitance cancellation function of the patch clamp
amplifier (here, capacitance = 7.3 pF; τ = 0.9 μs). (d) Appearance of whole-cell or
“slow” capacitance after application of negative pressure and rupture of the
membrane patch. (e) These transient currents can also be cancelled using the
whole-cell (or “slow”) capacitance cancellation function of the patch clamp
amplifier (here, capacitance = 4.8 pF; series resistance = 7.2 MΩ)
and/or observed as a decrease in the current evoked by the

1 mV pulse (see Note 12). A gigaohm seal will be evident by a
flattening of the current deflection on the computer monitor
and also the appearance of capacitance currents (Fig. 1b, see
also Note 13).
12. Increase the voltage pulse to 10 mV and cancel the fast capaci-
tance currents (see Note 13) using the amplifier controls
(Fig. 1c).
13. Spontaneous unitary currents can be observed by increasing
the amplifier gain (>100 mV/pA) whilst holding the pipette
voltage at 0 mV. A depolarizing holding potential or voltage
pulses may need to be applied to evoke voltage-dependent
channels.
14. In this configuration, the micropipette acts as an extracellular

electrode; therefore negative voltages correspond to depo-
larizing potentials and positive/upward current deflections
represent the movement of positive charge from the micropi-
pette into the cell. Selecting the “on-cell” configuration in
the Patchmaster software automatically reverses pipette volt-
age and current polarities so that these conventions of stat-
ing the voltage inside the cell with respect to the outside
(usually where the reference electrode is placed) and efflux
of positive charge from the cell displayed as an upward or
positive current are followed.
3.4 Whole-Cell This configuration permits the recording of membrane currents

Configuration from the entire cell. The contents of the pipette dialyze and become
continuous with the inside of the cell.
1. Fabricate low-resistance micropipettes and select the intracel-
lular solution as the pipette solution (see Subheading 3.2).
2. Follow the procedure of obtaining the cell-attached
configuration (see Subheading 3.3).
3. Set the holding potential to the intended whole-cell holding
potential (e.g., −80 mV).
4. Using the syringe and tubing attached to the micropipette
holder apply negative pressure by withdrawing the syringe
plunger (e.g., 0.1 mL/s) until whole-cell capacitance currents
appear in response to the 10 mV pulses (Fig. 1d).
5. Cancel the whole-cell (or “slow”) capacitance using the con-
trol software, or adjust capacitance (Cm) and series resistance
(Rs) settings manually. The time course of the whole-cell
capacitance provides an indication of the charging time of the
cell membrane when voltage steps are applied (Fig. 1d, see also
Note 14).
6. Observe current amplitudes when conducting the experiment.
The series resistance error, in mV, can be quickly estimated by
multiplying the measured current in nA by the series resistance
in MΩ. The voltage across the cell membrane will be the com-
mand or pipette potential minus the voltage drop across the
series resistance (see Note 15).
7. If the voltage error is unacceptable then employ the series
resistance compensation functionality of the patch clamp
amplifier to a value >70%. Also consider working at voltages
that give small currents or reduce the series resistance by using
lower-resistance micropipettes.
3.5 Outside-Out This configuration enables the recording of current from a small
Patch Configuration patch of membrane, isolated from the cell, with the extracellular
domains of the channel exposed to the bath. This permits the study of
unitary or small numbers of channels whilst enabling the application

of extracellular reagents to the bath, e.g., neurotransmitters or
agonists in the case of ligand-gated ion channels.
1. Fabricate higher-resistance micropipettes from thick-walled
capillary glass and select the intracellular solution as the pipette
solution (see Subheading 3.2).
2. Obtain the cell-attached configuration (see Subheading 3.3).
3. Set the pipette potential to the intended holding potential
(e.g., −80 mV).
4. Apply negative pressure to the micropipette in order to rup-
ture the enclosed membrane patch (as explained in
Subheading 3.4). This will be indicated by the appearance of
slow membrane capacitance.
5. Using the micromanipulator controls, slowly withdraw the
micropipette from the cell in both lateral and vertical directions.
The successful excision and formation of the patch are indicated
by the disappearance of the whole-cell capacitance (see Note 1)
if excision is prevented by the loss of cell adherence).
6. The patch can be positioned at a shallow depth in the solution
in order to reduce noise and/or positioned in the outflow of
the perfusion system. The fast capacitance cancellation may
need to be readjusted as these maneuvers will reduce the
capacitance.
7. Apply test potentials or ligands to determine the presence of
channels of interest.
3.6 Inside-Out Patch This configuration enables currents to be recorded from a small
Configuration patch of membrane, isolated from the cell, but with the intracellu-
lar-facing domains of the channel exposed to the bath. Here, uni-
tary or small numbers of channels can be studied whilst enabling
the application of intracellular reagents to the bath, e.g., nucle-
otides or Ca2+, when studying ATP- or Ca2+-sensitive potassium
channels, respectively.
1. Fabricate higher-resistance micropipettes from thick-walled
capillary glass and select the extracellular solution as the pipette
solution (see Subheading 3.2).
2. With the cells bathed in intracellular solution, obtain the cell-
attached configuration (see Subheading 3.3). If this is detri-
mental to the experiment it is possible to first bathe the cells in
extracellular solution, but start perfusing intracellular solution
once a gigaohm seal is formed and prior to patch excision.
3. Set the pipette potential to the intended holding potential
(e.g., −70 mV). The polarity may need to be reversed (i.e.,
+70 mV) if this has not been done when establishing the
cell-attached configuration, e.g., by using the “on-cell” mode

of Patchmaster software.
4. Using the micromanipulator controls, slowly withdraw the
micropipette from the cell in both lateral and vertical direc-
tions (see Note 1 if excision is prevented by the loss of cell
adherence).
5. The patch can be positioned at a shallow depth in the solution
in order to reduce noise and/or positioned in the outflow of
the perfusion system. The fast capacitance cancellation may
need to be readjusted as these maneuvers will reduce the
capacitance.
6. Apply test potentials or ligands to determine the presence of
channels of interest or if a vesicle has unintentionally been
formed during the process of excising the patch (see Note 16).
7. Because the pipette electrode is on the extracellular side, the
voltage polarity and direction of charge flow will be the oppo-
site of the usual convention. The “inside-out” setting in
Patchmaster can account automatically for this, similar to the
“on-cell” mode.
3.7 Conducting The choice of electrophysiological protocol, along with pipette

the Experiment and bath solutions, deserves consideration long before the experi-
ment and should not be an afterthought once a successful gigaohm
seal has been obtained. The protocol should be appropriate for the
maximal interrogation of the ion channel under investigation, to
the detriment of any contaminating currents. Consult published
papers for recording conditions and protocols used successfully for
the channel of interest. Some basic properties that will direct the
structure of the protocol are outlined here. The example provided
in this chapter describes currents recorded in the whole-cell
configuration from a HEK293 cell, and the protocol is designed to
isolate voltage-gated currents (Fig. 2).
3.7.1 Voltage-Gated 1. Select a holding potential that is below the activation threshold
Channels (Fig. 2) of the channel of interest, e.g., −80 mV.
2. Use square-wave voltage pulse protocols.
3. The duration of the voltage pulse should be sufficient for the
channel to reach steady state (e.g., 50 ms is sufficient for most
Kv channels).
4. If the channel undergoes inactivation, consider the use of
hyperpolarizing pre-pulses.
5. If the channel undergoes inactivation, ensure that the inter-pulse
interval is long enough to allow full recovery from inactivation,
unless you intend measuring time- and voltage-dependent
recovery from inactivation.
Fig. 2 Representative recordings from a HEK293 cell in the whole-cell

configuration. From a −80 mV holding potential, depolarizing pulses of 50 ms
duration were applied at 3 s intervals to a variety of potentials up to 100 mV,
with 80% series resistance compensation. (a) Transient currents that occur
where the pulse starts and ends are often recorded when series resistance
compensation is applied, even though fast and slow capacitance have been
cancelled. Complex cell morphologies may also provide additional capacitance
components that cannot be fully cancelled. (b) Currents from the same cell, but
employing a P/4 leak subtraction protocol, which subtracts residual leak and
capacitance currents by extrapolating linear current components recorded at
voltages below the activation threshold of the voltage-dependent channel. Note
the removal of the residual capacitance currents, but at the expense of lowering
the signal to noise ratio
6. To measure voltage-dependent parameters (e.g., half-maximal

activation voltage) apply pulses across the voltage range that
spans maximal and minimal channel activation.
7. When measuring the effects of drugs/modulators on channel
activation, choose a depolarizing voltage pulse at which the
channel has intermediate open probability, so that both
increases and decreases in activity can be determined.
8. To isolate voltage-dependent currents from currents through
voltage-independent channels, residual leak, and capacitance
currents use a P/N leak-subtraction voltage protocol. This is
usually an option in the protocol sections of the acquisition
software where voltage pulses to 1/N of the test pulse ampli-
tude are applied to subthreshold voltages, usually N times, and
evoked currents are summed or averaged and scaled (by N) to
predict the passive linear currents, which can be subtracted

from the current evoked by the test pulse. An example of leak-
subtracted traces is provided in Fig. 2b. Ensure that leak cur-
rents are obtained at voltages below the activation threshold of
the voltage-gated channel of interest or apply pulses to hyper-
polarizing potentials (P/-N).
3.7.2 Voltage- 1. Select a holding potential close to the channel reversal poten-
Independent or Weakly tial (i.e., no net current ion flow).
Rectifying Channels 2. Do not use leak subtraction; voltage-independent currents are
considered by these protocols and amplifier functions as leak.
3. Use either voltage pulses or voltage ramp protocols and avoid
voltages that activate voltage-gated channels that might also be
present in the cell membrane.
4. There is little benefit in using a wide range (i.e., >50 mV) of
test voltages; measure channel activity as conductance from a
narrow voltage range through the reversal potential.
3.7.3 Ligand-Gated Ion 1. Holding potentials close to the native resting membrane
Channels potential (e.g., −60 mV) are often selected in order to deter-
mine whether the ligand-gated channel activation is excitatory or
inhibitory, whereby the ligand evokes either an inward or out-
ward current, respectively.
2. Research the ligand/agonist concentration range and select a
concentration that will stimulate the channel of interest, but not
affect other types of channel that may be present in the cell.
3. Take into consideration a possibility that the ligand or agonist
causes desensitization of the channel, this will determine for
how long the ligand is applied.
4. Low-bandwidth continuous recordings are often used to study
macroscopic currents.
5. Ligand-gated channels are usually voltage-independent so do
not use automated leak-subtraction methods.
6. Determine the reversal potential by applying voltage pulses or
a voltage ramp whilst the channels are exposed to ligand/
agonist.
3.7.4 Single-Channel 1. The apparatus should be sufficiently grounded and shielded to

Recording resolve single-channel (pA range) currents from the back-
ground noise. If it does not, improve grounding and shielding
(see Note 5), and micropipette fabrication and coating (see
Note 14 for micropipette coating).
2. With the exception of the negligible series resistance errors due
to the small currents, the same considerations and types of pro-
tocol for studying macroscopic currents (see Subheadings 3.7.1–
3.7.3) generally apply to single-channel recording. However,
continuous recording for longer duration (minutes) or many

pulse repetitions are often used in order to collect a sufficient
number of channel opening and closing events. Make sure that
the same type of stimulus that evokes macroscopic channels
(voltage steps, ligand, etc.) also affects single channels.
3. Is there just one single channel that is active in the patch?
Multiple channels will give multiple open levels if they are open
at the same time. Use conditions that raise the channel open
probability so that multiple channel openings are likely in order
to determine the number of channels in the patch.
4. Select low-pass filter frequencies and digitization rates that
enable brief opening and closing events to be recorded (6).
4 Notes
1. 35 mm Petri dishes are convenient for culture of the cells and
can be placed directly onto an inverted microscope for electro-
physiological study. Alternatively, cells can be seeded and cul-
tured on glass coverslips, which can be transferred into the
electrophysiological recording chamber using forceps.
Depending on the cell type, the cell adherence can be improved,
if required, by purchasing pretreated coverslips or by preparing
substrates coated with poly-d-lysine, laminin, collagen, etc.,
depending on the cell type. To enable patches to be excised
successfully for inside-out and outside-out patch recording cell
adherence may need to be optimized. Alternately, cells could
be grown into clusters by seeding at higher density and cultur-
ing for >2 days so that adherence is improved via a greater
surface area contact between the substrate and cell monolayer.
This, however, is not desirable for whole-cell recording from
cells that form electrical synapses with neighboring cells via gap
junctions, and these include HEK293 cells.
2. Some ion channels require additional substances in order to be
significantly active, e.g., nucleotides or Ca2+. If the current of
interest is overwhelmed by other ionic conductances then the
conditions could be optimized to enhance the current of inter-
est or by reducing currents through other channels by including
impermeant ions or drugs.
3. The pH of the solutions should be adjusted using acid or base
that will add cations/anions that are already in high concentra-
tion, i.e., NaOH for Na+-rich extracellular solutions, and KOH
for K+-rich intracellular solution. Likewise, HCl is used if the
solution is required to be adjusted to more acidic pH. If the
final concentrations of certain ions are of particular concern,
e.g., [K+] in intracellular solution, then either the pH could be
adjusted with a measured volume of KOH and then by adding

the required amount of KCl to give the final [K+], or the solu-
tion could be deliberately made alkaline using 40 mM
KOH + 100 mM KCl and adjusting to the final pH with HCl.
4. This prevents cell shrinking during whole-cell recording where
water leaves the cell by osmosis to the solution with the higher
osmolarity. Likewise, a hypertonic intracellular solution will
cause the cell to swell over the course of the experiment. Both
may have adverse effects on the stability of the recording and
the activation of certain types of ion channel if they have mech-
anosensitive properties.
5. A single grounding point, e.g., a metal bar fixed to the Faraday
cage, should be connected to the ground of the patch clamp
amplifier. Whilst observing current noise on the computer
screen or oscilloscope, a multimeter and/or a test wire can be
used to determine which metallic components inside the
Faraday cage do not have a low-resistance connection to the
grounding point and if they require grounding or shielding.
Check the following: all sides of the Faraday cage, air table
breadboard, micromanipulator components, and lamp hous-
ings. Check also if any nearby nonessential electrical items and
lighting in the laboratory could be turned off to reduce the
electrical noise.
6. For isolated cell preparations or cultured cells the use of an
inverted microscope provides adequate working space above
the stage for positioning of the recording micropipette, perfu-
sion outlet, reference electrode, etc. When working with sam-
ples of intact tissue, e.g., brain slice, the convenient cells from
which to record will be towards the uppermost part of the tis-
sue, which will not be easily resolved on an inverted micro-
scope, and the micropipette would need to pass through most
of the slice to reach cells closest to the objective. Therefore
upright microscopes are frequently used for slice recording,
with the micropipette positioned between the tissue and the
objective.
7. For whole-cell recording, errors associated with series (access)
resistance are reduced by lowering the resistance between the
cell membrane and pipette electrode wire. This is influenced by
the initial resistance of the micropipette, which sets the theo-
retical lower limit for the series resistance. In practice, series
resistance is always higher than the micropipette resistance.
Therefore, as low resistance micropipettes as possible should
be fabricated for this purpose. However, the size of the cell
then becomes a limiting factor as a large aperture micropipette
has an increased chance of sucking up the cell when negative
pressure is applied. For higher resistance micropipettes intended
for single-channel recording, the micropipette fabrication
should be optimized according to the channel density. Expect to

make several attempts to obtain a single-channel recording, if
this is desired, since there will be comparable probabilities of
obtaining zero, one, or more channels in each membrane patch.
8. A sufficient coating of silver chloride over the silver wire is
required to complete the Ag/AgCl half cell. The silver wire
can be coated with silver chloride either by electroplating (con-
necting the wire into an electrical circuit with 3 M KCl and a
9 V battery), immersing in bleach for at least an hour, or by
dipping the wire into molten silver chloride. The immersion in
bleach is usually the most convenient and practicable approach
in most laboratories.
9. There are a couple of reasons why the bath may need to be
separated from the Ag/AgCl reference electrode by an agar
bridge. Firstly, some ion channels may be sensitive to contami-
nating levels of silver ions in the bath solution that may origi-
nate from the electrode wire. Secondly, a junction potential
exists between the pipette and bath solutions via the two half
cells and the headstage circuit, which can be quantified as a
chloride electrochemical potential using the Nernst equation.
Should the chloride concentration of the bath solution need to
be changed during the course of the experiment then this elec-
trochemical potential will change the voltage offset, which is
usually cancelled on a single occasion prior to seal formation.
If the bath [Cl−] is to be changed during the experiment then
the reference electrode, usually a Ag/AgCl pellet, should be
kept in constant [Cl−], which could be the intracellular, extra-
cellular solution, or a solution high in KCl, and connected to
the bath solution via an agar bridge. Agar bridges can be made
from glass capillaries that are gently molten into a “C” shape
and filled with recording solution or 1−3 M KCl containing
1–3% agar. Heat the solution to dissolve the agar and load into
the capillary as it starts to cool. Agar bridges should be stored
in the same, but agar-free, solution at 4°C.
10. Bringing the tip of the micropipette near to the cell is one of
the more difficult technical steps for the novice and takes some
practice with each apparatus. Monitoring the position of the
tip in the X–Y dimensions using the microscope field of view is
relatively straightforward, but judging the depth (Z-axis), or
how far the micropipette tip is above the cell, is more difficult.
A good technique is to use the microscope focusing controls to
judge the vertical distance between the cell and micropipette
tip. The following procedure can be followed: focus the micro-
scope on the micropipette tip, focus down to the cell, focus
back up to a plane in between the two, lower the micropipette
until it comes into focus, and repeat until the focal planes of
the micropipette tip and cell become close. During this process
the objective lens will likely be changed to give increased

magnification, until the highest is reached.
11. This DC offset will also cancel the liquid junction potential that
exists between the bath and pipette solutions at the micropipette
tip aperture. This junction disappears upon formation of the
gigaohm seal but the DC offset remains. The junction potential
can be calculated from the ion concentrations and relative ion
motilities (e.g., using the calculator in the Axon Clampex soft-
ware) or can be measured by the patch clamp apparatus in current
clamp mode. This is done with the micropipette placed in the
bath, first with extracellular solution in both bath and micropi-
pette, zeroing the amplifier, and then measuring the voltage
recorded when a micropipette containing intracellular solution is
mounted and placed in the bath solution. Either way, the junction
potential can be accounted prior to the experiment, as part of the
zeroing procedure, or by adjusting voltages after the experiment.
12. The process of seal formation depends on the health and type
of cell, the geometry of the micropipette tip, and the lack of
debris between the two. Seal formation can be rapid (<1 s) or
occur over a longer duration (>1 min). Applying negative
pipette potentials can often promote seal formation, as can
removing and reapplying gentle suction. As a general rule, if the
seal resistance is increasing then leave it to improve, but change
pipette pressure or voltage if it stalls before achieving >1 GΩ.
13. Fast capacitance currents arise in the cell-attached configuration
because the micropipette glass, which is very thin towards its
tip and with conducting solutions on either side, can act as a
capacitor. The amplitude of the capacitance currents will
change if the bath solution levels increase and decrease over
the course of the experiment because the fluid level changes
the external area of the micropipette in contact with solution.
The size of the capacitance currents can be reduced by mini-
mizing the bath volume or by coating the micropipette with a
hydrophobic substance. An easy way to do the latter is to dip
the filled micropipette tip into Sigmacote (Sigma) immediately
prior to mounting onto the pipette holder. Sylgard or dental
wax can also be used, but these both need to be coated and
cured prior to micropipette polishing and filling.
14. The time constant of the decay of the whole-cell capacitance
current, τ = Cm × Rs, and so membranes with larger surface area
or higher series resistance have longer charging times. This may
affect the study of channels with rapid voltage-dependent
kinetics. Rs should be kept as low as possible and the use of
series-resistance compensation functionality of the amplifier
should be considered in these cases. Series resistance issues can
also be minimized by studying channels in excised macro-patches
that contain many channels.
15. The resistance of the cell membrane and the resistance between
the micropipette and the cell membrane are in series and form a
voltage divider. The current flow is the same throughout the
circuit, but the voltage (the pipette potential) across the two is
shared between each resistance according to its proportion of the
total resistance. The series resistance (Rs, a few MΩ) is usually
much lower than the membrane resistance when very few chan-
nels are active (Rm, a few 100 MΩ) and so the voltage across
the membrane (Vm) is very close to the pipette voltage (Vp):
Vm = Vp × (Rm/(Rm + Rs)).
If Rm decreases, i.e., through the opening of many ion
channels then the contribution of Rm to the total resistance
(Rm + Rs) decreases along with Vm. The application of Ohm’s
law, Vs = I × Rs, is a quick way of obtaining the voltage drop
across the series resistance, Vs, from the measured current
I and Rs; then Vm = Vp − Vs.
16. The formation of an excised vesicle is a common problem
during attempts to form an inside-out patch and occurs when
the excised membrane edges close up, in a manner akin to the
formation of outside-out patches, and results in a “cell-attached”
vesicle. A bathing solution that is very low in Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions
can help prevent this. The outward-facing part of the vesicle can
be ruptured to leave the inside-out patch by passing the tip of
the micropipette quickly out and then back into the bath solu-
tion, through the air-solution interface. This does however have
limited success and a complete loss of the patch occurs with at
least equal frequency. For more tips on dealing with such vesi-
cles refer to Chapter 9 of this volume.
References
1. Neher E, Sakmann B (1976) Single-channel system for studying ion channels with the
currents recorded from membrane of denervated patch-clamp technique. Methods Mol Biol 491:
frog muscle fibres. Nature 260:799–802 127–139
2. Hamill OP, Marty A, Neher E, Sakmann B, 5. de Wet H, Lippiat JD, Allen M (2008) Analysing
Sigworth FJ (1981) Improved patch-clamp tech- steroid modulation of BK(Ca) channels reconsti-
niques for high-resolution current recording tuted into planar lipid bilayers. Methods Mol
from cells and cell-free membrane patches. Biol 491:177–186
Pflugers Arch 391:85–100 6. Colquoun D, Sigworth FJ (1995) Fitting and
3. Lippiat JD (2008) Whole-cell recording using statistical analysis of single-channel records.
the perforated patch clamp technique. Methods In: Sakmann B, Neher E (eds) Single channel
Mol Biol 491:141–149 recording, 2nd edn. Plenum, New York, pp
4. Tammaro P, Shimomura K, Proks P (2008) 483–587
Xenopus oocytes as a heterologous expression
Chapter 8
Recording of Ion Channel Activity in Planar Lipid Bilayer

Experiments
Eleonora Zakharian
Abstract
Planar lipid bilayer is an electrophysiological technique that enables study of functional activities of ion
channels, porins, and other pore-forming molecular complexes. The main purpose of this method is to
monitor ion channels’ behavior at the single molecule level in the artificial membranes. Here, I describe the
details of this technique that will underline formation of the lipid bilayers and incorporation and activation
of the ion channel protein.
Key words Planar lipid bilayer, Black lipid membranes, Ion channel, Ionic current, Conductance
1 Introduction
Electrophysiological approaches are designed to evaluate physical
properties and characteristics of ion channels. Planar lipid bilayer is
one of the unique electrophysiological techniques that is intended
to study specific channel properties of the purified complexes in a
well-controlled artificial environment (1). The effectiveness of this
method reveals the possibility to study and characterize ion channel
behavior at the single molecule level. Furthermore, this technique
is very useful for investigation of the direct effects of chemicals and
enzymes on the channel while excluding possible indirect effects,
which might be caused by the presence of regulatory proteins of
the native membranes.
Planar lipid bilayer experiments enable monitoring the transport
rates of ions across membranes through incorporated ion channels.
The experiments are performed in the chamber with cis- and trans-
compartments that are connected through a small aperture with a
diameter ranging from 50 to 250 mm. A lipid solution is applied
to the aperture with subsequent formation of a planar bilayer
membrane on the hole. This is followed by reconstitution of ion
channel proteins. Ion channels can be inserted into bilayer lipid
109
110 Eleonora Zakharian
membrane (BLM) directly from a micellar solution or fused with

liposomes. After the channel is incorporated into the bilayer, the
ionic current can be induced by applying a driving force. This force
represents an electrochemical potential that has two components—
electrical, which is called membrane potential (Vm or Dy) derived
from charges or voltages applied across the membrane, and chemical
component that derives from a chemical gradient with asymmetric
ionic solutions. The ionic current through typical ion channel is
measured in pico-amperes (pA), and potential or voltages are mea-
sured in millivolts (mV). Conductance of ions at a single-channel
level is usually measured in a range of 10–1,000 pico-siemens (pS).
Some ion channels such as ligand-gated channels would also
require the presence of specific molecules-activators (ligands) in
order to induce channel openings. In case of many mammalian
channels this regulation can be quite complex and would require
simultaneous presence of a number of molecular components and/or
various physical factors (temperature, pressure) in order to stimulate
channel openings. The advantage of planar lipid bilayer is that it
increases likelihood to precisely identify all the chemical and physical
factors that are required for, or supporting, the channel activity.
The other benefits of this method include a possibility to alternate
lipid composition or chemical compounds regulating channel
activity that can be applied to either side of the membrane.
Like any technique, planar lipid bilayer also has its disadvan-
tages. Among the disadvantages of lipid bilayers are large capaci-
tances due to the large sizes of the aperture, comparing it to the
diameters used in excised patches. The larger capacitances cause for
a slow voltage response time. Another disadvantage of this tech-
nique, relative to the native membrane patch-clamp, is the genera-
tion of high-amplitude noise due to the large area of bilayers in
traditional systems. In order to reduce the peak-to-peak amplitude
of the noise in the system, intensive filtering may be applied.
However low-pass filtering of the single-channel signal produces
a significant loss of time resolution and at some point will make
fast-gating events undetectable. This issue has been addressed by
recently developed alternative BLM systems that allow performing
low-noise and higher bandwidth recordings (2, 3).
Overall, the complexity of planar lipid bilayer technique at first
glance seems to arise from the intricacy of the steps in formation of
the artificial membranes that require thorough knowledge of phys-
ical chemistry of BLM. Nevertheless, the theoretical insights that
describe physicochemical properties of lipid bilayer as well as meth-
odological details are well established (for more references see
refs. 1, 4–6), along with the practical side of the method (including
advanced technology for the electrophysiological setup, voltage-
clamp recordings, and availability of high quality and purity of
synthetic lipids). All these factors aid in the formation of artificial
lipid bilayer suitable for channel study and make it a straightforward
and reproducible method. The main challenge of this technique is
Planar Lipid Bilayers 111
Fig. 1 Planar lipid bilayer chamber with inserted cuvette, lipid bilayers are painted
on the aperture in the middle of the cuvette. Silver-silver chloride electrodes are
connected to each compartment (cis and trans), those allow to obtain the ionic
current that is amplified using a voltage-clamp amplifier. Cups and chambers are
filled with equal volumes in the cis- and trans-sides, which results in a balanced
solution height, thus minimizing mechanical gradients across the bilayer membrane.
Below is a graphical representation for formation of planar lipid bilayers and
incorporated ion channel that conducts ions across the membrane
rather hindered in the capricious nature of the membrane proteins,

which ion channels represent, and therefore the success of the
experiment often heavily relies on the protein part, which includes
protein isolation, purification, folding, and incorporation. The rea-
son for this is that each protein is unique and ways to handling it
may vary greatly. Here, as an example, I describe planar lipid bilayer
method (Fig. 1) of incorporation and activation of the cold and
menthol receptor—TRPM8, which we have successfully applied
in our studies (7, 8). The method is comprised of (1) formation
of the artificial membranes, (2) incorporation of the ion channel,
and (3) activation of the channel protein by its agonists and other
molecules that are involved in the channel activity.
2 Materials
2.1 Solutions 1. Lipids include synthetic 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycero-3-phos-
and Reagents phocoline (POPC) and 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycero-3-phos-
phoethanolamine (POPE, Avanti Polar Lipids, Birmingham,
AL). Lipids are stored in septum glass vials and screw caps with
Teflon discs inserts that are from Thermo Scientific Pierce
(Rockford, IL).
Short- and long-chain phosphoinositides are from Cayman
Chemicals (Ann Arbor, MI).
2. Organic solvent to dissolve the lipids—n-decane (Sigma-Aldrich,
St. Louis, MO).
3. Experimental bathing solution: 150 mM KCl, 0.2 mM MgCl2,
20 mM Hepes, pH 7.4. All salts are ultrapure (>99%) (Sigma-
Aldrich, St. Louis, MO). To increase the purity of the solutions
it is important to filter all the buffers with 0.22 mm filters.
4. Planar lipid bilayer chamber and cuvette are made of Delrin
(acetyl resin); we use cuvette with an aperture of ~150 mm in
diameter (Warner Instruments, Hamden, CT).
5. The TRPM8 protein is purified from the human embryonic
kidney cells (HEK-293), stably expressing the channel as pre-
viously described (7), for updates in the purification procedure
(see Note 1).
6. NCB buffer: 500 mM NaCl, 50 mM NaH2PO4, 20 mM Hepes,
2 mM Na-orthovanadate, 10% glycerol, pH 7.5.
7. Cell homogenization buffer: NCB buffer with addition of
1 mM of protease inhibitor PMSF, 5 mM b-mercaptoethanol.
8. Protein isolation buffer: NCB buffer with addition of one tab-
let of protease inhibitor cocktail, 1 mM PMSF, 20 mg/mL
DNase, 20 mg/mL RNase, 0.1% Nonidet P40 (Roche,
Indianapolis, IN), and 0.5% dodecyl-maltoside (DDM)
(CalBiochem, Darmstadt, Germany).
9. Phosphate buffer saline (PBS).
2.2 Equipment 1. Electrophysiological setup: Axopatch 200B amplifier;

and Materials CV-203BU headstage; Baseplate; Electrode holder; Series
Resistance Dither Box; Patch-1U Model Cell (Molecular
Devices, Sunnyvale, CA).
2. DD1440A Digidata 1440A data acquisition system and
pClamp-10 Electrophysiology software (Molecular Devices,
Sunnyvale, CA).
3. 8-Pole Bessel filter—950 TAF (Frequency Devices, Ottawa, IL).
4. The entire setup is fixed in the Faraday cage to block sound
and electrical noise (AutoMate Scientific, Inc, Berkeley, CA).
5. Bilayer chamber and cuvette (Warner Instruments, Hamden,
CT).
6. For temperature experiments we use bilayer chamber made of a
thermally conductive plastic; the pyroelectric heating/cooling
stage connected to temperature controller CL-100 (Warner
Instruments, Hamden, CT).
7. Stereo microscope (Olympus, Center Valley, PA).

8. Bath sonicator (Branson, Hatfield, PA).
9. Glass capillary tubes (Fisher Scientific).
10. Bunsen burner (Fisher Scientific).
11. Molecular sieves (Sigma).
12. Speed-Vac (VWR).
13. Nitrogen gas tank (GTS Welco, Inc., Newark, NJ).
3 Methods
3.1 Preparing Preparation of the working equipment such as bilayer chambers
Working Equipment and cuvettes is the very first and important step and should be
for Planar Lipid carried before each experiment. To optimize the rate for a successful
Bilayer: Chambers, BLM experiment and eliminate false positive results due to possible
Cuvettes, and Glass contaminants, the bilayer chamber and cuvette have to be cleaned
Capillaries thoroughly.
1. Wash with dishwashing detergent in warm water; rinse well
several times with warm running water to remove detergent;
rinse three times with milli-Q water.
2. Wash with organic solvents—first with ethanol and then with
methanol; dry with nitrogen gas. It is useful to press on top of
cuvette when filled with solvent, the intense solvent flow
through the aperture helps to remove residual lipids and other
content from the aperture. When switching from one target-
protein to another, or in case of difficulties to remove contami-
nants, all washing steps can be done along with bath sonication
(see Note 2).
3. Delrin cuvettes can also be cleaned with chloroform, when
necessary to remove highly hydrophobic content from the
aperture. Note that not all materials are suitable for a chloro-
form use; be sure that your cuvette will not be damaged during
this cleaning procedure (see Note 3).
4. Prepare a set of air-bubble glass capillaries. Holding to the end
of capillary, flame the other end, simultaneously pooling the
edge with forceps until the thin prolonged glass tube is formed.
Remove the forceps and continue to flame the thin tube in
order to make the bubble-like structure.
3.2 Preparation 1. Open the ampoules with lipids in chloroform solution and
of the Lipids transfer the content into new and prerinsed with organic sol-
vent glass vials, add the molecular sieves (4 Å) and cover with
Teflon-side screw cap. For storage conditions see Note 4.
2. Prepare the mixture of POPC/POPE in 3:1 ratio and dry
the lipids by lyophilization in Speed-Vac at least for 2 h to
completely remove the chloroform content. Next, resuspend

the lipidic mixture in an organic solvent such as n-decane to a
final concentration of 25–30 mM. Mix the lipids under the
stream of nitrogen gas.
3.3 Formation of 1. Fill the chamber in the following order: first add 1 mL of
Planar Lipid Bilayer bathing solution to the trans-compartment (cuvette); press
slightly on the top of cuvette until a tiny droplet will appear in the
area of aperture (see Note 5); add 1 mL of bathing solution to
the cis-compartment.
2. Immerse a pair of matched Ag-AgCl electrodes in the cis- and
trans-compartments. Adjust the background-leak current near
0 values, this can be done by changing the voltage in a range
of ±1 mV and adjusting manually the offset appropriately
so that at positive voltage baseline would go upwards and at
negative it would shift downwards (see Note 6).
3. Dip the air-bubble glass capillary in the lipid/decane solution
and carefully apply the lipids to the aperture in the cuvette by
“painting.” After several gentle movements of the air-bubble
in the area of aperture, the film will form. We prefer not to pre-
apply the lipidic solution beforehand; instead, we distribute
the lipids by painting with the air-bubble glass capillary when
the aqueous solvents are present (see Note 7).
4. Monitor the thinning of the lipid film by either observing it in
the microscope—planar lipid bilayers reflect no light and appear
black after formation, or alternatively estimate the capacitance
of the membrane—as lipid bilayers will form the capacitance
will gradually increase, indicating that the film is thinning.
The capacitance of the bilayer can reach 100–200 pF, depend-
ing on the size of aperture used (see Note 8).
3.4 Incorporation 1. After the bilayers are formed, add 0.2 mL of the TRPM8 micellar
and Activation of Ion solution (0.002 mg/mL) to the cis-compartment with gentle
Channel stirring. Normally it will take some time for the channel to
incorporate in the membrane. Fusion of the proteo-liposomes
or micelles can be observed by fusion spike appearance. After
the incorporation stop the stirring.
2. To activate TRPM8 in planar lipid bilayer, add its agonist
menthol (500 mM) to the cis- and/or trans-compartment.
TRPM8 inserts into lipid bilayer without preferences and may
be oriented either way. To induce TRPM8 channel openings,
apart from the ligand, it also requires the presence of its gating
factor phophoinositol 4,5-biphosphate (PIP2) (Fig. 2). The
short acyl-chain dioctanoyl diC8PIP2 (2.5 mM) can be added to
either side of the membrane, but it activates the channel from
the intracellular side (see Note 9). Channel current recordings
can be then obtained with different voltages. Orientation of
TRPM8 can be determined according to the outward rectification
Fig. 2 Activation of TRPM8 channels in planar lipid bilayers by menthol and PIP2.
Representative single-channel current recordings of TRPM8 channels incorpo-
rated in planar lipid bilayers formed from POPC/POPE (3:1) in n-decane, between
symmetric bathing solutions of 150 mM KCl, 0.2 mM MgCl2 in 20 mM Hepes
buffer, pH 7.4 at 22°C. 0.2–0.5 mL of 0.2 mg/mL TRPM8 protein was incorporated
in POPC/POPE micelles, which were added to the cis-compartment. Clamping
potential was +60 mV. Upper and lower traces consist of three segments with
subsequent additions of components as indicated in the figure: 2 mM of diC8 PIP2
and 500 mM of menthol were added to both compartments (the figure is repro-
duced from ref. 8 with permission)
and/or by an intracellular block with polylysine (polyK can be

added at the end of the experiment).
3. Outward currents of TRPM8 exhibit mean slope conductance
values of ~72 pS, and Po of ~0.89 at 100 mV, and inward cur-
rents may be observed in two conductance states with main
conductance level of ~42 pS and Po of ~0.4 (at −100 mV) and
rarely detected burst openings of a subconductance state with
mean conductance of ~30 pS (Po £ 0.001), which would step to
the fully open magnitude (72 pS) of the channels. In case if
inconsistency in channel behavior is observed see Note 10.
4. Unitary currents are recorded with an integrating patch clamp
amplifier. The trans-solution (voltage command side) is con-
nected to the preamplifier headstage input, and the cis-solution
is held at virtual ground via a pair of matched Ag-AgCl elec-
trodes. Currents through the voltage-clamped bilayers (back-
ground conductance <3 pS) are filtered at the amplifier output
(low pass, −3 dB at 10 kHz, 8-pole Bessel response). Data are
secondarily filtered at 100 Hz and digitized at 1 kHz.
5. Single-channel conductance events, all points’ histograms,
open probabilities, and other parameters are identified and
analyzed using the appropriate software.
3.5 Temperature Planar lipid bilayer is a convenient system to study temperature

Studies sensitivity of the cold receptor TRPM8.
1. For temperature studies, position a Delrin cuvette in the bilayer
chamber made of a thermally conductive plastic.
2. The chamber is fitted on a conductive stage containing a

pyroelectric heater/cooler.
3. Turn on the pump to circulate deionized water through the
heating/cooling stage: the water is pumped into the system to
remove the generated heat.
4. Set the temperature of interest on the temperature controller
connected to the pyroelectric heating/cooling stage. The tem-
perature of the bath is monitored constantly with a thermo-
electric device in the cis-side, i.e., the groundside of the cuvette.
Although there will be a temperature gradient build between
the bath solution and conductive stage, the temperature within
the bath could be reliably controlled within ±0.5°C.
4 Notes
1. HEK-293 cells stably expressing Myc-tagged TRPM8 are
grown to ~80% confluence, washed and collected with PBS.
Cells are harvested and resuspended in cell homogenization
buffer. Then the cells are lysed by freeze-thawing method
and centrifuged at low speed to remove cell debris and DNA.
The supernatant is further centrifuged at 40,000 × g for 2.5 h.,
and the pellet is resuspended in protein isolation buffer.
The suspension is incubated overnight at 4°C on a shaker with
gentle agitation and then centrifuged for 1 h at 40,000 × g.
The supernatant is collected and incubated with the beads,
where the TRPM8 protein is purified by immunoprecipitation
with anti-Myc-IgG conjugated to A/G protein magnetic beads
(Pierce, Thermo Scientific), following the procedure provided
by the manufacturer. All steps of purification are performed at
4°C. For the planar lipid bilayer experiments the protein is
eluted with Myc-peptide (50 mg/mL).
2. Place chamber and cuvette into a beaker and perform all the
washing steps (warm water with detergent; rinse; organic
media) while using bath sonicator at low intensity, do not
exceed 5 minutes for each washing step. Longer and more
frequent sonication may affect the quality of the chamber.
3. Polystyrene cuvettes have poor resistance to organic solvents,
which can lead to degradation of the aperture; therefore these
cannot be cleaned with strong organic solvents. We also do not
recommend using chloroform-cleaning step for the bilayer
chamber, although it is made of Delrin, but the observation
window is made of a different plastic polymer that can be
entirely destroyed with chloroform.
4. Stock lipids/chloroform solutions are degassed with nitrogen
stream and stored in the presence of molecular sieves 4 Å
(Sigma) at −20°C. The molecular sieves are used for dehydration
and absorb molecules with 4 Å effective diameter (H2O capacity

~20% by weight). Vials with lipids should be tightened with a
Teflon-insert cap and covered with parafilm.
5. This step is important and helps to remove air from the aperture
and create nice contact between the cis- and trans-compartments.
Air entrapped in the aperture may cause a problematic forma-
tion of the bilayers.
6. At certain experimental conditions, such as with gradient solu-
tions that introduce different ionic strengths across the mem-
brane and cause formation of junction potentials, it is preferable
to connect the electrodes with bath solutions using agar
bridges. The agar bridges are made of glass capillaries and filled
with 3 M KCl-agar solution.
7. Although it slightly increases the time for forming the bilayer,
overall avoiding pre-application of lipids helps to minimize
introduction of bulky amounts of lipids on the aperture. This
in turn is useful in formation of good/thin bilayer with reduced
torus of amorphous lipid that surrounds the membrane.
8. Planar lipid bilayer represents a capacitor that is capable of
storing charge in electric field. The bilayer capacity is directly
proportional to its surface area and dielectric constant (e), and
is inversely proportional to the thickness of the bilayer (d):
Capacitance (C) of the bilayer formed across circular aperture
can be calculated using the following formula C = e⋅pr2/d
(where r is the radius of the bilayer). Note that r is the radius
of the actual bilayer, not the aperture, and the value of r gener-
ally reflects the quality of the bilayer. A phospholipid mem-
brane has a capacitance in the range of 1 mF/cm2. A steady-state
charge on a capacitor is expressed as q = CV, where q is the charge
on the capacitor (in Coulombs) and V is the potential between
the capacitor plates (in Volts). The time-dependent derivative
for the charge can be obtained from the following expression:
I = dq/dt = C⋅dV/dt. This expression is useful to estimate the
capacitance of the bilayer, when the current measured under the
conditions of the linear voltage ramp (constant dV/dt) is directly
proportional to the bilayer capacitance.
9. It may take several (5–10) minutes for diC8PIP2 to incorporate
in the membrane. Stirring the bath solution is helpful and
can accelerate the incorporation of the phosphoinositide.
Alternatively, PIP2 can be incorporated in the bilayers in a
form of long dipalmitoyl chain—diC16PIP2 by adding it to the
mixture of phospholipids beforehand at a final concentration
of 1%.
10. In case if the channel behaves irregularly, do not rush to discard
the solution and restart the experiment, sometimes the chan-
nel’s final folding may occur after incorporation in the lipid
bilayer. In other words, channel may at first be misfolded;

however it is possible that the protein will finally obtain the
proper conformation state in the bilayer. This can be evidenced
by stabilization of the channel currents that would change
from irregular activity to nice strait openings and closures.
Likewise, the channel may continue to misbehave. This would
mean that most likely the protein purification encountered
some problems and the protein is unstable. Alter the incorpora-
tion method and insert the channel with the liposomes. If this
would not improve the result, the most logical would be to
repeat the purification procedure. Note that presence of Mg2+ is
important for the stability of the TRPM8 protein. We found
that Mg2+ is important in supporting the native supramolecular
complex of TRPM8 with polyhydroxybutyrate/polyphosphate
(PHB/polyP). Affecting the molecular integrity of this supra-
molecular complex of the channel has an immense effect on its
activity (8).
References
1. Miller C (1986) Ion channel reconstitution. 5. Montal M, Mueller P (1972) Formation of

Plenum, New York bimolecular membranes from lipid monolayers
2. White RJ, Ervin EN, Yang T, Chen X, Daniel S, and a study of their electrical properties. Proc
Cremer PS, White HS (2007) Single ion-channel Natl Acad Sci U S A 69:3561–3566
recordings using glass nanopore membranes. J Am 6. Williams AJ (1994) An introduction to the
Chem Soc 129:11766–11775 methods available for ion channel reconstitution.
3. Zhang B, Galusha J, Shiozawa PG, Wang G, In: Ogden D (ed) Microelectrode techniques:
Bergren AJ, Jones RM, White RJ, Ervin EN, the plymouth workshop handbook, 2nd edn.
Cauley CC, White HS (2007) Bench-top method Company of Biologists, Cambridge, pp 79–99
for fabricating glass-sealed nanodisk electrodes, 7. Zakharian E, Cao C, Rohacs T (2010) Gating
glass nanopore electrodes, and glass nanopore of transient receptor potential melastatin 8
membranes of controlled size. Anal Chem (TRPM8) channels activated by cold and chemi-
79:4778–4787 cal agonists in planar lipid bilayers. J Neurosci
4. White SH (1986) The physical nature of planar 30:12526–125348
lipid bilayer membranes. In: Miller C (ed) Ion 8. Zakharian E, Thyagarajan B, French RJ, Pavlov E,
channel reconstitution. Plenum, New York, Rohacs T (2009) Inorganic polyphosphate mod-
pp 3–35 ulates TRPM8 channels. PLoS One 4:e5404
Chapter 9
Recording Macroscopic Currents in Large Patches

from Xenopus Oocytes
Tibor Rohacs
Abstract
The excised inside-out patch clamp technique gives rapid access to the intracellular surface of the plasma
membrane while measuring channel activity. This way the effects of intracellular regulators of ion channels
or transporters can be studied in isolation, in the absence of most of the cellular machinery. This chapter
summarizes our experience with this technique using large patches to study various ion channels expressed
in Xenopus oocytes.
Key words Xenopus oocytes, Excised patch, Macropatch, TRP channels, Patch clamp
1 Introduction
The giant patch or “macropatch” technique was originally devel-

oped to measure currents of electrogenic transporters or pumps,
which are far smaller than those carried by ion channels (1, 2).
Large excised patches are also very useful for the study of ion chan-
nels. Generally this technique gives similar information to that
obtained by using single-channel measurements in excised patches.
It does not give the detailed information that single-channel mea-
surements give on gating kinetics, conductance, etc., but it is a lot
more robust, and simpler to analyze, as it gives composite current
of hundreds or even thousands of channels. The excised inside-out
configuration allows the perfusion of various compounds to the
intracellular surface of the patch membrane, thus the study of the
effects of intracellular regulators in isolation from the cellular envi-
ronment. This chapter is based on our experience with this tech-
nique with inwardly rectifying K+ (Kir) channels and various
transient receptor potential (TRP) channels (3–8).
119
120 Tibor Rohacs
Xenopus laevis oocytes have been used for quite a long time as
an expression system to study recombinant ion channels (9). There
are many articles that provide excellent description of oocyte prep-
aration and RNA injection (10); we will provide a brief description
here based on our experience.
2 Materials
2.1 Oocyte 1. OR2 solution for oocyte preparation and storage. The composi-
Preparation tion of OR2 is 82.5 mM NaCl, 2 mM KCl, 1 mM MgCl2,
and Injection 5 mM HEPES, pH = 7.4. We designate this Ca2+-free solution
as OR2(−). Since large volumes are used because of the repeti-
tive wash steps during oocyte isolation, it is practical to prepare
a 20× concentrate, and dilute several liters to working concen-
tration to keep in a large bottle. After dilution the pH needs to
be adjusted, and the solution can be kept at 4°C for several
weeks; it is not necessary to sterile filter the OR2(−) solution.
After digestion, the eggs are kept in OR2 solution with an
additional 1.8 mM Ca2+ and penicillin-streptomycin (desig-
nated as OR2(+) solution); we recommend that this solution is
sterile filtered.
2. Collagenase solution. We use 0.1–0.2 mg/mL of type IA col-
lagenase from Sigma. We dissolve it freshly in OR2(−) just
before starting the digestion process (see Note 1).
3. MS222 solution. 0.25% Ethyl 3-aminobenzoate methanesul-
fonate (tricaine, MS222) dissolved in H2O, pH adjusted to
~7.4. We prepare 1 L, which can be reused several times, when
kept in a cold room.
4. Scissors, forceps.
5. Sutures (Chromic gut).
6. Oocyte incubator (18°C) preferably with an electrical outlet
inside to power the rotating platform.
7. Dissecting microscope and light source.
8. Injector (Drummond Nanoject).
9. Nuclease-free water and mMessage Machine kit (Ambion).
2.2 Patch Clamp We recommend that all solutions are sterile filtered to avoid clog-
Measurements ging of the patch clamp pipette and the perfusion system.
1. Bath solution. The oocyte is placed in the bath solution during
the experiment, and the same solution is used to fill up the
perfusion system. The composition is 97 mM KCl, 5 mM
HEPES, and 5 mM EGTA, pH = 7.4. The purpose of includ-
ing EGTA in the bath solution is to avoid the activation of
the Ca2+-activated Cl− current endogenous in the oocytes
Macropatch Recording 121
2. Pipette solution. For most ion channels, a standard extracellular

NaCl-based solution can be used: 97 mM NaCl, 2 mM KCl,
1 mM MgCl2, 5 mM HEPES, pH = 7.4; we use this solution to
record TRPV1 and TRPM8 (see Note 4).
3. Some channels require modified pipette solutions, for example,
TRPV6 is blocked by extracellular Mg2+and Ca2+; thus, a diva-
lent-free solution is used, 99 mM LiCl2, 1 mM EGTA, and
5 mM HEPES, pH = 7.4. The use of lithium as a charge carrier
minimizes endogenous currents that may become activated
upon removal of extracellular divalent cations.
4. Cl −-free bath solution. 93 mM K-gluconate, 5 mM HEDTA,
5 mM HEPES, pH = 7.4. This solution is used when intracel-
lular Ca2+ is applied. For Ca2+ concentration up to 10 μM, we
use HEDTA to buffer Ca2+. Above this concentration, Ca2+
cannot be reliably buffered with HEDTA, so we leave this che-
lator out of the solution, but the weak buffering of Ca2+ by
gluconate should be taken into consideration (11). The free
Ca2+ concentrations can be calculated with the Max Chelator
program (http://maxchelator.stanford.edu/). The Ca2+ free
HEDTA-containing solution can be used for pipette solution,
to eliminate the Ca2+ induced Cl−current (see Note 3).
5. Patch pipettes. We use 4 in. long 1.5 mm OD patch clamp
pipettes (WPI). Other types of pipettes may also work well
(see Notes 5–7 and Fig. 1).
6. A micropipette puller (see Note 6).
7. A pair of very sharp forceps to devitellinize (peel) the oocyte. We
use Dumont 55 forceps (Fine Science Tools). The forceps can
easily be damaged; they can be sharpened with a sharpening
Fig. 1 A typical patch pipette for macroscopic current measurements in excised

inside-out patches. The small divisions correspond to 2.5 μm
122 Tibor Rohacs
stone, also available from the same company. This is best done
under the dissecting microscope used for oocyte injection.
8. Patch clamp setup, equipped with a stereo microscope
(see Chapter 7 of this book for more details).
9. Micromanipulator. We use a three-axis manual manipulator
with one motorized axis (Siskiyou). The manual manipulators
can be used to approach the oocyte, and the fine final move-
ment is done with the motorized axis.
10. Perfusion system. Various gravity-based perfusion systems with
solenoid or pinch valves are available; we use models from ALA
Scientific and Automate Scientific. We use our custom-made
perfusion pencils, since we need very low perfusion rates, as we
often use expensive compounds that require keeping fluid flow
and dead space low. A perfusion pencil can be made by gluing
seven thin plastic tubes into a gel-loading tip using two-com-
ponent epoxy glue, available at any hardware store. Generally
it is possible to use less than 1 mL, even as low as 0.5 mL of
perfusion solution with a handmade system. As an alternative,
commercial perfusion pencils can be used for local perfusion of
the patch pipette, also available from ALA and Automate. To
achieve low volumes, thin tubes need to be used. It is impor-
tant to use as few connections as possible, since every connec-
tion is a source for air bubbles. We use 1 mL plastic syringes as
reservoirs, and instead of connecting them with a luer connec-
tor, we melt the bottom part, using a gas burner, and pull it to
form a thin tube, which we directly connect to the silicone tub-
ing used for the pinch valves.
3 Methods
3.1 Oocyte 1. A female Xenopus laevis frog is anesthetized by placing into a

Preparation 0.25% MS222 solution. This usually takes a couple of min-
and RNA Injection utes; the frog can be monitored by gently knocking on the
side of the bucket. Once the frog is unresponsive, it can be
lifted up and put on its back. If this can be done without resis-
tance and movement from the frog, anesthesia is deep enough
(see Note 8).
2. An ~1–1.5 cm incision using a scalpel is made on the left or
right side of the abdomen through the skin and the muscular
layer. Small scissors can be used to lengthen the incision. Using
a pair of forceps, the oocyte sacs can be lifted out of the abdom-
inal cavity, cut free with scissors, and put into OR2(−) solu-
tion. Once enough oocytes are obtained, the abdomen can be
closed (see below), if the frog is to be reused. One oocyte sac,
that can be visually identified, contains about 200 oocytes. We
usually remove far more oocytes than we need since many are
lost or damaged during the digestion, and in a poor quality
prep, sometimes a large number of oocytes need to be screened
to find enough good-quality ones (see Note 9).
3. Using dissolvable chromic gut sutures, the abdominal layer
and then the skin is sutured back with 3–4 stitches.
4. The frog is placed back to a recovery tank. They recover from
the anesthesia usually within 15–20 min. It is important not to
over-anesthetize them, since they can drown, if the recovery
time is excessive.
5. The oocyte sacs are either cut to smaller pieces with a pair of
scissors or torn to smaller pieces using two pairs of forceps.
After several washes with OR2(−), until the solution is not
turbid from debris, the oocytes are placed into a 0.1–0.2 mg/
mL collagenase solution, and the tube is rotated very gently at
18°C overnight. We use a 50 mL Falcon tube filled with
40 mL collagenase solution, and place it in a rotating device
inside an incubator, which is kept at 18°C. The temperature is
critical. The plane of rotation is parallel to the axis of the fal-
con tube, which creates a very gentle mechanical agitation
(see Note 10).
6. The next morning, the oocytes are washed several times with
OR2. This step is critical, since collagenase needs to be com-
pletely removed before the oocytes are placed into a Ca2+-
containing solution. Ca2+ greatly enhances the activity of
collagenase; thus even trace amounts of the enzyme can dam-
age the oocytes. Washing the oocytes is simple, they sediment
within seconds in a 50 mL tube, then the solution can be gently
poured off, and replaced with fresh, repeating several times.
7. Next the oocytes are shaken for an additional hour in OR2(−),
still Ca2+-free. This step removes the follicular layer by
mechanical agitation from most of those eggs that still have it
(see Note 11). We usually do this step with the rotation being
perpendicular to the axis of the 50 mL tube with lower solu-
tion levels (usually 35 mL) to create stronger mechanical
agitation.
8. Next the oocytes are placed in OR2(+) solution that contains
Ca2+ and antibiotics. Older protocols also included nutrients
such as pyruvate, this is unnecessary, since the yolk of the
oocytes provides enough nutrients, and additional nutrients
make infection of the solution more likely.
9. Select oocytes for injection, usually it is good to select at least
2× the required number to have non-injected controls, and
extra eggs for unforeseen purposes, they usually last a lot longer
than the ones that are not selected out from the debris and
damaged oocytes.
124 Tibor Rohacs
10. Maintenance of oocytes. We keep the selected oocytes in 35 or

60 mm tissue culture dishes. It is important to check the
oocytes at least once every day, and dispose the damaged ones,
and change solution to clean the debris. Even one disintegrated
oocyte can damage the rest of eggs in the dish.
3.2 RNA Preparation 1. RNA is prepared from linearized DNA using the mMessage
and Injection Machine kit from Ambion (see Note 12 for oocyte vectors).
Gloves, RNAase-free solutions, pipette tips, and other tools are
necessary. Usually we store all tubes, pipette tips, and other
materials used for RNA work separately, and use them for this
purpose only.
2. A Drummond Nanoject injector is used; we usually inject
50 nL, even though the volume can be adjusted. After pulling,
the tip of the needle needs to be broken to a diameter of ~20–
25 μm. This can be achieved either by pushing the needle
through a Kimwipe paper or by carefully “cutting” the tip with
a scalpel. It is advisable to check the size of the tip after break-
ing it. Injecting pipettes with too small diameters get clogged
easily; too large ones damage the oocytes (see Notes 13–15).
3. The purpose of the digestion is to remove the oocytes from the
follicular sac, and to remove the follicular layer. Oocytes with-
out the follicular are easy to inject, since the sharp needle easily
penetrates the vitelline layer and the plasma membrane. Oocytes
with the follicular layer on are very difficult to inject and most
of the time injection causes significant damage to the oocytes,
reducing viability. The follicular layer can easily be noticed by
the thin blood vessels. If the follicular layer lacks visible blood
vessels it is a lot harder to notice; often it is only recognized
during injection by the difficulty of penetrating with the injec-
tion needle. If oocytes are under-digested, and a significant
number of them have the follicular layer, it is worth manually
defolliculating them with a fine pair of fine forceps before injec-
tion. This is a lot easier than devitellinization before patching,
see later, and generally pays back by better oocyte quality and
quantity.
3.3 Patch Clamp 1. The vitelline layer of the oocyte needs to be removed using
two pairs of sharp Dumont 55 forceps (see Note 16).
2. After the pipette is filled up with the pipette solution, the
pipette is lowered into the bath solution, and pipette potential
is zeroed. Gentle positive pressure is applied and the pipette is
moved close to the oocyte using the manual axes on the manip-
ulator (see Note 17).
3. Upon touching the oocyte, using the motorized axis, pipette
resistance increases slightly, then the positive pressure can
be relieved, which should further increase pipette resistance.
In some cases, this procedure is enough to form a gigaseal,

after some waiting period. If the seal is not formed spontane-
ously, gentle negative pressure may be applied. Keep in mind
that, according to Laplace’s law, the tension in the membrane
will be higher with large pipettes than with small pipettes for
the same pressure applied, so be gentle, especially with larger
pipettes. Generally it takes longer to form a seal with a large
pipette than with standard patch pipettes, used for single-
channel or whole-cell patch clamp measurements. With larger
pipettes it is not always possible to reach gigaohm resistance,
which is not a problem as long as the leak is substantially less
than the measured current. Seal formation can take anywhere
between 30 s and 5 min. The required negative pressure is
quite variable from patch to patch. Since the oocyte is a quite
large cell, the pipette can be pushed deeper in the oocyte than
into a mammalian cell for seal formation. Most channels we
study have significant activity at 0 mV, where the seal test is
performed, and if channel activity is high, this reduces the
apparent seal resistance. Thus we often switch to a standard
ramp protocol during seal formation. Since most channels we
study are either inward or outward rectifiers, it is usually easy
to tell from the shape of the current (i.e., by the presence of
appropriate rectification) if we are close to a seal or not. For
constitutively active channels without significant rectification,
it is often not trivial to tell if we have a good seal or not, i.e., if
the current to be studied is large enough compared to the leak.
In these cases a nonsymmetrical solutions can be used to
“induce” apparent rectification.
4. Inside-out configuration is established by pulling out the patch
using the motorized manipulator. After this is done, we usually
quickly try to move air bubbles out of the perfusion system, by
applying pressure with a syringe plunger to make sure all tubes
are flowing (see Note 18), then place the perfusion system
right on top of the patch pipette almost touching it.
5. Measurements and analysis proceed with standard electrophys-
iological procedures (see Note 19).
4 Notes
1. Collagenase. The individual lots of collagenase can differ in

activity. When a new lot is tried, it is worth doing parallel diges-
tions with two or three different concentrations and comparing
the results. Once conditions are established, we usually order
another batch from the same lot, to avoid frequent changes.
2. The oocyte membranes have endogenous currents, the two
most notable are the Ca2+-activated Cl− current (see Note 3)
126 Tibor Rohacs
and a stretch-activated current. The latter can be inhibited by

gadolinium. Gadolinium (100 μM) can be used in the pipette
solution when recording Kir channel activity, but it also inhib-
its TRP channels; thus, it should be avoided in those experi-
ments. There are numerous other smaller currents; the best
way to avoid them is obtain good expression levels of the chan-
nel in study that makes the small endogenous currents
negligible.
3. The oocytes contain a large endogenous calcium-activated Cl−
current. To avoid this activity our internal solutions contain
5 mM EGTA. If one wants to study the effects of intracellular
Ca2+, this current needs to be taken into consideration. We use
two different methods. First, Cl− can be replaced in both the
pipette and in the bath solution with gluconate. In this case,
the silver chloride electrode needs to be connected to the bath
solution via an agar bridge. In the pipette, only the first 1 cm
should be filled up with Cl−-free solution, and the back of the
pipette with a solution containing Cl−, so that the silver wire
electrode can contact Cl− (11). As an alternative, regular Cl−-
containing solution can be used for the pipette solution, and
Cl− free for the bath solution. Under those conditions, measur-
ing at around −100 mV, Cl− currents are negligible, whereas at
positive potentials the Cl− current can be monitored. Since glu-
conate also permeates the Cl− channel to some extent, it is best
to titrate out the negative exact voltage where Cl− currents
reverse, in non-injected oocytes applying micromolar Ca2+
concentrations to activate the Cl− current; for us −103 mV
worked well (7). This protocol works well with inwardly recti-
fying channels, such as TRPV6 (7).
4. Solutions. Our solutions are isotonic with frog body fluids
(~96 mM cations), but mammalian solutions (~140 mM cat-
ions) are also used by many people, and since oocytes do not
express aquaporins, the osmotic difference usually does not
cause significant problems.
5. We usually use pipette openings between 5 and 15 μm the
typical being around 8–12 μm. These are considerably smaller
pipettes that those described for macropatch measurements
with transporters (2). The pipette size matters, but it is usually
not critical; generally, the smaller ones are easier to seal with;
the larger ones have more current. The smaller pipettes form
vesicles more often after excision (see Note 7). We fire-polish
the two ends before pulling the pipettes to avoid damage to
the pipette holder. We find that it is generally better to use
freshly pulled pipettes. Pipettes pulled the day before the
experiment still usually work well, but ones pulled several days
before usually do not. We do not use a microforge to fire-
polish the tip of the pipettes after pulling.
6. We use a P-97 Flaming Brown puller from Sutter instruments.

The website of Sutter contains protocols to generate stable
pipettes and to make larger pipettes. Generally, it takes a lot
longer to pull a macropatch pipette than a regular patch pipette.
This usually makes the puller block to heat up, and the pipette
tips become smaller and smaller upon sequential pullings. This
can be overcome either by waiting a couple of minutes between
pulling individual pipettes or, for the less patient ones, to grad-
ually decrease the heat level of the last pulling step to keep the
pipette size within the required range. See Fig. 1 for a typical
pipette.
7. Vesicle formation (see Fig. 2). After establishing the inside-out
configuration, sometimes the patch reseals, and forms a vesicle
on the tip of the pipette. This can be noticed by the immediate
disappearance of current activity. The vesicle can be broken
either by gently “brushing” the pipette tip on the surface of
a
1. Cell-attached 2. Vesicle
3. Inside-out
Excise Air exposure
b PIP2
c
3 3
3
I (nA)
3
Excise
2 1 2
I (nA)
1 2 1
Air
0 -100 -50 2
50 100
0 60 120 180 240 mV
Time (s)
Fig. 2 (a) Cartoon depicting the patch pipette (thick grey lines), and the cell-attached configuration (1), forma-
tion of a vesicle after patch excision (2), and formation of an inside-out patch after a brief air exposure (3). Note
that most patches do not form a vesicle, but rather go straight into the inside-out configuration; see long arrow.
(b) Time course of a measurement with TRPM8 channels with 500 μM menthol in the patch pipette, current
traces are shown at −100 and +100 mV from a voltage ramp from −100 to +100 mV. After excision, the low
current levels correspond to a vesicle, which was broken by a brief exposure to an air bubble, generated with
a P20 pipette tip next to the patch pipette. The slow current decrease after the inside-out configuration is due
to the loss of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphophate (PIP2) from the patch membrane, which is required for
TRPM8 activity. The application of 50 μM diC8-PIP2 is shown by the horizontal line
128 Tibor Rohacs
the oocyte or by briefly applying air to the vesicle. We find that

pulling the pipette out then lowering it back to the solution
usually destroys the seal. In our hands the best way is to use a
P2 or P20 pipettor, move the end of the pipette tip very close
to the tip of the patch clamp electrode, and pipette out a small
air bubble touching the electrode tip with the air bubble for as
briefly as possible. If the vesicle is destroyed, but the seal
remained stable, current activity similar to that observed in the
cell-attached configuration will reappear. Sometimes this pro-
cedure destroys the seal. We found that the tendency to form a
vesicle depends on the batch of oocytes, on most days it never
happens, and on some days most attempt to form an inside-out
patch results in a vesicle. In the latter case it is worth trying a
larger pipette.
8. The frog is placed on its back, on ice; lack of movement signifies
deep enough anesthesia for operation. Low temperature itself is
usually enough to anesthetize a frog, but today it is considered
unacceptable to use solely cold for this purpose. Nevertheless
keeping the frog on ice helps maintain anesthesia.
9. Number of operations on a frog. Generally, if only a small num-
ber of oocytes are removed, the frog can be operated almost
infinite times on alternating sides. One month is generally con-
sidered to be enough recovery time for the next operation,
which is usually done on the other side. For a frog that gives
good-quality oocytes, it might be worth doing repetitive oper-
ations many times. In practice however, oocyte quality deterio-
rates with multiple operations in most cases, especially if a large
number of oocytes are taken. In practice we cannot recom-
mend more than four operations, and local animal ethics bod-
ies are usually against more than four operations. It is reasonable
alternative to sacrifice the frog every time we collect eggs,
which increases the number of frogs used, but reduces the suf-
fering of the individual frogs.
10. Overnight vs. acute digestion. Higher concentrations of colla-
genase (1–2 mg/mL) can also be used for ~1 h. Usually we use
somewhat lower volumes, ~35 mL in a 50 mL tube and rotate
the tube perpendicular to its axis to evoke more vigorous
mechanical agitation. This makes the procedure a lot faster,
finished on the same day, but in our experience it is easy to
over-digest the eggs, and it is usually necessary to monitor the
digestion every 5–10 min after the first 30 min. This makes the
overall hands-on time longer and the results, in our experi-
ence, more variable.
11. The additional shaking step in OR2(−) after collagenase diges-
tion is not always necessary. If the oocytes are slightly under-
digested, it helps. If they are thoroughly digested it is not
necessary, if over-digested it can even be harmful.
12. It is advisable to use a vector designed to obtain optimal expres-

sion in oocytes. To our knowledge none of these vectors are
commercially available, but many of them are in circulation by
different labs. Vectors include the pGEMHE (12), and its
derivative pGEMSH, pBF (13), pEXO (14), pGH-19 (15),
and pBSTA (16). Essentially all of them have the 5¢ and 3¢
untranslated regions of the Xenopus globin gene that gives sta-
bility to the RNA, and a long poly A tail or polyadenylation
signal. What usually varies between the different vectors is the
multiple cloning site, and the linearization site, which is after
the poly A tail. It often helps remove the original 5¢ and 3¢
untranslated regions from the coding sequence of the ion
channel cDNA before subcloning it into the oocyte vector.
Most oocyte vectors use the T7 polymerase but there are some
other variants to that use either T3 or the SP6 to make RNA.
Kits are available from Ambion for all three variants. Using the
wrong primer is a frequent cause for not getting any RNA.
13. The expression of a given ion channel in the membrane depends
on the distance from the site of injection, the further away the
injection site is, the less channel activity is expected in the
membrane patch. To identify the injection site, we generally
inject in the middle of the black hemisphere, and try to patch
close to the injection site.
14. Variability. Expression levels between individual oocytes can
be highly variable. This is often frustrating when seal after seal
the patch does not have enough current do an experiment.
Efficiency can be greatly enhanced by prescreening the oocytes
with good expression levels using a two-electrode voltage
clamp setup (see Chapter 6 of this book); this can be done the
day before the experiment. Most oocytes survive well till the
next day despite the small damage created by the electrodes.
15. The amount of RNA required to obtain good expression of a
given ion channel is highly variable among different ion chan-
nels, just like the time required to have good expression. Kir2.1
channels for example require less than one ng of RNA, and
express well the next day. Many TRP channels require 2–3 days
to express, and 10–50 of ng-s of RNA. On the extreme end,
the mechanosensitive piezo1 channels require at least 25 ng of
RNA and at least 3–4 days to express. Generally, the larger the
protein the more time it takes to express it.
16. The vitelline layer is a glycoprotein matrix that gives some
structural rigidity to the oocyte. It is permeable for small mol-
ecules, and easily penetrated by sharp electrodes used in two-
electrode voltage clamp experiments; thus it does not have to
be removed for those measurements. For patch clamp mea-
surements, however, the vitelline layer needs to be removed
130 Tibor Rohacs
from the oocyte, to gain access to the plasma membrane. We

do this usually by poking a hole in the vitelline layer with a very
sharp forceps, and then grabbing the vitelline layer surround-
ing the hole with two forceps and gently pulling it apart. With
a couple of hours of practice this can be achieved within less
than a minute, and we find this procedure to be more efficient
on the long run than shrinking the oocyte with a hyperosmotic
solution to separate the vitelline layer from the plasma
membrane.
17. Room temperature. It is advisable to keep the room tempera-
ture at 20°C or below for patch clamp experiments, 18–19°C
being optimal. Room temperatures above 22–23°C usually
make patching very difficult, often impossible. This often
requires installing extra air-conditioning units, especially in the
summer months.
18. Air bubbles in the perfusion system are a common problem.
The most important thing to minimize them is to keep the
perfusion solution at room temperature overnight before the
experiment. Solutions straight from the cold room will have a
lot more bubbles after warming up than solutions equilibrated
with room temperature longer. If expensive compounds are
used, low dead space is critical, which can be achieved using
thin tubes, which get clogged very easily by small air bubbles.
We usually apply pressure to all tubes for a second or two to
make sure they all are flowing, right after establishing the
excised patch configuration, but before moving the perfusion
pencil close to the patch pipette. Doing this in the cell-attached
mode is not advisable, since the movement of the table might
destroy the seal.
19. The oocyte is a large cell, and for two-electrode voltage clamp,
the equivalent of whole-cell configuration, we do not use vibra-
tion isolation tables. The vibration isolation table however is
absolutely critical for seal formation in patch clamp measure-
ments, until the excision. If seals are unstable and break easily,
it is worth checking if the floating table is working properly,
i.e., none of the corners are deflated and touch the bottom.
References
1. Hilgemann DW (1990) Regulation and dereg- 3. Lukacs V, Thyagarajan B, Varnai P, Balla A,

ulation of cardiac Na+/Ca2+ exchange in giant Balla T, Rohacs T (2007) Dual regulation of
excised sarcolemmal membrane patches. Nature TRPV1 by phosphoinositides. J Neurosci
344:242–245 27:7070–7080
2. Hilgemann DW (1995) The giant membrane 4. Rohacs T, Lopes C, Mirshahi T, Jin T, Zhang
patch. In: Sakmann B, Neher E (eds) Single H, Logothetis DE (2002) Assaying phosphati-
channel recording, 2nd edn. Kluwer Academic, dylinositol bisphosphate regulation of potas-
pp 307–327 sium channels. Methods Enzymol 345:71–92
5. Rohacs T, Lopes CM, Jin T, Ramdya PP, 11. Csanady L, Torocsik B (2009) Four Ca2+ ions
Molnár Z, Logothetis DE (2003) Specificity of activate TRPM2 channels by binding in deep
activation by phosphoinositides determines crevices near the pore but intracellularly of the
lipid regulation of Kir channels. Proc Natl Acad gate. J Gen Physiol 133:189203
Sci U S A 100:745–750 12. Liman ER, Tytgat J, Hess P (1992) Subunit
6. Rohacs T, Lopes CM, Michailidis I, Logothetis stoichiometry of a mammalian K+ channel
DE (2005) PI(4,5)P2 regulates the activation determined by construction of multimeric
and desensitization of TRPM8 channels cDNAs. Neuron 9:861–871
through the TRP domain. Nat Neurosci 13. Baukrowitz T, Tucker SJ, Schulte U, Benndorf
8:626–634 K, Ruppersberg JP, Fakler B (1999) Inward
7. Thyagarajan B, Lukacs V, Rohacs T (2008) rectification in KATP channels: a pH switch in
Hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bispho- the pore. EMBO J 18:847–853
sphate mediates calcium-induced inactivation 14. Fink M, Lesage F, Duprat F, Heurteaux C,
of TRPV6 channels. J Biol Chem Reyes R, Fosset M, Lazdunski M (1998) A
283:14980–14987 neuronal two P domain K+ channel stimulated
8. Zakharian E, Cao C, Rohacs T (2011) by arachidonic acid and polyunsaturated fatty
Intracellular ATP supports TRPV6 activity via acids. EMBO J 17:3297–3308
lipid kinases and the generation of PtdIns(4,5) 15. Venkatachalan SP, Bushman JD, Mercado JL,
P2. FASEB J 25:3915–3928 Sancar F, Christopherson KR, Boileau AJ
9. Barnard EA, Miledi R, Sumikawa K (1982) (2007) Optimized expression vector for ion
Translation of exogenous messenger RNA cod- channel studies in Xenopus oocytes and mam-
ing for nicotinic acetylcholine receptors pro- malian cells using alfalfa mosaic virus. Pflugers
duces functional receptors in Xenopus oocytes. Arch 454:155–163
Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 215:241–246 16. Shih TM, Smith RD, Toro L, Goldin AL
10. Smith LD, Xu WL, Varnold RL (1991) (1998) High-level expression and detection of
Oogenesis and oocyte isolation. Methods Cell ion channels in Xenopus oocytes. Methods
Biol 36:45–60 Enzymol 293:529–556
Chapter 10
Combined Single-Channel and Macroscopic Recording

Techniques to Analyze Gating Mechanisms of the Large
Conductance Ca2+ and Voltage Activated (BK) Potassium
Channel
Nguyen V. Nguyen, Aleksandra Gruslova, Wojciech A. Kosiba,
and Bin Wang
Abstract
Ion channels are integral membrane proteins that regulate membrane potentials and signaling of cells in
response to various stimuli. The patch-clamp technique enables the study of single channels or a population
of channels. The macroscopic recording approaches are powerful in revealing population-averaged behav-
iors of channels both under basal conditions and in response to various stimuli, modulators and drugs.
On their own, however, these approaches can be insufficient for determinations of channel gating mecha-
nisms as they do not accurately report channel open probabilities below 10−2 to 10−3. This obstacle can be
overcome with the use of single-channel recording techniques. Single-channel recording techniques can
be applied to one or a few channels to estimate Po over a larger range than macroscopic recordings.
The combination of heterologous overexpression of ion channels with macroscopic and single-channel
recordings can be applied to hundreds of channels to estimate Po between 1 and 10−8. Here, we describe
practical approaches of single-channel recordings that our laboratory utilizes. We also provide examples
where the combined macroscopic and single channel approach can be employed to study gating mecha-
nisms of the BK type, large conductance, Ca2+ and voltage activated potassium channel in a mammalian
expression system. The techniques presented should be generally applicable to the studies of ion channels
in heterologous expression systems.
Key words Patch clamp, Single channel recording, Heterologous expression, Ion channel, BK,
Mammalian expression system, Transient transfection
1 Introduction
Ion channels are integral membrane proteins that open or close
transmembrane ion conduction pathways in response to various
stimuli such as changes of temperature, pH, membrane potential, or
ligand binding. By increasing or reducing membrane permeabilities
to select ions, ion channels regulate membrane potentials and affect
133
134 Nguyen V. Nguyen et al.
signaling of cells. The important role of ion channels in many

physiological processes has made ion channel recording techniques
an important staple of many laboratories.
Among the techniques that record ion channel activity, various
configurations of the so called “patch-clamp technique” allow the
recording of either populations of channel openings (macroscopic
currents) or single channel openings. Both approaches offer advan-
tages. Recordings of macroscopic currents offer insight into the
cellular and average behavior of ion channels that reveal the mag-
nitude of ionic currents and population response properties. Single-
channel recordings directly reveal individual ion channel behavior
that underlies the macroscopic ion currents. Properties such as
single-channel conductance, number of conformational states and
rate constants, as well as heterogeneity of channels in the patch
(both in terms of types and subunit compositions) can be directly
evaluated using single-channel recordings (1). A disadvantage of
single-channel recording is that analysis is more time consuming.
One application of the single-channel recording technique is
to provide accurate estimations of low steady-state open probabili-
ties (Po < 0.01). Obtaining low Po data under conditions where cer-
tain aspects of gating can be investigated independently is very
useful for understanding changes in gating mechanisms. This is in
contrast to data from macroscopic recordings such as conductance–
voltage (G–V) relationships of voltage-gated channels, where they
describe channels’ steady-state behavior well, but is often not
sufficient to achieve mechanistic understanding of channel gating.
Single-channel recordings have been widely used to extend
Po measurements in biophysical analysis of the BK type, large-
conductance, Ca2+ and voltage-activated potassium channel (2–24).
The BK channel gate can open at low probabilities in the absence of
voltage-sensor activation and Ca2+ binding (intrinsic gating) (3, 25).
Voltage-sensor activation and Ca2+ binding increase channel open-
ing by allosteric coupling between the sensors and the gate (3, 25).
Effects of modulators on these three aspects of BK channel gating:
intrinsic-, voltage-, or Ca2+-dependent gating, are indistinguish-
able using G–V analysis alone. Simulations using a BK channel gat-
ing model (3) demonstrate this point (Fig. 1a). A tenfold increase
in intrinsic gating and a −34 mV shift in voltage-sensor activation
cause almost identical changes in the G–V relation. However, these
differences can be distinguished by recording under conditions
where gating transitions are studied in relative isolation (Fig. 1b).
For example, intrinsic gating of BK channels can be studied by
combining macroscopic and single-channel recording in the
absence of Ca2+ (channels are ligand-unbound) and at very nega-
tive voltages (where voltage sensors are forced into resting states)
(3). Similarly, Ca2+-dependent gating can be studied independent
of voltage-sensor activation at very negative voltages over a wide
range of Ca2+ (3). Under these conditions, Po values are often too
Combined Single-Channel and Macroscopic Recording 135
Fig. 1 Macroscopic and G–V relation alone do not distinguish unique gating
changes. (a) Simulated 0 Ca2+ G–V relations based on three sets of gating param-
eters a, b, and c. Relative to a (grey curve), b (dashed curve) represents a tenfold
increase of intrinsic gating and c (solid curve) represents a −34 mV shift of the
half-activation voltage of Qo (Vho (3). (b) Simulated 0 Ca2+ Log Po–V relations
based on the same sets of gating parameters. Log Po–V but not G–V relations
distinguish b and c
low to be accurately estimated using macroscopic recordings alone

and thus require single channel recordings.
Here we describe an approach that combines single-channel
and macroscopic recording techniques to extend measurement of
BK channel Po over a wide range of Ca2+ and voltages. Heterologous
expression of up to thousands of channels in a patch is used to
extend the range of Po measurements. Macroscopic recordings are
used to estimate (a) Po between 0.01 and 1 and (b) numbers of
channel in a patch (N). Single channel recordings are used to esti-
mate Po below 0.01. Using this method, one can estimate Po
between 10−8 and 1. The application of this approach is not limited
to BK channels. For example, similar approaches have been used to
characterize shaker potassium channel and sodium channels in the
past (26, 27).
2 Materials
2.1 Transient- 1. HEK-293T cells (HEK 293T/17, American Tissue Culture

Expression of BK Collection, Manassas, VA).
Channels in HEK-293 2. Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM).
Cells
3. Fetal bovine serum.
4. Penicillin–streptomycin.
5. L-Glutamine.
6. 0.01% Trypsin/0.1 mM EDTA solution.
7. T25 (25 cm2) cell culture flasks with filter screw.
8. 35 mm tissue culture dishes.
9. Phosphate buffered saline (PBS) without CaCl2.
10. Lipofectamine (Life Technologies Corporation, Grand Island,
NY, USA).
11. pEGFP-C1 (Clontech, Mountain View, CA, USA) or any

other fluorescent protein-expressing plasmid to enable the
identification of cotransfected cells.
12. Plasmids containing BK Channel subunit cDNAs downstream
of the CMV promoter. Mouse BK a subunit (GenBank:
U09383.1) was subcloned in pCDNA3.1Hygro(+) (Life
Technologies Corporation, Grand Island, NY 14072, USA)
(15). Mouse BK b1 subunit (GenBank: EDL23733.1) was
subcloned in pIRES2-EGFP (Clontech, Mountain View,
CA, USA).
13. 25 mm diameter, #0 glass coverslip (e.g., PLATINUM LINE
manufactured by Knittel Glaeser, Germany).
2.2 Analysis of 1. Patch clamp amplifier: We use an EPC8 amplifier (HEKA

Recombinant BK Elektronik, Pfalz, Germany), a 16-bit A/D converter (ITC18/
Channel Using the USB-18, HEKA Elektronik, Pfalz, Germany), a Macintosh-
Patch-Clamp Method based computer system in combination with the Patchmaster
acquisition software (HEKA Elektronik, Pfalz, Germany).
Alternative patch clamp equipment and acquisition software
can be used as appropriate (see Chapter 6 of this book).
2. Micromanipulator: We use a MHW-3 three-axis water hydrau-
lic micromanipulator (Narishige, Japan).
3. Micro-vibration isolation table with Faraday cage floating on
outlet air pressure (~150 psi).
4. Inverted microscope: We use a TE300 microscope (Nikon,
Melville, NY, USA) fitted with excitation and emission filters
for EGFP (FITC/RSGFP LP emission: #21012, Chroma
Tech. Corp., Rockingham, VT, USA).
5. Micropipette puller: We use a Model P-87 flaming/brown
micropipette puller (Sutter Instr. Co., Novato, CA, USA).
6. Homemade setup for dipping pipettes into melted wax (Fig. 2a)
(Sticky Wax, Kerr Inc, Orange, CA, USA).
7. Microforge: We use a homemade device assembled with a
Labophot-2 microscope with 40× objective (Nikon, Japan), a
small micromanipulator (Narishige, Japan), a micropipette
slide (WPI, Sarasota, FL, USA), and a medium gauge heating
filament (WPI, Sarasota, FL, USA) (Fig. 2b).
8. Borosilicate glass capillaries (Sutter Instrument, Novato, CA,
USA) pulled and forged to 1–3 mW for excised patch
recording.
9. Fast exchange recording chamber (e.g., Model RC-22, Warner
Instruments, Hamden, CT, USA).
10. Perfusion system: We use a six-channel perfusion valve control
system (Catalog #VC-6, Warner Instruments, Hamden, CT,
USA).
Fig. 2 Homemade sticky wax coating device and microforge. (a) A power transformer is connected to an
aluminum block with 30 W 25 W resistor (Dale) as a heating element. The aluminum block has been machined
to fit a small pyrex beaker for melting of wax. (b) A micromanipulator is mounted onto a 40× Nikon objective.
The micromanipulator places the heating filament within the focal plane of the objective. A glass electrode
holder is mounted to the stage in order to position the glass pipette tip in the proximity of the heating filament
and within the objective focal plane
11. Diamond-tipped scribe (Bioindustrial Products, San

Antonio, TX).
12. Internal Recording solution: a pH 7.2 solution of 20 mM
HEPES, 140 mM KMeSO3, 2 mM KCl, and buffered with
appropriate calcium chelators. Appropriate ratios of chelators
and calcium can be calculated using the Maxchelator program
( http://www.stanford.edu/~cpatton/webmaxcS.htm
(Stanford University)). Ba2+ was chelated with 40 mM
(+)-18-crown-6-tetracarboxylic acid (28).
13. External Recording solution: 20 mM HEPES, 140 mM
KMeSO3, 2 mM KCl, 2 mM MgCl2, pH 7.2.
3 Methods
Expression and analysis of BK channels in human embryonic kidney
(HEK293T) cells is a three-step process. First, cDNAs encoding
channel subunit(s) are transiently transfected into HEK293T cells
to express BK channels. Second, channel activities are assayed using
standard patch-clamp electrophysiology techniques that include
both macroscopic and single-channel recordings. Third, macro-
scopic and single-channel records are analyzed offline.
To obtain high quality single-channel recordings, it is essential
to carefully and consistently maintain the cultured cells. Healthy,
rapidly dividing cells have the highest transfection efficiency.
Moreover, high resistance and stable recordings at “extreme condi-
tions” (e.g., 0 Ca2+, very negative voltages) require healthy mem-
branes. Finally, analysis is facilitated by stable, low noise recordings.
The techniques for inside-out patch-clamp recording of BK
channel are standard. One aspect that is important for single-channel
recordings, particularly of channels with small single-channel
conductance and fast kinetics, is electrical noise reduction. Readers

interested in details of denoising and other various aspects of
patch-clamp recording techniques can refer to the excellent book,
“Single-channel recording,” by Sakmann and Neher (1).
An important aspect of Po estimation based on NPo data is to
correctly estimate N, the number of channels in a patch. A rela-
tively large N can be estimated by macroscopic recordings:
N = I s ´I Po (Po, I, and Is are the open probability, tail current ampli-
tude, and single-channel amplitude at a given voltage, respectively).
For BK channels, we use a voltage that evokes maximum opening
(I = Imax). At Imax, Po is close to 1 for BK channels (BK/a channels
at almost all Ca2+ (28), and BK/ab1 and BK/ab4 channels at high
I
Ca2+ (12, 13)) and the above equation can be simplified to N = Imaxs .
The power of single-channel recording techniques extends
beyond applications described here. Readers interested in using
single-channel recording techniques to study channels’ conforma-
tions and rate constants are strongly encouraged to read Chapters
18–19 of the “Single-channel recording” book (1).
3.1 Expression of BK 1. HEK293T cells are thawed and passaged using sterile techniques
Channels in HEK-293T in a tissue culture hood with sterile solutions and supplies.
Cells (See Note 1) 2. HEK-293T cells are maintained in T25 tissue culture flasks in
a humidified tissue culture incubator at 37 °C and 5% CO2.
Each flask contains 5 ml of DMEM complete media (supple-
mented with 10% FBS, 2 mM L-glutamine and 5% streptomycin/
penicillin).
3. Cell cultures are passaged every 2–3 days to maintain a
confluence between 10 and 85% (see Note 2).
4. Passage of HEK cells: Remove media and wash cells twice with
PBS (without Ca2+ or Mg2+). Add 0.5 ml of trypsin/EDTA
(the minimum volume to cover the entire bottom of the flask)
to release the cells from the flask. Within a minute, tap the dish
against the palm of your hand to dislodge the cells for about
30 s. Inactivate trypsin with 6 ml of tissue culture media and
gently pipette the cell/media suspension to obtain a largely
single-cell suspension. Redistribute a fraction of cells into a
new T25 culture flask to maintain the stock (a 1:4 to 1:6 split
will generally achieve a 15–20% confluency). For transfection,
cells are placed into a 35 mm tissue culture dish at approxi-
mately 40% confluence (see Note 3). The goal is to obtain
~80–90% confluence the following day for transfection.
5. Prepare DNA mix for transfection: For BK channels composed
of only the pore-forming a subunit, 0.25 mg plasmid cDNA
encoding the a subunit and 0.25 mg of the pEGFP-C1 plasmid
encoding the EGFP marker are used. For BK channels com-
posed of pore-forming a subunit and the auxiliary b1 subunit,
0.25 mg plasmid cDNA encoding the a subunit and 1.5 mg of
the pIRES2-EGFP- b1 plasmid encoding both the b1 subunit

and the EGFP marker are used. The excess b1 to a ratio ensures
that transfected cells uniformly express the BK channels with
saturating b1 subunits.
6. Prepare DNA and lipofectamine mix: For each transfection,
prepare 5 ml of transfection media (DMEM with 10 mM
HEPES, see Note 4). In a 1.5 ml microfuge tube, dilute DNA
into 100 ml transfection media, mix by pipetting 2–3 times.
In another 1.5 ml microfuge tube, dilute 10 ml lipofectamine
into 100 ml transfection media, mix by pipetting 2–3 times.
Combine diluted lipofectamine and DNA, and mix by gentle
tapping of the tube. Incubate at room temperature for ~30 min.
7. Transfection: Cells are rinsed once with ~2 ml transfection
media (DMEM/HEPES) and covered with 0.8 ml DMEM/
HEPES. 0.2 ml DNA–lipofectamine mixture (see Note 5) is
dropped onto cells for a final volume of 1 ml. The solution is
mixed with a slow swirling motion so as not to dislodge
attached cells.
8. Transfer cells to glass coverslips: Two to four hours after trans-
fection (see Note 6) the transfection reagent is removed, cells
are rinsed with PBS, and trypsinized using 0.1 ml 0.01%
Trypsin at room temperature. Dishes are gently tapped to facil-
itate release and dislodge of cells. 3 ml culture media are then
added followed by gentle pipetting to achieve single cell sus-
pension. Place a piece of 25 mm autoclaved cover glass
(see Note 7) each into two 35 mm tissue culture dishes. One
dish receives 2 ml of transfected cells for analysis 24 h post-
transfection. The other dish receives 1 ml of transfected cells
and 1 ml of culture media for analysis 48 h post-transfection.
3.2 Analysis 1. Analysis of BK channels expressed in HEK cells employs standard

of Recombinant BK inside-out patch-clamp methods (1).
Channels 2. Pipettes are pulled to the tip resistance of 1–3 mW using a pre-
determined program (see Note 8).
3. Coating pipettes: To reduce the capacitance and noise associ-
ated with pipettes, we coat the pipettes with sticky wax
(see Note 9). Pipettes are dipped into melted wax to coat the
outer wall (Fig. 2a). To prevent wax from filling the tip of the
pipette, air is blown out of the tip via a compressed air tubing
attached to the back of the pipette. Pipettes are fire polished on
a homemade microforge (Fig. 2b) (see Note 10). Small
amounts of wax at the tip of pipettes will melt and recede from
the tip during the polishing process.
4. A culture dish containing transfected cells is removed from the
tissue culture incubator. A small chip of the cover glass contain-
ing transfected HEK cells is cut out with a diamond-tipped scribe.
Fine forceps are convenient for handling of the glass chip.

Before placed into the perfusion chamber containing the inter-
nal solution, the glass chip is dipped into a dish containing the
same internal solution to wash off residual culture media
(see Note 11).
5. Transfected cells are targeted for patch clamp recording based
on EGFP fluorescence and health of cells. Healthy HEK cells
are those with smooth, shiny edges.
6. A wax coated and polished glass pipette is used for patch clamp
recording. After compensating offsets, the patch pipette is
lowered onto the EGFP positive cell to form a high resistance
cell-attached seal (see Notes 12 and 13). Pipette fast capaci-
tance is compensated. For excised, inside-out patches, the
pipette in the on-cell configuration is quickly withdrawn from
the cell allowing the membrane to be excised.
7. After establishing the inside-out seal, a voltage ramp protocol
(−150 mV to +150 mV over a 200 ms period) is used to
roughly estimate the number of channels in a patch (see below;
Fig. 3a1). Depending on the number of channels in a patch,
macroscopic or single-channel recordings will be performed.
Data are sampled at 10 ms intervals and low-pass filtered at
8.4 kHz using the HEKA EPC8 four-pole Bessel filter. Small
single-channel currents (e.g., between −20 and +20 mV) are
filtered at 1–3 kHz.
8. When there are greater than five channels in a patch, N is
estimated by macroscopic recordings. BK currents are elicited by
a series of depolarizing test potentials (Fig. 3a2). Instantaneous
tail current amplitudes (200 ms after repolarization to −80 mV)
are plotted and fitted by the Boltzmann function to estimate
the maximum tail current amplitude (Imax) (Fig. 3a3). N is esti-
mated by dividing Imax by the single-channel amplitude (Is) at
−80 mV (18 pA) (Fig. 3a3).
9. When there are only a few channels in the patch (N £ 5), N is
estimated using all-point amplitude histogram of single-chan-
nel records over a range of voltages (Fig. 3b). The maximum
amplitude is tentatively estimated at depolarizing voltages,
where Po is near 1 (e.g., +40 mV, Fig. 3b1). The size of leak
current is estimated recording at negative voltages (e.g.,
−80 mV, Fig. 3b2). Together, these data suggest N = 5 channels
in the patch shown in Fig. 3b. Finally, inspection of single-
channel records alone can be sufficient to determine N when
N is sufficiently small (Fig. 4a).
10. Once N is estimated, single-channel recordings are carried
out under conditions where single opening events can be
resolved. The sweep durations vary depending on channels’
open probabilities at a particular voltage and Ca2+ concentration
(see Note 14).
Fig. 3 Determining channel number (N) using single-channel or macroscopic

recordings. (a) Counting N of a patch using macroscopic recordings. (a1) A BK
current elicited with the voltage ramp protocol suggests multiple channels in the
patch. (a2) BK currents elicited with a voltage step protocol. (a3) Fitting the I–V
relation to the Boltzmann function shows that at Imax, the maximum tail current
amplitude (obtained at −80 mV tail current voltage) is 150 pA. Dividing the Imax by
the single-channel current amplitude at tail current voltage (18 pA) provides an
estimation of N. (b) Counting N in a patch using single-channel recordings. (b1)
A single-channel recording trace at +40 mV (top) and analysis with all-point his-
togram (bottom). The analysis suggests a maximum of five channels in the patch,
if leak current is relatively small. (b2) Same patch as in (b1), but the reduced Po
at a negative command voltage (−80 mV) makes the individual openings easier
to discern. The analysis suggests that the leak current is relatively small, and
therefore there are indeed five channels in the patch
11. We use TAC and TACFit programs (V4.1, Bruxton

Corporations, Seattle, WA, USA) for data analysis (see Note 15).
Pulse data (HEKA Elektronik, Pfalz, Germany) can be opened
by TAC directly and Patchmaster data will need to be exported
as PULSE v8.6. We use two methods: all-point amplitude
histogram and event detection to estimate NPo.
Fig. 4 Analysis of NPo using all-point amplitude histogram or event detection. (a) Selected single channel
records of a patch at indicated voltages. There is one channel in the patch and currents between −60 and
−140 mV are not shown. (b1) Analysis of a −60 mV sweep using the all-point amplitude histogram. (b2)
Analysis of the same −60 mV sweep using event detection (only a fraction of the analysis is shown). Raw data
are shown in grey, idealized events are shown in black. (c) Estimated Po values (at −60 mV) using event detec-
tion (empty bars) or all-point amplitude histogram (solid bars) from five sweeps. Event numbers are indicated
in the empty bars. Averaged Po and SEM are shown on the right. (d) LogPo−V data obtained from the single-
channel recording
12. All-point amplitude histogram analysis (1): In this type of anal-

ysis, distribution of digitized current amplitude values is plot-
ted as a histogram. Peaks represent either the single shut level
or open levels. The Gaussian fit of area under each peak pro-
vides an estimate of proportional time spent at that level. Below
is the simple procedure for estimation of NPo by performing
all-point amplitude histogram analysis in the program TAC.
The data is opened in the TAC program and a sweep is
selected for analysis without further filtering. The TAC software
generates an all-point amplitude histogram of the data when
“sweep data histogram” is selected under “view” in TAC
(Fig. 4b1). Based on the number of discernable channel states, we
set initial fit components manually by double clicking on the
X-axis (which provides a manual fitting tool). We adjust the peak
amplitude and width of each fit component to roughly fit each
level. Following the adjustments, we have the TAC program pro-

vide a more precise fit of the data by selecting “Automatic Fit”
under “Sweep Histogram” (see Note 16). We inspect the fits to
make sure that they are reasonable. Otherwise, each fit compo-
nent of the “Sweep Histogram” has to be readjusted and
“Automatic Fit” has to be attempted again. Fit parameters are
provided by the software (displayed in “Sweep Histogram Fit
Parameters”) that includes the individual current amplitudes and
probability (weight). From these, we calculate NPo based on
N
the weight of each channel level. NPo = å i ´ Pi (Pi is the prob-
i =1
ability that i channels open simultaneously). The advantage of
all-point amplitude histogram is that it is simple and rapid.
13. Event detection (1): We use event detection if (a) channel
openings are infrequent, (b) drift occurs in the baseline or (c)
in rare occasions, there is an endogenous channel in the patch.
Under either condition, all-point amplitude histogram does
not provide accurate estimation of NPo. The event detection
approach detects current transitions between two adjacent lev-
els and measures the time spent between all transitions. In
most cases, we detect events automatically, followed by visual
inspections to remove false transitions. Below is the simple
procedure for estimation of NPo by performing event detec-
tion analysis in the program “TAC.”
(a) TAC provides optional criteria for detecting events: The
window for setting detection criteria is in “Data,”
“Setting.” We always select the “Track events” option
which idealizes events using actual amplitudes. (We do
not select “Fixed” option which sets a fixed amplitude to
idealized events.) We set “Search” and “Noise limit” to be
“3” (1). Other parameters are set based on the data. We
set “Threshold” to be approximately 50% of the single-
channel amplitude for the software to use as basis for
detecting transitions. Based on the data, we also set “Rise
time,” “noise estimate” and “Sweep starting level” to
maximize accurate event detection (1). For example, for
the −60 mV BK channel recording shown in Fig. 14a, we
set “Threshold” to be 7 pA, “Rise time” to be 0.1 ms,
“Noise estimate” to be 4 pA, and “Sweep starting level”
to be 0. “Sweep starting level” is the first event detected
in a sweep. For example, if the sweep begins with a single
channel inward current, then a “Sweep starting level” of
−1 is used. For a sweep starting with no openings, then 0
is given, etc.
(b) Inspection and correction of idealized data: Under “View,”
we open “Events” to identify errors in event detection. We
mostly inspect “level” to identify false events. For example,
for a single-channel recording at a negative voltage with a

single channel in the patch, a level of −2 (indicating two
channels) or +1 (indicating an outward current despite an
inward driving force) is impossible and indicates an error.
We identify the first detected false event in “Data” by
selecting it in “Events.” We then select the false event in
the “Data” (indicated by idealized data trace in a distinct
color). Under “Data,” “Events,” we select “Erase Sweep
Remaining.” We will then use manual event detection to
obtain a reasonable idealized data trace to bypass seg-
ments “confusing” to the program before resuming auto-
matic event detection again. We repeat these steps until
false events are deleted (see Note 17).
14. After analyzing all relevant sweeps, the events are saved under
“File,” “Save Events As.” The event file is opened in the
TACFIT program (Bruxton Corporations). If every sweep of
interest includes opening events, under “Settings,” “Index,”
select “Select All.” Click “Statistics” under “View.” Under
“Statistics,” “Setting,” choose “levels.” If some sweeps lack
open events, under “Settings,” “Index,” select “Include” and
the number of relevant sweeps. Click “Statistics” under “View.”
Under “Statistics,” “Setting,” choose “Relevant Segment.”
N
15. We calculate NPo based on “level” and “P”: NP = å i ´ P .
o i
i =1
16. When NPo is relatively high, the all-point amplitude histogram

is much less time consuming and relatively accurate. In the
example shown in Fig. 10.4 estimated NPo (at −60 mV) using
all-point amplitude histogram and event detection are
0.122 ± 0.02 and 0.124 ± 0.02, respectively (Fig. 10.4c).
4 Notes
1. We choose HEK293T cells over Xenopus oocyte because of rela-
tive simplicity of cell culture and transfection. One potential
shortcoming of HEK293T cells is that the number of channels in
a patch can vary dramatically. However, the EGFP reporter allows
some selection of expression levels based on EGFP fluorescence
intensity. To better control channel expression having an induc-
ible promoter (such as tetracycline-regulated expression system)
in a stable cell line may be advantageous (29). Alternatively,
Xenopus oocyte can be used where expression levels are more
easily controlled by the amount of RNA injected (29).
For studying BK channel Ca2+ dependent gating, variations
in expression levels can be useful. For example, Po of BK chan-
nel a and ab (e.g., ab4) channels at high Ca2+ (>60 mM) and
very negative membrane potentials (where voltage sensors are
forced into resting states) is »10−3. This can be easily analyzed

with one to tens of channels. At nominally 0 Ca2+ and very
negative membrane potentials, Po £ 10−8 (3, 13). This needs
to be analyzed with hundreds to thousands of channels. One
can obtain useful data by adjusting recording conditions (intra-
cellular Ca2+ and voltage) based on the number of channels in
a patch.
2. It is critical to consistently maintain healthy, proliferating cells
for transfection (30). One should make sure that cells are in
log phase growth the day of transfection (30). From our expe-
rience, high quality single-channel recordings are more readily
obtained from healthy cells.
3. The goal here is to maintain most cells in a monolayer, log
phase growth. One should avoid overgrowth. In addition,
under- and over-trypsinization both lead to clustering of cells
that will not grow as a monolayer.
4. We found that HEPES stabilizes the pH of the transfection
media during lipofectamine incubation, which largely reduces
cell death.
5. In addition to Lipofectamine, Polyfect and Superfect reagents
(Qiagen, Valencia, CA) (31), FuGen reagent (Roche Applied
Science, Indianapolis, IN, USA) (32) and biolistic particle
delivery system (gene-gun) (33) have been successfully used by
others to introduce exogenous cDNA into mammalian cells.
See also Chapter 2 of this book for more information on trans-
fection techniques.
6. The length of transfection can influence the average number of
channels in a patch such that the longer the transfection, the
higher the channel expression. However, reducing the length
of transfection tends to improve cell health and quality of
recordings. The number of channels per patch can also be
adjusted by varying the amount of DNA used in transfection
and pipette diameters.
7. We use PLATINUM LINE coverslips manufactured by Knittel
Glaeser, Germany as HEK cells adhere to this specific brand of
coverslips without poly-lysine treatment.
8. See “pipette cookbook” for tips on pipette pulling using Sutter
Instruments pipette pullers: http://www.sutter.com/contact/
faqs/pipette_cookbook.pdf.
9. Pipettes can also be coated with Sylgard® (Sylgard® 184 sili-
cone elastomer kit, Dowcorning, USA) (1) although we find
that the wax-dipping approach is less time consuming.
10. Microforges can be purchased from the Narishige Group (Japan)
and World Precision Instrument (WPI, Sarasota, FL, USA).
11. We prefer to excise BK channel patches at relatively high Ca2+

and subsequently perfuse other Ca2+ solutions, as necessary. In
our experience, seals are easier to form at higher Ca2+. At high
Ca2+, it is also easier to verify that Po at Imax is ~1. Thereby N, the
number of channels in a patch, can be accurately estimated.
12. Although >1 GW is generally sufficient for macroscopic record-
ings, single-channel recordings generally require >3 GW seals,
which is not difficult to achieve with healthy cells.
13. We generally start forming seal at 0 mV. However, depolariz-
ing voltages or hyperpolarizing voltages sometimes speed seal
formation. Once a seal is formed, we hold the cell at −80 mV.
Occasionally, intracellular Ca2+ can be high enough to turn on
BK channels at 0 mV, which can be mistaken as leaky seals.
This is particularly true in the presence of the b1 subunit,
which negatively shifts GV at greater than 1 mM Ca2+.
14. Ideally, we like to estimate channel opening with greater than
1,000 events. For a channels, this is achievable under almost
all conditions. However, for ab1 channels, this is not achiev-
able at low Ca2+ and negative membrane potentials. In this
case, it is necessary to extend the length of recordings and use
data with fewer opening events.
15. TAC V4.1 software can be used with Mac OS9. For PC users,
there is a newer version of TAC (V4.3.3). Alternative single-
channel analysis programs include Fitmaster (HEKA Elektronik,
Pfalz, Germany) and Clampfit (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale,
CA, USA).
16. TAC limits the maximum number of levels to be 10.
17. If these procedures do not detect and eliminate all false events,
manual event detections should be performed.
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Chapter 11
Perforated Whole-Cell Patch-Clamp Recording

John E. Linley
Abstract
Perforated whole-cell patch-clamp is a variant of the patch-clamp technique used to measure the sum activ-
ity of ion channels in the plasma membrane of a single cell. Its defining feature is that electrical access to
the cell is obtained through inclusion of a pore-forming antibiotic in the patch pipette which perforates the
sealed patch of membrane in contact with the patch pipette. The antibiotic pores allow equilibration of
small monovalent ions between the patch pipette and the cytosol whilst maintaining endogenous levels of
divalent ions such as Ca2+ and signalling molecules such as cAMP. Therefore, the perforated patch-clamp
technique is ideal for studying ion channels whilst maintaining the integrity of second messenger signalling
cascades. Other benefits of using perforated patch-clamp over conventional patch-clamp include reduced
current rundown and stable whole-cell recording lasting >1 h. In this chapter, the application of the per-
forated patch-clamp technique for the study of heterologously expressed Kv7 potassium channels will be
discussed in detail including benefits and limitations of the technique.
Key words Patch-clamp, Perforated-patch, Amphotericin B, Nystatin, Gramicidin, Run-down,

Electrophysiology, Whole-cell
1 Introduction
Conventional whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology involves

sealing a glass micropipette (patch pipette) onto the surface of a
single cell and subsequent rupture of the seal by sharp suction to
obtain electrical access to the cell. The sum activity of all ion chan-
nels in the cell membrane can then be measured by voltage clamp.
Using this technique, the experimenter has complete control over
the cytosolic composition due to equilibration of the patch pipette
solution with the cytosol. This allows Ca2+ to be buffered to a fixed
value using EGTA or BAPTA and membrane impermeant drugs to
be applied to the cytosol. However, conventional whole-cell patch-
clamp also results in washout of key endogenous cytosolic signalling
molecules such as cAMP and Ca2+ resulting in the potential disrup-
tion of receptor-mediated signalling events. In 1988, Horn and
Marty reported a new, less invasive method of obtaining electrical
149
150 John E. Linley
access to a cell called the perforated-patch technique (1). In this

technique, the sealed patch of membrane is perforated rather than
ruptured by inclusion of a pore-forming antibiotic in the patch
pipette. In this case, the equilibration between the pipette solution
and cytosol is determined by the permeability properties of the anti-
biotic. Nystatin and amphotericin B are both commonly used anti-
biotics for perforated patch and have similar permeability properties,
being permeable to small monovalent cations and anions such as
Na+, K+, and Cl− and impermeable to large ions such as tetraeth-
ylammonium and cytosolic signalling molecules. The pore radius of
nystatin is calculated to be ~0.4 nm (2), whereas amphotericin B
forms a larger pore which is ~0.8 nm in radius (3), thereby exclud-
ing nonelectrolytes with a molecular weight >200. The cation selec-
tivity sequence for both nystatin and amphotericin is
Rb+ > K+ > Na+ > Li+, and is directly related to the size of the hydrated
ions. Divalent cations such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ are impermeant.
Chloride permeability of nystatin and amphotericin B is less than
cation permeability (Panion/Pcation = 0.1) although Cl− still readily
equilibrates in the perforated patch configuration. For electrophysi-
ological recordings in which the endogenous intracellular Cl− con-
centration is desired to be maintained (for example when recording
GABA responses in primary neurons), then the antibiotic gramici-
din can be used. Gramicidin pores are permeable to small monova-
lent cations but impermeable to anions (4). However, gramicidin
perforation is very slow compared to amphotericin B, typically taking
~30 min to stabilize, thereby impacting on the number of experi-
ments which can be conducted in a day. Note that perforation is
dependent on sterol composition of the lipid membrane (5).
1.1 Advantages 1. Minimal disruption of cytosolic components making it ideal

of Perforated Patch for studying regulation of ion channels by intracellular signal-
ling cascades.
2. Stable recording for >1 h.
3. Maintenance of endogenous Ca2+ concentration and
buffering.
4. Maintenance of endogenous Cl− concentration (Gramicidin
only).
5. Reduced rundown of current.
1.2 Disadvantages 1. Typically higher series resistance than that in conventional

of Perforated Patch whole-cell patch-clamp (5–20 MΩ or 2–5× pipette
resistance).
2. Takes longer to achieve whole-cell configuration than conven-
tional whole-cell patch-clamp due to time spent waiting for
perforation. Time for perforation is cell type dependent but
typically takes 15 min for amphotericin B. Nystatin and grami-
cidin can take considerably longer.
Perforated Patch-Clamp Recording 151
3. It is impossible to apply drugs through the patch pipette.

4. No control over cytosolic Ca2+.
Due to the higher series resistance associated with perforated
patch recording, this technique is not typically used for studying
large-amplitude fast-gating ion channels such as voltage-gated
sodium channels (see Note 1).
The following chapter will describe practical methodology for
conducting perforated patch-clamp recording on the voltage-gated
potassium channel Kv7.2/3 heterologously expressed in CHO
cells using amphotericin B as the pore-forming antibiotic.
2 Materials
2.1 Cell Culture 1. CHO-K1 cells (ECACC, Sigma).

2. Ham’s-F12 media (Gibco, Invitrogen).
3. Fetal bovine serum (Sigma).
4. Trypsin-EDTA (0.25%).
5. Phosphate buffered saline (PBS), Ca2+ and Mg2+ free.
6. Glass coverslips (10 mm) or plastic 35 mm culture dishes.
2.2 Amphotericin 1. Amphotericin B powder (~80% purity), 100 mg vial.

Stock 2. Aluminum foil.
3. Vortex.
4. Eppendorf tubes.
5. Ice bucket.
6. Dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO).
2.3 Solutions 1. Extracellular solution: 140 mM NaCl, 2 mM KCl, 2 mM

CaCl2, 1 mM MgCl2, 10 mM HEPES. pH is titrated to 7.4
using NaOH. Test osmolarity and adjust to 300 mOsm with
sucrose (1 mM sucrose = 1 mOsm). On the day of experiments
add 0.9 g/L d-glucose (5 mM) to the solution.
2. Intracellular solution: 120 mM KCl, 10 mM NaCl, 5 mM
MgCl2, 10 mM HEPES. pH is titrated to pH 7.2 with KOH.
Test osmolarity and adjust to 280 mOsm with sucrose
(see Note 2). Store solution at 4°C.
General rules for solutions used for electrophysiology are as
follows:
1. Use purified deionized water (18 MΩ) for all solutions.
2. Filter solutions using a 0.2 μm filter attached to a syringe.
152 John E. Linley
3. Store solutions at 4°C (unless otherwise stated) and discard if

any precipitation is observed or after 1 month.
4. For solutions which contain glucose, add on the day of experi-
ments to avoid bacterial growth in solution.
5. A microbalance with an accuracy of 0.001 g is required for
accurate weighing of chemicals.
6. Osmolarity of solutions should be tested using an osmometer
(e.g., Osmomat 30, Gonotec).
7. Use the purest salts available.
2.4 Electrophy- 1. Inverted microscope (e.g., Nikon TS-100).

siology 2. Micromanipulator (e.g., Sutter MP-285).
3. Faraday cage.
4. Patch-clamp amplifier and digitizer (e.g., Axon multiclamp
700B; Axon digidata 1440).
5. Acquisition and analysis software, e.g., pCLAMP.
6. Pipette puller (e.g., Sutter P-97 or Narishige PC-10).
7. Pipette borosilicate glass, thin walled, filamented. For example
outer diameter 1.2 mm, inner diameter 0.69 mm, wall thick-
ness 0.51 mm (GC-120F, Clarke).
8. Pipette-filling needle (e.g., Microfil, 28 gauge 250 μm ID
350 μm OD, World precision instruments).
9. Microforge (e.g., Narishige).
3 Methods
3.1 Cell Culture CHO cells are grown as an adherent culture in Ham’s F-12 supple-
mented with 10% fetal calf serum, penicillin, and streptomycin
(0.1%) in an incubator at 37°C, 5% CO2. Note that CHO cells
have an absolute requirement for proline in the media. To passage
cells, they are first washed in PBS then detached by trypsinization.
For electrophysiological recording from transfected CHO cells,
cells are plated onto 35 mm Nunclon culture dishes at a density of
~50% confluency and transfected 24 h later using a lipofection
reagent (e.g., Fugene HD) in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions. For transfection of Kv7.2/Kv7.3 channels we use
1 μg Kv7.2, 1 μg Kv7.3, 0.2 μg GFP plasmid cDNA and 3 μL
Fugene HD per transfection. 24 h post transfection cells are
trypsinized and replated onto sterile 10 mm glass coverslips pre-
coated with poly-l-lysine (0.001% poly-l-lysine solution for 20 min
followed by triple wash) in 24-well plates in a volume of 1 ml cul-
ture media. Cells are recorded from 48 to 72 h post transfection.
Plasmids encoding human Kv7.2 and human Kv7.3 (GenBank
accession numbers AF110020 and AAC96101, respectively) were

given to us by David McKinnon (State University of New York at
Stony Brook, NY, USA) and Thomas Jentsch (Zentrum fuer
Molekulare Neurobiologie, Hamburg, Germany) and subcloned
into pcDNA3.1 (Invitrogen, Grand Island, NY, USA). For electro-
physiological recording, best results are often obtained when
recording from single cells which are not in direct contact with
neighboring cells.
3.2 Amphotericin 1. Amphotericin B powder should be stored at 4°C wrapped in

B Pipette Solution foil as it is light sensitive.
2. On the day of experiment, a stock solution is made from pow-
der by adding 4 mg amphotericin B to 100 μL DMSO
(see Note 3) in a 1.5 mL Eppendorf tube.
3. Vortex for 1–2 min to form a clear orange/yellow solution.
Store this stock in an ice-filled box with lid or covered with
foil (see Note 4). Final stock concentration is 40 mg/mL
(see Note 5).
4. In a new 1.5 mL Eppendorf add 1 mL of filtered intracellular
solution. To this add 10 μL of amphotericin B stock solution
(40 mg/mL) to give a final working concentration of
400 μg/mL.
5. Cover in foil and vortex for 1–2 min resulting in a hazy yellow
solution which is supersaturated (see Note 6).
6. This solution should be drawn up in a 1 mL plastic syringe and
a fine needle suitable for patch pipette filling inserted onto the
end (e.g., Microfil).
7. The pipette solution should be kept at 4°C in an ice box with
lid/covered with foil.
8. The amphotericin B pipette solution will fall out of solution
over a period of 2–3 h and therefore must be made up regu-
larly from the stock solution throughout the day. Failure to do
so will reduce perforation success.
3.3 Perforated 1. Pull patch pipettes using a micropipette puller and heat polish
Patch-Clamp: Setup to a resistance of 2–4 MΩ using a microforge.
2. Place patch pipettes in a covered holder or in a lidded petri dish
containing blu-tack in order to keep them clean. Note that
patch pipettes should be pulled fresh each day.
3. Remove glass coverslip from 24-well plate using fine forceps,
place in 35 mm dish containing extracellular solution, and rock
gently to wash cells (serum in media inhibits seal formation).
4. Place in perfusion chamber (break coverglass to obtain multi-
ple coverglass “chips” if required) on microscope stage.
5. Identify positively transfected cells by green fluorescence.
154 John E. Linley
6. Dip the tip of a patch pipette in intracellular solution which

does not contain amphotericin B for 0.5–5 s (tip dipping)
(see Note 7).
7. Backfill the patch pipette with intracellular solution containing
amphotericin B so that it is ¾ full.
8. Place the patch pipette on the electrode holder and manipulate
the patch pipette through the air liquid interface whilst apply-
ing light positive pressure through the electrode holder.
9. Maneuver the pipette so that it is a few microns directly above
a single green fluorescent cell.
10. Block or turn off all microscope light sources.
3.4 Perforated 1. Apply a 5 mV voltage test pulse and zero off any offset
Patch-Clamp: potential.
Achieving Seal 2. Make a note of the open circuit resistance as this is indicative
and Whole-Cell of the patch pipette resistance.
3. Slowly micromanipulate the pipette in the z-axis towards the
cell whilst watching for a reduction in amplitude of the test
pulse (an increase in pipette resistance).
4. As soon as this occurs, apply light suction to the cell to obtain
a giga ohm seal. This can be trickier than in conventional
whole-cell as amphotericin B inhibits seal formation. If no seal
is obtained then increase the tip-dipping time (see Note 7).
5. Compensate for fast capacitance generated by the glass pipette
bath solution interface.
6. Change the membrane holding voltage to −70 mV. A slow
capacitance transient should begin to develop (see Fig. 1) over
a period of 5–15 min. This is caused by the gradual inclusion of
amphotericin pores in the patch of membrane forming the seal
allowing measurement of the cell capacitance. Initially this will
appear as a small (~20 pA) capacitance spike with a slow decay
kinetic (Fig. 1a). This will increase in magnitude and the decay
Fig. 1 Development of whole-cell capacitance in perforated patch. Current in

response to a 5 mV test pulse (10 ms duration) is shown at various points after
seal formation. t = time in minutes. Amplitude of capacitance current at
t = 15 = 200–400 pA
kinetic will speed up as electrical access to the cell is achieved.

Note that during perforation, a slow decrease in seal resistance
can occur as electrical access to the cell is obtained and seal
resistance becomes whole-cell resistance.
7. Monitor series resistance and cell capacitance continuously
until it stabilizes. Aim for 2–3 times the pipette resistance or
5–20 MΩ. Compensate this transient using the amplifier
circuitry.
8. Apply series resistance compensation using the amplifier cir-
cuitry of 50–70% (see Note 8).
9. Care must be taken to ensure that the cell does not enter the
conventional whole-cell configuration by rupture of the mem-
brane seal. This is normally observed as a rapid change in series
resistance and can occur at any time during sealing and during
the experiment. During an experiment this can be seen as a
sharp capacitance spike appearing on current traces during
voltage pulses often accompanied by a change in the size of the
measured current and usually followed by the development of
a “leak”-like current as the amphotericin perforates the whole
cell. If this occurs then the experiment must be terminated.
10. Once series resistance has stabilized, voltage clamp the cell at
the desired holding potential which in the case of the example
given here is −70 mV. Apply a voltage protocol designed to
investigate the channel of interest; in the case of the Kv7.2/
Kv7.3 channels, we often use a depolarizing voltage pulse to
0 mV applied every 5 s to monitor the magnitude of the cur-
rent. Once this has stabilized the experiment can begin.
Figure 2 shows an example of Kv7.2/Kv7.3 current measured
using perforated patch. The voltage dependence of activation
is plotted in Fig. 2b.
Fig. 2 Example recording from CHO cell expressing Kv7.2 and Kv7.3. (a) Current
trace in response to depolarizing voltage steps from a holding potential of
−70 mV in 20 mV increments from −100 to +60 mV. (b) Voltage dependence of
activation calculated from the magnitude of the deactivating tail current when
stepping from the test potential to −100 mV as indicated by the arrow in (a). Data
are normalized to the maximum tail current and presented as mean ± SEM from
ten cells
156 John E. Linley
4 Notes
1. Large-amplitude fast-gating ion channels such as voltage-gated

sodium channels are more susceptible to errors associated with
series/access resistance. The resistance between the pipette
and the cell (series resistance) causes a voltage drop at the
pipette resulting in the voltage which the cell sees being less
than the amplifier command voltage. The magnitude of this
voltage drop can be calculated using the following equation
Vm = Vp − IRs where Vm = membrane voltage, Vp = pipette volt-
age, I = whole-cell current, and Rs = series resistance. Therefore
large currents (>1 nA) combined with high Rs result in a large
voltage error. High Rs also reduces the speed with which the
membrane potential is changed thereby introducing further
errors for fast-gating ion channels which activate and inactivate
within a few milliseconds. In this case it is often desirable to
use conventional whole-cell.
2. Intracellular solution osmolarity is typically made ~20 mOsm
hypotonic compared with the bath solution. This is to avoid
cell swelling due to the oncotic effect of cellular proteins.
3. DMSO is hygroscopic and therefore will become “wet” with
time. Ensure the cap is not left off and replace with new solu-
tion if solubility of compounds appears to decrease.
4. Some labs use sonication of the stock and/or final pipette solu-
tions for 5–10 min at this stage; however I find that vortexing
is sufficient.
5. The amphotericin B stock solution should be discarded at the
end of the day and a new stock made at the beginning of every
days experiments.
6. Amphotericin B has poor water solubility therefore will visibly
fall out of solution. The amphotericin B containing intracellu-
lar solution should not be filtered.
7. Tip-dipping time affects the time it takes for the amphotericin
B to begin to take effect. If you find that the cell will not seal
then increase tip-dipping time. If a seal is obtained but no
series resistance is obtained then decrease tip-dipping time. For
some cell types, no tip dipping is required.
8. Series resistance compensation can cause “ringing” of the feed-
back amplifier. This can be seen as a large oscillating current
which often results in loss of whole-cell configuration. If this
occurs regularly then reduce the % Rs compensation used.
References
1. Horn R, Marty A (1988) Muscarinic activation somes I. Specificity of the membrane permeability
of ionic currents measured by a new whole-cell changes induced by the polyene antibiotics.
recording method. J Gen Physiol 92:145–159 Biochim Biophys Acta 339:30–43
2. Hladky SB, Haydon DA (1970) Discreteness of 4. Rhee JS, Ebihara S, Akaike N (1994) Gram-
conductance change in bimolecular lipid mem- icidin perforated patch-clamp technique reveals
branes in the presence of certain antibiotics. glycine-gated outward chloride current in
Nature 225:451–453 dissociated nucleus solitarii neurons of the rat.
3. de Kruijff B, Gerritsen WJ, Oerlemans A, Demel J Neurophysiol 72:1103–1108
RA, van Deenen LL (1974) Polyene antibiotic- 5. Andreoli TE, Monahan M (1968) The interac-
sterol interactions in membranes of tion of polyene antibiotics with thin lipid mem-
Acholeplasma laidlawii cells and lecithin lipo- branes. J Gen Physiol 52:300–325
Chapter 12
Piezo-Electrically Driven Mechanical Stimulation

of Sensory Neurons
Jizhe Hao, Jérôme Ruel, Bertrand Coste, Yann Roudaut, Marcel Crest,
and Patrick Delmas
Abstract
Mechanotransduction, the conversion of a mechanical stimulus into a biological response, constitutes the
basis of a variety of physiological functions such as the senses of touch, balance, proprioception, blood
pressure, and hearing. In vertebrates, mechanosensation is mediated by mechanosensory neurons, whose
cell bodies are located in trigeminal and dorsal root ganglia. Here, we describe an in vitro model of mecha-
notransduction that provides an opportunity to explore the properties of mechanosensitive channels in
mammalian sensory neurons. The mechano-clamp method allows applying local force on plasma mem-
brane of whole-cell patch-clamped sensory neurons. This technique uses a mechanical probe driven by a
computer-assisted piezoelectric microstage to repeatedly stimulate sensory neurons with accurate control
of stimulus strength, duration, and speed.
Key words Mechanosensation, Pain, Sensory neuron, Mechanoreceptor, Skin, DRG, Primary culture,
Mechanical probe, Piezoelectric microstage, Patch clamp, Ion channels
1 Introduction
Somatosensory neurons detect a wide variety of mechanical stimuli.
Some are specialized to detect external mechanical stimuli
(e.g., mechanoreceptors, mechanonociceptors), while others
inform the nervous system about self-generated stimuli (e.g.,
stretch receptors). The ability of these mechanoreceptors to detect
mechanical cues relies on the presence on the specialized sensory
endings of mechanotransducer channels that rapidly transform
mechanical forces into electrical signals and depolarize the sensory
ending (1–3). This local depolarization, called receptor potential,
eventually leads to the generation of action potentials that propa-
gate toward the central nervous system.
Progress has been made in establishing the functional proper-
ties, specificity, and perceptual functions of mechanoreceptors.
159
160 Jizhe Hao et al.
This progression led to the recognition that mechanoreceptors serve

as selective peripheral encoding devices able to extract information
about the various parameters of the mechanical stimulus and to sup-
ply the central nervous system with a neural “image” of the
peripheral situation. However, molecular mechanisms of mechano-
transduction remain poorly understood. Compared with other types
of ion channels, including voltage-gated and ligand-activated chan-
nels, that have been substantially elucidated, we are largely ignorant of
the properties of the force transducers that contribute to our percep-
tion of mechanical cues. The technique described here (“mechano-
clamp”) adds a new dimension to the study of mechanosensation
(Fig. 1). It has opened up new pathways for the investigation of
molecular mechanisms of mechanosensation. It can be exploited in
the effort to bridge the gap between the properties of mechanotrans-
ducer channels in vitro and the characteristics of mechanoreceptors
in vivo. This technique is applicable to both primary neuronal cultures
as well as immortalized cell lines. The aim of this paper is to describe
how mechano-clamp can be applied to cultured DRG neurons (4, 5)
and to discuss potential applications in mechanotransduction studies
with emphasis on the strengths and limitations of the technique.
2 Materials
2.1 Reagents for 1. Experimental animals: rats (male Wistar, 120–130 g). All animal
Recording DRG experiments have to be performed in accordance with the
Neurons in Primary guidelines on the use of animals by the relevant authorities.
Culture 2. Halothane (Belamont, Nicholas Piramal). Harmful by inhala-
tion, use adequate ventilation.
3. Collagenase IA (C9891, Sigma).
4. Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA, A9647, Sigma).
5. Cell culture media, DMEM (Invitrogen).
6. Hank’s balanced salt solution, HBSS (Invitrogen).
7. Penicillin/Streptomycin (Invitrogen).
8. Glutamine (Invitrogen).
9. Nerve growth factor, NGF (Millipore).
10. Glial cell derived neurotrophic factor, GDNF (Invitrogen).
11. Laminin (Sigma).
12. Tetrodotoxin (Ascent Scientific).
2.1.1 Solution Setup for Pipette (internal) solution for whole-cell recordings
Patch Clamp Recording
1. For voltage-clamp experiments, prepare pipette solution as
follows: 125 mM CsCl, 1 mM MgCl2, 4.8 mM CaCl2, 10 mM
HEPES, 10 mM EGTA, 4 mM Mg-ATP, and 0.4 mM Na-GTP.
Adjust pH 7.4 with CsOH. Adjust osmolarity to 300 mOsm
with CsCl.
Investigating Mechano-Gated Channels 161
Fig. 1 Mechano-clamp setup. (a) Photograph of the mechanical probe. (b) Schematic representation of the
mechano-clamp setup. Cultured sensory neurons are recorded using the patch clamp technique (1). A glass
pipette is filled with a pipette solution and an Ag/AgCl wire connects the cell to the patch clamp headstage,
which is a sensitive current-to-voltage converter. The patch clamp amplifier is connected to a computer
through an analog-digital interface, allowing data generation, acquisition and analysis (2). The mechanical
probe is connected to a piezoelectric ceramic actuator, which is ideal for applications requiring high-resolution
movements for micro- and nanopositioning (3). Piezoceramic actuators make use of the deformation of the
piezoelectric material when an electric field is applied. The piezoelectric actuator is connected to a linear
amplifier-driver and stimulus parameters, such as duration and speed of stimuli, are user configurable via
pCLAMP software
2. For current-clamp experiments, prepare pipette solution as

follows: 134 mM KCl, 1 mM MgCl2, 1 mM CaCl2, 10 mM
HEPES, 10 mM EGTA, 4 mM Mg-ATP, and 0.4 mM Na-GTP.
Adjust pH 7.4 with KOH. Adjust osmolarity to 300 mOsm
with KCl.
Internal solutions can be aliquoted and stored at −20°C for
months without Na-GTP and Mg-ATP. Stock solutions of 40 mM
Na-GTP and of 400 mM Mg-ATP are aliquoted, stored at −20°C,
and added to the internal solution on the day of experiment.
Bath (extracellular) solution for all recordings
Prepare extracellular solution as follows: 132 mM NaCl, 3 mM
KCl, 1 mM MgCl2, 2.5 mM CaCl2, 10 mM HEPES, and 10 mM
Glucose. Adjust pH 7.4 with NaOH. Adjust osmolarity to
300 mOsm with NaCl. This solution is stored at 4°C for up to
1 week.
2.2 Equipment 1. Double-headed peristaltic pump (i.e., Masterflex L/S).

for Patch Clamp 2. Gravity-fed bath perfusion system.
Recording and
3. Microforge (i.e., Beaudouin).
Piezo-Electric
Stimulation 4. Piezo-electric actuator, e.g., Step Driver PZ-100 (Burleigh),
or more recent model.
5. Thick-walled borosilicate glass tubing (inner diameter
0.86 mm, outer diameter 1.5 mm; Sutter). Patch pipettes are
pulled every day.
6. Micropipette puller; we use Brown-Flaming P-97 program-
mable pipette puller (Sutter Instrument Company).
7. Patch pipette fillers (MicroFil; WPI) with solution filter (4 mm
diameter, 0.2 mm pore).
8. Inverted microscope, e.g., Nikon with external power supply
to the light source.
9. Micromanipulators and pipette holder for patch-clamping
(e.g., Sutter Instruments,, Narishige, or Burleigh). For posi-
tioning local superfusion, micromanipulator can be of lower
grade.
10. Noise eliminator, e.g., Humbug (Quest Scientific).
11. Patch-clamp amplifier, e.g., Axopatch 200B (Molecular Devices).
12. Software and data acquisition interface, e.g., pCLAMP Digidata
1322A (Molecular Devices).
13. Vibration isolation table and perimeter Faraday cage
(i.e., TMC).
2.2.1 Setup for Patch There are many papers that illustrate the assembly of a functional
Clamp Recording (Fig. 1) patch-clamp setup and perfusion systems, i.e., (6, 7); see also
Chapter 7 of this book.
2.2.2 Equipment Setup Fix the piezo-electric actuator on a three-axis micromanipulator.

for Mechanical Stimulation A pipette holder is mounted on the actuator. The probe is positioned
(Fig. 1) at an angle of 45–65° from horizontal plane and moved downward
toward the selected neuron. The timing and the displacement of
the mechanical probe is monitored and controlled by pCLAMP
program. The mechanical stimulation system must be firmly fixed,
in particular the mechanical probe, in order to avoid mechanical
artifacts caused by vibration of probe during recording.
3 Methods
3.1 DRG Neuron 1. Preparation of coated Petri dishes. Nunclon dishes (35 mm ∅)
Preparation need to be prepared at least 1 h before seeding cells. With a
Pipetman loaded with 600 mL of laminin (10 mg/mL),
position the pipette at the center of the dish, then release the
solution until it forms a large droplet in the middle of the dish.
Avoid covering the entire surface of the dish to prevent cells
moving at the edge of the dish. Incubate the dishes for at least
1 h at 37°C. Before dissociation of DRGs, wash the dishes
twice with HBSS solution and once with culture medium.
Allow culture dishes to remain in a safe environment.
2. Dissection of DRGs. Young rats are deeply anesthetized with
halothane and humanly killed in accordance of local ethical
guidance. DRGs are removed from their connective tissue
sheaths and incubated in HBSS solution containing 2 mg/mL
collagenase IA for 45 min at 37°C. Fire-polish two glass Pasteur
pipettes so that relatively small tip diameters are achieved.
3. Remove the supernatant containing the enzymatic solution
and wash seven or eight times DRGs with HBSS solution.
Resuspend DRGs with 800 mL of HBSS.
4. Triturate DRGs with Pasteur pipettes having large then small
tip diameters (1 and 0.5 mm) until the suspension becomes
visually opaque. Trituration consists in filling and emptying the
barrel at a rate of about 2.0 mL/s. The trituration should be
gentle because mechanosensory neurons are damaged by shear
force produced by backward and forward motion (see Note 1).
5. The resulting suspension is plated at the center of Nunclon
dishes coated with laminin. Culture medium is DMEM sup-
plemented with 10% heat-inactivated fetal calf serum, 2 mM
L-glutamine, 100 U/mL penicillin–streptomycin, 25 ng/mL
NGF, and 2 ng/mL GDNF. Neurons are maintained in a
humidified atmosphere (5% CO2, 37°C) for 12–16 h before
recording.
3.2 Fabrication Fabricate mechanical probe from borosilicate glass tubing. Pull
of Mechanical Probe the pipette to have a final tip diameter of 1–2 mm on a Brown-
Flaming P-97 pipette puller. Fire-polish micropipette using a
microforge for 15 s. Examine the tip pipette under a microscope or

a binocular loupe and ensure that the tip is blunt with diameter of
3–4 mm (Fig. 1a) (see Note 2).
3.3 Setting the 1. Prepare patch pipettes with resistances of 3–4 MW. The tip
Patch-Clamp Setup diameter is determined by the pulling parameters of the pipette
puller.
2. Make solutions as appropriate for your experiment (basic
solutions are given in Subheading 2.1.1).
3. Transfer the Nunclon dish containing DRG neurons into a
500 mL-recording chamber in the inverted microscope for visu-
alization and subsequent patch-clamping. Cells are superfused
using a gravity-fed bath perfusion system at a laminar flow rate
of ~4 mL/min under continuous suction. Position the inlet
tubing at one end of the recording chamber opposite from the
suction tubing. Keep the perfusion flowing at a constant rate in
order to avoid shear stress perturbation during recording.
4. Select a neuron based on cell health. Choose an isolated neu-
ron not bearing neurites (improved voltage clamp) if you aim
at characterizing biophysical properties of mechanosensitive
currents. Select a neuron-bearing neurites if you aim at investi-
gating mechanical responses of nerve processes. The success
rate of experiments is almost entirely based on cell health con-
ditions. Unhealthy cells display granular cytosol and poorly
refracting surface membrane (see Note 3).
5. Fill the patch pipette with the internal solution and place the
pipette on the electrode holder. Use a syringe to apply a small
positive pressure to the pipette solution.
3.4 Positioning 1. Bring both patch pipette and mechanical probe above the
Mechanical Probe and selected neuron. Place initially the mechanical probe at 1.4 mm
Getting Whole-Cell to the edge of the cell by estimating the distance between the
(See Note 4) probe and the cell surface by using cycling mechanical sweeps
of 0.7 or 1.4 mm.
2. Move patch pipette down into the bath solution. By focusing
back and forth between the target cell and the pipette tip, move
the pipette into position above the neuron. Readings of pipette
resistance and pipette offset are taken at this time. Move down-
ward the pipette until the pipette resistance increases by 0.1–
0.2 MW. Once contact is made, release the pipette positive
pressure. We usually observed a gradual rise in pipette resistance
from the values taken before contacting the cell, often accom-
panied by the appearance of small capacitive transients in the
recording. If seals do not form spontaneously apply a continu-
ous suction by mouth until seal resistance reaches 100 MW.
Apply negative potentials, ranging from −10 to −60 mV, via the
voltage clamp command to help seal formation (³1 GW).
3. To get whole-cell, apply a pulse of gentle suction by mouth.

Strong and brief suctions are necessary to break the membrane.
Hence, electrical contact is established between the electrode
and the intracellular milieu. After obtaining the whole-cell
configuration, wait for 2–3 min before beginning recording, so
that the pipette solution diffuses into the cell and equilibrates
with the intracellular medium.
4. Before recording, adjust the final position of mechanical probe.
In voltage-clamp configuration, record neuron’s responses in
gap-free mode. Downward movement of probe is stopped
once mechanical response artifact is detected on the current
baseline and confirmed under visual control.
3.5 Performing To test whether the neuron of interest exhibits mechanosensitive

Electrophysiological currents, apply a series of mechanical stimulus in 0.7 mm increments
Recordings till obtaining saturated currents (Fig. 2) (see Note 5). The best
Fig. 2 Recording of mechanosensitive currents in sensory neurons.

(a) Photograph showing mechanical stimulation of a patch-clamped DRG
neuron. The neuron was subjected to a mechanical stimulus of 8 mm.
(b) Recording of rapidly or ultraslowly adapting mechanosensitive currents in
DRG neurons at membrane voltage of −60 mV
method for monitoring the quality of the recording while it is in

progress is to note the amplitude of currents periodically (see Note 6).
Typically, mechanosensitive current amplitude rose over the first
few minutes of a recording. Current amplitude could be main-
tained for many minutes to several hours. If amplitude of currents
decreased unexpectedly, then discard the cell (see Notes 7 and 8).
To investigate the effects of mechanosensitive currents on neuronal
excitability, recordings are made using a KCl-based pipette solution
(see Subheading 2.1.1). Record changes in membrane potential
and action potential firing upon mechanical stimulation. Assess
access resistance throughout the experiment.
3.6 Basic Post-Hoc 1. Kinetics of mechanosensitive currents is determined by using

Analysis of Recordings nonlinear least-squares regression analysis applied to the decay
phase, also called relaxation, of the currents (8–12). Current
traces can be fitted with two exponential components (I1 and I2)
as follows: I (t ) = A1 ·exp (−t /t 1 )+ A2 ·exp (−t /t 2 )+ Ao , where
t1 and t2 represent the more rapid and slower exponential
components, A1 and A2 represent the amplitude of each respec-
tive component, and Ao represents the baseline current. This
adequately describes the decaying phase of mechanosensitive
currents in 40% of cases. In other cases, a monoexponential
function adequately fits the relaxation; fitting with functions
with greater than two exponential components does not
significantly enhance description of the relaxation, as judged
by residual analysis.
2. Current–stimulus (I–X) relationships can be obtained by
plotting peak current amplitude against mechanical probe dis-
placement (9). I/X curves are fitted according to the Boltzmann
( )
function: I / I max = 1/ 1 + exp ⎡⎣(Stim50 − Stim ) / k ⎤⎦ , where
I/Imax is the normalized current, Stim50 is the stimulus of half-
maximum channel activation, and k is the steepness factor.
3. Availability relationships can be determined by plotting nor-
malized peak currents against the conditioning probe displace-
ment using Boltzmann equation, as above (9).
4. DRG neurons can be subjected to stimuli having different veloci-
ties to examine whether mechanotransducer current amplitude
depends on the rate of stimulus application (9, 13) (Fig. 3).
Correlation between the amplitude of mechanosensitive currents
and the onset speed of the stimulus can be analyzed by plotting
current amplitude as a function of velocity stimulus.
5. Current amplitude can be plotted against holding potential to
determine the reversal potential (Erev) of the current under
investigation (9–15). Erev is taken as the voltage at which the
current is null. Permeability ratio (PX/PCs) for mechanosensi-
tive currents can be determined for each cation tested from the
reversal potential of the current when that cation (X) is the
Fig. 3 Investigating velocity dependence of mechanosensitive currents. (a, b) Effects of varying the rate of
onset mechanical stimulus on the amplitude of rapidly adapting (a) and ultraslowly adapting (b) mechanosen-
sitive currents. (c, d) Current-clamp responses evoked by mechanical stimuli of varying velocities (lower
traces) in DRG neurons expressing rapidly adapting (c) or ultraslowly adapting (d) mechanosensitive currents
major cation in the extracellular solution. For monovalent

cations, the simplified Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation can
be employed:
RT PX [X ]0
E rev = ln
zF PCs [Cs ]i
where RT/zF has the value of 25.5 at 23°C. For divalent cations,
the following equation can be used:
RT ⎛ 4PX [X ]0 1 1 ⎞
E rev = ln ⎜ + − ⎟.
F ⎜⎝ PCs [Cs ]i 4 2 ⎟⎠
Most mechanosensitive currents in DRG neurons are non-

selectively carried by cations, with reversal potential ranging
from −4 to +8 mV (1).
6. Firing frequency adaptation in response to mechanical stimula-
tion can be recorded (Fig. 3c, d). Firing frequency can be plot-
ted against amplitude of the mechanical stimulus to obtain
frequency–stimulus relationships (9). See Note 9 for the limi-
tations of the mechano-clamp technique.
4 Notes
1. Adapt the trituration protocol to the type of neurons you are
interested in. Trituration serves to break up the DRGs following
incubation in the enzyme-containing solution. If done too
vigorously, low-threshold mechanosensory cells will be damaged
lowering viability; small nociceptive cells will be enriched. Too
weak trituration and tissue fragments will be left intact lower-
ing yield. You can best determine a suitable rate for your tissue
through trial and error.
2. The tip surface must to be smooth and relatively large in order
to avoid perforating cell membrane when stimulated. Probe
tips that are too small are harmful to the cells; those that are
too big can destabilize cell adhesion.
3. Select healthy DRG neurons, which appear as shiny, round
neurons in Petri dishes.
4. Fix the mechanical probe firmly on its holder to avoid unwanted
movements of the probe and oscillation during mechanical
indentation.
5. Design mechano-clamp protocol carefully. Avoid too rapid
onset speed for forward motion of the mechanical probe that
may dislodge the recording patch pipette and generate oscillation.
Avoid withdrawing the probe too rapidly to ensure stability of
patch clamp recording. Avoid high frequency stimulation that
causes cumulative desensitization of mechanosensitive currents
in successive sweeps. Avoid too large stimulus amplitude that
may alter cell integrity.
6. Record cells with small leak currents at negative holding poten-
tials. Discard cells that display mechanosensitive currents with
weird kinetics.
7. Make sure that voltage-clamp conditions are satisfactory, in
order to avoid contamination of mechanosensitive currents by
voltage-dependent sodium currents escaping voltage control.
8. Pay attention to several important parameters. Stimulus duration:
examining the entire cohort of relaxation kinetics of mechano-
sensitive currents in DRG neurons requires using mechanical
stimuli of various durations lasting from 100 ms to up to 4 s.
Interstimulus interval: this interval allows mechanosensitive
currents to fully recover between each stimulus; it depends on
stimulus duration too. Typically, a 10 s interval is required for
MS currents to fully recover. If the interstimulus interval is too
short, a use-dependent decrease in current amplitude will
manifest. Stimulus intensity: avoid using excessive stimulus
amplitude (>10 mm probe displacement) as it may cause irre-
versible damage to the cell. Stimulus velocity: rapid onset rate of
mechanical stimulation (>800 mm/s) may sometimes damage

the cell and cause oscillation of the probe. Conversely, low
rates of onset (<200 mm/s) are inadequate to record rapidly
adapting mechanosensitive currents that desensitize quickly.
9. As for many techniques the mechano-clamp has its own limita-
tions. First, there are still uncertainties as to whether this
experimental paradigm recapitulates physiological forces that
activate mechanosensory nerve endings in vivo. Second, it is
not known whether mechanosensitive currents in cultured sen-
sory neurons recapitulate the properties of mechanotransduc-
ers at nerve terminals. This should be taken into account when
interpreting the data. Last, the stimulus–current relationship
of mechanosensitive currents determined using the mechano-
clamp technique can be subjected to experimental bias, espe-
cially when dealing with mechanical threshold. The difficulty
resides in the fact that the positioning of the mechanical probe
at a standardized distance from the cell membrane is techni-
cally difficult. In addition, the distance travelled by the probe
before impacting the cell does not directly reflect the force
exerted by the probe on the cell surface, especially with neurons
of different sizes.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the CNRS and by grants from the
Agence Nationale de la Recherche, Fondation Schlumberger,
ARCInca-2006, UPSA, IRME, and Fondation pour la Recherche
Médicale.
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Molecular mechanisms of mechanotransduc- Hajj SD, Waxman SG (2009) Voltage-clamp
tion in mammalian sensory neurons. Nat Rev and current-clamp recordings from mamma-
Neurosci 12:139–153 lian DRG neurons. Nat Protoc 4:1103–1112
2. Basbaum AI, Bautista DM, Scherrer G, Julius 7. Davie JT, Kole MH, Letzkus JJ, Rancz EA,
D (2009) Cellular and molecular mechanisms Spruston N, Stuart GJ, Hausser M (2006)
of pain. Cell 139:267–284 Dendritic patch-clamp recording. Nat Protoc
3. Lumpkin EA, Caterina MJ (2007) Mechanisms 1:1235–1247
of sensory transduction in the skin. Nature 8. Drew LJ, Wood JN, Cesare P (2002) Distinct
445:858–865 mechanosensitive properties of capsaicin-
4. McCarter GC, Reichling DB, Levine JD sensitive and -insensitive sensory neurons.
(1999) Mechanical transduction by rat dorsal J Neurosci 22:RC228
root ganglion neurons in vitro. Neurosci Lett 9. Hao J, Delmas P (2010) Multiple desensitiza-
273:179–182 tion mechanisms of mechanotransducer chan-
5. Hao J, Delmas P (2011) Recording of mecha- nels shape firing of mechanosensory neurons.
nosensitive currents using piezoelectrically J Neurosci 30:13384–13395
driven mechanostimulator. Nat Protoc 6: 10. Coste B, Crest M, Delmas P (2007) Pharma-
979–990 cological dissection and distribution of NaN/
Nav1.9, T-type Ca2+ currents, and mechani- Piezo proteins are pore-forming subunits of
cally activated cation currents in different mechanically activated channels. Nature 483:
populations of DRG neurons. J Gen Physiol 176–181
129:57–77 13. Rugiero F, Drew LJ, Wood JN (2010) Kinetic
11. Coste B, Mathur J, Schmidt M, Earley TJ, properties of mechanically activated currents in
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A (2010) Piezo1 and Piezo2 are essential com- 14. Hu J, Lewin GR (2006) Mechanosensitive
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Spencer KS, Kim SE, Schmidt M, Mathur J, a mechanotransduction current in adult rat
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Chapter 13
Automated Planar Patch-Clamp

Carol J. Milligan and Clemens Möller
Abstract
Ion channels are integral membrane proteins that regulate the flow of ions across the plasma membrane
and the membranes of intracellular organelles of both excitable and non-excitable cells. Ion channels are
vital to a wide variety of biological processes and are prominent components of the nervous system and
cardiovascular system, as well as controlling many metabolic functions. Furthermore, ion channels are
known to be involved in many disease states and as such have become popular therapeutic targets. For
many years now manual patch-clamping has been regarded as one of the best approaches for assaying ion
channel function, through direct measurement of ion flow across these membrane proteins. Over the last
decade there have been many remarkable breakthroughs in the development of technologies enabling the
study of ion channels. One of these breakthroughs is the development of automated planar patch-clamp
technology. Automated platforms have demonstrated the ability to generate high-quality data with high
throughput capabilities, at great efficiency and reliability. Additional features such as simultaneous intra-
cellular and extracellular perfusion of the cell membrane, current clamp operation, fast compound appli-
cation, an increasing rate of parallelization, and more recently temperature control have been introduced.
Furthermore, in addition to the well-established studies of over-expressed ion channel proteins in cell
lines, new generations of planar patch-clamp systems have enabled successful studies of native and pri-
mary mammalian cells. This technology is becoming increasingly popular and extensively used both
within areas of drug discovery as well as academic research. Many platforms have been developed includ-
ing NPC-16 Patchliner® and SyncroPatch® 96 (Nanion Technologies GmbH, Munich), CytoPatch™
(Cytocentrics AG, Rostock), PatchXpress® 7000A, IonWorks® Quattro and IonWorks Barracuda™,
(Molecular Devices, LLC); Dynaflow® HT (Cellectricon AB, Mölndal), QPatch HT (Sophion A/S,
Copenhagen), IonFlux HT (Fluxion Bioscience Inc, USA), which have demonstrated the capability to
generate recordings similar in quality to that of conventional patch clamping. Here we describe features
of Nanion’s NPC-16 Patchliner® and processes and protocols suited for this particularly flexible and suc-
cessful high-throughput automated platform, which is based on planar patch-clamp technology. However,
many of the protocols and notes given in this chapter can be applied to other automated patch-clamp
platforms, similarly.
Key words Automated electrophysiology, Planar patch-clamp, Planar chip, Micro-fluidics, Intracellular
perfusion, Voltage-gated ion channels, Ligand-gated ion channels, Voltage-clamp, Current-clamp,
Temperature control
171
172 Carol J. Milligan and Clemens Möller
1 Introduction
The well established patch-clamp technique developed by Erwin
Neher and Bert Sakmann (1) involves the manual positioning of a
glass microelectrode onto the surface of a single cell. A seal is
formed, and with the application of a small amount of negative
pressure (or a voltage pulse), the cell membrane at the tip of the
pipette (the patch) ruptures allowing direct access to the interior of
the cell, enabling control of the membrane voltage. Here we
describe the automated planar patch-clamp approach using the
platform Patchliner as an example (Fig. 1a). This approach requires
the manual preparation of the cells in suspension, and because cap-
turing cells is a random process it is vital that they are of extremely
high quality with uniform homogeneity. The automated planar
approach involves the robotic delivery of solutions, cells, and
compounds onto the planar chip (Fig. 1b–d), which is a tiny boro-
silicate sheet of glass with a micron-sized aperture in the center.
Fig. 1 (a) The automated planar patch-clamp platform consists of the NPC-16 Patchliner, amplifiers, and a
computer. It has a much smaller foot print compared to a conventional rig. The Patchliner takes up to three
NPC-16 chips per session. (b) Image of part of the NPC-16 multi-well microfluidic cartridge with a solution
delivery pipette inserted into the extracellular inlet of one chamber. Waste chamber highlighted by ** and
intracellular chamber highlighted by *. (c) Image of the underside of the cartridge in which the intracellular
solution compartments are highlighted with dye. (d) Schematic of a single chamber showing the arrangement
of extracellular, intracellular, and waste chambers as well as the position of the planar chip
Planar Patch-Clamp 173
Chips are embedded in microfluidic chambers within a chip

cartridge (Fig. 1d). The aperture in the chip is the equivalent of
the pipette tip in the conventional method. There are 16 individual
chips within a single cartridge and 8 of these are used simultane-
ously for each experiment. Once the solutions and cells have been
robotically delivered into the microfluidic chambers, negative pres-
sure is applied from below each chamber independently, to attract
a single cell onto each chips aperture. Further application of nega-
tive pressure ruptures the membrane sitting over the aperture,
establishing the whole-cell configuration. The exchange of exter-
nal solution for both manual and automated methods is relatively
straightforward. However, the exchange of intracellular solution is
significantly easier with Patchliner, where it is a routine feature.
Apart from manual preparation of the cells, solutions and com-
pounds, the whole process is controlled by preprogrammed com-
puterized protocols in PatchControlHT, resulting in routine
reproducible comparable data output. Another versatile feature of
automated platforms is that they enable non-electrophysiologists
to perform patch-clamp experiments after a minimal learning time
(counted in days, not in months as for manual patch-clamping).
Cell lines such as HEK 293, CHO, LTK, RBL, NIH 3T3, and
Jurkat are routinely used on Patchliner. Neuroblastoma cell lines
such as SHSY5Y, IMR 32, and NG108 have also been used with a
high success rate (2–4), and primary cells such as human erythro-
cytes, human T-lymphocytes, human synoviocytes, human saphen-
ous vein smooth muscle cells, human neutrophils, and DRG satellite
glia cells have also been used successfully ((5–8), see Note 1).
Certain Patchliner voltage-clamp protocols for cell-lines as well
as primary cells have already been described (7). This chapter
describes in more detail the application of automated planar patch-
clamp protocols involving the ligand gated ion channel α7 nico-
tinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR), using stacked solution
protocols combined with temperature control. The α7nAChR is
widely distributed throughout the central nervous system and sev-
eral lines of evidence indicate that pharmacological enhancement
of α7nAChRs function by type II positive allosteric modulators
(PAMs), e.g., PNU120596, could be a potential therapeutic route
to alleviate disease-related cognitive deficits (9). α7nAChRs are
rapidly activating and desensitizing, therefore, to enhance receptor
activity the ligand (nicotine) is co-applied with PNU120596 in a
stacked solution protocol (Fig. 2a). This stacking procedure allows
for extremely rapid application and washout of compounds, atten-
uating desensitization and enabling subsequent additions to the
same cell (Fig. 2b). Furthermore, the temperature sensitivity of this
allosteric modulator is also demonstrated by preheating the stacked
solutions before application, resulting in the attenuation of channel
activity at near physiological temperatures ((10); Fig. 2b, c).
Fig. 2 (a) Schematic, illustrating the mechanism of double stacked solution application. Stacking solutions
allow brief compound applications with timed intervals. The pipette aspirates buffer first, followed by com-
pound. In this way, the cell is exposed to ligand first followed by rapid buffer washout. (b) Example responses
to 100 μM nicotine in the maintained presence of 10 μM PNU120596 at three different temperatures using a
triple stacked application protocol. 10 μM PNU120596 was applied to GH4C1 cells expressing the human
α7nAChR, followed by a brief co-application of 100 μM nicotine, followed by wash buffer. PNU120596 shows
strong temperature dependence. (c) Pooled data plotting the amplitude of response to 100 μM nicotine in the
presence of 10 μM PNU120596 at various temperatures. Data are sampled at 1 kHz and filtered at 333 Hz.
Data are normalized to the corresponding responses recorded at room temperature (n = 10 ± SEM)
While patch-clamp methods do provide a direct readout of ion

channel function, it has been discussed that for some channels the
data measured from patch-clamping using ion channels in heter-
ologous expression systems might not resemble channel function
in the physiological situation. This is particularly important where
ion channels might be regulated by second messenger systems,
auxiliary beta-subunits, or show interactions with other membrane
proteins. Recent advances in the measurement of ion channel activ-
ity in primary cells, provides an approach to address some of these
concerns. When measured in primary cells, ion channels reside
within a more physiological environment with intact regulatory
components. This becomes especially relevant when cardiac ion
channels are addressed.
Measurements of heterologously expressed cardiac ion chan-
nels, especially the hERG potassium channel which is associated
with cardiac arrhythmias, have become standard practice using

different assays to evaluate cardiac safety in the early development
of pharmaceutical compounds. The action potential (AP) of the
human heart is however generated by an ensemble of ionic cur-
rents, and it has been shown that the effects of compounds on
different cardiac ion channels can mitigate or aggravate potential
proarrhythmic effects (11–13). In addition, different stimulation
protocols and temperatures can impact the effects of compounds
on ion channels (14–16).
Using planar systems to measure native channels in acutely dis-
sociated mammalian cardiac myocytes has been challenging.
However, the recent introduction of stem cell-derived cardiomyo-
cytes to examine the electrophysiological properties of cardiac ion
channels has provided a useful tool to overcome some of these
hurdles. The pharmacology of a set of reference compounds on
individual ionic currents as well as on the AP of these cells is in
good agreement to expected values (16, 17).
It should however be stressed that the pharmacology of stem
cell-derived cardiomyocytes requires further validation before it
can be applied to evaluate the safety of cardiac compounds, because
some modes of action of cardiac toxicity are not necessarily well
detected in assays that are based on these cells (18) and they most
likely represent a neonatal state which is not representative of the
adult organism (19, 20). No in vitro assay is expected to provide a
complete picture of potential cardiotoxicities; however, automated
planar electrophysiology can provide useful relevant information to
enhance our understanding and possibly improve cardiac safety of
pharmacological compounds. Voltage-clamp and current-clamp
modes for recordings of mouse embryonic stem cell (mESC)-
derived cardiomyocytes are also discussed in this chapter.
2 Materials
2.1 Equipment 1. NPC®-16 Patchliner Probe Selector/Quattro/Octo,
and Reagents PatchControlHT software, NPC®-16 chips (single use, dispos-
able). NPC®-16 electrode set (see Note 2) (Nanion
Technologies GmbH).
2. Patch-clamp amplifiers (EPC-10 quadro, HEKA Instruments
Inc.).
3. Computer with 24-in. TFT monitor (Dell).
4. Software for multichannel data acquisition (Patchmaster,
HEKA Instruments Inc.) and analysis (GraphPad Prism
4.0; GraphPad Software Inc., La Jolla, USA or IGOR-Pro;
WaveMetrics Inc., Lake Oswego, OR).
5. Cell culture flasks (T25 & T75, BD Falcon).
6. 2-, 10-, 200-, and 1,000-μL pipettes.

7. Fisherbrand AccuSpin 400 centrifuge (Fisher Scientific).
8. Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium 4,500 mg/L glucose
and GlutaMAX supplemented (DMEM, Cambrex), heat-
inactivated fetal bovine serum (FBS, Biosera), geneticin (G418,
Invitrogen).
9. Dulbecco’s phosphate buffer saline with Ca2+ and Mg2+
(D-PBS) (Invitrogen).
10. Dulbecco’s phosphate buffer saline Ca2+ and Mg2+ free (D-PBS)
(Invitrogen).
11. Cell dissociation buffer Enzyme free PBS-based (GIBCO
Invitrogen).
12. Trypsin/EDTA solution (Invitrogen).
13. Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO).
14. (−)-nicotine (Sigma Aldrich, UK), PNU120596 (Tocris
Biosciences, UK).
2.2 Cell Culture 1. GH4C1 cells stably transfected with rat α7nAChRs (GH4C1-
rα7 cells) are cultured and passaged in standard T75 tissue
2.2.1 GH4C1-rα7 Cells culture flasks in DMEM supplemented with 10 % FBS and
100 μL/mL geneticin at 37 °C in a humidified atmosphere
composed of 95 % air and 5 % CO2.
2. The cells should be passaged every 2–3 days using an enzyme
free PBS-based cell dissociation buffer and kept to a confluence
of 60–80 % (see Note 3).
2.2.2 mESC-Derived 1. mESC-derived cardiomyocytes (Axiogenesis, Germany) are

Cardiomyocytes seeded at a density of 105 viable cells per square centimeter
culture area in one T25 cell culture flask with 5 mL Cor.At
Complete Culture Medium (see ref. 17 and Note 4).
2. Pre-culture mESC-derived cardiomyocytes for 2–4 days. 1 day
after seeding, a continuous rhythmic contraction of the cells
(beating) can already be observed (see Note 5).
2.3 Planar Patch- Prepare solutions in deionized water, filter (see Note 6), and mea-
Clamp Recording sure the osmolarity (see Note 7) and the pH. Solutions can be
Solutions stored at 4 °C for up to 5 days. Solutions should be warmed to
room temperature (20–22 °C) before use.
1. Standard extracellular solution: 140 mM NaCl, 4 mM KCl,
1 mM MgCl2, 2 mM CaCl2, 5 mM d-Glucose monohydrate,
10 mM HEPES; adjust to pH 7.4 with NaOH. Osmolarity
298 mOsm.
2. Standard extracellular solution for enhancing seals and record-
ing with GH4C1-rα7 cells: 80 mM NaCl, 3 mM KCl, 10 mM
MgCl2, 35 mM CaCl2, 10 mM HEPES (Na+ salt); adjust pH

7.4 with HCl (see Note 8).
3. Standard intracellular solution for whole-cell recordings:
50 mM KCl, 10 mM NaCl, 60 mM KF, 20 mM EGTA, 10 mM
HEPES; adjust to pH 7.2 with KOH Osmolarity: 285 mOsm
(see Note 9 and ref. 21).
3 Methods
3.1 Harvesting Cells The use of healthy cells is absolutely critical to the success of planar
for Planar Patch- patch-clamp recordings because the capture of cells onto the pla-
Clamp nar chip is a random process. The health of the cell impacts on the
quality of the seal formed between the cell membrane and the pla-
nar chip, which ultimately influences the quality of the recording.
Unlike conventional patch-clamp recording where healthy cells
can be visually selected, once cells are prepared in suspension, there
is no opportunity to optically select the healthiest looking cells.
3.1.1 GH4C1-rα7 Cells 1. In sterile conditions, remove the medium from the cells and
gently wash with D-PBS with Ca2+ and Mg2+ (see Note 10).
2. Pipette 2 mL cold cell dissociation buffer on to the cells and
incubate at room temperature for 3 min.
3. Add 5 mL culture media and pipette up and down gently.
4. Transfer the cells in culture media from the flask to a 15 mL
conical centrifuge tubes and centrifuge at 100 × g for 2 min at
room temperature and discard the supernatant by decanting.
5. Resuspend the cell pellet in 2 mL of extracellular solution, cen-
trifuge at 100 × g for 2 min at room temperature and discard
the supernatant by decanting.
6. Resuspend the cell pellet in a mixture of extracellular solution
for capturing cells and culture media (50:50 ratio, see Note 11)
at a density of 1 × 106 to 5 × 107 cells/mL (see Note 12) (cells
can be counted using a hemocytometer).
7. Transfer the cells to the cell hotel on the Patchliner where they
are continuously pipetted up and down to maintain single cells
and viability.
3.1.2 mESC-Derived 1. Wash twice in 5 mL of D-PBS with Ca2+ and Mg2+ and incu-
Cardiomyocytes bate at 4 °C for 15 min.
2. Wash once with 5 mL of D-PBS without Ca2+ and Mg2+.
3. Dissociate with 2 mL pre-warmed trypsin/EDTA solution for
4–5 min at 37 °C and 5 % CO2 (see Note 13).
4. Transfer cell suspension to 6 mL Cor.At Complete Culture
Medium in a 50 mL tube.
5. Centrifuge for 2 min at 100 × g.

6. Discard supernatant and resuspend cell pellet to a final density
of 1 × 106 to 5 × 107 cells/mL in external recording solution
and transfer into the cell hotel (see Note 14).
3.2 Automated PatchControlHT software is coupled to Patchmaster software and

Planar Patch-Clamp when this program is opened, Patchmaster also opens. This allows
Using Patchliner amplifier functions and data acquisition to be controlled through
commands in the experimental protocol (PatchControlHT Tree).
Preprogrammed experimental protocols can be loaded and
modified for optimization with different cell types/characteristics.
Chip cartridge selection is based on the resistance of the hole in the
chip (aperture) and the size of the cells (see Note 15). The motor-
ized stage (chip wagon), which houses the chip cartridges, can
accommodate three cartridges allowing for 48 recordings. When a
Tree is activated, recording solutions are dispensed by the pipetting
robot into the microfluidic chambers of the chip cartridge and the
cartridge is moved into the measuring head, which contains the
pneumatic and electric contacts and moves up and down to address
the chip cartridges. The recording head can accommodate up to
eight chip chambers. A slight positive pressure is applied to each
chip chamber, independently, and the offsets are corrected. Once
the cell suspension is added, a small suction of 50 mBar is applied
to attract cells to the holes and this leads to a small increase in the
seal resistance. The seal resistance is increased to a gigaohm seal
when seal enhancing solution is applied to the cells along with suc-
tion pulses and the application of a negative voltage to the cells.
The whole-cell access is achieved by short suction pulses. For some
cells it is helpful to support this process by zapping to help rupture
the patch of membrane (see Note 16). The software adapts the
applied negative pressure according to parameters such as chip
resistance, series resistance, and slow capacitance. In this way, the
program can determine if a cell has been sealed to the chip aperture
and whether the parameters correspond to the cell-attached or the
whole-cell configuration. Cells that do not meet selected quality
control parameters (e.g., seal resistance, series resistance) will be
disabled at this stage. The user can adjust pressure, voltage, and
condition settings according to the cell type/characteristics.
3.2.1 General 1. Load a preprogrammed Tree and select the edit mode to make
Experimental Set-up modifications according to your cell type/characteristics. This
enables you to modify amplifier and pump parameters and also
allows access to the full range of commands, which can be
inserted into a protocol via a generic drag-and-drop function
(see Note 17).
2. Select the appropriate chip resistance for your cells and place
three chip cartridges on the chip wagon.
3. Prepare compound solutions directly before each experiment

(see Note 18).
4. Place recording solutions and compounds in position, accord-
ing to those defined in the job list (see Note 19).
5. Place the cells into the cell hotel, where they will be aspirated
every 30 s throughout the experiment to prevent clumping
and sedimentation (see Note 20).
6. Select and activate the initialization folder to initialize the
robot and wash the pipette. This also generates a new data file
within the HEKA software and sets all amplifier and robot
parameters to reasonable starting values. This folder only
needs to be activated once at the beginning of each day of
experiments.
7. The robot will start when the Tree is activated. At the end of
each run, it will loop back to the start and continue this process
until all chips on the chip wagon have been used.
3.2.2 Stacked Solution As with most ligand gated ion channels, nAChRs exhibit receptor
Application with GH4C1- desensitization, which is a common phenomenon for ligand gated
rα7 Cells ion channels. The kinetics and level of desensitization of ligand
gated ion channels are determined by ligand concentration and
exposure time, or both. For rapidly desensitizing ion channels, it is
important that compound application is fast, so that the entire ion
channel population is exposed to maximum concentration before
entering the desensitized state. Therefore rapid solution exchange
combined with brief drug exposure times can minimize or correct
for the deleterious effect caused by receptor desensitization. This is
achieved by using a stacked solution application where two or three
zones of solution are aspirated into the pipette before administra-
tion onto the cells (see Note 21).
1. Load a preprogrammed ligand Tree for triple stacked solution
application. Volumes and speeds of applications can be adjusted
(see Note 22).
2. Select high resistant single hole chips (5–6 MW, ~10 pF) for
GH4C1-rα7 cell recordings and load three chips onto the chip
wagon.
3. Within the Tree, adjust the holding potential to −75 mV and
select a continuous recording protocol, with a 13 s sweep,
from the pulse generator file in the job list to record the fast
ligand activated currents.
4. Follow steps 3–6 in Subheading 3.2.1 (see Note 23).
In the example shown in Fig. 2b GH4C1-rα7 cells were
exposed to the modulator PNU120596 (10 μM), directly followed
by nicotine (100 μM) in the presence of PNU120596 and subse-
quently by wash buffer using a triple stacked solution application.
In the presence of PNU120596 at room temperature (20 °C)

α7nAChR desensitization was largely not apparent.
3.2.3 Temperature The measuring head, chip wagon, and solution inside the pipette
Controlled Compound can be heated simultaneously to maintain physiological tempera-
Application with GH4C1- tures during the course of an experiment. Alternatively, the solu-
rα7 Cells tion in the pipette can be heated independently, exposing the cells
to transient temperature increases, for the study of heat activated
channels.
1. Load a preprogrammed ligand Tree for triple stacked solution
application combined with temperature control. Temperature
settings can be adjusted (see Note 24).
2. Select high resistant single hole chips (5–6 MW, ~10 pF) for
GH4C1-rα7 cell recordings and load three chips onto the chip
wagon.
3. Within the Tree, adjust the holding potential to −75 mV and
select a continuous recording protocol, with a 13 s sweep,
from the pulse generator file in the job list to record the fast
ligand activated currents.
4. Follow steps 3–6 in Subheading 3.2.1.
In the examples shown in Fig. 2c, GH4C1-rα7 cells were
exposed to nicotine in the presence of the PNU120596 at differ-
ent temperatures (20, 25, 30, 35, 40, and 20 °C). Responses are
greatly attenuated when the temperature is raised to physiological
levels and higher. Current is partially recovered when the tempera-
ture is lowered back to 20 °C. Activation of α7nAChRs in the
absence of modulator is not significantly inhibited by elevated tem-
peratures (9). Therefore, these data demonstrate the strong tem-
perature dependent action of PNU120596 at α7nAChRs.
3.2.4 Current and mESC-derived cardiomyocytes can be measured on Patchliner in

Voltage Clamp Recordings the voltage-clamp mode and current-clamp mode, to assess the
with mESC-Derived electrophysiological properties of ionic currents and APs,
Cardiomyocytes respectively.
1. Load a preprogrammed Tree for cardiomyocytes. Potassium
(IK), sodium (INa), and L-type calcium (ICa,L) currents are
recorded first in the voltage-clamp mode and then APs are sub-
sequently recorded in the current-clamp mode (see Note 25).
2. Select low resistant single hole chips (1–2 MW, cell size ~30 pF)
for mESC-derived cardiomyocyte recordings and load three
chips onto the chip wagon.
3. Follow steps 3–6 in Subheading 3.2.1.
Fig. 3 (a–c) Parallel voltage clamp recordings of mESC-derived cardiomyocyte ion channel currents in the
automated patch-clamp system Patchliner. IK (a), INa (b), ICa,L (c) current traces and corresponding current–
voltage relationship curves (d). (e) APs in control solution are highly reproducible over a time period of 15 min.
Representative traces are shown at the beginning (t = 0–40 s) and after t = 14 min 20 s to 15 min, traces
represent the mean of four consecutively recorded APs. The error bars represent the mean at APD50 SEM.
Sweep interval was 10 s
In the example shown in Fig. 3, to induce IK and INa currents,

cells were held at a holding potential of −80 and −100 mV, respec-
tively and stepped in 20 mV increments to +60 mV. Cells were
held at a holding potential of −80 mV and stepped in 10 mV incre-
ments to +60 mV to induce ICa,L currents. Typical current record-
ings of IK, INa, and ICa,L in the voltage-clamp mode are shown in
Fig. 3a–c. Representative traces demonstrate how highly reproduc-
ible APs are over time (Fig. 3e).
4 Notes
1. For most automated patch-clamp systems on the market it is
challenging to use primary or transiently transfected cells
because of the blind approach of capturing cells. Transiently
transfected cells can have low expression rates so it is advisable
to co-transfect with GFP to determine good transfection
efficiency. Primary cells can also be problematic if the cell prep-
aration is impure containing more than one cell type.
2. Place electrodes in bleach filled chloridation chambers for
30 min and then rinse with deionized water.
3. Cells should be passaged every 2–3 days with dissociation buf-
fer to prevent the cells adhering too tightly to the support sub-
strate and to avoid the growth of clusters which are a
considerable problem for planar patch-clamp. Cells left to grow
to greater than 80 % confluency also leads to cell aggregates
and results in poor capture rates. Dissociation buffers encour-
age cell separation and isolation. Seal rates can sometimes be
improved by optimizing cell culture methods, e.g., by using
T75 flasks instead of smaller T25.
4. Cor.At culture medium is a complete medium that has been
optimized for use with Cor.At mESC-derived cardiomyocytes.
5. The continuous beating of mESC-derived cardiomyocytes up
to and after 4 days is a good indicator that the cells have main-
tained their quality and viability. However, after more than
4 days the cells tend to form aggregates, and it is more difficult
to obtain single cell suspensions without harming them, which
reduces the success rate.
6. All recording solutions should be filtered. The internal solu-
tion is particularly important and should be filtered with a
0.22 μm-pore diameter filter on the day of the experiment.
The internal solution should not be older than a few days, and
should be stored at 4 °C.
7. Recording solution osmolarity is measured directly using a
freezing-point osmometer and adjusted if necessary with man-
nitol or sucrose, non-permeating molecules, to 285 mOsm/L
for all internal solutions and between 290 and 310 mOsm/L
for all external solutions. External osmolarity should always be
higher than the internal osmolarity.
8. It is helpful to use seal enhancer solution to increase the chance
of giga-seal formation. The extracellular seal enhancer solution
is a high calcium containing solution, whereas the intracellular
solution for capturing cells contains fluoride. These seal
enhancing solutions are usually replaced once a giga-seal is
achieved and before establishing whole-cell access. To avoid
calcium-dependant inactivation of voltage-gated calcium chan-

nels and increase calcium channel currents, calcium in the
extracellular solution can be replaced by barium as charge car-
rier since most voltage-gated calcium channels also conduct
barium ions (22, 23).
9. Inclusion of fluoride has long been known to improve patch-
clamp sealing and stabilizes the cell membrane, resulting in
longer, more stable patch-clamp recordings (21). The mecha-
nism of this effect is unknown.
10. Enzyme free PBS-based cell dissociation buffer should be
stored at 4 °C and used at this temperature in sterile condi-
tions. The buffer is designed for gentle dissociation of mam-
malian cells from support substrates and each other. It is
recommended for use in studies requiring intact cell surface
proteins such as ligand binding. This buffer is not recom-
mended for routine passage of strongly adherent cell types.
11. Cells in suspension remain viable for up to 4 h, stored at room
temperature, when resuspended in a mixture of recording solu-
tion and culture media (50:50).
12. Cell densities of 1 × 106 to 5 × 107 cells/mL for use on the
Patchliner appear to work well for most cells. For some cell
types (especially more challenging primary cells) it might how-
ever be difficult to obtain this number of cells. For a number of
cells we have had good success rates with much lower cell den-
sities, down to below 1,000 cells/mL.
13. Several different detachment agents can be used for harvesting
the cells, e.g., accutase or detachin, although in our experi-
ence, the standard trypsin/EDTA solution works very well.
Trypsin alone yields good results for robust cell types and
channels, but can have degrading effects on cells and/or chan-
nels, and EDTA alone does not always sufficiently detach the
cells from the flask, or results in insufficient separation of aggre-
gated cells. Increased temperature (e.g., 37 °C) will increase
the speed of the dissociation process, while reduced tempera-
ture (e.g., 4 °C) will slow it down.
14. When resuspending the mESC cardiomyocytes pellet, pipette
up and down twice very slowly and gently. When you pipette
the cells into the cell hotel this will be the third time. Let the
cells rest for 5 min before activating the cell hotel. If the cells
are not handled with great care at this stage the cell mem-
branes will rupture and seals will not be formed. Following the
recovery period the cells need to be pipetted more frequently
in the cell hotel and this feature is already incorporated into
the preprogrammed Tree for these cells.
15. Selection of the appropriate NPC-16 chips is based on cell size
and chip resistance (aperture size). NPC-16 chip resistance can
be manufactured within a range from 1 to 8 MΩ with an accu-

racy of ±0.5 MΩ for resistances between 1 and 4 MΩ and
±1 MΩ for resistances between 5 and 8 MΩ, making them
suitable for a variety of cell types of different sizes. Chips are
generally manufactured in the following ranges: low resistance
(1–2 MΩ), medium resistance (2–4 MΩ) and high resistance
(5–6 MΩ), but can be custom made according to specific
requirements. Ensemble chips are also available, with four or
eight holes per chip with low, medium and high resistance and,
because the currents are summated, these are ideal for enhanc-
ing current size when recording from cells which express very
small currents.
16. If it is difficult to establish whole-cell then try harvesting the
cells 1 day after plating. In addition, adjust the size of the high
voltage pulses to 600–800 mV (“zap”), which can be applied
to help rupture the patch of membrane, thus establishing the
whole-cell configuration.
17. A full range of preprogrammed Trees for specific cell and chan-
nel types with various experimental protocols can be accessed
in PatchControlHT, e.g., sodium channel current–voltage rela-
tionship (NaIV), potassium pharmacology (Kvpharm). There
are various aspects of a Tree that can be optimized, including
suction parameters to capture cells, form giga-seals and estab-
lish whole-cell, as well as voltage paradigms. For more infor-
mation, refer to the PatchControlHT application notes (http://
www.nanion.de). Furthermore, once a Tree has been optimized
it is not usually necessary to modify it further for future use
with the same cell type.
18. Observe the solubility of your compounds in solution, as some
compounds precipitate over time. Store all compound solu-
tions, where possible, in glassware as some compounds will
adhere to other substrates. Adhesion or precipitation can lead
to an underestimation of concentration.
19. Compound position, volume, and speed of application are defined
in the job list within the Tree. It is also here that the user can select
the appropriate Patchmaster pulse generator file (pgf ).
20. Regular aspiration of the cell suspension in the cell hotel, pre-
vents clumping and sedimentation and at the same time improves
viability. We find that cells retain good viability for at least 4 h
after they have been prepared in suspension, although some
deterioration in success rates has been observed after 3 h.
21. For a double stack with two zones of solution, the wash buffer
is aspirated first, directly followed by the ligand resulting in the
ligand zone being applied to the cells first followed immedi-
ately by the wash buffer (Fig. 2a). To examine the effects of a
ligand modulator, a triple stack with three solution zones

should be used. The wash buffer is aspirated first, followed
directly by solution containing both ligand and modulator, fol-
lowed immediately by modulator.
22. The volumes of the different solution zones can be adjusted, as
well as the speed of application, enabling exposure times of as
little as 100 ms. Typical volumes for a triple stacked application
are 150 μL wash buffer zone, 10–50 μL ligand/modulator
zone and 125 μL modulator zone, but these can be optimized
for different ligands and modulators accordingly. The maxi-
mum volume that the pipette can aspirate at one time is 350 μL.
The zone containing the ligand should be applied more rapidly
(e.g., 171 μL/s; speed 12) than the other zones (e.g., 24 μL/s;
speed 20).
23. PNU120596 and nicotine are dissolved in DMSO at a concen-
tration of 10 mM and then diluted with standard extracellular
solution for enhancing seals, which in these experiments is
used for making the recordings.
24. The temperature can be set between room temperature and
80°C for the chip wagon, the measuring head and the pipette,
independently. The temperature can be raised, but not low-
ered. The temperature controls for the chip wagon and the
measuring head are used to keep the temperature constant for
measurements at physiological temperatures. For temperature
regulated channels, like TRPV’s, it is possible to apply short
pulses at elevated temperatures by heating the pipette. The
cells survive temperatures up to 70 °C, only when applied for
a very short time.
25. After evaluation of ionic currents in the voltage-clamp mode,
the Tree switches the amplifiers into current-clamp mode and
proceeds on to AP measurements. To induce AP responses in
mESC-derived cardiomyocytes, cells are held at a constant
membrane potential, i.e., between −80 and −100 mV (but this
is cell-type dependent). The program then finds the stimulus
threshold for each individual cell by applying a 1 ms depolar-
izing pulse. The values for the thresholds are then set in the pgf
in Patchmaster. PatchControlHT then loads another pgf and
the Cclamp protocol uses these set values so that each indi-
vidual cell is stimulated accordingly.
Acknowledgments
Thanks to Dr Sonja Stoelzle and Dr Niels Fertig (Nanion

Technologies GmbH) for cardiomyocyte data.
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Chapter 14
Recording Single-Channel Currents Using

“Smart Patch-Clamp” Technique
Anamika Bhargava and Julia Gorelik
Abstract
Microdomains that form on the plasma membrane of cells are essential for signalling compartmentation
within cells. The localization of ion channels in these surface microdomains is important in defining what
signalling cascades will be generated. For example, in cardiomyocytes, similar to other excitable cells,
action potential propagation depends essentially on the properties of ion channels that are functionally and
spatially coupled. In this chapter we describe a novel advanced patch-clamp technique, “Smart patch-
clamp,” which enables the study of functional ion channels in the cell surface microdomains in a wide
variety of biological cells and tissues. Smart patch-clamp combines conventional patch-clamp and Scanning
Ion Conductance Microscopy (SICM). SICM uses a glass micropipette as scanning probe and generates a
high-resolution topography image of the cell surface. Next, same micropipette is used as a patch-clamp
pipette to record ion channel signals from specific spots on the cell surface as determined by SICM. In this
chapter we focus on recording single channel L-type calcium channel currents from T-tubules of adult rat
cardiomyocytes.
Key words Smart patch-clamp, Scanning ion conductance microscopy, Cardiomyocyte, L-type
calcium channel, Single-channel recording
1 Introduction
The spatial distribution of ion channels on the cell surface has been
investigated by microscopy based techniques such as immuno-
chemistry (1, 2). However, these techniques provide little informa-
tion on the functional characteristics of ion channels. By contrast,
the patch-clamp technique provides information about ion channel
currents and hence functionality of ion channels on the cell sur-
face. However, the conventional patch-clamp technique does not
allow the precise selection of a region of interest on the cell to be
investigated and thus provides limited spatial resolution (3, 4).
Smart patch-clamp technique combines Scanning Ion
Conductance Microscopy (SICM) and patch-clamp electrophysi-
ology using a glass micropipette as a dual probe: scanning probe
189
190 Anamika Bhargava and Julia Gorelik
and patch-clamp pipette (5, 6). In this method, the glass micropi-
pette first scans the cell surface using current feedback and a high-
resolution topographic image of the cell surface is obtained. The
same glass micropipette is then positioned over the region of inter-
est on the cell surface as determined by SICM and single ion chan-
nel currents are recorded using patch-clamp technique. Therefore,
smart patch-clamp can record ion channel activity from precise
microdomains on the surface of live cells and thus can generate a
spatial functional map of surface ion channels. In contrast, in con-
ventional patch-clamp method the position of the pipette with
respect to the cell topography cannot be controlled with a nano-
scale precision. This technique, though recently developed, has
already led to the determination of the spatial distribution of ion
channels which may help to unravel the mechanisms of the local-
ized control of cell signalling and function (6). In this chapter we
describe the smart patch-clamp technique and its application to
various cell types.
1.1 Principle SICM is a microscopy, which generates high-resolution topogra-

of Operation of SICM phy images of live cells. A glass micropipette used as the scanning
probe, scans over the cell surface at the distance of one pipette tip
radius without touching the surface. SICM is based on the phe-
nomenon that the ion current through the solution-filled micropi-
pette is partially occluded when the pipette approaches the surface
of a cell (7). Therefore, the position of the tip of the pipette rela-
tive to the cell surface strongly influences the ion current through
the pipette. This ion current is digitized and fed into the feedback
and scan control system which provides the feedback signal to con-
trol the vertical position of the tip of pipette keeping a constant
pipette-sample separation (Fig. 1). Distance-modulated feedback
control system is designed to maintain the ion current through the
pipette constant and this results in keeping pipette-sample separa-
tion constant (8). The ion current through the pipette depends on
overall resistance of the tip, which is combination of the resistance
of the micropipette itself (Rp) and the access resistance (Ra) of the
micropipette opening. Access resistance is a complex function of
the distance between the sample and the probe, and the geometry
and electrochemical properties of the sample surface. The current
(I) through the pipette, which is measured directly, is given by:
I = V / (Rp + Ra (d))
where “V” is the voltage applied to the electrode and “d” is the
distance between sample and the probe.
In the first implementation of SICM a continuous feedback
mechanism kept the pipette always in the proximity of the sample
surface by moving the pipette up and down while the pipette was
raster scanning the sample (9, 10). However, because the tip of the
Smart Patch-Clamp 191
Fig. 1 Schematic of the smart patch-clamp setup. The micropipette is mounted

on a three-axis piezo actuator controlled by a computer. The ion current that
flows through the pipette is measured by a patch-clamp amplifier, and it is used
for the feedback control to keep a constant distance between the micropipette
and the sample during scanning. Upon completion of the scanning protocol,
computer control is used to position the micropipette at a place of interest based
on the topographic image acquired, and finally the same patch-clamp amplifier
is used for electrophysiological recording. Modified from ref. 5
probe was very close to the sample, it had limited ability to scan cell
surfaces with prominent tall structures such as microvilli. When the
structures were taller than the pipette-sample separation the probe
often broke itself or damaged the surface structures.
Therefore the technique was further developed and “hopping
mode” SICM was introduced (11). In hopping mode SICM, at each
imaging point, the pipette approaches the sample from a starting
position that is well above any of the surface features. At this starting
position the reference current is measured at an applied voltage. The
pipette then approaches the cell surface until the current is reduced
by a predefined set-point, usually 0.25–1 %. The position of
z-dimension actuator when the current achieves this reduction is
recorded as the height of the sample at this imaging point. The
z-dimension actuator then withdraws the pipette away from the
cell surface to the starting point and the sample is moved laterally
to the next imaging point. The reference current is continuously
updated while the pipette is away from the surface to account for
any slow drifts in the pipette current. This achieves unprecedented
accuracy in revealing the topography of various cell surfaces.
1.2 Applications Since its development in 2002 by Yuri Korchev and colleagues (5, 6),
of Smart Patch-Clamp smart patch-clamp technique has been applied in a wide variety of
experimental settings. The most popular application of smart patch-
clamp is recording ion currents from structures that are too small to
be resolved conventionally or that cannot be detected by light
microscopy. The best example of this kind is L-type calcium channel
(LTCC) recordings from T-tubules of isolated adult rat cardiomyo-

yctes where these channel are preferentially localized and are in close
proximity to other proteins involved in excitation-contraction cou-
pling. A spatial map of LTCC obtained by smart patch-clamp pro-
vided direct evidence of functional ion channel location which was
only speculated by conventional microscopy techniques (6).
Smart patch-clamp can be used to record ion currents from
very small cells and subcellular structures (e.g., sperm cells, fine
focal swellings in dendritic neurons, synaptic neuronal boutons)
which are otherwise cumbersome to patch with conventional
methods (5). In this case feedback control is very useful as the glass
micropipette will not touch the cell until it is desired and feedback
control is switched off; therefore there is no danger of damage to
the cell or pipette.
Another remarkable application of smart patch-clamp is ion
channel recordings from precise location on non-transparent sam-
ples (e.g., aorta, brain slices). It has been otherwise impossible to
get information about the position or type of cellular structures
from which the recordings are being made.
1.3 Future of Smart The full potential of smart patch-clamp is yet to be explored. For
Patch-Clamp instance, smart patch-clamp can potentially be used to identify
electrophysiological changes associated with morphological
changes that are associated with cell differentiation from precursor
cells. This approach may prove very useful in characterizing cells
when differentiating from either embryonic stem-cells or induced
pluripotent stem cells.
Another useful implementation would be to combine smart
patch-clamp with studying cell signalling. Ion channels are mem-
brane proteins involved in protein–protein interactions and are
also target proteins for many effector molecules such as second
messengers. Therefore smart patch-clamp can be applied to study
the role of ion channel in cell signalling in precise microdomains of
the cell. Modulation of ion channels by signalling molecules such
as cAMP or cGMP can be studied together with the use of biosen-
sors for these signalling molecules. Successful recent study of cAMP
signalling in different membrane domains of cardiomyocytes using
SICM and imaging techniques presented possible application of
smart patch-clamp to cell signalling studies (13).
2 Materials
2.1 Cells Smart patch-clamp can be applied to a wide variety of cells ranging
from large adult rat cardiomyocytes to small cells like sea urchin
spermatozoa and even to subcellular structures such as neuronal
synaptic boutons (5, 6). Isolated live cells can be evaluated for a
number of ion channels and receptors. In this chapter we describe
the study of LTCCs on the surface of isolated adult rat cardiomyo-

cytes. The procedure for isolation of adult rat cardiomyocytes from
whole rat hearts has been described in details elsewhere (12).
2.2 Recording Smart patch-clamp similarly to conventional patch-clamp requires

Solutions specific ionic solutions to be used for each ion channel. For example
for recording LTCC currents from adult cardiomyocytes in cell-
attached voltage-clamp mode following solutions can be used:
1. Pipette solution: 90 mM BaCl2, 10 mM Sucrose, 10 mM
HEPES, pH 7.4 with TEA-OH; ~250 mOsm.
2. Bath solution: 120 mM k-gluconate, 25 mM KCl, 2 mM
MgCl2, 1 mM CaCl2, 2 mM EGTA, 10 mM Glucose, 10 mM
HEPES, pH 7.4 with NaOH; ~290 mOsm.
2.3 Micropipettes Pipettes used in smart patch-clamp are essentially no different from
those used in conventional patch-clamp. The best and most com-
monly used material is borosilicate glass. We use borosilicate glass
capillaries of 1.00 mm outer and 0.5 mm inner diameters (Intracel
LTD or Harvard apparatus). However, the size of pipette tip used
in smart patch-clamp is much smaller than in conventional patch-
clamp in order to obtain a high-resolution topography image.
Once pulled using a laser based puller, there is no need for addi-
tional fabrication such as fire polishing or Sylgard coating for smart
patch-clamp pipettes. We pull pipettes with inner tip diameter of
about 100 nm and when filled with pipette solution that gives an
average tip resistance of 100 MΩ.
2.4 Pipette Puller Although any puller can be used, from our experience laser based
puller (P-2000, Sutter Instrument Co., San Rafael, CA) is a reli-
able instrument for reproducible pulling of pipettes of same shape
and size.
2.5 Instrumentation The instrument uses an inverted microscope (e.g., Diaphot 200 or
for SICM TE200; Nikon Corporation, Tokyo, Japan). On the microscope
stage a computer controlled three axis piezotranslation system with
100 × 100 μm x–y piezo-stage for sample positioning and 25 μm
z-axis piezo-actuator for pipette movement is mounted (ICnano
sample scan system, Ionscope Ltd, UK). The glass micropipette is
mounted on the z-piezo stage and connected to the headstage of an
amplifier. A number of high quality patch-clamp amplifiers are now
available from a number of suppliers. The most common suppliers
are HEKA (Germany) and Molecular devices (Sunnyvale, CA,
USA). Smart patch-clamp can use any of the commercial amplifiers
with either a resistive or capacitive feedback headstage like Axopatch
200B or Multiclamp 700B (Molecular devices Sunnyvale, CA).
Ag/AgCl electrodes, in the bath and pipette, provide an electrical
connection in a conventional electrophysiological circuit.
2.6 Instrumentation Smart patch-clamp uses the electronic components of a conven-

for Patch-Clamp tional patch-clamp setup: a patch-clamp amplifier that is used by
both SICM and patch-clamp recordings, a digitizer (analog-to-
digital converter), and a computer with appropriate software.
Digitizer and compatible software (pCLAMP) for data acquisition
are available easily from molecular devices (Sunnyvale, CA); see also
Chapter 7 of this book for further details.
3 Methods
1. Plate cells onto culture dishes or glass coverslips coated with

laminin (see Note 1).
2. Once the cells adhere to the culture dish, wash once with
external recording solution and mount on the microscope for
smart patch-clamp bathed in the external recording solution.
3. Pull a glass pipette using borosilicate glass capillary, about
100 MΩ resistance when filled with internal recording solution
(see Note 2), and mount on the piezo stage.
4. Lower the pipette into the external recording solution and
adjust for any current offset using amplifier’s offset protocol.
5. Apply a command holding voltage ranging from 100 to
200 mV to measure the ion current flowing through the pipette
6. Using the scanning software select a current feedback set-point
where the Z piezo is hopping with regular movements.
7. Perform SICM of the desired cell surface in the hopping mode
by computer controlled software.
8. Once a high-resolution topographic image is obtained, click
on the coordinates of this image to precisely position the
pipette onto the desired structure on the cell surface (exemplified
in Fig. 2).
9. Turn feedback off through the scanning software and lower
the pipette manually with 20–30 nm step movements.
10. Monitor the pipette resistance when lowering the pipette, and
apply suction when an increase in the resistance is seen. A GΩ
seal is usually obtained at this point.
11. Perform single ion channel recording by conventional patch-
clamp technique using pCLAMP software with any
configuration desired, e.g., cell-attached, inside-out or out-
side-out mode (exemplified in Fig. 3; see Notes 5–7). Some
further details on single channel recording techniques can be
found in Chapters 7 and 10 of this book.
Fig. 2 Principle of operation of smart patch-clamp. (a) A micropipette approaches the cell surface and reaches
a defined separation distance (d ) whereupon the distance is kept constant by SICM feedback control. (b) The
SICM software scans this micropipette over the cell surface and positions it at a place of interest for patch-
clamp recording. (c) The micropipette is lowered to form a gigaohm seal for patch-clamp recording from the
selected structure. Reproduced with permission from ref. 5
4 Notes
1. It is not necessary to coat commercial culture dishes with lami-

nin if the cells can adhere without. Also poly-d-lysine can be
used instead of laminin depending on the cell type.
2. A common problem with these high-resistance scanning
pipettes is that they get blocked very easily if the solutions are
not properly filtered. We use 0.02 μm filters from Whatman.
3. If there are bubbles in the pipette tip, the high tip resistance
can be deceptive and you may not get a high-resolution image.
a d
b e
Patch-clamping
0 mV
-80 mV
1 pA
50 ms
Ensemble average (n=12)

-80 mV
0 mV
0.5pA
50ms
c f
Z-groove T tubule
S
L-type
T-tubule opening Ca2+ channels
(2.0 Ch/µm2)
Fig. 3 LTCC channel distribution in the cardiomyocyte membrane: mapping of ion channels by the smart patch-
clamp technique. (a) Adult rat cardiomyocyte and micropipette as seen optically by the microscope.
(b) Experimental topographic image of a representative rat cardiomyocyte membrane. Z-grooves, T-tubule
opening, and characteristic sarcomere units are marked. (c) Functional schematic of sarcomere units showing
position of the probed region (Z-groove, T-tubule opening and scallop crest). Probabilities of forming a GΩ seal
as a function of surface position are shown in parenthesis. (d) Cell-attached Ba2+ currents at voltages of +20,
0, −20 mV. (e) Several current traces elicited at 0 mV from one patch and ensemble average of 12 traces
showing typical LTCC current kinetics. (f) Statistical distribution of LTCCs with the highest density near the
T-tubule opening. Reproduced with permission from ref. 6
We use a microscope attached to a camera to check the pipette

for any bubbles after filling with electrolyte every time we
mount a pipette.
4. As with conventional patch-clamp, do not try to scan with
blocked or dirty pipette. It will never obtain a good image.
5. Composition of external (bath) and internal (pipette) solutions
also depend on the configuration being used. For example in
cell attached and inside out configurations external solution

for cell is filled inside the pipette. Also, the membrane poten-
tial of cell-attached and inside out patch is negative of the com-
mand voltage set on the patch-clamp amplifier. Therefore the
experimenter has to adjust the polarity of the applied voltage.
This can be done easily be setting the command voltage as
negative of the desired voltage. For example to hold the patch
at −80 mV the experimenter has to apply 80 mV command
voltage.
6. It is common to record calcium currents with barium as a
charge carrier to better resolve the currents through voltage
gated calcium channels.
7. It is also common to invert the current traces recorded in cell
attached and inside out configurations so that inward currents
are displayed as downward deflections to agree with the cur-
rent conventions in electrophysiology.
References
1. Alonso G, Widmer H (1997) Clustering of 8. Shevchuk AI, Gorelik J, Harding SE, Lab
KV4.2 potassium channels in postsynaptic MJ, Klenerman D, Korchev YE (2001)
membrane of rat supraoptic neurons: an ultra- Simultaneous measurement of Ca2+ and cellu-
structural study. Neuroscience 77:617–621 lar dynamics: combined scanning ion conduc-
2. Angelides KJ (1986) Fluorescently labelled tance and optical microscopy to study
Na + channels are localized and immobilized to contracting cardiac myocytes. Biophys J 81:
synapses of innervated muscle fibres. Nature 1759–1764
321:63–66 9. Hansma PK, Drake B, Marti O, Gould SA,
3. Alkondon M, Pereira EF, Albuquerque EX Prater CB (1989) The scanning ion-conduc-
(1996) Mapping the location of functional tance microscope. Science 243:641–643
nicotinic and gamma-aminobutyric acidA 10. Korchev YE, Milovanovic M, Bashford CL,
receptors on hippocampal neurons. J Pharmacol Bennett DC, Sviderskaya EV, Vodyanoy I, Lab
Exp Ther 279:1491–1506 MJ (1997) Specialized scanning ion-conduc-
4. Frosch MP, Dichter M (1992) Non-uniform tance microscope for imaging of living cells.
distribution of GABA activated chloride chan- J Microsc 188:17–23
nels in cultured cortical neurons. Neurosci 11. Novak P, Li C, Shevchuk AI, Stepanyan R,
Lett 138:59–62 Caldwell M, Hughes S, Smart TG, Gorelik J,
5. Gorelik J, Gu Y, Spohr HA, Shevchuk AI, Lab Ostanin VP, Lab MJ, Moss GW, Frolenkov GI,
MJ, Harding SE, Edwards CR, Whitaker M, Klenerman D, Korchev YE (2009) Nanoscale
Moss GW, Benton DC, Sanchez D, Darszon live-cell imaging using hopping probe ion
A, Vodyanoy I, Klenerman D, Korchev YE conductance microscopy. Nat Methods 6:
(2002) Ion channels in small cells and subcel- 279–281
lular structures can be studied with a smart 12. Vescovo G, Jones SM, Harding SE, Poole-
patch-clamp system. Biophys J 83:3296–3303 Wilson PA (1989) Isoproterenol sensitivity of
6. Gu Y, Gorelik J, Spohr HA, Shevchuk A, Lab isolated cardiac myocytes from rats with mono-
MJ, Harding SE, Vodyanoy I, Klenerman D, crotaline-induced right-sided hypertrophy and
Korchev YE (2002) High-resolution scanning heart failure. J Mol Cell Cardiol 21:1047–1061
patch-clamp: new insights into cell function. 13. Nikolaev VO, Moshkov A, Lyon AR, Miragoli
FASEB J 16:748–750 M, Novak P, Paur H, Lohse MJ, Korchev YE,
7. Korchev YE, Bashford CL, Milovanovic M, Harding SE, Gorelik J (2010) Beta2-
Vodyanoy I, Lab MJ (1997) Scanning ion con- adrenergic receptor redistribution in heart
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73:653–658 Science 327:1653–1657
Part III
Imaging and Fluorescence Methods to Study Ion Channels

Chapter 15
Using Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy

to Observe Ion Channel Trafficking and Assembly
Sarah Schwarzer, Gregory I. Mashanov, Justin E. Molloy,
and Andrew Tinker
Abstract
Ion channels are integral membrane proteins that allow the flow of ions across membranes down their
electrochemical gradients and are a major determinant of cellular excitability. They play an important role
in a variety of biological processes as diverse as insulin release from beta cells in the pancreas through to
cardiac and smooth muscle contraction. We have used total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) micros-
copy to watch ion channels being transported in vesicles along microtubules within the cytoplasm of the
cell. Furthermore, we can directly observe the fusion of these vesicles with the plasma membrane and the
release and radial dispersion of single ion channels into the membrane. Finally, automated single-particle
tracking of these objects allowed us to determine their diffusional behavior.
Key words Total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM), Single molecule detection,
Potassium channel, Vesicle, Fluorescence, Plasma membrane
1 Introduction
Membranes consist of a lipid bilayer which makes them impermeable
for most molecules including ions. In biological membranes, ion
channels form pores which, with varying selectivity, allow ions to
pass at a high rate through the membrane down their electrochemical
gradient. Ion channel activity can be modulated directly by ligand
binding, membrane potential, second messengers (such as Ca2+ or
cyclic-AMP), protein–protein interactions, and phosphorylation
(1). Potassium channels are the largest family of ion channels and
they are important for maintenance of the membrane resting poten-
tial, hormone secretion, regulation of excitability, repolarization of
the action potential, and its shape and frequency (2–4). Potassium
channels are homo- or heteromeric proteins consisting of the pore-
forming alpha subunit and in some cases additional beta subunits,
which can be cytosolic or integral membrane proteins (5).
201
202 Sarah Schwarzer et al.
The function of ion channels can be studied in exquisite detail

using patch clamping to the point where opening of single channels
can be observed with a millisecond time resolution. In addition to
this measurement of electrical activity it would be revealing to
directly observe single vesicles carrying ion channels towards the
plasma membrane and the movement of single ion channels in
the membrane of cells. Confocal microscopy allows the analysis of
the ion channel subcellular localization and can identify single vesi-
cles; however it is not easy to identify single molecules. In contrast,
laser-based total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy
(TIRFM) combined with use of highly sensitive camera systems has
sufficient signal-to-noise ratio and sensitivity to identify single
fluorophores. Furthermore, by tracking the motion of individual mol-
ecules moving at the plasma membrane, using automated algo-
rithms, information about protein mobility, membrane structure, and
protein–membrane and protein–protein interaction can be obtained.
We have developed methodologies to study the trafficking, mem-
brane fusion, and single molecule diffusion of potassium channels
in the plasma membrane of living cells using a combination of recom-
binant gene technology, cell transfection, and novel imaging
techniques (6). We first tag the protein of interest with a fluorescent
protein such as enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) or
monomeric red fluorescent protein (mRFP) using standard cloning
methodologies. Transfection techniques then allow the expression
of a low level of the channel in HEK293 or the cardiac derived
HL-1 cells (7). Using tagged fluorescent proteins is convenient,
because we know they are bound to the protein of interest; the
biogenesis and transport of the channel can be studied and adjust-
ing the transfection method can regulate the expression level.
2 Materials
2.1 Cloning 1. pEGFP-N1 vector from Clonetech.
2. mRFP vector (8).
2.2 Cell Culture 1. Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution, pH 7.4.

and Transfection 2. Minimal essential medium with Earle’s Salts, l-glutamine sup-
2.2.1 HEK293-Cells plemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 1% penicillin/
(Human Embryonic Kidney streptomycin.
Cell Line) 3. Lipofectamine 2000 (Invitrogen) or TurboFect (Fermentas)
transfection reagent.
2.2.2 HL-1 Cells (from 1. PBS solution, pH 7.4.

Prof. W. C. Claycomb) (9) 2. Gelatin/fibronectin for culturing.
TIRF Microscopy for Ion Channel Trafficking 203
3. Claycomb medium (proprietary formulation SAFC, http://

www.sigmaaldrich.com/etc./medialib/docs/Sigma/Product_
Information_Sheet/p51800.Par.0001.File.tmp/p51800.pdf)
(see Note 1) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (Sigma),
2 mM l-glutamine, 100 units/mL of penicillin, 100 μg/mL of
streptomycin, and 0.1 mM norepinephrine (Sigma).
4. FuGENE HD transfection reagent (Roche Applied Science).
5. 25 mm glass coverslips No. 1 (BDH).
2.3 Single Molecule 1. Sealed imaging chambers.

Microscopy and 2. Hanks’ balanced salts solution containing 10% fetal calf serum
Analysis (FCS), 20 mM HEPES, pH 7.4 (all Sigma).
3. Inverted microscope, i.e., Zeiss Aviovert-100TV (Ziess, UK).
4. Objective lens, Alpha-plan 100×, NA 1.45 (i.e., from Ziess,
UK).
5. Blue laser, 488 nm, 20 mW (we use Protera 488, Novalux,
Sunnyvale, CA).
6. Green laser, 532 nm, 50 mW (we use Suwtech 532–50, SP3-
Plus Tunbridge Wells, UK).
7. Laser grade beam expanders, lenses, and mirrors for TIRF
illumination.
8. Microscope 37 °C incubator (i.e., Solent Scientific,
Segensworth, UK).
9. EMCCD camera, i.e., iXon-897BV (Andor, UK).
10. GMimPro image analysis software (www.nimr.mrc.ac.uk/
gmimpro/).
3 Methods
3.1 Generation 1. Standard molecular cloning approaches can be used to fuse the
of Fluorescent relevant potassium channels or other genes of interest in frame
Constructs with a fluorescent protein.
2. In our studies a fusion between human KCNQ1 and the
enhanced variant of the green fluorescent protein (eGFP) was
created using PCR. The long isoform of KCNQ1 without the
termination codon was amplified by PCR using a high-fidelity
polymerase with EcoRI/XbaI restriction sites and subcloned
into pcDNA3. eGFP was amplified by PCR including 5¢ and 3¢
XbaI and ApaI restriction sites and cloned in frame to the
C-terminus of KCNQ1 in pcDNA3. An alternative strategy is
to use the eGFP vectors (see Note 2).
3.2 HL-1 Cell 1. Seed HL-1 cells at very low density (1:20) on 25 mm glass
Preparation and coverslips 48 h before transfection.
Transfection 2. Transfect the cells using FuGENE HD transfection reagent;
the transfection complex consists of 97 μL Claycomb medium,
5 μL FUGENE HD, and the 1–2 μg of DNA. Add this mix to
the cell culture and incubate for 24 h.
3. Perform experiments 24–48 h after transfection (see Note 3).
3.3 HEK293 Cell 1. Seed HEK293 cells at a higher density (1:5) in 35-mm dishes
Preparation and 24 h before transfection.
Transfection 2. Transfect the cells using Lipofectamine 2000 or TurboFECT
and split the day after onto 25 mm glass coverslips at a very low
density (1:15) (see Note 4).
3.4 Solution and 1. It is important to use Hank’s buffered salt solution for TIRF
Imaging Chamber microscopy to reduce background fluorescence; additionally it
buffers the pH in our sealed imaging chamber.
2. For lengthy experiments it is advisable to use medium with the
addition of 10% FCS. Our experience shows that the fully
sealed, custom-built, imaging chamber works best.
3. Cells cultured on 25 mm glass coverslips are placed in the
chamber topped by a silicone O-ring and covered by another
coverslip to seal the chamber. This custom-built chamber
allows one (via two ports on opposite sides of the chamber) to
insert hypodermic syringe needles connected to syringes to fill
the chamber with the medium.
4. The chamber is fixed securely to the stage of the microscope.
5. The temperature during the experiment is regulated by using a
microscope 37 °C incubator and a custom-made airflow heater
system.
3.5 Microscopy 1. Microscope. Our TIRFM imaging system was custom-built

around an inverted microscope mounted on vibration isolation
air table. Two laser beams (488 and 532 nm) were combined
and made colinear using a dichroic mirror and were then
expanded using a Galilean beam expander. Light was then
focused using a 100 mm focal length achromatic doublet lens
onto a small (3 mm diameter) silvered mirror located at one
edge of the back focal plane of a high-numerical-aperture
objective lens suitable for TIRFM (we use AlphaPlan, 100×,
NA 1.45, Zeiss, Jena, Germany). The incident laser beam angle
was adjusted to 64° so that it was totally internally reflected at
the glass–water interface creating an evanescent field at the
coverslip surface. A second mirror, positioned at the oppo-
site edge of the objective lens back aperture, was used to cou-
ple the returning, totally internally reflected, laser beam out of
Fig. 1 TIRF microscope images of HEK293 cells transfected with KCNQ1-GFP. (a) Image of a video showing
vesicles containing KCNQ1-GFP. (b) Tracking analysis of the video displaying the vesicle movements. (c) Single
molecules (KCNQ1-GFP) in the plasma membrane
the microscope light path. This beam was then directed onto a
position-sensitive photodiode to enable automatic focus
control.
2. To visualize eGFP and mRFP in the same specimen, appropri-
ate laser excitation (488 or 532 nm) and emission filter
(ET525/50M for eGFP; HQ590/50M for mRFP) were
selected.
3. Important criteria for the choice of camera are high sensitivity,
low readout noise and fast acquisition rate (20–50 frames s-1).
We used an electron multiplied CCD camera (EMCCD), which
is currently the best choice for high-speed single fluorophore
imaging within living cells because the signal generated at every
CCD element is multiplied before the readout giving increased
sensitivity and lower relative readout noise (see Note 5).
3.6 Image Analysis 1. Vesicles can be identified as bright punctate objects moving
just below the plasma membrane in following straight-line tra-
jectories (Fig. 1a, b). On occasion these vesicles would stall
and fuse with the membrane and single molecules (Fig. 1c)
would radially disperse from the site of fusion (see Note 6).
2. Video sequences are stored to computer hard disc and then
analyzed using custom-written image processing software,
which is available free of charge for academic users (http://
www.nimr.mrc.ac.uk/gmimpro/) (10). The computer pro-
gram automatically detects and tracks individual fluorescent
spots which are diffraction limited in size, have an average
intensity corresponding to that of a single fluorophore (mea-
sured under controlled conditions), and which show single-
step photobleaching. The software allows simultaneous
tracking of multiple objects (up to a thousand) within each
record and produces an output file that contains the inte-
grated intensity (measured over a 5 × 5 pixel region) and the

x, y coordinates (with sub-pixel resolution) for every spot on
all video frames. This permits downstream analysis of the spa-
tial and intensity trajectories which might include analysis of
diffusional behavior from plots of mean squared displacement
versus time interval and intensity changes by inspection of
individual trajectories or by histogramming methods (see
Note 7).
4 Notes
1. Contact details: Professor William C. Claycomb, PhD,
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 1901
Perdido St., Box P7-2, Medical Education Building Room
7238, New Orleans, LA 70112, [email protected].
2. Fluorescent proteins are convenient and widely used to track
protein localization and biogenesis. However the protein tag
can affect function and this has to be independently assessed.
For instance, here we were able to check the function of
KCNQ1-GFP channels by patch-clamping and comparing our
results with those obtained from wild-type KCNQ channels
(11). A drawback of fluorescent protein tags is that they are
not as bright and photobleach more rapidly than small organic
fluorophores (such as Cy3B). We have found that observation
of single eGFP fluorophores within live cells is readily achiev-
able but requires careful choice of equipment and optimization
of imaging conditions (12).
3. For single molecule experiments with TIRFM very low cDNA
concentrations are necessary. Systematic variations of the trans-
fection conditions are important to optimize a low level of pro-
tein expression. For example it may be necessary to vary the
amount of DNA, change the transfection reagent, the transfec-
tion time or cell density. For example, the transfected DNA
concentration for KCNQ1 was 40 ng in our studies (6). In
some circumstances we would transfect a range of concentra-
tions and use the one that worked best.
4. If several plasmids need to be transfected together it can be
helpful to sequentially transfect them one after the other to
ensure comparable expression at the site of interest. This arises
from differences in protein turnover rates of the various con-
structs. Similar titrations of transfection conditions might also
be necessary with HEK293 cells.
5. We found that image intensified CCD cameras (ICCDs) have
sufficient sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio to image single
fluorophores, but the intensifier system creates spatial and tem-
poral noise which makes them inferior to EMCCD cameras.
A recent generation of CMOS cameras (made by various

manufacturers) presents exciting new possibilities because they
allow very fast readout rates. However, currently CMOS cam-
eras appear to have slightly lower signal-to-noise than EMCCD
architectures.
6. To obtain cells in which vesicular cargo transport can be
observed, it is best to examine cells relatively early after trans-
fection. Vesicle fusion events are relatively rare.
7. We found it difficult to identify multistep photobleaching of sin-
gle ion channels as might be expected to occur for the known
tetrameric structure of KCNQ. We think this is due to a combina-
tion of factors: photobleaching of GFP is relatively rapid so it is
not always possible to observe the early bleaching events (expected
for a multimer); since GFP undergoes fluorescence “blinking,”
oligomeric complexes can exhibit complicated intensity trajecto-
ries; finally because ion channels diffuse rapidly at the membrane
they often come close (within the diffraction-limited spacing,
~350 nm) to one another, causing large intensity fluctuations,
and it is difficult to disentangle the intensity contribution arising
from each object. However, one approach is to analyze histogram
of the intensity distribution of the whole population measured at
each time frame. If the intensity of each spot arises from multiple
fluorophores then, for statistical reasons, one expects the shape of
the histogram to change in a systematic fashion over time (as the
population shifts, on average from 4 > 3 > 2 > 1 fluorophores per
object). This approach is discussed and presented in detail in (6).
Acknowledgments
The work in our laboratories is supported by the Medical Research

Council, Wellcome Trust, and British Heart Foundation. This
work forms part of the research themes contributing to the trans-
lational research portfolio of Barts Cardiovascular Biomedical
Research Unit which is supported and funded by the National
Institute for Health Research.
References
1. Cooper EC, Jan LY (1999) Ion channel genes Ligand and voltage-gated ion channels. CRC,
and human neurological disease: recent prog- Boca Raton, FL, pp 1–71
ress, prospects, and challenges. Proc Natl Acad 4. Isomoto S, Kondo C, Kurachi Y (1997)
Sci U S A 96:4759–4766 Inwardly rectifying potassium channels: their
2. Jan LY, Jan YN (1997) Cloned potassium molecular heterogeneity and function. Jpn J
channels from eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Physiol 1997(47):11–39
Annu Rev Neurosci 20:91–123 5. Tinker A (2002) The assembly and targeting of
3. Chandy KG, Gutman GA (1995) Voltage- potassium channels. In: Henley J, Moss SJ (eds)
gated potassium channel genes. In: North RA The assembly and targeting of ion channels.
(ed) Handbook of receptors and channels. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 28–57
6. Mashanov GI, Nobles M, Harmer SC, Molloy use of cultured HL-1 cardiomyocytes for
JE, Tinker A (2010) Direct observation of studies of cardiac muscle cell structure and
individual KCNQ1 potassium channels reveals function. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol
their distinctive diffusive behaviour. J Biol 286:H823–H829
Chem 285:3664–3675 10. Mashanov GI, Molloy JE (2007) Automatic
7. Claycomb WC, Lanson NA Jr, Stallworth BS, detection of single fluorophores in live cells.
Egeland DB, Delcarpio JB, Bahinski A, Izzo Biophys J 92:2199–2211
NJ Jr (1998) HL-1 cells: a cardiac muscle cell 11. Wilson AJ, Quinn KV, Graves FM, Bitner-
line that contracts and retains phenotypic char- Glindzicz M, Tinker A (2005) Abnormal
acteristics of the adult cardiomyocyte. Proc KCNQ1 trafficking influences disease patho-
Natl Acad Sci U S A 95:2979–2984 genesis in hereditary long QT syndromes
8. Campbell RE, Tour O, Palmer AE, Steinbach (LQT1). Cardiovasc Res 67: 476–486
PA, Baird GS, Zacharias DA, Tsien RY (2002) 12. Nenasheva TA, Mashanov GI, Peckham M,
A monomeric red fluorescent protein. Proc Molloy JE (2011) Imaging individual myosin
Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:7877–7882 molecules within living cells. Methods Mol
9. White SM, Constantin PE, Claycomb WC Biol 778:123–142
(2004) Cardiac physiology at the cellular level:
Chapter 16
Förster Resonance Energy Transfer-Based Imaging

at the Cell Surface of Live Cells
Sonya M. Bierbower and Mark S. Shapiro
Abstract
Understanding the molecular mechanisms of protein–protein interactions at the cell surface of living cells
is fundamental to identifying the nature of cellular processes. Here, we discuss how fluorescence-based
approaches have been successfully developed to visualize protein–protein interactions in living cells. Förster
resonance energy transfer (FRET) is unique in generating fluorescence signals between proteins that are
highly spatially sensitive. Furthermore, total internal reflectance fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy com-
bined with FRET is a robust technique used to assay protein/protein interactions and the functionality of
proteins assembled at the cell surface membrane.
Key words Protein–protein interactions, Cell surface, FRET, TIRF, Live-cell imaging
1 Introduction
Biological systems are composed of basic physiological and chemi-

cal processes in which molecular events among thousands can be
feasibly studied through optical imaging techniques. Fluorescence
microscopy is a powerful tool in the biomedical and biological sci-
ences enabling visualization of the myriad proteins and processes
of cellular physiology. Progress has been made in the last decade in
developing methods in different modes of epifluorescence micros-
copy. One method of detecting molecular interactions involves
Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) in which energy is trans-
ferred from a “donor” fluorophore in an excited state whose emis-
sion spectrum overlaps the absorption spectrum of an “acceptor”
fluorophore (1). The FRET efficiency depends on many factors,
but the most critical is the donor–acceptor distance, with the
efficiency maximal at ~50Å (ro), a distance only expected if the
donor and acceptor fluorophores are in intimate proximity. What
makes FRET such good evidence of intermolecular interactions is
that the FRET efficiency declines with the inverse sixth power of
209
210 Sonya M. Bierbower and Mark S. Shapiro
the donor–acceptor distance, more precisely 1/(R − ro)6, where R

is the distance between donor and acceptor (2). Thus, although
the FRET efficiency is dependent on other factors, such as the
degree of overlap of the donor emission and acceptor absorption
spectra, the relative orientation of the donor absorption and accep-
tor transition moments, and the refractive index of the medium,
the steep dependence on distance makes this approach powerful
in establishing the physical interaction between fluorescent
molecules (3).
Traditional FRET experiments on membrane proteins per-
formed under confocal microscopy have often been hampered by
contamination of events at the plasma membrane, which are most
relevant, by those occurring in the cytoplasm. Thus, a major tool
in the field is the use of total internal reflectance fluorescence
(TIRF) microscopy, which exploits the behavior of light at the
interface between two media of differing refractive index. At such
an interface, at an angle greater than a critical angle, the main light
beam does not penetrate the second medium, but rather is totally
internally reflected back into the first medium. However, a compo-
nent of the light energy, called the evanescent wave, does penetrate
into the second medium at a perpendicular angle and, importantly,
decays away exponentially with distance (4, 5). At a glass/water
interface typical of living cells in solution, and using a fluorescent
microscope objective with numerical aperture (N.A.) of typically
1.45, the evanescent wave, and thus the excitation of the cell, only
penetrates to a depth of ~200 nm. Thus, if one is performing FRET
experiments under TIRF illumination, only fluorophores located
within or close to the plasma membrane are selectively detected
within the evanescent field, whereas molecules in the cytoplasm
will not be illuminated. This allows for a drastic reduction in the
fluorescence background coming from irrelevant proteins in the
cytoplasm, and a very high signal-to-background ratio in and
around the membrane of living cells. TIRF combined with FRET
is especially useful for studying the interactions among plasma
membrane proteins such as ion channels, receptors, and their asso-
ciated signaling molecules, and trafficking events in which the
movement of proteins into or away from the membrane can be
visualized in real time. Examples of the TIRF/FRET approach
include interactions among G-proteins, enzymes, ion channels,
scaffolding proteins, and other associated proteins. For example,
GTPases were shown to regulate trafficking of Kir2.1 channels (6),
calmodulin, and A-kinase anchoring protein 79/150 binding to
M-Type (KCNQ) K+ channels (7, 8) and activation of GIRK K+
channels by Gβγ subunits (9).
The methods and equipment discussed in this chapter utilize
enhanced cyan fluorescent protein (eCFP) and enhanced yellow
fluorescent protein (eYFP), which is the most commonly used
fluorescent protein FRET pair, and we will focus on this set of
Live TIRF-FRET Imaging 211
donor and acceptor fluorescent proteins (FPs). Given that TIRF

works best at a glass/water interface and that we are usually most
interested in dynamic events happening in living cells, our TIRF/
FRET experience is solely using live cells, as opposed to fixed cells
in which the typical mounting medium and flattened cell architec-
ture are both not very suitable. Cultured cells are most convenient
since multiple FP-tagged proteins can be transfected simultaneously
and also these cells adhere well to a glass substrate. Furthermore,
these cells can be feasibly imaged and the FRET efficiency quantified
using a regular epifluorescence microscope. Such FRET efficiency is
often measured by either quantifying the increase in emission of the
acceptor fluorophore upon energy transfer from the donor (sensi-
tized emission) or by comparing the emission of the donor before
and after photobleaching of the acceptor (acceptor photobleaching,
donor dequenching). The former method is best when dynamic
FRET is sought, since neither fluorophore is destroyed during a
sequence of images, but necessitates a careful series of control
images. On the other hand, the latter method is most efficient when
a static FRET measurement is the goal, and is also relatively simple
to quantify accurately. This chapter describes how to perform
TIRF/FRET measurements using the acceptor photobleaching
method on heterologously transfected cultured cells. We describe
the setup as currently sold by Nikon Instruments, the vendor who
sold us our TIRF/FRET setup (still in use) some 10 years ago.
2 Materials
2.1 Equipment 1. Inverted Eclipse Ti Microscope with through-the-lens TIRF

imaging (Nikon Instruments).
2. Vibration isolation system (“air table”) to minimize drift and
noise on which the microscope is situated (i.e., Technical
Manufacturing Corp., Peabody, MA, USA).
3. Laser light excitation is controlled by a computer-controlled
acoustic optical tunable filter (AOTF) that controls output by
computer. The lasers should include at least solid-state diode
lasers with 442 and 514 nm lines. Although it should be noted
that it is also possible to use an Argon (40 mW) laser output-
ting 488 and 514 nm lines for excitation of GFP and YFP,
respectively, and a 442 solid-state diode laser for excitation of
CFP, the development of economical, highly durable solid-
state lasers has largely eclipsed the use of gas lasers.
4. Microscope optics equipped with an Apo TIRF 60× oil immer-
sion high-resolution (1.45 N.A.) objective.
5. It is most helpful to have the microscope contain the following
filter cubes: wide-field CFP and YFP, TIRF CFP and YFP, and
a cube for using the dual-view chip-splitter containing only a

dichroic mirror, as described below.
6. High-resolution charge-coupled device (EMCCD) camera
(e.g., Photometrics Cool SNAP HQ2).
7. Dual-view chip splitter (Optical Insights, Photometrics,
Tucson, AZ, USA).
2.2 Software 1. NIS-Elements for image acquisition and data analysis. The
software controls laser light delivery, microscope, and the
EMCCD camera (Nikon Instruments).
2. Microsoft Excel (used in conjunction with NIS-Elements for
formula-based data analysis).
2.3 Epifluorescence 1. Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) or other suitable cell line
Imaging expressing a membrane targeted tandem construct of eCFP
and eYFP (Rho-pYC) to act as a positive control for strong
FRET efficiency. It consists of the C-terminal prenylation site
of Rho (RQKKRRGCLLL) appended to the C-terminus of a
YFP-CFP fusion protein (10) (see Note 1).
2. CHO (or equivalent) cells expressing the CFP-tagged protein
to be tested and eYFP-M (membrane bound). These act as a
negative control for FRET efficiency, since they are known to
be too far apart in the membrane to exhibit FRET, and make a
good control for “spurious” or incidental FRET.
3. Tissue-culture cells expressing the eCFP-tagged and eYFP-
membrane bound proteins that you wish to assay for molecular
interactions.
4. Cell imaging solution: 160 mM NaCl, 5 mM KCl, 1 mM
MgCl2, 2 mM CaCl2, 10 mM HEPES, pH 7.4 with NaOH.
Other suitable saline solutions are equally suitable.
5. Glass-bottom culture dishes with No. 1.5 coverglass (0.16–
0.19 mm) on the bottom, 35 mm (Mat-tek) (see Note 2).
6. Objective immersion oil.
In this chapter we are not describing protocols (and therefore not
listing any materials required) for cell culture and transfection as these
can be found elsewhere (i.e., Chapters 2, 4, and 5 of this book).
3 Methods
3.1 TIRF/FRET It is most convenient to image eCFP and eYFP emission simulta-
Experiments on neously, which can be easily performed using the dual-view chip
Cultured Cells Using splitter, which is put between the side-camera port and the CCD
Epifluorescence camera. This device is equipped with a filter cube containing a
Microscopy dichroic mirror, and emission filters of your choice. For concur-
rent eCFP/eYFP imaging, we use an HQ470 nm/30 m and
HQ550 nm/30 m emission filters for eCFP and eYFP and a

505 nm dichroic mirror for separation of emission wavelengths.
In this configuration, the microscope cube can contain only a
dual-band TIRF dichroic mirror to selectively send excitation
light to the sample, and emission light to the detector. The
approximate TIRF angle is adjusted by eye to give the signature
TIRF illumination to the experimental chamber. Any fine TIRF
angle adjustment can be made through the NIS-Elements soft-
ware. Fluorescence images are collected and processed with a
16-bit, cooled charge-coupled device camera (e.g., Photometrics
Cool SNAP HQ2) interfaced to the NIS-Elements software. This
camera uses a front-illuminated EMCCD with on-chip multiplica-
tion gain. Images are collected (100–600 ms exposure time)
immediately before and after photobleaching eYFP. Images are
not binned or filtered, with pixel size corresponding to a square of
122 × 122 nm.
3.2 Imaging of Cells 1. Just prior to fluorescence imaging, replace the cell culture
medium with an appropriate cell imaging solution
(see Subheading 2.3, step 4).
2. Place the chamber on the stage on top of the oil immersion
60× objective (1.45 N.A.).
3. Using bright field transmitted light, focus on an isolated cell.
Note that there will not be contrast optics in the light path, so
focusing on the cells will be hard. We often “find” the cells
under epifluorescence, without using transmitted light
(see Note 3).
4. Using the 200 W metal-halide lamp (which gives similar spec-
tral output to more traditional mercury vapor lamps) and alter-
nating CFP and YFP filter cubes, pick a cell with robust
expression of both fluorophores (see Note 4).
5. Under TIRF illumination and either the TIRF CFP or YFP
filter cubes, the focal plane is adjusted immediately before each
image acquisition to obtain a “sharp” TIRF image. The mem-
brane proteins should appear punctate if the cell is focused
correctly (see Note 5).
6. Take the “before” photobleaching images of the cell using the
442 and 514 nm laser lines (see Note 6).
7. Photobleach the eYFP fluorophores by using the metal-halide
lamp and the wide-field YFP filter cube for a minimum of
7–10 min, which should be sufficient to achieve >80% photo-
bleaching of the eYFP. Photobleaching is done through the
wide-field metal-halide lamp since the molecules in live cells
are diffusible in the membrane and are likely to move. Thus,
wide-field illumination allows for the eYFP fluorophores in
the entire cell to be photobleached and eliminates the

problem of limited area laser photobleaching under TIRF
illumination, which would be insufficient for donor dequench-
ing (see Note 7).
8. After photobleaching, take the “after” photobleaching images
of the cell using the same 442 and 514 nm laser lines.
9. Using the CFP “before” image, use the NIS-Elements analysis
package draw tool to trace the cell perimeter. Export the aver-
aged intensity to Excel using the log data function.
10. Using the draw tool in NIS-Elements, draw a second circle in
the blank region of the CFP “before” image to estimate the
background level. Export the averaged intensity to Excel using
the log data function.
11. Subtract the background averaged intensity from the averaged
intensity of the cell measured above. When the CFP image is
used, this yields the CFP intensity; when the YFP image is
used, this yields the YFP intensity.
12. Repeat steps 10 and 11 for each of the four images (i.e.,
“before” and “after” photobleaching for both CFP and YFP
emission images).
3.3 Quantification FRET efficiency using the acceptor photobleaching (donor

of FRET Efficiency in dequenching) paradigm is calculated as the percentage of increased
TIRF Illumination CFP emission after YFP photobleaching. The % FRET efficiency is
calculated by drawing the entire area of the cell in the CFP TIRF
image and subtracting the background in a cell-free region for each
image (see formula below). In addition, % photobleaching efficiency
is calculated by drawing the entire perimeter of the cell in the YFP
TIRF image and subtracting the background in a cell-free region
for each image.
æ (eCFPpost - eCFPpre ) ö
%FRETefficiency = ç ÷ ´ 100,
è eCFPpre ø
where CFPpre and eCFPpost are the CFP emissions before and after
YFP photobleaching, respectively.
Using the protocol detailed in this chapter, Fig. 1 shows repre-
sentative images of cells transfected with CFP and YFP before and
after YFP photobleach. Specifically, Chinese hamster ovary cells
were transfected with CFP-tagged angiotensin II AT1 receptors
and YFP-tagged KCNQ3 K+ channels. Here, FRET was measured
under TIRF illumination by the donor dequenching method and
CFP emission was significantly stronger after YFP photobleach,
indicating robust FRET.
Positive controls are used as a measure of the highest per-
centage of FRET possible. Rho-pYC is a CFP and YFP tandem
Fig. 1 Shown are images of Chinese hamster ovary cells transfected with CFP-tagged angiotensin II receptors
(AT1R) and YFP-tagged KCNQ3 K+ channels under TIRF illumination, using 442 nm or 514 nm laser lines,
respectively. Images of eCFP (left, in “rainbow pseudocolor” ) and eYFP (right, in yellow pseudocolor) emissions
are shown before or after YFP photobleach, as labeled. Note the significantly brighter eCFP emission (warmer
colors) after eYFP photobleach and the profoundly dimmer eYFP emission after 7 min photobleach under wide-
field illumination with the YFP filter cube
protein that is anchored to the membrane and thus gives an

estimate for the maximal energy transferable between two inter-
acting proteins. Conversely, a good negative control pair should
give an upper limit for “spurious FRET” between two proteins
in the membrane that do not interact, but might be accidentally
close. We commonly use a CFP-tagged membrane protein (such
as an ion channel) paired with membrane-localized YFP as such
a good negative control. Thus, the controls provide the range of
levels of FRET for data comparison, both for estimating the
strength of FRET for interacting proteins, compared to the
maximal possible, and for distinguishing two truly interacting
proteins from those that are incidentally close, but do not
interact.
4 Notes
1. Cells can typically be kept in culture for imaging for 3 days

post-transfection, but often appear to be unhealthy and do not
provide reliable data on the fourth and subsequent days post-
transfection.
2. The coverglass with bottom thickness No. 1.5 is preferable to
accommodate the short working distance of most high-power
objectives.
3. If one is comparing groups of cells, it is imperative to select
cells at a random basis that express differing fluorescence emis-
sion levels, as long as both eCFP and eYFP fluorophores are
robustly expressed. Choosing cells of mostly the same expres-
sion will lead to bias of the data.
4. For the donor-dequenching method of FRET quantification,

it is best if there are not more CFP fluorophores than YFP
fluorophores.
5. It is imperative to be sure that the cell is under TIRF illumina-
tion. A quick check can be done by moving the TIRF angle in
and out of the critical angle. Non-TIRF illumination will show
high fluorescence in the cytoplasmic area of the cell. The
nucleus should not be visible under TIRF.
6. During imaging, it is important to be sure that the excitation
and fluorescence detection parameters are set to include peak
emission wavelengths and such that saturation levels are not
reached for any pixel.
7. It is also very important to note that when searching for a cell,
a long period of exposure using the metal-halide lamp light
source has the possibility of damaging the cell as well as photo-
bleaching the FPs.
References
1. Centonze VE, Sun M, Masuda A, Gerritsen H, 7. Bal M, Zaika O, Shapiro MS (2008)
Herman B (2003) Fluorescence resonance Calmodulin binding to M-type K + channels
energy transfer imaging microscopy. Methods assayed by TIRF/FRET in living cells. J Physiol
Enzymol 360:542–560 586:2307–2320
2. Stryer L (1978) Fluorescence energy transfer 8. Bal M, Zhang J, Hernandez CC, Zaika O,
as a spectroscopic ruler. Annu Rev Biochem Shapiro MS (2010) Ca2+/calmodulin
47:819–846 disrupts AKAP79/150 interactions with
3. Erijman EA, Jovin T (2003) FRET imaging. KCNQ (M-Type) K + channels. J Neurosci
Nat Biotechnol 23:1387–1395 30: 2311–2323
4. Axelrod D, Thompson NL, Burghardt TP 9. Riven I, Iwanir S, Reuveny E (2006) GIRK
(1983) Total internal reflection fluorescent channel activation involves a local rearrange-
microscopy. J Microsc 129:19–28 ment of a preformed G protein channel com-
5. Funatsu TY, Harada M, Tokunaga K, Saito T, plex. Neuron 51:561–573
Yanagida T (1995) Imaging of single 10. Fowler CE, Aryal P, Suen KF, Slesinger PA
fluorescent molecules and individual ATP (2007) Evidence for association of GABA(B)
turnovers by single myosin molecules in aque- receptors with Kir3 channels and regulators of
ous solution. Nature 374:555–559 G protein signalling (RGS4) proteins. J Physiol
6. Boyer SB, Slesinger PA, Jones SV (2009) 580:51–65
Regulation of Kir2.1 channels by the Rho-
GTPase, Rac1. J Cell Physiol 218:385–393
Chapter 17
The Use of Dansyl-Calmodulin to Study Interactions with

Channels and Other Proteins
Alessandro Alaimo, Covadonga Malo, Pilar Areso, Kerman Aloria,
Oscar Millet, and Alvaro Villarroel
Abstract
Steady-state fluorescence spectroscopy is a biophysical technique widely employed to characterize
interactions between proteins in vitro. Only a few proteins naturally fluoresce in cells, but by covalently
attaching fluorophores virtually all proteins can be monitored. One of the first extrinsic fluorescent probes
to be developed, and that is still in use, is dansyl chloride. We have used this method to monitor the inter-
action of a variety of proteins, including ion channels, with the Ca2+-dependent regulatory protein calm-
odulin. Here we describe the preparation and use of dansyl-calmodulin (D-CaM).
Key words Fluorescence spectroscopy, Protein purification, In vitro binding, Protein labelling
1 Introduction
Fluorescence spectroscopy is a widely used approach to analyze

protein structure and function. Among the advantages of using
fluorescence techniques are their high sensitivity, enabling minute
amounts of sample material to be used, its noninvasive nature, the
presence of natural intrinsic fluorophores in proteins, and the rela-
tively simple equipment required to perform different experiments.
These techniques are useful to study biochemical parameters, such
as protein–protein interactions, conformational changes, metal
binding, cellular localization, and much more. The intrinsic
fluorescent probes in proteins are tyrosine and tryptophan resi-
dues, although the majority of studies using intrinsic protein
fluorescence focus on tryptophan as it is almost always the domi-
nant source of signal, and its fluorescence is much more sensitive
to the environment than that of tyrosine. Unfortunately, there are
usually only few tryptophan residues per protein, which means that
the method senses only these few points in the proteins’ structure.
217
218 Alessandro Alaimo et al.
a
N(CH3)2
NH NH O
C NH2 + C N S
H
HCl O
O C O C
O S O N(CH3)2
NH NH
Cl
Lysine Dansyl chloride
Fluorescence Emission
(Arbitrary Units)
(Arbitrary Units)
Absorption
Excitation Emission
300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 1 Dansyl reactivity and its fluorescent properties. (a) Reaction scheme for the dansyl chloride labelling of
a lysine residue. (b) Fluorescence emission spectrum of D-CaM (solid line, excitation at 340 nm) and excitation
spectrum (dotted line, emission at 500 nm) in binding buffer
Furthermore, the signal is often weak, demanding the use of high

protein concentrations. Thus, it is usually more convenient to use
extrinsic fluorescence probes that can be covalently attached to a
protein. There are many reagents available that generally react with
amino or thiol groups, allowing the introduction of fluorophores
that may detectably alter the spectral characteristics of the native
protein. A commonly used fluorescent reagent is 1-dimethylamin-
onaphthalene-5-sulfonyl chloride (dansyl chloride or DNS-
chloride), which was for a long time the most widely used
fluorogenic derivatizing reagent for amino acid determination in
proteins and peptides (1). Dansyl chloride is a probe that binds to
functional amine groups to form a fluorescent sulphonamide
(Fig. 1a), but it can also react with the phenol group of tyrosine
(2). The resulting dansyl derivates have proven particularly useful
to analyze protein interactions since the dansyl emission spectrum
is greatly perturbed by the local environment.
In our laboratory, we have prepared dansyl-calmodulin
(D-CaM) in order to characterize the interaction of calmodulin
(CaM) with different components of the Kv7.2 channel CaM bind-
ing domain (Kv7.2 CBD). Since the intensity of the D-CaM emis-
sion spectrum is enhanced when the environment of the dansyl
moiety becomes hydrophobic (3–5), this tool has proved useful to
detect conformational changes as a consequence of interactions
with Ca2+, peptides or proteins. The changes in fluorescence can be
Using Dansyl-Calmodulin 219
a 10 b 10
8 8
Emission (Arbitrary Units)
Emission (Arbitrary Units)

6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
400 450 500 550 600 650 400 450 500 550 600 650
Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 2 Changes in the D-CaM fluorescence spectrum induced by peptide and/or calcium. (a) Emission spec-
trum of D-CaM alone (12.5 nM, grey dotted spectrum) and after addition of 200 nM GST-Kv7.2 CBD (black solid
spectrum) in the absence of Ca2+ (10 mM EGTA). (b) Emission spectrum of D-CaM alone (12.5 nM, grey dotted
spectrum), and after the addition of 2 μM free Ca2+ (black solid spectrum) and the successive addition of
200 nM GST-Kv7.2 CBD (black bold spectrum). Note the blue shift in the spectra in the presence of Ca2+
detected in the low nanomolar range, with negligible interference

from intrinsic aromatic residues to the emission window of the
dansyl moiety (at ~500 nm; see Note 1 and Fig. 1b).
In addition to a large increase in fluorescence intensity, the
peak emission shifts from ~500–510 nm to ~480–485 nm when
D-CaM binds Ca2+, towards a more prominent blue wavelength
(Fig. 2). This can be explained by the alteration in CaM conforma-
tion known to occur when it binds Ca2+, changing the environ-
ment of the dansyl moiety to a more hydrophobic location. This
shift in emission spectra provides a very convenient way to detect
Ca2+ contamination in protein and peptide samples (see Note 2).
However, since D-CaM is very sensitive to its environment, care
must be taken to avoid the contamination of some solvents that
hinder fluorescent emission, such as glycerol.
Since D-CaM retains the physical and biological properties of
native CaM (4, 6–8), it has been used to determine the binding
constants and stoichiometry of proteins or peptides that interact
with it (9–11). In general, yet not always, protein binding to
D-CaM enhances its emission. However, some interactions do not
affect emission (12) and there is even one report of reduced peak
emission as a consequence of peptide binding (13).
Here we describe the preparation and purification of D-CaM,
and the fluorescence experiments designed to study the interaction
of CaM with its binding domain in the Kv7.2 channel.
2 Materials
2.1 Purification 1. LB medium (in grams per liter of distilled water: Tryptone 10,
of GST Fusion Proteins yeast extract 5, and NaCl 5) sterilized by autoclaving.
2. 100 mg/mL ampicillin stock solution sterilized by filtration
and stored at −20 °C.
3. 1 M isopropyl β-d-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) solution
sterilized by filtration and stored at −20 °C.
4. Dithiothreitol (DTT).
5. GST buffer: 20 mM Tris–HCl (pH 7.4), 100 mM NaCl, 0.5%
Triton X-100, 2 mM DTT, half a tablet of the protease inhibi-
tor cocktail “1× Complete” (Roche).
6. Solubilization buffer: 20 mM Tris–HCl (pH 7.4), 100 mM
NaCl, 2 mM DTT, and 6 M urea.
7. Refolding buffers: 20 mM Tris–HCl (pH 7.4), 100 mM NaCl,
and 2 mM DTT, containing 4, 2, 1, 0.5, or 0 M urea. Filter all
the buffers before use.
8. Glutathione-Sepharose 4B (GE Healthcare) and glutathione
reduced (Sigma-Aldrich).
9. Elution buffer: 50 mM Tris–HCl (pH 8.5) and 15 mM gluta-
thione reduced.
10. pGEX expression vectors (GE Healthcare).
11. BL21-DE3 (Novagen) and BL21-Codon plus (Agilent
Technologies) competent cells.
12. General laboratory equipment: Spectrophotometer, orbital
incubator, ultracentrifuge with fixed-angle rotor, microcentri-
fuge, ultrasonic probe sonicator, standard dialysis tubing,
filters, protein concentrators, magnetic stirrer, small columns
(1–5 mL bed volume), electrophoresis chamber and buffers,
SDS-PAGE gels, and standard material for protein detection
and staining.
2.2 Purification 1. LB medium sterilized by autoclaving.

and Dansylation 2. 100 mg/mL ampicillin stock solution sterilized by filtration
of Calmodulin and stored at −20 °C.
3. 1 M isopropyl β-d-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) solution
sterilized by filtration and stored at −20 °C.
4. 100 mM phenylmethylsulfonylfluoride (PMSF, Sigma-Aldrich)
stock solution in isopropanol stored at −20 °C. Add PMSF to
buffers just before use.
5. Lysis buffer: 50 mM Tris–HCl (pH 7.5), 2 mM EDTA and
0.2 mM PMSF.
6. Phenyl-Sepharose CL-4B (Sigma-Aldrich).
7. CQ buffer: 50 mM Tris–HCl (pH 7.5), 100 mM NaCl and

5 mM CaCl2.
8. CW buffer: 50 mM Tris–HCl (pH 7.5), 100 mM NaCl and
0.1 mM CaCl2.
9. CHSW buffer: 50 mM Tris–HCl (pH 7.5), 500 mM NaCl and
0.1 mM CaCl2.
10. CE buffer: 50 mM Tris–HCl (pH 7.5) and 1 mM EGTA.
11. Dans buffer: 100 mM Tris–HCl (pH 8.5) and 20 mM CaCl2.
12. Dansyl chloride and Sephadex G-25 (Sigma-Aldrich).
13. pET-14b expression vector (Novagen).
14. BL21-DE3 competent cells (Novagen).
15. Ponceau Red (Sigma-Aldrich).
16. General laboratory equipment: see Subheading 2.1.
2.3 Fluorescence 1. Binding buffer: 25 mM Tris–HCl (pH 7.4), 120 mM KCl,

Experiments 5 mM NaCl, 2 mM MgCl2, and 10 mM EGTA.
2. Spectrofluorimeter, generally we use an Aminco Bowman series
2 (SLM Aminco).
3. Quartz cuvette with two transparent faces (3 mm light path,
100 μL volume).
4. Concentrated CaCl2 solution (1–5 M).
3 Methods
3.1 Purification The method we use to produce recombinant proteins of the Kv7.2
of GST Fusion Proteins CBD (12) is detailed here. The constructs are cloned into pGEX
expression vectors and while the BL21-DE3 Escherichia coli is
strain generally employed to transform the plasmids, we also rec-
ommend the use of BL21-Codon plus.
1. Grow the cells at 37 °C in 1 L of LB medium containing
100 μg/mL ampicillin until A600 = 0.6–0.8. Induce protein
expression for 3 h at 30 °C with 0.3 mM IPTG.
2. Harvest the cells by centrifugation and resuspend the pellet in
20 mL of chilled GST buffer. After lysis by sonication, remove
the cell debris by centrifugation for 30 min at 80,000 × g and
4 °C. Transfer the supernatant (soluble fraction) to a fresh tube
while the insoluble cell lysate (inclusion bodies) is treated
separately.
3. Resuspend the inclusion bodies in 10 mL GST buffer and then
centrifuge again to remove any remaining soluble material. Repeat
this operation three times. Dissolve the precipitate in 5–10 mL
solubilization buffer for 30 min at 4 °C, mixing occasionally.
Centrifuge for 20 min at 20,000 × g and 4 °C, and dilute the

supernatant to a final concentration of ~1 mg/mL. Refold
the proteins with urea concentration gradient dialysis. Dialyze the
protein against 2 L of freshly made refolding buffer, gradually
reducing the concentration of urea. At each urea concentration,
dialyze the proteins for 8–10 h at 4 °C. Centrifuge at 30,000 × g
for 30 min at 4 °C to remove any aggregates and recover the
supernatant (see Note 3).
4. Incubate the soluble fraction and refolded proteins separately
with Glutathione Sepharose beads previously equilibrated with
GST buffer. Wash the resin three times before transferring it to
a disposable column, and elute the fusion proteins with
10–20 mL of elution buffer.
5. Analyze the fractions obtained on 10–15% SDS-PAGE gels
and dialyze to remove the glutathione against a buffer of choice
at 4 °C. Concentrate the proteins if needed and store at −20 °C.
Determine the protein concentration using the Bradford
method (14).
3.2 Purification The rat CaM gene cloned into the pET-14b expression vector is
and Dansylation transformed in BL21-DE3 E. coli (see Note 4). The protocol
of Calmodulin employed to purify CaM has been adapted from the literature (15)
and it yields large amounts of soluble protein (see below). Finally,
to some extent we follow the instructions described in the litera-
ture to covalently attach a dansyl group to CaM (8).
3.2.1 Purification 1. Grow the BL21-DE3 cells at 37 °C in 1 L of LB medium con-

of Calmodulin taining 100 μg/mL ampicillin to A600 = 0.8–1. Induce protein
expression with 0.4 mM IPTG for 4–6 h at 37 °C.
2. Spin down the cells and wash the pellet twice with 50 mL of
fresh Lysis buffer, resuspending it in the same buffer. Store the
sample at −20 °C as 10 mL aliquots.
3. Thaw an aliquot on ice and sonicate it (3 cycles of 10 s on ice)
before performing three freeze–thaw cycles using a dry ice–
ethanol bath alternating with a 37 °C water bath. Centrifuge
the sample in a microcentrifuge at 14,000 × g for 15 min, and
then heat the supernatant to 95 °C for 5 min before again cen-
trifuging as above. This step takes advantage of CaM’s elevated
thermal stability.
4. Add CaCl2 (5 mM final concentration) to the new supernatant
and load at room temperature to a Phenyl–Sepharose column
equilibrated with CQ buffer. Wash with 20 volumes of CW
buffer then with 10 volumes of CHSW buffer, and elute with
20 volumes of CE buffer.
5. Analyze the fractions containing CaM on 15% SDS-PAGE
(+5 mM EGTA) gels, dialyze, concentrate if needed and store
at −20 °C or lyophilize. The CaM concentration can be esti-

mated from the absorbance at 276 nm, given that
ε276 = 3,030 M−1 cm−1 (16) and ε276, 1% = 1.8 (g/100 mL)−1 cm−1
(15). Alternatively use the Bradford method.
3.2.2 Dansylation 1. Dilute CaM in Dans buffer to a final concentration of 1 mg/

of Calmodulin mL.
2. Dissolve dansyl chloride in acetone (2.17 mg/mL) and store
at 4 or −20 °C in the dark. This sample is stable for many
months.
3. Add 12.5 μL of dansyl chloride to 1 mL of the CaM solution
to achieve a final dansyl chloride concentration of ~100 μM.
Incubate at room temperature in the dark for 2 h, vortexing
every 20 min.
4. To separate the dansylated CaM from unreacted dansyl, pre-
pare ~1 mL of Sephadex G-25 in a disposable column and
equilibrate ~250 mg of dry resin with distilled water. Load the
D-CaM mixture and collect fractions of 50–100 μL. The
excluded fraction, which corresponds to the first fractions
eluted, is the conjugate D-CaM (see Note 5).
5. Quickly check the presence of the protein in the fractions by
dot blotting on nitrocellulose and staining with Ponceau Red.
Analyze the fractions in 15% SDS-PAGE gels and in particular,
register the emission spectra of each sample (see below).
6. Collect the D-CaM fractions, concentrate if necessary and
store as aliquots in the dark at −20 °C or lyophilized. We have
found little change in the behavior of the conjugate when
stored at −20 °C for several months or more.
7. Use the Bradford assay to determine the protein concentra-
tions of D-CaM using unlabeled CaM as the standard. In addi-
tion, the concentration of D-CaM may be determined by UV
absorption with a ε320 = 3,400 M−1 cm−1 (17).
8. Determine the concentration of dansyl moiety incorporated by
spectroscopy (see Note 6) and, when possible, calculate the
number of specific dansylated residues in a D-CaM molecule
(see Note 7).
3.3 Fluorescence In this section, we describe the preparation of the samples and the
Experiments methods employed to perform fluorescence assays with D-CaM.
We present three experiments: two are spectrophotometric titra-
tions to measure fluorescence of a solution of D-CaM upon succes-
sive addition of ligand (Ca2+ and/or peptide), while the third is a
competition assay. Generally, the emission spectra are recorded
while adding increasing amounts of the target until no further
change is observed. Finally, the data are analyzed to obtain infor-
mation about the protein interactions, conformational changes in
CaM and parameters relating to affinity. For convenience, we will

use the term “peptide” in this section to refer to the GST-Kv7.2
CBD employed in these assays.
1. Before dialysis, add EGTA (final concentration, 500 mM) to
D-CaM sample to facilitate the elimination of Ca2+. This is a
very important step as free Ca2+ does not readily diffuse out of
the dialysis bag. Dialyze D-CaM and the peptide against 2 L of
binding buffer (without EGTA) for 24 h, and successively
against 2 L of binding buffer complemented with 10 mM
EGTA for 24 h (see Note 8).
2. Centrifuge all the proteins in a microcentrifuge at 14,000 × g
for 10 min and check for the presence of aggregates by dynamic
light scattering (DLS; see Note 3). Prepare and filter the bind-
ing buffer and carefully clean the cuvette. Care should be taken
to avoid contamination with Ca2+, cleaning the material with
10 mM EGTA buffered solutions. Leave the instrument on for
several minutes prior to use to allow the light source and the
electronics to stabilize, and then obtain a baseline fluorescence-
emission scan of the binding buffer alone from 360 to 660 nm,
keeping the excitation constant at 340 nm. Both the excitation
and emission band-passes are 5 nm. Repeat the same operation
with WT CaM as a control and then separately, with the peptide
dissolved in binding buffer.
3. Put 100 μL of binding buffer in a cuvette, add sufficient stock
D-CaM to achieve 12.5 nM and mix by drawing the solution
into the pipette tip and expelling it several times (see Note 9).
Avoid bubbles, since they will affect the fluorescence measure-
ments. Place the cuvette in the fluorimeter and collect the
emission spectra. As above, the excitation wavelength is 340 nm
and the emission is registered from 400 to 660 nm. All the
measurements are made at 25 °C and the spectra are corrected
for the contribution of buffer. In these conditions the
fluorescence spectrum of D-CaM should exhibit a maximum at
~500 nm (Fig. 2).
4. Calcium titration: Sequentially add aliquots of concentrated
CaCl2 to a cuvette containing 12.5 nM D-CaM (Table 1), and
then record the emission spectra (see Note 10).
After each addition of Ca2+, mix the solution to assure
homogeneity and obtain the fluorescence spectra 20–30 s after
adding the sample (longer equilibration times do not improve
the data). The Ca2+ is titrated to saturation, when no further
changes in spectra are observable. This experiment shows that
the fluorescence emission spectrum of D-CaM is markedly
affected by Ca2+, which causes a conformation change in CaM
that can be observed as a “blue shift” in λmax from ~500 to
~485 nm and an increase in intensity (of at least 100%; Fig. 2b).
Table 1
Calculated free Ca2+ concentrations as a function of total Ca2+ (EGTA
10 mM, pH 7.4)
(Ca2+) total (mM) (Ca2+) free (μM) (Ca2+) total (mM) (Ca2+) free (μM)
0 0 8.385 0.408
2.498 0.024 8.634 0.499
4.246 0.055 8.784 0.571
4.995 0.075 9.033 0.741
5.244 0.083 9.182 0.894
5.743 0.102 9.431 1.325
6.242 0.127 9.581 1.827
6.741 0.159 9.628 2.000
7.239 0.203 9.829 4.539
7.488 0.231 9.979 19.77
7.987 0.310 10.22 231.4
8.136 0.341 10.47 4,735
Repeat the Ca2+ titration in the presence of a saturating

concentration of peptide, for which we use 200 nM of the pep-
tide to complex with D-CaM. This experiment is useful to
determine how the Ca2+ binding affinity of CaM is affected in
the CaM–peptide complex (7), which is achieved by plotting
the fluorescence enhancement as a function of free (Ca2+).
A simple method is to plot F/F0 (Fluorescence increase) as a
function of free (Ca2+), where F0 is the initial fluorescence
intensity in the absence of Ca2+ and F is the fluorescence inten-
sity at each free (Ca2+). To obtain F and F0 from each spectrum,
we average the fluorescence intensity in the 450–550 nm range.
Alternatively, the maximum fluorescence can be normalized to
100% and the percentage fluorescence increase plotted as a
function of the free (Ca2+). The parameters of the Hill equation
(Fluorescence increase = A × (peptide)h/EC50h + (peptide)h:
where A is the maximal fluorescence increase and h is the Hill
coefficient) are fitted to the data by curvilinear regression,
enabling the apparent affinity (EC50 or concentration that gives
half-maximal change in fluorescence emission intensity) and
Hill coefficient to be accurately determined. Generally, 3–6
titrations are needed on average to fully analyze Ca2+ binding
to D-CaM. Finally, this assay is useful to determine the free
(Ca2+) necessary to saturate D-CaM, as seen below.
5. Peptide titration in the presence or absence of Ca2+: Add aliquots

of peptide from a concentrated stock to a cuvette containing
12.5 nM D-CaM alone or in the presence of an excess of
calcium (2 μM free Ca2+) in binding buffer (Fig. 2 and
see Note 11). After adding each aliquot, mix the solution, wait
20–30 s and record the emission spectra. In both conditions (+Ca2+
or −Ca2+), adding the peptide to D-CaM increases the fluorescence
intensity proportional to the amount of binding protein added.
GST alone is used as a control to estimate the impact of
sample dilution, both in the presence and absence of Ca2+, which
does not cause any change in the fluorescent emission (10, 18).
Plot fluorescence enhancement against the peptide–D-CaM
ratio or against (peptide) to obtain concentration-response
curves, and the parameters of the Hill equation can be fitted to
the data by curvilinear regression. To obtain the true affinities
(Kd), repeat the titrations varying the initial concentration of
D-CaM (6.25–200 nM) and generate the concentration-
response curves at each D-CaM concentration. The apparent
dissociation constants (EC50) calculated from these curves can
be plotted as a function of (D-CaM), and the true dissociation
constants of the complexes can be derived by fitting the data
with a linear regression and extrapolating the apparent dissocia-
tion constants to (D-CaM) equal to zero (see Note 12).
6. Competition assays: Not every ligand that interacts with CaM
increases the fluorescent emission. In such cases, the interac-
tion can be monitored using a competition assay in which the
displacement of a ligand from its complex with D-CaM by a
test peptide causes a reduction in dansyl fluorescence (12, 19).
To perform these assays, add the peptide or other CaM bind-
ing protein to 12.5 nM D-CaM dissolved in binding buffer
and record the dansyl emission spectra (see Note 13). The
experiment may be performed in the presence (adding 2 μM
free Ca2+ to D-CaM) or absence of Ca2+ (adding 10 mM
EGTA), and the assay is most sensitive when using the concen-
tration of target peptide that produces a 50% effect (e.g., at the
EC50). Titrate the complex with increasing concentrations of
the second ligand and record the fluorescence spectra for each
aliquot. Analyze the data by plotting the percentage reduction
in fluorescence (taking the initial complex as 100%) against the
(competing peptide) (Fig. 3).
4 Notes
1. Rat CaM does not contain tryptophan residues but there are
five phenylalanines in the N-terminal domain and three in the
C-terminal domain; there are also two tyrosine residues in
100
Relative fluorescence % 80
60
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200
[Competing Peptide] (nM)
4
3 Competing
Ligand peptide
2
1
0
400 500 600
Fig. 3 Competition assay. Example of the competition of a peptide that does not cause an increase in D-CaM
fluorescence emission. First, the baseline is obtained by mixing D-CaM with a ligand at a concentration cor-
responding to its calculated EC50. The ligand is displaced from CaM by the increasing addition of a competing
peptide. Below, schematic representation of the experiment
the C-terminal domain. Changes in the phenylalanine and

tyrosine fluorescence intensity have been used to monitor Ca2+
binding in a single domain or in full-length CaM (20).
2. We have studied the interaction of D-CaM with recombinant
proteins that contain the CaM-binding domains of SK2 chan-
nels, NR1a receptors, and neurogranin, none of which causes
a blue shift in the emission spectra.
3. It is important to ensure that the sample protein or peptide does
not aggregate. We routinely evaluate the dispersion of the sam-
ples by dynamic light scattering (DLS) using a Zetasizer Nano
instrument (Malvern Instruments Ltd.). Only use samples in
which the correlation function and the polydispersity index
(<0.2) demonstrate that the proteins are monodispersed.
4. CaM from other sources can be used, but some modifications
in the protein that will affect the results may be present.
Recombinant CaM lacks the first methionine residue and the

numbering starts from alanine. CaM has nine methionine resi-
dues that can be naturally modified and that are sensitive to
oxidation, resulting in methionine sulfoxide. The oxidatively
modified form exhibits a dramatically lower affinity for Ca2+
and its interaction with ligands is affected (21).
5. To remove the excess of dansyl chloride it is advisable to dia-
lyze the D-CaM samples in addition to performing the gel
filtration described.
6. The dansyl incorporated per mol of CaM can be determined
by absorption spectroscopy using the ε335 = 3,980 M−1 cm−1 (3)
or ε320 = 3,400 M−1 cm−1 (17).
7. To determine the specific dansylated residues in CaM, tryptic
digestion coupled to mass spectrometry or gas-phase protein
sequencers has been employed (7, 8, 12). It has been reported
that Lys75 (7, 8) or Lys115 (22) are dansylated. Through
mass spectrometry we have detected the binding of up to four
dansyl molecules per CaM. Furthermore, tandem mass spec-
trometry of the tryptic peptides indicates that Ala1 and Lys148
are certainly dansylated. We have not identified the other two
dansylated residues yet but our data are compatible with them
being Lys75 and Lys115. The 1H,15N-Heteronuclear Single
Quantum Coherence (HSQC) spectrum of calcified D-CaM
(Fig. 4), that contains a peak for each unique proton attached
to the heteronucleus being considered, clearly shows that the
protein retains a similar folding as the wild type one. However,
chemical shift perturbations are observed throughout the pro-
tein consistent with the idea that several dansylation events
take place in both domains of CaM.
8. The initial Ca2+ concentration in the D-CaM sample is critical
in these assays and it is important to remove as much Ca2+ as
possible. Using the dialysis conditions described in this chap-
ter, we determined the levels of contaminant Ca2+ to be less
than 40 nM by inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy.
9. We have obtained the best results using 12.5 nM D-CaM, bal-
ancing the use of low sample concentration with the resolution
of the spectra. The signal to noise ratio decreases at lower
(D-CaM), reaching unacceptable levels below 6.25 nM.
Nevertheless, extremely low (D-CaM), such as 3.3 nM, has
been used to perform these assays (23).
10. The most important points for accurate Ca2+ titrations is the
precise control of free (Ca2+) using Ca2+ chelators like EGTA or
EDTA. We prefer using EGTA because the experiments are
carried out at pH 7.5 to mimic intracellular conditions, includ-
ing physiological concentrations of magnesium. It is important
to carefully control the pH because the chelating power is very
Fig. 4 1H,15N-HSQC for dansylated (black) and wild type calmodulin (grey ) in the presence of 5 mM calcium.
The peak distribution is similar indicating that both proteins fold in a similar way. The changes in the chemical
shift observed throughout the molecule are an indication of multiple dansylation sites in the two protein
domains
sensitive to the concentration of protons, and sufficient Ca2+

buffer must be used (10 mM EGTA in our case) to ensure that
the small amount of endogenous Ca2+ bound to the protein
being titrated does not affect the free (Ca2+). To calculate
the free (Ca2+) we used the Maxchelator program (http://
maxchelator.stanford.es) and custom software. Several other
programs are available to determine the free (Ca2+) in function
of the total Ca2+ added, for a given (EGTA) at different tem-
peratures, ionic strengths and pH’s.
11. Titrating D-CaM with Ca2+, as described in this chapter, we
found that 2 μM free (Ca2+) is sufficient to saturate D-CaM at
a concentration of 12.5 nM.
12. The apparent EC50 values of the ligand–CaM interaction depend
on the concentration of D-CaM employed (10, 11, 24). This
dependence can be attributed to the depletion of the free ligand,
which is most pronounced at low ligand concentrations. It is
possible to correct for depletion by determining the EC50 values
over a range of D-CaM concentrations. For infinitely low
(D-CaM), depletion should be nonexistent and the EC50 value
should hence be a true affinity. If the stoichiometry is known,
the Kd values can be estimated using a Scatchard plot analysis
(9), although we recommend the previous method.
13. We have also performed the competition assay using GST-

NMDA (NR1a, aa 818–922) and GST-Neurogranin (aa 1–78)
as reporters of the interaction with CaM in the presence or
absence of Ca2+, respectively (12).
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by grants from the Spanish Ministry of

Education (BFU2009-07581), the Spanish Ion Channel Initiative
Consolider project (CSD2008-00005), and the Basque
Government (SAIOTEK SA-2006/00023). A. Alaimo was par-
tially funded by Fundación Biofísica Bizkaia. Proteomics Core
Facility-SGIKER is a member of ProteoRed-ISCIII. Technical and
human support provided by SGIKER (UPV/EHU, MICINN,
GV/EJ, ERDF, and ESF) is gratefully acknowledged.
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Chapter 18
Imaging and Quantification of Recycled KATP Channels

Christopher J. Cockcroft
Abstract
This chapter describes immunochemistry-based methods to investigate recycling of membrane proteins at
the cell surface. Two methods are described, one qualitative and the other quantitative. Both methods
consist of two rounds of extracellular antibody capture. Firstly, a primary antibody is captured by an extra-
cellular epitope presented by the target membrane protein and is subsequently internalized. Secondly, the
primary antibody-labelled protein is recycled back to the membrane where it is captured by a probe-
conjugated secondary antibody. In the qualitative assay, the probe is a fluorophore, which can be imaged
by fluorescence microscopy. In the quantitative assay, the probe is horse-radish peroxidase (HRP) and
enzyme activity can be assayed by chemiluminescence.
Key words Endocytic recycling, KATP, Confocal microscopy, Chemiluminescence
1 Introduction
Recycling membrane proteins are internalized from the plasma
membrane into early and sorting endosomes from where they can
either return to the cell surface via a Rab4-dependent pathway (1)
or enter the endosomal recycling compartment (ERC) from where
their return to the plasma membrane occurs via Rab11-dependent
pathways (2). A limited number of membrane proteins use a some-
what convoluted pathway, involving trafficking from the ERC to
the cell surface via the trans-Golgi network (3). Trafficking mecha-
nisms for recycling are extensively reviewed by Maxfield and
McGraw (4) and Grant and Donaldson (5).
Recycling of internalized membrane proteins back to the cell
surface has been reported for a range of membrane proteins includ-
ing ion channels, receptors, and transporters. It represents an
efficient mechanism by which prompt delivery of proteins to the
plasma membrane occurs in response to changes in cell physiology.
For example, recycling endosomes supply APMA receptor for
long-term potentiation in neurons (6), b-adrenergic receptors for
233
234 Christopher J. Cockcroft
receptor resensitization (7), and GLUT-4 transporters for glucose

uptake by adipose and muscle (8).
This chapter describes methods for imaging and quantification
of recycled channels. Using the KATP channel as an example, we
describe immunochemistry-based methods for investigating mem-
brane protein recycling (9). These methods employ an antibody
capture approach that requires an antibody that recognizes an
extracellular epitope (native or engineered) of the membrane pro-
tein of interest. A similar approach has also been described for
investigating endocytosis of KATP channels (10, 11). In the exam-
ples presented here, we also use an HA-epitope (YPYDVPDYA)
engineered into the extracellular loop of the Kir6.2 subunit of the
KATP channel (12). The HA-tagged Kir6.2 was co-expressed with
the sulphonylurea receptor 1(SUR1) in HEK-293 cells to produce
HA-tagged KATP channels (KATP-HA) at the cell surface (under nor-
mal conditions neither subunit is capable of independent surface
expression). Internalized primary antibody-channel complexes can
recycle back to the cell surface to capture the probe-conjugated
secondary antibodies (see Note 1). For example, recycled channels
can be detected by using either confocal fluorescent microscopy or
image-captured fluorescent-conjugated secondary antibodies
(Fig. 1); following these steps, cells can then be fixed and permea-
bilized to stain either non-recycled channels or intracellular organ-
elle markers. Alternatively, recycling can be quantified using
chemiluminescence to assay-captured HRP-conjugated secondary
antibody by assaying enzyme activity (Fig. 2).
2 Materials
2.1 Preparation of 1. No. 7 curved watchmaker forceps.
Coverslips and Cells 2. Borosilicate glass coverslips (13 mm).
3. HEK293 cell line (ECACC).
4. Dulbecco’s phosphate buffered saline (DPBS).
5. Poly-L-lysine coating solution: 0.01% poly-L-lysine
(70–150 kDa, Sigma), diluted to 0.001% in DPBS.
6. 70% ethanol.
7. Culture medium: DMEM + Glutamax-1, supplemented with
10% fetal bovine serum, penicillin (50 U), streptomycin
(50 mg).
8. Trypsin solution: 0.05% trypsin–EDTA.
9. Suitable transfection reagent available from a range of suppliers
(see Chapters 2, 4, and 5 of this book for more details on
transfection techniques and reagents).
Imaging of Ion Channel Recycling 235
Fig. 1 Visualization of KATP-HA channel recycling by confocal fluorescent microscopy. (a) Schematic diagram
showing the key stages of the antibody capture experiment. (b) Confocal images of cells expressing KATP-HA
following fluorescent-conjugated antibody capture by recycled channels at the cell surface. KATP-HA channel
recycling was detected after 30 min incubation at 37°C. Following fixation and permeabilization steps, non-
recycled channels were stained using anti-rat Cy3 secondary antibody (1:500 dilution, 1.25 mg/mL). The cell
nuclei were stained using DAPI (supplied in the mounting medium) (scale bar = 10 mm). Inset, grey value
profiles of line scans through cross sections of cell images (scale bar = 50 grey value)
2.2 Imaging of 1. PBS: 137 mM NaCl, 4.3 mM Na2HPO4, 1.47 mM KH2PO4,

Channel Recycling 2.7 mM KCl, 1 mM CaCl2, 1 mM MgCl2.
2. Staining support plate: 24-well plate lid, covered with
Parafilm.
3. Blocking medium: DMEM, 10 mM HEPES (from 1 M stock
solution, pH 7.4), 1% Ovalbumin (Sigma) (see Note 2).
4. Primary antibody: rat anti-HA high-affinity primary antibody
3F10 (Roche), diluted in blocking medium 1:500 (0.2 mg/mL)
working concentration (see Note 3).
5. Nonconjugated secondary antibody: goat anti-rat IgG second-
ary antibody (Sigma), diluted in blocking medium 1:250
(4 mg/mL) working concentration.
a
INTERNALISATION COOLING RECYCLING
1° ANTIBODY
HRP CONJUGATED
2° ANTIBODY
37 °C, 1 hr 14 °C, 30 min 37 °C, 10-60 min
b c 3.0
8x106 60 min
2.5
7x106
Normalised Recycling
6x106 2.0
Luminescence
50 min
5x106 40 min
30 min 1.5
4x106 20 min
1.0
3x106
10 min
2x106 0 min 0.5
6
1x10
Ctrl 0.0
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (s) Time (min)
Fig. 2 Quantification of KATP-HA channel recycling channels by chemiluminescence. (a) Schematic diagram
showing the key stages of the antibody labelling experiment. (b) Representative real-time chemiluminescence
data from cell lysates following HRP-conjugated antibody capture by recycled channels at the cell surface after
0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 min at 37°C. Cells expressing SUR1alone were used as a control for nonspecific
antibody binding (Ctrl). (c) The time-course plot showing that KATP-HA is continuously recycled in a time-
dependent manner
6. Fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibody: goat anti-rat

Alexa Fluor 488 IgG (molecular probes), diluted in blocking
medium 1:500 (1.25 mg/mL) working concentration.
7. Fixing tray: an upturned lid of a 24-well plate.
8. Fixative: methanol/acetone 1:1 (Me:Ac), stored at −20°C.
9. Microscope glass slides (76 × 26 mm).
10. Mounting medium: DAPI Fluoromount G mounting medium
(Southern Biotech) or equivalent.
11. Confocal microscope: fitted with relevant lasers and filters; we
use Axiovert LSM510 (Zeiss) with 63×/1.4 oil DIC
objective.
12. Images were analyzed using Image J (NIH).
2.3 Additional 1. HRP-conjugated secondary antibody: goat anti-rat HRP-

Materials for conjugated IgG antibody (Sigma), diluted in blocking media
Quantification of to 1:500 (1–8 mg/mL) working concentration.
Channel Recycling 2. Lysis buffer: 1% Triton X100, 50 mM HEPES, 150 mM KCl,
1 mM MgCl2, pH 7.4.
3. BCA reagent protein assay kit (Available from Thermo Scientific
or Sigma, etc.).
4. Clear flat-bottomed 96-well microtiter plate.
5. White flat-bottomed 96-well microtiter plate.
6. HRP substrate: Lumigen PS atto luminol reagent solution
A + B (1:1) (Lumigen) or Femto Super Signal (Thermo
Scientific).
7. Plate reader: we use Varioskan Flash (Thermo Scientific) mul-
timode plate reader (see Note 4).
3 Methods
3.1 Preparation HEK-293 cells are grown on poly-lysine-coated coverslips placed
of Cells in a 24-well dish. The cells are transfected with an expression vec-
tor construct containing the cDNA of interest engineered to
express an extracellular HA-epitope. If necessary, additional cells
should also be prepared for introducing controls for additional
variables, such as transfection efficiency and antibody specificity.
1. Gently mix 200–300 coverslips with 20 mL poly-L-lysine coat-
ing solution for 2 h at room temperature. Rinse ten times with
distilled water and store in 70% ethanol at 4°C until required.
2. In a tissue culture cabinet, using forceps, place a coverslip into
each well of a 24-well plate, using as many wells as appropriate
for the experiment. To speed up drying time, place each cover-
slip so that it rests against the wall of the well. Once dry, gently
tap the plate so that the coverslips fall to the bottom of the
well. Add 0.5 mL culture medium per well.
3. Remove the culture medium from HEK 293 cells grown in a
T-25 flask to ~80% confluence (grown in a humid CO2 incuba-
tor supplied with 5% CO2/95% air). Rinse cells with 5–10 mL of
DPBS, add 0.5 mL trypsin solution, and incubate until the cells
are detached. Then add 6 mL of culture medium and resuspend
gently.
4. Add 1–2 drops trypsinized cell suspension (~1 × 105 cells/mL)
per well and incubate overnight (see Note 5).
5. Transfect the cells with plasmid DNA constructs using an
appropriate transfection reagent, following the instructions of
the manufacturer (see Note 5). Incubate for 48–72 h.
3.2 Imaging of This section describes a method for continuous labelling of recy-
Channel Recycling cled KATP-HA channels over a 30 min period using fluorophore-
conjugated secondary antibody for fluorescent microscopy imaging
of recycled channels (Fig. 1).
1. Pipette 30 mL droplets of primary antibody medium onto a
staining support tray.
2. Remove each coverslip from the 24-well plate (step 5,
Subheading 3.1) using forceps and rinse by gently dipping into
a beaker of ice cold PBS (200 mL) for 5–10 s (see Note 6).
Drain excess liquid from the coverslip by dabbing the edge
carefully onto tissue paper, taking care not to completely dry
out the cells on the coverslip.
3. Place each coverslip onto a 30 mL droplet of primary antibody,
with the cells facing toward the droplet (see Note 7). Incubate
at 37°C for 1 h to permit continuous labelling and internaliza-
tion of surface channels (see Note 8).
4. Cool the primary antibody staining support plate to £14°C for
15 min to prevent further trafficking (see Note 9). On ice,
remove each coverslip from the staining support tray and wash
with chilled PBS (as in step 2, using fresh PBS).
5. Place each coverslip onto a droplet of prechilled nonconju-
gated secondary antibody (prepared before use, as step 1).
Incubate at £14°C for 30 min to permit saturation of primary
antibody-labelled surface channels.
6. Remove each coverslip from the nonconjugated secondary anti-
body and wash with chilled PBS (as in step 2, using fresh PBS).
7. Place each coverslip onto a droplet of Fluorophore-conjugated
secondary antibody (prepared before use, as in step 1). Incubate
for 30 min at either 37°C to permit recycling or return to
£14°C conditions to prevent recycling.
8. Wash coverslips with chilled PBS to remove unbound secondary
antibody (as in step 2, using fresh PBS).
9. Fix and permeabilize the cells in Me:Ac (dispense sufficient ice
cold Me:Ac to fill a fixing tray). Submerge the coverslips in
Me:Ac and incubate for 10 min on ice (with the cells facing
upward). Gently perfuse the coverslips with PBS to remove
MeAc (see Note 10).
10. Remove each coverslip from the fixing tray and wash with
chilled PBS to remove any remaining fixative (as in step 2,
using fresh PBS).
Optional steps: the cells can now be stained for primary
antibody-labelled non-recycled channels or specific cellular
compartments, such as early endosomes (see Note 11).
11. Wash the coverslips by gently dipping into in a beaker of
Milli-Q water to remove buffer salts.
12. Mount each coverslip onto a droplet (~6 mL) of mounting

medium on a glass microscope slide (with the cells facing the
droplet). Place the slides in a dark, dry place at room tempera-
ture overnight, and then store at 5°C until imaging.
13. Image the cells under a confocal florescent microscope.
3.3 Quantification This section describes a method for quantifying KATP-HA channel
of Channel Recycling recycling in a time-course experiment (Fig. 2). For this experiment,
a full 24-well plate with coverslips is required. In the example given
below, the plate layout consisted of 21 coverslips with cells express-
ing KATP, three for each time period (0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and
60 min). Three coverslips with cells expressing only SUR1 (no
Kir6.2-HA) were used as a negative control for nonspecific anti-
body binding.
Follow steps 1–3 from Subheading 3.2
4. Remove each coverslip from the primary antibody and wash
with chilled PBS (as in step 2, Subheading 3.2, using fresh
PBS).
5. Place each coverslip onto a 30 mL droplet of prechilled HRP-
conjugated secondary antibody (prepared before use as in step
1 of Subheading 3.2). Incubate at £14°C for 30 min to label
the remaining channels at the cell surface only.
6. Pipette 300 mL of lysis buffer into the wells of a 24-well plate
and store on ice or 4°C throughout the experiment.
7. Remove a set of three coverslips for measurement of channels
at the cell surface at the start of the time-course experiment
(0 min recycling). Wash with chilled PBS (as in step 2 of
Subheading 3.2, using fresh PBS), then place each coverslip
into a well of lysis buffer (from step 6), and gently pipette up
and down to dissociate the cells. Incubate overnight at 4°C
with gentle shaking or rocking to complete lysis.
8. Transfer the remaining coverslips on the staining plate to 37°C.
Remove sets of three coverslips at desired time intervals (e.g.,
10 min intervals). Wash with chilled PBS (as in step 2,
Subheading 3.2, using fresh PBS) and place each coverslip into
a well of lysis buffer (from step 7).
9. Assay the amount of protein in the cell lysate with the BCA
assay following the manufacturer’s instructions (see Note 12).
10. Pipette 60 mL of each lysate sample (in duplicate) into a white
microtiter 96-well plate. Assay chemiluminescence at 25°C
using a luminometric equipped plate reader. After recording a
baseline reading for 6 s, dispense 50 mL HRP substrate and
continue to record for a 70 s.
11. Data analysis: subtract the mean luminescence endpoint value
(final three measurements, after the addition of the HRP substrate)
from the mean baseline value (first three measurements, before

addition of the HRP substrate) for each sample. Normalize
this luminescence value to the protein content of the corre-
sponding sample. Determine the mean and s.e.m. of the tripli-
cates for each time point. Plot the mean ± s.e.m. against time to
obtain a time-course graph.
4 Notes
1. Epitope tags other than HA can be used for your protein of
interest (e.g. Myc tag).
2. The antibody concentrations used here is optimal for detection
of Kir6.2-HA in our hands and can be used as a guideline for
future experiments.
3. Alternatively, 1% BSA can also be used; ovalbumin is preferred
because of its relatively low hydrophobic binding properties
that can interfere with solubility of compounds used to disrupt
recycling (e.g., Phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate).
4. Alternative plate readers can be used that are capable of dis-
pensing luminol into wells and measuring real-time or end-
point luminescence.
5. For imaging experiments, the cells should not exceed ~50%
confluency by the time of the experiment. Whereas for chemi-
luminescence experiments, cells should ideally reach 80%
confluency. The generation of stable cell lines can be useful,
especially for quantitative procedures where large numbers of
coverslips maybe advantageous for multiple experiments.
6. Coverslips can also be washed by perfusion with PBS. This is
useful for consistent high-throughput washes when using an
entire 24-well plate. An upturned lid of a 24-well plate (with
well rims) can be used as a tray for submersion of coverslips.
PBS can be gently perfused and aspirated using a 20 mL syringe
and a vacuum pump, respectively. Approximately 3 × 20 mL
wash steps are sufficient to rinse the coverslips in the tray.
7. Cells should be maintained in a humid environment during
incubation steps on the staining tray. Typically, a wet tissue in
a plastic box with a loose lid is sufficient to prevent the cover-
slips from drying out during incubation steps.
8. The antibody incubation time can be extended to 2 h to
increase the size of the labelled pool of internalized channels
for slowly internalizing channels.
9. The acid strip approach is an alternative to the nonconjugated sec-
ondary antibody block step. This approach involves stripping the
primary antibody from labelled channels at the cell surface. After
the chilled PBS wash step, cells should be washed twice with chilled
acidic buffer (0.15 M NaCl, 0.5% acetic acid, pH 2.4), followed by

neutralization with PBS and continuation of the protocol.
10. Removal of most Me:Ac and wash in PBS is important to prevent
damage to the cells as a result of rapid solvent evaporation whilst
handling the coverslips. Alternatively, fixation can be carried out in a
24-well plate, and removing Me:Ac by gradual dilution with PBS.
11. The non-recycled primary antibody-labelled pool of channels
can be detected using an alternative anti-rat fluorophore-
conjugated secondary antibody (e.g., Cy3). Cells can also be
stained for a range of cellular markers, such as endosomal
markers (EEA1/CD63) and Golgi (TGN46/Golgin).
12. The BCA absorbance values (OD570nm) are sufficient for nor-
malizing data to luminescence values. However, BSA standards
(0–1 mg/mL) can also be used to estimate protein concentra-
tion in the lysate samples if required. Alternative protein con-
centration assay kits may also be suitable (e.g., Bradford assay).
Acknowledgement
The author wishes to thank Prof. A. Sivaprasadarao for advice on

manuscript preparation and the MRC for funding support.
References
1. van der Sluijs P, Hull M, Webster P, Mâle P, 8. Shewan AM, van Dam EM, Martin S, Luen
Goud B, Mellman I (1992) The small GTP- TB, Hong W, Bryant NJ, James DE (2003)
binding protein rab4 controls an early sorting GLUT4 recycles via a trans-Golgi network
event on the endocytic pathway. Cell (TGN) subdomain enriched in Syntaxins 6 and
70:729–740 16 but not TGN38: involvement of an acidic
2. Wilcke M, Johannes L, Galli T, Mayau V, targeting motif. Mol Biol Cell 14:973–986
Goud B, Salamero J (2000) Rab11 regulates 9. Manna PT, Smith AJ, Taneja TK, Howell GJ,
the compartmentalization of early endosomes Lippiat JD, Sivaprasadarao A (2009) Constitutive
required for efficient transport from early endocytic recycling and protein kinase
endosomes to the trans-golgi network. J Cell C-mediated lysosomal degradation control
Biol 151:1207–1220 K(ATP) channel surface density. J Biol Chem
3. Gokool S, Tattersall D, Seaman MN (2007) 285:5963–5973
EHD1 interacts with retromer to stabilize 10. Smith AJ, Sivaprasadarao A (2008)
SNX1 tubules and facilitate endosome-to- Investigation of K(ATP) channel endocytosis
Golgi retrieval. Traffic 8:1873–1886 by immunofluorescence. In: Lippiat JD (ed)
4. Maxfield FR, McGraw TE (2004) Endocytic Potassium channels, methods in molecular
recycling. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 5: biology, vol 491. Humana Press, New York, pp
121–132 69–77
5. Grant BD, Donaldson JG (2009) Pathways 11. Smith AJ, Sivaprasadarao A (2008)
and mechanisms of endocytic recycling. Nat Chemiluminescence assays to investigate mem-
Rev Mol Cell Biol 10:597–608 brane expression and clathrin-mediated endo-
6. Park M, Penick EC, Edwards JG, Kauer JA, cytosis of K(ATP) channels. In: Lippiat JD
Ehlers MD (2004) Recycling endosomes supply (ed) Potassium channels, methods in molecu-
AMPA receptors for LTP. Science 305: lar biology, vol 491. Humana Press, New York,
1972–1975 pp 63–68
7. Yu SS, Lefkowitz RJ, Hausdorff WP (1993) 12. Zerangue N, Schwappach B, Jan YN, Jan LY
Beta-adrenergic receptor sequestration. A (1999) A new ER trafficking signal regulates
potential mechanism of receptor resensitization. the subunit stoichiometry of plasma membrane
J Biol Chem 268:337–341 K(ATP) channels. Neuron 22:537–548
Part IV
Biochemical and Structure-Functional Approaches

in Ion Channel Studies
Chapter 19
Generation of Antibodies That Are Externally Acting

Isoform-Specific Inhibitors of Ion Channels
Jacqueline Naylor and David J. Beech
Abstract
There is demand for isoform-specific ion channel inhibitors as tools to investigate the biology of endogenous
ion channels and validate them as targets in drug discovery programs. There is also hope that such inhibi-
tors may be new therapeutic agents or provide the foundation for such agents. However, in practice, it is
commonly experienced that inhibitors lack sufficient specificity, fail to distinguish between members of a
class of ion channel, or have other (non-ion channel) off-target effects. Due to their extraordinary specificity,
antibodies offer a potentially attractive strategy for overcoming these problems. Inhibitory antibodies act-
ing at the extracellular face of ion channels are particularly attractive because there is enhanced possibility
for specificity and intracellular delivery methods are not required. Here we describe experience with such
an antibody approach and methodology for generating agents based on anti-peptide polyclonal
antibodies.
Key words Ion channel, Transient receptor potential, Functional antibodies, E3 targeting
1 Introduction
Antibodies are proteins of the immune system that normally serve

to recognize and bind foreign objects (antigens). Mutations in the
antigen-binding site can produce a high number of variants with
the ability to recognize a diverse range of targets. This feature can
be exploited to create antibodies that display a high affinity for
surface-exposed proteins such as ion channels. In addition to bind-
ing, the antibodies may modulate or down-regulate ion channel
function by binding directly to the ion pore-forming subunit or to
an associated regulatory subunit. An example of the success of this
approach is antibody targeted to transient receptor potential poly-
cystin 2 (TRPP2) which inhibits calcium entry evoked by shear
stress (1). Another example is antibody to the N-terminus of stromal
interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) which inhibits calcium entry asso-
ciated with store-depletion (2). Both of these antibodies target
245
246 Jacqueline Naylor and David J. Beech
extracellular peptides. Such extracellular targeting has advantages

of ease of use in living cell/tissue studies and enhanced likelihood
of specificity because only extracellular epitopes are available to the
antibody when cells are intact. The antibody effects are relatively
rapid (within 30 min) and thus they confer an additional advantage
relative to other slower methods, such as gene modification or
RNA interference, which carry a greater risk of compensatory
effects and the associated more complex interpretation of the aris-
ing data. Channel-blocking antibodies can be targeted to intracel-
lular regions, but this requires complex delivery methods in living
cell situations. An antibody targeted to an intracellular epitope on
the C-terminus of Kir2.1 was, for example, coupled to carrier pep-
tides to allow passage into the cell; this approach was used to dem-
onstrate a functional role of Kir2.1 in the rat retina (3).
In comparison with established ion channel modulators such
as naturally occurring toxins or synthetic compounds, antibody
blockers have the advantage of exceptionally high specificity and
the ability to distinguish between ion channel subtypes. Such
specificity was demonstrated for NESOpAb, a Na+ channel (NaV1.5)
blocking antibody that selectively inhibits current carried by the
neonatal splice variant of the channel, which differs from the adult
form by six amino acids (4). NESOpAb may have therapeutic
applications in breast cancer because the neonatal channel variant
is up-regulated in cancer tissue (5). The potential of this type of
antibody was also indicated by an antibody targeted to a region of
the ion-conducting pore of the voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel
(the a1A subunit) that is only exposed upon depolarization (6).
The design of antibody channel inhibitors has been rational-
ized to specifically target the third extracellular loop (E3) of six
membrane-spanning segment ion channels (also called the turret
region of these ion channels) (7). This surface-exposed region of
the proteins adjacent to the ion-conducting pore is often accessible
and lacking in posttranslation modifications that could impede
antibody binding. The E3 region was originally shown to be an
important target in the voltage-gated K+ channels KV1.2 and KV3.1
(8). Polyclonal antibodies (a population of antibodies each target-
ing a different epitope on the same antigen) directed to E3 in these
channels inhibited whole cell current, providing evidence that
KV1.2 is functional in neuronal cells. Another example of
E3-targeting is D-III, a polyclonal antibody which was found to be
an inhibitor of P/Q-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in cerebellar
granule cells and revealed a relationship between voltage-gated
Ca2+ channels and the pathogenesis of para-neoplastic cerebellar
ataxia (9).
To the best of our knowledge there are now thirteen E3-targeted
ion channel inhibitor antibodies reported in the scientific literature
(10). These antibodies are summarized in Fig. 1. An ion channel
family that has been particularly targeted is the transient receptor
Antibody-Based Ion Channel Inhibitors 247
Cav2.1/2
TRPM3
TRPM2
TRPC1
TRPC5
TRPV1
Nav1.7
Nav1.5
Kv3.1
Kv1.2
Eag1
E3
ions
Fig. 1 Summary of E3-targeted extracellular blocking antibodies. Schematic rep-

resents the predicted structure of six transmembrane domain ion channels.
Voltage-gated channels (NaV, CaV) consist of four repeats. E3 refers to the third
extracellular loop. Dashed lines indicate channels for which there are multiple
antibodies targeted to different sequences within E3. References are Kv3.1,
Kv1.2 (8), hEag (21), TRPC1 (11, 19), TRPC5 (7), TRPM3 (10), TRPV1 (20), TRPM2
(28), CaV2.1, CaV2.2 (9), NaV1.5 (4), and NaV1.7 (25)
potential (TRP) family of channels, perhaps because they often

lack classical or specific pharmacology, their functions are quite
often unclear, some knockout mice fail to show a clear phenotype,
and there is hope that the channels can be important therapeutic
targets.
TRP channels are a large and diverse family of nonselective
cationic channels with structural resemblance to the Shaker K+
channel. For many of these channels the lack of selective pharma-
cological tools has delayed channel characterization and determi-
nation of endogenous channel functions, increasing the demand
for inhibitor antibodies. T1E3 antibody, directed against E3 of
TRPC1, was used to provide evidence that TRPC1 is a contributor
to Ca2+ entry in store-depleted cells (2, 11). Functional roles for
TRPC5 channels in store-operated Ca2+ entry, cell motility, and
secretion were elucidated with E3-targeted anti-TRPC5 antibody,
T5E3 (7, 12, 13). The polyclonal antibody TM3E3 targeted to E3
of human TRPM3, a member of the melastatin subtype of TRP
channel, partially suppressed TRPM3-dependent Ca2+ entry evoked
by either sphingosine or pregnenolone sulfate (10). TM3E3 did
not affect TRPC5, TRPV4, or TRPM2 but partially inhibited
murine TRPM3 presumably because of the identical E3 sequences

in mouse and human (14). The antibody provided evidence for
negative coupling of TRPM3 to secretion (14, 15).
E3-targeted antibodies are applicable not only to cells in cul-
ture but also to studies of intact tissues. When applied to organ-
cultured segments of human saphenous vein, anti-TRPC1 (T1E3)
antibody reduced the growth of neointima, an event that underlies
vascular problems such as coronary artery bypass graft failure, sug-
gesting that a TRPC1 blocker could have therapeutic potential in
this area (16). It also inhibited arterial contraction (17). Antibody
to the same TRPC1 E3 peptide was generated independently by a
separate laboratory, showing reproducibility of the E3 approach
and revealing interrelationship of TRPC1 with Ca2+-activated K+
channels (18). There is also anti-TRPC1 antibody targeted to a
different sequence in E3, which is commercially available and was
suggested to be an inhibitor of store-operated Ca2+ entry in plate-
lets (19).
So far, the majority of extracellular functional antibodies to ion
channels have been polyclonal antibodies. There has been less suc-
cess with monoclonal antibodies. Although polyclonal E3-targeted
anti-TRPV1 antibodies were strong inhibitors of the channel, the
monoclonal antibodies tested were ineffective (20). However, a
monoclonal antibody targeted to the voltage-gated K+ channel
hEag1 was a successful inhibitor and was used to demonstrate a
role of the channel in tumor cell growth (21). It can be expected
that considerable effort will be required to identify the active anti-
body within a polyclonal pool.
Reagents that can potentiate or inhibit channel activity are
important for the determination of physiological roles of ion chan-
nels, but once characterized and generated in a suitable format
they may also have potential as therapeutic agents, perhaps parallel-
ing successful therapeutic antibody developments towards other,
non-ion channel, targets. Antibodies have been used to displace or
prevent the binding of pathogenic autoantibodies to their aqua-
porin 4 targets (22), actions which could be useful in the develop-
ment of treatments for the autoimmune disorder neuromyelitis
optica. Humanized monoclonal antibodies are one option when
pursuing such a direction, but an alternative may be the use of
VHH fragments; heavy chain antibodies are found in camelids
which contain only one variable domain (VH) and lack the Fc
region that activates an immune response. The use of VHH frag-
ments has been demonstrated for matrix-2 protein (M2), a single
transmembrane domain proton channel in the influenza virus
essential for viral function. The channel has a conserved extracel-
lular region which makes it an attractive target as an alternative to
other surface-exposed proteins such as hemagglutinin and
neuraminidase. When anti-M2 VHH fragments were isolated from
infected camels, the fragment M2-7A prevented influenza infection
in mice (23). A further alternative is to develop intrabodies, which

contain only the single-chain Fv fragment (scFv) of a full antibody
yet still retain the ability to recognize and selectively bind a target
antigen (24). They are designed to be retained within the cell, and
are thus more suited to the disruption of intracellular signalling
processes. Intrabodies have a reduced host response and their
small size is advantageous, giving better access to partially hidden
binding sites.
The number of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies entering
clinical trials is rapidly increasing. Therefore, we hope to see poten-
tial therapeutic antibodies arising from the ion channel field. An
early sign of success may be the suggested functional antibody to
the NaV1.7 channel (25).
Here we focus on methodology for generating ion channel inhib-
itor agents based on anti-peptide polyclonal antibodies (see Fig. 2).
2 Materials
2.1 ELISA 1. MAXI-SORP plates (NUNC).

Components 2. Sodium carbonate buffer: 50 mM Na2CO3, pH 9.6.
3. Phosphate buffered saline (PBS): 2.5 mM Na2HPO4, 9 mM
NaH2PO4, and 154 mM NaCl, pH 7.4.
4. PBS/Tween: 0.05% Tween-20 in PBS.
5. Blocking solution: 5% nonfat milk powder in PBS.
6. Antibody dilution buffer: 1% nonfat milk powder, 0.05%
Tween in PBS.
7. Phosphate citrate buffer: 60 mM citric acid, 25 mM
Na2HPO4.
8. ABTS reagent: 0.055% 2¢2-azido-bis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-
6-sulfonic acid) and 0.01% H2O2 in phosphate citrate buffer.
9. HRP-conjugated secondary antibody.
10. Plate reader capable of reading absorbance at 405 nm.
2.2 Dialysis 1. Dialysis membranes (Scientific Laboratory Supplies Ltd, UK).

Components 2. Sodium bicarbonate buffer: 0.1 M NaHCO3.
3. PBS.
3 Methods
3.1 Epitope Selection Custom-made antisera can be supplied by numerous companies
and Peptide Design with routine expertise in this field, which can be beneficial over
generating antibodies in-house. Regardless of the method chosen,
there are several key steps to follow (see Fig. 2).
Identify channel (and species) of interest

and establish functional assay
Design peptide to replicate ~20 aa

sequence of E3
BLAST search to identify sequence homology between
subfamily members, species etc. Avoid regions with
predicted secondary structure and internal cysteines.
Synthesise peptide
Add N or C terminal cysteine to allow conjugation to
support peptide (e.g. KLH). Retain excess peptide for
control.
Generate antisera Consider

Choose species (rabbit, mouse, goat etc). Retain purification
preimmune sera for control. Monitor antibody titre Dialysis, affinity
progression by ELISA. purification
Determine final antisera titre

ELISA. Srore in working aliquots at –20°C
Ensure antibody binds channel of interest

Western blotting, immunofluoresence
Determine functional effect of antibody

Use established functional assays for channel of
interest and include several negative controls
(preimmune serum, peptide-adsorbed etc). Test for
off-target effects against other channels.
Validate functional effect of antibody

siRNA knock down, knock out animals.
Fig. 2 Methods’ schema. Summary of the methodology for generating anti-peptide polyclonal antibodies that
function as ion channel inhibitor agents
1. Obtain the amino acid sequence of the ion channel target. Use
Kyte-Doolittle hydrophobicity analysis (Protean Software,
Lasergene) (26) to map surface-exposed and membrane-
embedded regions of the protein in order to locate the third
extracellular loop.
2. Design a ~20-mer peptide based on the E3 sequence. Suppliers
of custom-made antisera will provide prediction tools to assist
with this step (see Note 1).
3. Perform sequence alignment of the E3 peptide with related

channels or subfamily members to determine sequence homol-
ogy and whether your chosen peptide sequence is unique.
4. BLAST searches of public sequence databases (http://blast.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/) will provide a broader outlook to identify
other proteins that might contain the same sequence.
5. When synthesizing the peptide it is usual for manufacturers to
include an N- or C-terminal cysteine residue to be conjugated
to a support protein such as keyhole limpet hemacyanin (KLH).
KLH increases the antigenicity of a peptide and is useful in
affinity purification steps. You may wish to avoid E3 sequences
that contain native cysteines in order to avoid complications
from disulfide bridge formation with the terminal cysteine,
although this is not essential.
6. Peptide synthesis should generate 20–30 mg of peptide, which
will enable a standard immunization protocol (e.g., two rab-
bits in parallel) and provide excess peptide for use as a control
in functional experiments and in affinity purification.
3.2 Generation 1. Establish which species you require for antibody generation
of Antisera (see Note 2).
2. Obtain an initial bleed prior to immunization in order to col-
lect preimmune sera, an important control for later
experiments.
3. Following an initial immunization with antigenic peptide,
standard immunization protocols are usually continued for at
least 1 month with weekly injections, but can vary as antibody
levels will vary animal to animal.
4. Intermittent test bleeds should be collected to monitor anti-
body titer using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
(ELISA).
5. Final-bleed antisera are usually stored in the presence of sodium
azide as a preservative.
3.3 ELISA ELISA is an important analytical test for determining the titer of
antibodies present in a preparation of antiserum. If a titer is below
1:1,000 (i.e., dilutions of >1:1,000 fail to bind the antigenic pep-
tide) further immunizations are advisable. Ideally the titer will be
better than 1:10,000.
1. Coat wells of a 96-well MAXI-SORP plate with antigenic pep-
tide diluted to 4 mg/mL in a buffer suitable for the peptide.
Leave “no-peptide” control wells blank. Incubate overnight at
4 °C.
2. Wash wells three times with PBS/Tween to remove unbound
peptide.
3. Add 300 mL blocking solution to each well. Incubate for 1 h at

37 °C.
4. Wash wells three times with PBS/Tween.
5. Prepare serial dilutions of antisera in antibody dilution buffer
and add 50 mL to wells. Assay each concentration in duplicate.
Incubate for 2 h at 37 °C to allow any antibody present to bind
to the antigen.
7. Add 50 ml of an HRP-conjugated secondary antibody to each
well and incubate for 1 h at 37 °C.
9. Apply 50 mL of ABTS reagent and incubate 30 min at RT in
the dark.
10. Oxidation results in a color change which can be quantified at
405 nm in an absorption plate reader.
11. The intensity of the signal correlates positively with the amount
of antibody present in the sample.
3.4 Antibody Dialysis Antisera are usually preserved in the presence of sodium azide, which
and Purification is included to protect antibody stocks against contaminating infec-
tions. The sodium azide may, however, have unwanted effects on live
cells. Therefore dialysis of the antibody with buffer to remove the
sodium azide is advisable in advance of live cell or tissue experiments.
1. Remove membrane from the roll and cut to 10 cm (wear
gloves).
2. Boil for 10 min in 0.1 M sodium bicarbonate buffer.
3. Wash membrane in distilled water.
4. Boil again for 10 min in 0.1 M sodium bicarbonate buffer.
5. Wash membrane in distilled water. At this point membranes
may be stored in 25% ethanol at 4 °C.
6. For dialysis, soak membranes in PBS until flexible.
7. Fill membrane with 1 mL of antiserum and clamp both ends.
8. Place into a beaker filled with PBS at a volume 500 times that
of the antisera sample.
9. Leave for 48 h at 4 °C with gentle stirring to allow exchange.
10. During this time, change the PBS a total of three times.
11. Store dialyzed antibody in working aliquots −20 or −80 °C and
minimize freeze/thaw cycles.
The final-bleed serum provided will contain a mixture of immu-
noglobulin isotypes, typically 5–10 mg/mL of IgG, of which
100 mg/mL will be specific antibody. If required, antisera can be
subjected to further purification (see Note 3).
3.5 Functional An important step is to investigate if your antibody binds to your

Analysis and ion channel target. This can be determined using western blotting
Important Controls and immunofluorescence staining. It is also advantageous to have
access to the cDNA clone for your chosen protein because an
established functional assay for your chosen channel will be impor-
tant for determining whether your antibody has a blocking effect.
Negative controls are important in these assays, and preimmune
antiserum is one of these controls. It is presumed to contain the
same components as the antiserum except for your peptide-specific
antibody of interest. Another useful control is antigenic peptide
pre-adsorbed antibody, i.e., antiserum pre-incubated with anti-
genic peptide, which saturates the peptide-specific binding site of
your antibody, preventing it from binding to your target protein.
Another is your antiserum after ~10 min at 100 °C, which dena-
tures antibody components but leaves intact heat-resistant chemi-
cal factors. All of these controls are useful when checking for
nonspecific effects (see Note 4).
As the antiserum is a finite supply, you should use your stocks
carefully and it is important to use the optimum concentration of
antibody or dilution of antiserum. You may not be able to generate
a similar antiserum simply by injecting another set of animals with
peptide as each individual animal will respond differently to the
peptide antigen, producing a different combination of polyclonal
antibodies (i.e., lot-to-lot variation). If you are assaying the activity
of your ion channel of choice using live-cell assay (i.e., patch-clamp
or Ca2+ imaging analysis), you can minimize the amount of antise-
rum required for an experiment by using a pre-incubation protocol
in your experiments (e.g., pre-incubate cells with antibody but do
not include the antibody in the perfusion medium during record-
ings). The pre-incubation can be important to enable enough time
for antibody binding and functional effect, but the antibody
remains bound to its target after washing (as in immunohistochem-
istry experiments) (see Note 5).
1. Prior to functional experiment, aspirate cell media.
2. Incubate live cells with fresh media containing antibody at the
required concentration for 3.5 h at 37 °C.
3. For calcium imaging, include antibody during dye loading and
washing steps, but not during recording.
If your antibody does have a blocking effect at your channel of
interest, it is then advisable to test for off-target effects (e.g., on
other channel family members) and to validate effects using inde-
pendent methods such as RNA interference or gene-modified
animals.
Methods that allow the rational design of specific blocking
agents are necessary for the understanding of the critical roles ion
channels play in health and disease. E3-targeting is a useful and
versatile method for the production of such agents, which have the
additional benefit of use in live cell and tissue experiments. However
the use of antibodies is not without limitations.
4 Notes
1. Algorithms are available that can predict regions of a protein
sequence that are likely to be highly antigenic and thus elicit the
best immune response (27). It is also useful to be aware of second-
ary structure and posttranslational modification for the peptide
region, as this may impede antibody access for the full protein.
2. You would usually choose a different species from the one you
will use in your biological studies. Rabbits will generate a large
volume of approximately 60 mL of antiserum and are com-
monly used. Mouse, goat, chicken, llama, etc. are alternatives.
3. Antisera can be purified by Protein A agarose columns. These
consist of bacterial proteins that recognize the non-antigen-
binding regions of antibodies, allowing the achievement of an
immunoglobin-only sample. A purer sample can be achieved
by affinity purification in which the antigenic peptide is cou-
pled to a column. If antiserum is passed through the column,
antibodies that bind to the antigenic peptide are preferentially
retained. They can subsequently be eluted. It is important to
note that problems may arise with such purification steps. For
example, high-affinity components may be lost or preferen-
tially selected depending on how you perform the assay.
Alternatively, a high-affinity fraction may be selected that does
not contain the active ion channel blocker. It is important to
reassess the antibody titer by ELISA following dialysis or
purification to determine whether there has been loss of
activity.
4. Blocking antibodies, like other antibodies, can expose the
investigator to the common technical difficulties experienced,
for example, in western blotting and immunocytochemistry
experiments. For this reason multiple experimental controls
are necessary to minimize off-target effects and increase the
likelihood that inhibition occurs because of an effect on the
ion channel of interest.
5. For the majority of E3 antibodies, 50% channel inhibition is
achieved in approximately 15 min. Such acute antibody effects
allow for a shorter period of exposure, reducing nonspecific or
off-target effects, but complete inhibition is rarely achieved
with over-expressed channels. The mechanism of inhibition
remains unknown, although at least for voltage-gated channels
it would not appear to be due to channel internalization or
down regulation of channels from the cell surface (6).
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Vijayasarathy C, Campos MM, Bush RA, Milligan CJ, Bahnasi YM, Al-Shawaf E, Porter
Diamond JS, Sieving PA (2010) Probing KE, Jiang LH, Emery P, Sivaprasadarao A,
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GP, Diss JK, Djamgoz MB (2005) A novel Kumar B, Harteneck C, O’Regan D,
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voltage-gated Na+ channel ‘neonatal’ splice KE, Beech DJ (2010) Pregnenolone sulphate-
form. J Neurosci Methods 147:88–98 and cholesterol-regulated TRPM3 channels
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D, Koyuturk M, Kaya H, Battaloglu E, De Bella English AA, Emery P, Beech DJ (2010)
MT, Slade MJ, Tolhurst R, Palmieri C, Jiang J, TRPM3 channel stimulated by pregnenolone
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Chapter 20
Site-Directed Mutagenesis to Study the Structure–Function

Relationships of Ion Channels
Abstract
Ion channels mediate a wide variety of physiological processes by forming small pores across the membranes
that allow regulated flow of ions into or out of the cell. The primary linear sequences of ion channel pro-
teins, like any proteins, are composed by 20 different amino acids, each of which is determined by specific
triplet codon in their genes. Site-directed mutagenesis is a widely used molecular biology method to
change the triplet in the coding sequence and thereby the amino acid residue in the protein sequence.
Functional characterization of the ion channels carrying point mutations allows us to interrogate the
structure–function relationships of the ion channels. Here, we will describe the site-directed mutagenesis
procedures, in which the wide-type cDNA or plasmid is used as a template to synthesize the complemen-
tary mutation-containing DNAs from two mutagenic primers in the polymerase chain reaction.
Key words Ion channels, Structure–function relationships, Site-directed mutagenesis, PCR
1 Introduction
Ion channels are integral membrane proteins that form small pores
to allow ions to cross the cell membranes and thereby transduce
important signals for a variety of physiological functions. More
than three hundreds of genes encoding ion channel proteins have
been identified (1). Ion channels are known to undergo closed,
open, inactivated, or desensitized states, each of which often has
more than one step, but the gating mechanisms are still not well
understood. X-ray crystallography in general provides a snapshot
of the structure of proteins in one particular state or step, and it is
notoriously challenging to determine the crystal structure of mem-
brane proteins such as ion channels. Nonetheless, a handful of ion
channels have been solved at the atomic level, including voltage-
gated potassium channel (2–4), ionotropic glutamate receptor (5),
acid-sensing ion channels (6, 7), and P2X receptors (8, 9). Such
structural information is tremendously useful and become particu-
larly powerful, when combined with the results from functional
257
258 Wei Yang and Lin-Hua Jiang
studies of ion channels carrying point mutations, to understand

the fundamental principles or mechanisms by which the ion chan-
nels operate (e.g., (9, 10)). In addition, a number of naturally
occurring mutations are causatively associated with diseases (e.g.,
(11)). To elucidate how the mutation alters the ion channel func-
tion is an important step towards to a good understanding of the
mechanisms underlying the disease (e.g., (12, 13)).
Site-directed mutagenesis method is very useful to interrogate
the structure–function relationships of an ion channel. Different
mutational strategies have been described over the past decades
(14–19). For example, residues in the region of interest can be
individually replaced with cysteine, and modification of the intro-
duced cysteine with cysteine-specific reagents may confer detect-
able changes in the ion channel function. Furthermore, two
cysteines can be simultaneously introduced into two adjacent
domains and their cross-linking via disulfide bonding may also alter
the ion channel function. Such substituted cysteine accessibility
and cross-linking methods have been proved to be useful in study-
ing the ligand-binding, ion permeation, and channel-gating prop-
erties (see Chapter 21 of this book). Substitution of individual
residues with tryptophan (or tryptophan scanning) can be used to
determine whether a particular region faces to or interact with lip-
ids within the membranes (e.g., (20)). Many ion channels are
strongly modulated by metal cations (e.g., Zn2+ and H+), post-
translational modifications (e.g., phosphorylation and glycosyla-
tion), and interacting proteins. Functional studies in conjunction
with site-directed mutagenesis can be used to pinpoint the binding
or interacting sites (e.g., (21–24)). Reciprocal residue swapping
can help to understand the contribution of species-specific residues
to the differences in the functional and pharmacological properties
of the ion channels (e.g., (25, 26)).
The site-directed mutagenesis method in principle allows to
change, delete, or insert amino acid residues in the protein
sequence. Figure 1 illustrates the widely used site-directed muta-
genesis approach using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to intro-
duce point mutations. This method is to use double-stranded
complementary DNA (cDNA) or usually a plasmid as a template
and two synthetic mutagenic primers containing the desired muta-
tion. The double strands of the cDNA template are firstly separated
by denaturation at high temperature (Table 1). At reduced or
annealing temperature (Table 1), the mutagenic primers bind to
the target or complementary sequences in the cDNA template
(step 1 in Fig. 1), and elongated into a new complementary strand
with the desirable mutation, catalyzed by a high-fidelity DNA
polymerase (step 2 in Fig. 1). The parental strands from the plas-
mid are methylated, but the newly synthesized strands are not
methylated. DpnI endonuclease selectively only digests the methy-
lated strands, and thus treatment with DpnI removes the parental
Site-Directed Mutagenesis 259
Step 1 Denaturation of double

strands of parental DNAs, and
annealing of mutagenic primers
Step 4 Transformation and

Step 2 Amplification and PCR identification by sequencing of
products contain the mutation the mutant plasmid
Step 3 Digestion of parental

DNA strands by DpnI
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the major steps in PCR-based site-directed mutagenesis
Table 1
PCR protocols used for site-directed mutagenesis
Segments Cycle(s) Temperature Time

1 1 95°C 5 min
a
2 12–18 95°C 30 s
Tm − 5b 60 s
68°C 1 min/kb of plasmid length
3 1 72°C 10 min
4 1 4–8°C Hold
a
See Note 4
b
See Note 5
strands, leaving the newly synthesized mutant strands intact (step

3 in Fig. 1). DpnI-treated DNA samples are then transformed into
competent bacterial cells, and form colonies that should only har-
bor the plasmids with the desired mutation. The plasmids are sub-
sequently purified and the mutation is further confirmed by DNA
sequencing (step 4 in Fig. 1). Here, we will describe the experi-
mental details of this method.
2 Materials
2.1 Reagents 1. High-fidelity DNA polymerase (e.g., Turbo or Ultra Pfu DNA
polymerase).
2. 10× Pfu reaction buffer: 100 mM KCl, 100 mM (NH4)2SO4,
200 mM Tris–HCl pH 8.8, 20 mM MgSO4, 1% Triton X-100,
and 1 mg/mL nuclease-free bovine serum albumin.
3. DpnI enzyme.
4. 2.5 mM dNTP mix.
5. Sense and antisense mutagenic primers.
6. Chemically competent E. coli cells (see Note 1).
7. Luria-Bertani (LB) media and LB agar plates.
8. Ampicillin: 100 mg/mL stock solution made in sterile water
and stored at −20°C, and 60 mg/mL used in LB media or LB
agar plates.
9. 50× Tris-acetate (TAE) electrophoresis solution: 242 g Tris
base, 57.1 mL glacial acetic acid, and 100 mL 0.5 M EDTA
pH 8. The working solution is prepared by diluting the stock
solution within water.
10. Agarose gel for electrophoresis.
11. Ethidium bromide: 5 mg/mL stock solution made in water.
Add 5 mL to 100 mL of agarose solution to visualize DNA in
agarose gel using a transilluminator.
2.2 Equipment 1. PCR machine: e.g., Eppendorf Mastercycler or other commer-

cial suppliers.
2. Agarose gel electrophoresis system: e.g., Bio-Rad or other
commercial suppliers.
3. Transilluminator: e.g., Bio-Rad Gel Doc EZ system or other
commercial suppliers.
2.3 Kits 1. Site-directed mutagenesis kit: e.g., Stratagene, Promega,

Clonetech, or other commercial suppliers.
2. Plasmid mini-prep kit: e.g., Qiagen, Promega or other com-
mercial suppliers.
3 Methods
3.1 Design 1. The mutagenic primers should be 25–40 bases long, with a
of the Primers melting temperature (Tm) of ³78°C. The following formula is
commonly used to estimate the Tm value of the primers:
Tm = 81.5 + 0.41 (%GC ) − 675 / N − % mismatch
where N is the primer length in bases, and values for % GC and

% mismatch are whole numbers that are calculated as number
of G/C bases or mismatch bases in the primer divided by
primer length in bases and multiplied by 100. Ideally, the GC
content is ~50% but this is difficult to achieve for certain muta-
tions. The Tm for primers designed for insertion or deletion can
be estimated by the modified formula:
Tm = 81.5 + 0.41 (%GC) − 675 / N
where N is the primer length in bases excluding the bases to be
introduced or deleted.
2. The mutation site should locate in or close to the middle of the
primer with 12–20 correct bases on each side. The primer
should start and end with one or more G or C base to improve
the efficiency of annealing and synthesis by DNA polymerases.
3. The primers need not to be 5¢-phosphorylated but should be
purified by fast polynucleotide liquid chromatography or poly-
acrylamide gel electrophoresis. Failure to purify the primers
could significantly decrease the mutation efficiency. Synthesis
and purification of mutagenic primers are standard services of
many commercial suppliers.
4. It is recommended that the primers stock solution is prepared
at 100 mM in DNase/RNase-free water or Tris–HCl (pH 8),
aliquoted, and stored at −20°C until use. The working solu-
tion at 10 mM is prepared by further diluting the stock solution
in DNase/RNase-free water.
3.2 PCR 1. Set up the following PCR sample in a sterile thin-wall Eppendorf
tube for each mutation: 5 mL of 10× reaction buffer, 1–2 mL
(50–100 ng) of cDNA template (see Note 2), 2 mL of 10 mM
sense mutagenic primers (see Note 3), 2 mL of 10 mM anti-
sense mutagenic primers, and 4 mL of 2.5 mM dNTP mix. Add
sterile DNAase-free H2O to a final volume of 49 mL. Finally,
add 1 mL of 2.5 U/mL Pfu DNA polymerase.
2. Overlay the PCR sample in each tube with ~30 mL of mineral
oil, if the thermal cycler does not have a hot-top assembly.
3. Use the PCR cycles as detailed in Table 1 (see Notes 4 and 5).
4. Add 1 mL of DpnI enzyme (10 U/mL) to each PCR sample,
and mix gently and thoroughly by pipetting the samples sev-
eral times before incubated at 37°C for 1 h to remove the
cDNA templates (see Notes 6 and 7).
3.3 Transformation 1. Thaw competent cells, which are normally stored at −80°C, on
ice just before use. Transfer 50–100 mL of competent cells into
a 1.5 mL Eppendorf tube for each sample.
2. Add 1–3 mL of PCR sample to the competent cells, mix by
gentle flicking (not pipetting), and incubate on ice for 30 min.
3. Heat-shock at 42°C for exactly 45 s by placing the Eppendorf

tube in a preheated water bath, and immediately return on ice
and incubate for another 2 min.
4. Add 800 mL of pre-warmed LB media and incubate in a shaking
incubator at 37°C for 1 h at 225–250 rotations per min (rpm).
5. Collect bacterial cells by centrifugation for 2 min. Remove
700 mL of supernatant.
6. Resuspend cell pellet in the remaining solution by gentle
pipetting, and spread on a pre-warmed LB agar plate contain-
ing appropriate antibiotics. Incubate the agar plate at 37°C for
16 h or overnight.
7. Check colonies on the agar plate (see Note 8), and streak 3–4
single colonies with sterile 10 mL tips, each colony into 5 mL
of LB medium containing appropriate antibiotics in a 20 mL
universal tube. Cap the tubes loosely and grow bacteria at
37°C in a shaking incubator at 225–250 rpm for 16–20 h.
3.4 Extraction of 1. Extract plasmids from bacterial culture using a plasmid

Plasmid and DNA purification kit, which can be obtained from many commercial
Sequencing suppliers, according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
2. Check the plasmid quality by running 1 mL of purified plasmid
sample on 1% agarose gel electrophoresis (see Note 6).
3. Send an aliquot of purified plasmid sample to be sequenced by
a commercial service provider (see Note 9).
4. Analyze the DNA sequencing results against the original cDNA
sequence to determine whether the desirable mutation is suc-
cessfully introduced (see Note 10).
4 Notes
1. Competent cells are available from many commercial suppliers

but can be prepared in the lab using calcium chloride protocol
as described elsewhere (27).
2. If possible, the cDNA or protein-coding sequence should be
prior subcloned into a mammalian expression vector (e.g.,
pcDNA3.1) in order to express the mutant protein in a heter-
ologous expression system for subsequent functional studies.
3. It is important to put an excessive amount of the primers.
4. As a general guideline, use 14–16 cycles for change in single nucle-
otide mutation and 18 cycles for multiple nucleotide mutations.
5. The annealing temperature is a crucial factor in determining
the PCR yield. As the starting point, use a temperature 5°C
lower than the melting temperature (Tm). However, one should
optimize experimentally, e.g., using a gradient PCR machine
(Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 An agarose gel shows the PCR products after DpnI treatment. Lane 1, the DNA ladder; lanes 2 and 14, the
plasmids used as the template; lanes 3–13, PCR products using gradient PCRs with the annealing temperature from
56 to 67°C. The better PCR yield was observed with the annealing temperature higher than 60°C (lanes 7–13 )
6. It is important to remove the parental DNAs as much as

possible using DpnI. Any residual DNAs can result in unwanted
colonies harboring the wild-type cDNA (the “false positive”
colonies). If this problem becomes serious, treat the PCR sam-
ple with DpnI for 2 h and add more DpnI or both.
7. Run 5–10 mL of DpnI-treated PCR sample on an agarose gel
to make sure sufficient amount of newly synthesized cDNAs
for transformation. DNA samples in the range of 0.5–10 kb are
well separated on a 1% (w/v) agarose gel. If there is no band
on the agarose gel, increase the DNA templates when setting
up the PCR sample, or alternatively reduce the annealing tem-
perature, which however may increase nonspecific PCR prod-
ucts or random mutations. For smearing DNA, adjust the
annealing temperature (see Note 5). If none of these changes
help, design a new set of primers.
8. Lack of colony after transformation can arise from little or no
DNA in the PCR sample, which can be easily ruled out by
agarose gel electrophoresis (see Note 7). Another potential
cause relates to the competency of bacterial cells used. Avoid
repeated thawing and freezing of competent cells. Determine
the competency by transforming a known amount of plasmids
and repeat transformation using an increased amount of PCR
samples using bacterial cells with reduced competency.
Alternatively, switch to a different batch of competent cells.
9. It is necessary to determine the entire cDNA sequence, par-
ticularly the longer sequences which have a greater risk of
unwanted mutations being introduced despite using high-
fidelity or proof-reading polymerases.
10. There are several free online nucleotide sequence analysis pro-
grams. Figure 3 shows the nucleotide sequence alignment of the
264
TRPM2 TTCTTCTTCCTCTTCCTGCTGGCTGTGTGGGTGGTGTCCTTCGGGGTGGCCAAGCAGGCCATCCTCATCCACAACGAGCGCCGGGTGGAC 2908

E960Q TTCTTCTTCCTCTTCCTGCTGGCTGTGTGGGTGGTGTCCTTCGGGGTGGCCAAGCAGGCCATCCTCATCCACAACCAGCGCCGGGTGGAC 168
D987E TTCTTCTTCCTCTTCCTGCTGGCTGTGTGGGTGGTGTCCTTCGGGGTGGCCAAGCAGGCCATCCTCATCCACAACGAGCGCCGGGTGGAC 171
*************************************************************************** **************
TRPM2 TGGCTGTTCCGAGGGGCCGTCTACCACTCCTACCTCACCATCTTCGGGCAGATCCCGGGCTACATCGACGGTGTGAACTTCAACCCGGAG 2998

E960Q TGGCTGTTCCGAGGGGCCGTCTACCACTCCTACCTCACCATCTTCGGGCAGATCCCGGGCTACATCGACGGTGTGAACTTCAACCCGGAG 258
D987E TGGCTGTTCCGAGGGGCCGTCTACCACTCCTACCTCACCATCTTCGGGCAGATCCCGGGCTACATCGAGGGTGTGAACTTCAACCCGGAG 261
******************************************************************** *********************
TRPM2 CACTGCAGCCCCAATGGCACCGACCCCTACAAGCCTAAGTGCCCCGAGAGCGACGCGACGCAGCAGAGGCCGGCCTTCCCTGAGTGGCTG 3088

E960Q CACTGCAGCCCCAATGGCACCGACCCCTACAAGCCTAAGTGCCCCGAGAGCGACGCGACGCAGCAGAGGCCGGCCTTCCCTGAGTGGCTG 348
D987E CACTGCAGCCCCAATGGCACCGACCCCTACAAGCCTAAGTGCCCCGAGAGCGACGCGACGCAGCAGAGGCCGGCCTTCCCTGAGTGGCTG 351
******************************************************************************************
TRPM2 ACGGTCCTCCTACTCTGCCTCTACCTGCTCTTCACCAACATCCTGCTGCTCAACCTCCTCATCGCCATGTTCAACTACACCTTCCAGCAG 3178

E960Q ACGGTCCTCCTACTCTGCCTCTACCTGCTCTTCACCAACATCCTGCTGCTCAACCTCCTCATCGCCATGTTCAACTACACCTTCCAGCAG 438
D987E ACGGTCCTCCTACTCTGCCTCTACCTGCTCTTCACCAACATCCTGCTGCTCAACCTCCTCATCGCCATGTTCAACTACACCTTCCAGCAG 441
******************************************************************************************
TRPM2 GTGCAGGAGCACACGGACCAGATTTGGAAGTTCCAGCGCCATGACCTGATCGAGGAGTACCACGGCCGCCCCGCCGCGCCGCCCCCCTTC 3268

E960Q GTGCAGGAGCACACGGACCAGATTTGGAAGTTCCAGCGCCATGACCTGATCGAGGAGTACCACGGCCGCCCCGCCGCGCCGCCCCCCTTC 528
D987E GTGCAGGAGCACACGGACCAGATTTGGAAGTTCCAGCGCCATGACCTGATCGAGGAGTACCACGGCCGCCCCGCCGCGCCGCCCCCCTTC 531
******************************************************************************************
TRPM2 ATCCTCCTCAGCCACCTGCAGCTCTTCATCAAGAGGGTGGTCCTGAAGACTCCGGCCAAGAGGCACAAGCAGCTCAAGAACAAGCTGGAG 3358

E960Q ATCCTCCTCAGCCACCTGCAGCTCTTCATCAAGAGGGTGGTCCTGAAGACTCCGGCCAAGAGGCACAAGCAGCTCAAGAACAAGCTGGAG 618
D987E ATCCTCCTCAGCCACCTGCAGCTCTTCATCAAGAGGGTGGTCCTGAAGACTCCGGCCAAGAGGCACAAGCAGCTCAAGAACAAGCTGGAG 621
******************************************************************************************
TRPM2 AAGAACGAGGAGGCGGCCCTGCTATCCTGGGAGATCTACCTGAAGGAGAACTACCTCCAGAACCGACAGTTCCAGCAAAAGCAGCGGCCC 3418

E960Q AAGAACGAGGAGGCGGCCCTGCTATCCTGGGAGATCTACCTGAAGGAGAACTACCTCCAGAACCGACAGTTCCAGCAAAAGCAGCGGCCC 708
D987E AAGAACGAGGAGGCGGCCCTGCTATCCTGGGAGATCTACCTGAAGGAGAACTACCTCCAGAACCGACAGTTCCAGCAAAAGCAGCGGCCC 711
******************************************************************************************
Fig. 3 Nucleotide sequence alignment of the DNA sequencing results for the E960Q and D987E two pore mutations against the original human TRPM2 cDNA sequence
using the multiple sequence alignment ClustalW2 program. The numbers on the right indicate the position of the last nucleotide in each line in the human TRPM2
cDNA sequence, or the readable sequencing results for the E960Q or D987E mutation. All the nucleotide sequences are identical as denoted by the asterisks
underneath, with the exception of changes in the G2894C for the E960Q mutation and the C2977G for the D987E mutation
sequencing results for the E960Q and D987E pore mutations

in human TRPM2 (28) against the original cDNA sequence
using the multiple sequence alignment ClustalW2 program
available from the EMBL-EBI site (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/
Tools/msa/clustalw2/).
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8:305–328 Genetically determined P2X7 receptor pore
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tion in P2X receptors. Nature 485:207–212 21. Yang W, Manna PT, Zou J, Luo J, Beech DJ,
10. Browne LE, Jiang LH, North RA (2010) New Sivaprasadarao A, Jiang LH (2011) Zinc inacti-
structure enlivens interest in P2X receptors. vates melastatin transient receptor potential 2
Trends Pharmacol Sci 31:229–237 channels via the outer pore. J Biol Chem
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B, Shetlera CM, Heizerb JW, Schmitzc C, 22. Yang W, Zou J, Xia R, Vaal ML, Seymour VA,
Mocza G, Garrutod RM, Perraudb A-L (2008) Luo J, Beech DJ, Jiang L-H (2010) State-
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involved in functional inhibition by acidic pH. of Escherichia coli with plasmids. J Mol Biol
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residue in the TRPM2 channel outer pore is Bradley H, Beech DJ, Jiang LH (2008)
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(2011) Pharmacological properties of the rhesus 27426–27432
Chapter 21
Cysteine-Based Cross-Linking Approach to Study

Inter-domain Interactions in Ion Channels
Lin-Hua Jiang
Abstract
Cysteine contains a highly reactive thiol group and therefore under oxidizing conditions a disulfide bond
can form between a pair of cysteines that are juxtaposed in the close vicinity, which can be only reversed by
reducing agents. These attributes have been elegantly exploited to study the functional role of an interac-
tion or contact between two adjacent domains that are present in ion channels or virtually in any proteins,
by introducing double cysteine substitutions at the domain interface and measuring changes in the ion
channel functions arising from cross-linking the two substituted cysteines via formation of a disulfide
bond. Here I describe this cysteine-based cross-linking approach.
Key words Disulfide bond, Inter-domain interaction, Double cysteine substitution, Cross-linking,
Ion channel, Ligand binding, Gating
1 Introduction
Ion channels in the plasma membrane act as a ubiquitous and key

mechanism of transporting ions across the membranes in both
excitable and non-excitable cells, thereby altering cell membrane
potential and/or ion homeostasis (1). Many ion channels are made
of multiple membrane-spanning subunits that are entwined with
each other surrounding a central aqueous ion-conducting pore.
Examples include the cysteine-loop receptors (pentamers) such as
nicotine acetylcholine and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors (nAChR
and GABAAR), ionotropic glutamate receptors (tetramers), ATP-
gated P2X receptors (P2XR, trimers) (2, 3), voltage-gated K+ (KV)
and inwardly rectifying K+ (Kir) channels (tetramers), transient
receptor potential channels (tetramers) (4), and acid-sensing and
epithelial Na+ channels (trimers) (5). For the CaV and NaV channels,
the ion-conducting pore is constituted by four homologous
domains of single subunit (4). An increasing number of ion channel
267
268 Lin-Hua Jiang
structures have been solved at the atomic level and such structures
reveal numerous interactions or contacts between domains located
within the same or neighboring subunits. Some of these interac-
tions have been demonstrated to be crucial in coordinating ligand
binding, e.g., ACh binding in the nAChR (6), and ATP and Zn2+
binding in the P2XR (3), or mediating ion channel gating, e.g., in
the GABAAR (7), KV channels (8), and P2XR (9). Thus, a fuller
understanding of inter-domain/subunit interactions in the closed,
open, and desensitized states can help to provide mechanistic
insights into the principles of how the ion channels function. Such
insights will facilitate elucidation of the molecular mechanisms of
diseases arising from mutational perturbance of ion channels, e.g.,
(10), and structure-guided design of therapeutic drugs.
Cysteine amino acid is one of the building blocks of virtually
every protein including ion channels. Uniquely, cysteine contains a
highly reactive thiol group. Thus, when a pair of cysteines is
exposed to each other in the close vicinity, a disulfide bond can
form between them, catalyzed by ambient oxygen or oxidizing
agents. The thiol group in cysteine can also form disulfide bonds
with many of the cysteine-modifying reagents (e.g., methanethio-
sulfonates). Such a unique chemical property of cysteine underpins
the substituted cysteine accessibility method, which was elegantly
developed by Karlin and his colleagues to study the ion permeation
and gating properties in the nAChR (11, 12), and has since been
used to study many other ion channels. In this method, single-
cysteine substitution is introduced into the region of interest. One
assumes that the residue replaced with cysteine occupies a func-
tionally crucial position in the channel, formation of a disulfide
bond between the introduced cysteine and cysteine-modifying
reagents confers discernible changes in the ion channel functional
properties.
This chapter describes cysteine-based cross-linking approach,
which follows the same principle of disulfide bonding and extends
the single substituted cysteine accessibility method. It is primarily
used to probe the role of an interaction between two neighboring
domains or regions, predicted on the basis of the atomic structures
or educated guess, in determining the functional properties of ion
channels. This approach thus involves introduction of double
cysteine substitutions into two positions located on the opposite
side of an interface between two domains, either from adjacent
subunits (Fig. 1a) or within the same subunit (Fig. 1b), and takes
the assumptions that if one or both of these positions or the sur-
rounding regions are engaged in, e.g., ligand binding, permeation,
or conformational changes accompanying the channel gating,
cross-linking of the substituted cysteines as a result of forming a
disulfide bond alters such ion channel functional properties. Such
functional alterations can be reversed using dithiothreitol (DTT)
or other reducing agents. It is easy to implement, and it is versatile,
Cysteine-Based Cross-Linking 269
a
Oxidisation
SH HS S S
Reduction
Oxidisation
SH HS S S
Reduction
Fig. 1 Schematic diagrams illustrating cross-linking of two cysteines substi-

tuted into positions located in two different subunits (a) or two domains of the
same protein (b)
i.e., applicable to virtually any ion channel types, and can yield
important mechanistic understanding of the role of inter-domain
interactions in coordinating ligand binding and mediating channel
gating and ion permeation, as have been demonstrated in a num-
ber of ion channels (7–9, 13–18).
2 Materials
Materials required for site-directed mutagenesis are listed in

Chapter 20 of this book.
2.1 Cell Culture and 1. Human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells.
Transfection 2. Dulbecco’s modified Eagle medium containing 10% fetal
bovine serum (DMEM culture medium).
3. Phosphate buffered saline (PBS).
4. 0.05% Trypsin/ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)
solution.
5. 15-mL Falcon tubes.
6. 35-mm plastic Petri dishes.
7. 13-mm coverslips.
8. 1.5-mL Eppendorf tubes.
9. Transfection medium (e.g., OPTI-MEM-I).
10. Transfection reagents (e.g., Lipofectamine 2000).
11. Plasmids for green fluorescent protein (GFP) and ion channel
of interest (see Note 1).
2.2 Electrophysiology 1. Patch-clamp recording rig with a fluorescent microscopy

(see Chapter 7 of this book for further details).
2. Pipette puller.
270 Lin-Hua Jiang
3. Microforge.
4. Solution perfusion system (e.g., RSC-160 rapid solution
change system from BioLogic).
5. Glass capillary.
6. 1-mL plastic syringe.
7. Syringe filter disk with 0.2-mm pores.
8. Internal/pipette solution: 145 mM NaF, 10 mM EGTA, and
10 mM HEPES, pH 7.3.
9. External/bath solution: 147 mM NaCl, 2 mM CaCl2, 2 mM
KCl, 1 mM MgCl2, 13 mM glucose, and 10 mM HEPES,
pH 7.3.
10. 10 mM DTT freshly prepared in external solution.
3. Methods
3.1 General The starting point is obvious: which pair of residues is chosen to be
Considerations replaced with cysteine? The decision can be straightforward if
atomic structural information exists to indicate juxtaposition of
two residues in two neighboring domains, and some functional
evidence to suggest their importance in the ion channel functions.
For example, structural models indicate the close vicinity of Asp57
and Asp149 residues in the extracellular domain and Lys279 residue
in the extracellular transmembrane linker region in the GABAAR
(7) or Glu63 in one subunit and Arg274 in the adjacent subunit in
the extracellular domain of the P2X2R (17), and functional studies
of the single-point mutant channels implied their engagement in
the channel gating (7, 17). Cysteine-based cross-linking approach
yielded unambiguous evidence to support a crucial role of the elec-
trostatic interactions mediated by these residues in the channel gat-
ing (7, 17). On other occasions where structural information is
limited or not available, the choice of double cysteine substitution
is largely reduced to educated guess, even trial and error. For
example, conserved charged residues including Lys68, Lys70, Lys190,
Arg292, Arg305, and Lys309 in the extracellular domain of P2X1R and
equivalent residues in other P2XR are essential for P2XR activation
by ATP (3). Double cysteine substitution introduced into two sep-
arate subunits and cross-linking of the co-expressed single-cysteine
mutant subunits, in combination with Western blotting and func-
tional studies, showed that K69C and K309C formed an inter-
subunit disulfide (16). This provides evidence to indicate that Lys68
and Lys309 residues contribute to formation of a novel inter-subunit
ATP binding site, which has been substantiated by the atomic
structural determination (3). Another example is shown in Fig. 2;
Val48 and Ile328 residues, located at the extracellular end of the first
and the second transmembrane domains, respectively (Fig. 2),
Fig. 2 Cross-linking of V48C in the first transmembrane domain (TM1) and I328C
in the second transmembrane domain (TM2) impairs P2X2R activation. (a) A rep-
resentative whole-cell recording of ATP-evoked inward currents in a HEK293 cell
expressing [V48C, I328C] double-mutant rat P2X2R. The initial ATP-induced cur-
rent was small but drastically increased by exposure to 10 mM DTT. The current
gradually declined upon washing DTT and was reversed upon reapplication of
DTT (modified from (13). This research was originally published in Journal of
Biological Chemistry. Jiang LH et al. Amino acid residues involved in gating
identified in the first membrane-spanning domain of the rat P2X2 receptor. 2001;
276: 14902–14908. © the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular
Biology). (b) A structural model of the transmembrane domains of the trimeric rat
P2X2R in the closed state viewed from extracellular side, showing close juxtapo-
sition of V48 residue in the TM1 on the periphery and I328 residue in the TM2
pore-forming domain (reproduced from (3) with permission)
were initially identified by single substituted cysteine accessibility

method (13). Double cysteine substitution, in combination with
trial and error in this case, led to discovery that formation of DTT-
sensitive disulfide bonds prevented activation of the P2X2R carry-
ing both V48C and I318C mutations (Fig. 2) (13). A further
study, by cross-linking the cysteines substituted into the corre-
sponding residues, revealed the subunit stoichiometry of the het-
eromeric P2X2/3R (14). In summary, the strategy of selecting the
pair of residues for cysteine substitution strongly depends on the
prior knowledge regarding the structure-function relationships of
the ion channels and particularly the potential role of the domain
interactions under investigation.
Detailed protocols for introduction of cysteines into the desired
position of an ion channel protein using site-directed mutagenesis
272 Lin-Hua Jiang
are given in Chapter 20 of this book. Below are protocols for

analysis of the effect of chemical cross-linking of ion channel
domains via the introduced cysteines on the ion channel function.
3.2 Cell Preparation The following procedures should be conducted in a sterile tissue
for Transient culture hood except indicated otherwise (refer to Chapters 2, 4
Transfection and 5 of this book for alternative transfection methods and
optimization).
1. Grow cells in DMEM culture medium in a T25 flask media in
a humid 37 °C, 5% CO2 tissue culture incubator until 80%
confluent.
2. Rinse cells with PBS.
3. Detach cells using trypsin–EDTA solution, transfer cell sus-
pension in a 15-mL Falcon tube, and collect cells by centrifu-
gation at 200 × g for 5 min.
4. Aspirate supernatant and resuspend cell pellet in 2 mL of cul-
ture medium by gentle pipetting.
5. Seed 0.2–0.3 mL of cell suspension in each 35-mm Petri dish,
add 1.5 mL of culture medium, and leave in the incubator to
grow until >80% confluent (see Note 2). Prepare one Petri
dish of cells for each transfection.
6. For each transfection, dilute 0.1 μg of plasmid for GFP (see
Note 3) and 1 μg of plasmid for the ion channel of interest into
100 μL of transfection medium in one 1.5-mL Eppendorf tube
(see Note 4) and 3 μL Lipofectamine 2000 into 100 μL of
transfection medium in another Eppendorf tube. Leave them
in the tissue culture hood at room temperature for 5 min.
7. Combine plasmid and Lipofectamine 2000 containing trans-
fection medium, and mix thoroughly by gentle pipetting.
Leave it in the tissue culture hood at room temperature for
20 min.
8. Add 0.8 mL of culture medium into transfection medium.
9. Replace existing culture medium with transfection medium.
10. Return cells to the incubator and leave overnight (see Note 5).
3.3 Plating Cells 1. Aspirate culture medium.

for Patch-Clamp 2. Repeat steps 2–4 described above (see Subheading 3.2).
Recording
3. Resuspend cell pellet in 2 mL of fresh culture medium gently
and thoroughly, seed 50 μL of cell suspension on each 13-mm
circular coverslip placed in one 35-mm Petri dish (up to four
coverslips per dish), and add 100–200 μl of fresh culture
medium to dilute and disperse cells (see Note 6). Return cells
to the incubator for 2–4 h to allow them to recover and adhere
onto the coverslips.
4. Add 2 mL of culture medium in each Petri dish to immerse the

coverslips. Use cells for patch-clamp recording straight away or
maintain them in the incubator for use within the following
48 h.
3.4 Whole-Cell 1. Make recording pipettes from glass capillary using a pipette
Patch-Clamp puller, and if necessary, polish the tip using a microforge.
Recording 2. Backfill the recording pipette with the pipette solution (see
Subheading 2.2), and place in the electrode holder.
3. Apply positive air pressure to the recording pipette via the side-
port of the electrode holder (see Note 7).
4. Immerse the recording pipette into the external or bath solu-
tion, and offset the liquid junction potential (see Note 8).
5. Apply a 5 mV test pulse every 5 s from 0 mV holding potential
to examine the recording pipette resistance, which should be
in the range of 2–4 MΩ.
6. Select single GFP-positive cells under the fluorescent microscope.
7. Position the recording pipette closely to the cell and impale
gently onto it using a micromanipulator.
8. Apply negative air pressure to the recording pipette to obtain a
giga-ohm (GΩ) seal (see Note 9).
9. Set a negative holding potential (e.g., −60 mV), and cancel the
pipette capacitance using amplifier fast capacitance (see Note 8).
10. Apply further negative air pressure to the recording pipette to
break the membrane patch underneath the tip of the recording
pipette to achieve the whole-cell figuration.
11. Compensate the access resistance (Rs) using whole-cell (slow)
capacitance cancellation (see Note 8).
12. Once Rs is below an acceptable value (£10 MΩ), and if
required, carry out series resistance compensation (see Note 8;
see also Chapter 7 of this book for more detailed protocol of
the patch-clamp recording).
13. Begin recording. Figure 2a shows an example of whole-cell
current patch-clamp recording made from a HEK293 cell
expressing double cysteine mutant [V48C, I328C] of rat
P2X2R at a holding potential of −60 mV. During this record-
ing, 30 μM ATP was applied for 2 s every 2 or 4 min, using
RSC-200 fast solution changer, to the cell to activate the
mutant receptor channels. After two initial ATP applications,
10 mM dithiothreitol (DTT) was applied to the cell (denoted
by 0 min), using RSC-200. The initial ATP-induced current
was small but drastically increased and reached maximum after
application of DTT for 20 min. The current gradually declined
upon washing DTT, and was reversed upon reapplication of
274 Lin-Hua Jiang
DTT. Cysteines were introduced to replace valine residue at

position 48 (Val48) located at the extracellular end of the first
transmembrane domain and isoleucine at position 328 (Ile328)
at the extracellular end of the second transmembrane domain,
resulting in the [V48C, I328C] double cysteine mutant recep-
tor. The results, from recording the double-mutant receptor-
mediated currents like the one shown in Fig. 2a, suggest that
Val48 and Ile328 residues appose side by side in the closed P2X2R
receptor and cross-linking of V48C and I328C via a disulfide
bond prevents the ion channel from fully opening (refer to
(12) for further details and interpretation). The vicinity
between Val48 and Ile328 residues (in green) is evident in a struc-
tural model of the rat P2X2R based on the zebrafish P2X4R
atomic structure in the closed state (Fig. 2b) (3). The three
subunits are indicated in blue, red, and yellow, with the TM2
forming the central ion-conducting pathway and TM1 be
peripheral.
4 Notes
1. For some ion channel proteins, it is necessary to generate a

cDNA construct expressing the “cysteine-less” version of the
wild-type protein by replacing all endogenous cysteines with
alanine (e.g., see ref. 8), if they can potentially interact or inter-
fere with substituted cysteines.
2. A >80% cell confluency is ideally required for optimum trans-
fection of HEK293 cells using Lipofectamine 2000. The cell
confluency requirement may differ using transfection reagents
from other suppliers.
3. GFP is often used as a selective marker for identification of
positive transfectants. Instead of co-transfecting cells with two
separate plasmids, the cDNAs for GFP and ion channel protein
can be inserted into a bicistronic internal ribosome entry site
(IRES) mammalian expression vector (19). Alternatively, GFP
and ion channel protein can be expressed as a fusion protein
where GFP is fused to the N- or C-terminus of the ion channel
protein.
4. To express a heteromeric channel composed of two or more
subunits, co-transfection with two or more plasmids encoding
different subunits is required and the optimum ratio of plas-
mids needs to be determined experimentally (e.g., see ref. 14).
Alternatively, if there are two cDNAs, they can be inserted into
an IRES mammalian expression vector (see Note 3).
5. Prolonged incubation may be required for functional expression
of some channel proteins. In such cases, it is better to replace
transfection medium with culture medium on the following day.
6. To prepare cells for patch-clamp recording, cells need to be

seeded as single cells. This can be achieved by gentle and
through pipetting of the cell suspension, e.g., firstly using
1,000-μL pipette tips and then using 200-μL pipette tips.
Alternatively, the cell suspension can be diluted in 10 mL
instead of 2 mL, using 100–200 μL of cell suspension onto
each coverslip.
7. This can be done usually via tubing that is connected to a 1-mL
syringe. Positive pressure is applied by pushing the plunger;
this helps prevent contamination of pipette solution from bath
solution and attachment of debris to the pipette tip that makes
it virtually impossible to obtain giga-ohm seal.
8. Compensations can be done using built-in programmes if the
amplifier is computer driven (e.g., HEKA) or manually using
appropriate compensation or cancellation knobs (e.g., as in
Axo-patch 200B).
9. Suction can be applied using a 1-mL syringe (see Note 7).
Sealing can be improved using negative holding potentials, but
the optimum sealing procedures using different cell prepara-
tions, patch pipettes, and solutions can be only obtained
experimentally.
10. Exposure to oxidizing conditions, such as Cu2+: phenanthro-
line (Cu:Phe), is sometimes necessary to facilitate disulfide
bond formation between a pair of cysteines over a longer
distance (7), and the Cu:Phe-induced effects due to cysteine
cross-linking are readily reversed with reducing agents such as
DTT (7) or 2,3-dimercapto-1-propane-sulphonic acid (8). An
alternative is to use Cd2+ ions to bridge the sulfur atoms to
form a metal bridge (S-Cd2+-S) (8).
References
1. Hille B (2001) Ion channels of excitable mem- 6. Corringer PJ, Le Novère N, Changeux JP
branes, 3rd edn. Sinauer associates, Sunderland, (2000) Nicotinic receptors at the amino acid
MA level. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 40:
2. Khakh BS, North RA (2006) P2X receptors as 431–458
cell-surface ATP sensors in health and disease. 7. Kash TL, Jenkins A, Kelley JC, Trudell JR,
Nature 442:527–532 Harrison NL (2003) Coupling of agonist
3. Browne LE, Jiang LH, North RA (2011) New binding to channel gating in the GABA(A)
structure enlivens interest in P2X receptors. receptor. Nature 421:272–275
Trends Pharmacol Sci 31:229–237 8. Elliott DJ, Neale EJ, Aziz Q, Dunham JP,
4. Yu FH, Yarov-Yarovoy V, Gutman GA, Munsey TS, Hunter M, Sivaprasadarao A
Catterall WA (2005) Overview of molecular (2004) Molecular mechanism of voltage sen-
relationships in the voltage-gated ion channel sor movements in a potassium channel. EMBO
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5. Kashlan OB, Kleyman TR (2011) ENaC struc- 9. Roberts JA, Allsopp RC, El Ajouz S, Vial C,
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structure of a family member. Am J Physiol Agonist binding evokes extensive conforma-
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ATP-gated human P2X1 receptor ion channel. 15. Spelta V, Jiang LH, Bailey RJ, Surprenant A,
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109:4663–4667 North RA (2003) Interaction between
10. Sorge RE, Trang T, Dorfman R, Smith SB, cysteines introduced into each transmembrane
Beggs S, Ritchie J, Austin JS, Zaykin DV, domain of the rat P2X2 receptor. Br J
Meulen HV, Costigan M, Herbert TA, Pharmacol 138:131–136
Yarkoni-Abitbul M, Tichauer D, Livneh J, 16. Marquez-Klaka B, Rettinger J, Bhargava Y,
Gershon E, Zheng M, Tan K, John SL, Slade Eisele T, Nicke A (2007) Identification of an
GD, Jordan J, Woolf CJ, Peltz G, Maixner W, intersubunit cross-link between substituted
Diatchenko L, Seltzer Z, Salter MW, Mogil JS cysteine residues located in the putative ATP
(2012) Genetically determined P2X7 receptor binding site of the P2X1 receptor. J Neurosci
pore formation regulates variability in chronic 27:1456–1466
pain sensitivity. Nat Med 18:595–599 17. Jiang R, Martz A, Gonin S, Taly A, de Carvalho
11. Akabas MH, Stauffer DA, Xu M, Karlin A LP, Grutter T (2010) A putative extracellular
(1992) Acetylcholine receptor channel struc- salt bridge at the subunit interface contributes
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Science 258:307–310 P2X2 receptor. J Biol Chem 285:
12. Karlin A, Akabas MH (1998) Substituted- 15805–15815
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293:123–145 Cunrath O, Grutter T (2012) Tightening of
13. Jiang LH, Rassendren F, Spelta V, Surprenant the ATP-binding sites induces the opening
A, North RA (2001) Amino acid residues of P2X receptor channels. EMBO J 31:
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Chapter 22
Analysis of Ca2+-Binding Sites in the MthK RCK Domain

by X-Ray Crystallography
Abstract
Regulator of K+ conductance (RCK) domains form a conserved class of ligand-binding domains that con-
trol the activity of a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic K+ channels. Structural analysis of these domains
by X-ray crystallography has provided insight toward mechanisms underlying ligand binding and channel
gating, and thus the experimental strategies aimed at determining structures of liganded and unliganded
forms of the domains may be useful in analysis of other ligand-binding domains. Here, we describe a basic
strategy for crystallographic analysis of the RCK domain from the MthK channel, for determination of its
Ca2+-bound structure.
Key words Crystallization, Cytoplasmic domain, Calcium, Binding site, Potassium channel
1 Introduction
Large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels (BK channels) are
found in a wide range of tissues, and play a critical role in linking K+
efflux to increases in cytoplasmic Ca2+ levels, thus tying Ca2+ signal-
ing to electrical hyperpolarization of the cell membrane (1, 2). In
electrically excitable nerve and muscle cells, this linkage provides an
important feedback mechanism to allow for rapid repolarization of
the membrane, promoting termination of action potentials and
smooth muscle relaxation (3–7). While structural analysis of the
mammalian BK channel can be technically complex and has so far
yielded low-resolution structural information (8–10), the prokary-
otic Ca2+-activated K+ channel, MthK, can be expressed and crystal-
lized prodigiously, and has served as a model system for understanding
gating mechanisms in these channels (11–16).
MthK and BK channels are regulated by Ca2+ binding to a con-
served cytoplasmic domain, known as the regulator of K+ conduc-
tance (RCK) domain (8, 9, 13, 14, 17–20). RCK domains are
ubiquitous among prokaryotic and eukaryotic K+ channels and
277
278 Frank J. Smith and Brad S. Rothberg
transporters, and control the activity of these proteins through the

binding of cytoplasmic ligands such as nucleotides, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+,
and H+ (21–28). In MthK, channel activation occurs through Ca2+
binding to an octameric “gating ring” of RCK domains, which in
turn is tethered to the pore-lining helices of the channel (13). Upon
Ca2+ binding, the RCK domain undergoes a conformational change
which is then translated to the pore facilitating K+ conduction,
though the structural interactions that underlie this conformational
change are not entirely clear (11, 14). Our approach toward under-
standing the mechanisms of the conformational change has involved
screening to determine crystallization conditions that may yield
new conformations of the RCK domain, with the goal of solving
high-resolution structures that will reveal the details of chemical
bonds that underlie stabilization of a range of conformations, in the
presence and absence of Ca2+. Here, we describe a representative
successful crystallization protocol, which enabled us to confirm the
presence of newly determined Ca2+ binding sites in the RCK domain
that underlie MthK channel activation.
2 Materials
All solutions are prepared using deionized, distilled water
(ddH2O).
2.1 Plasmids and 1. E. coli strain BL21(DE3), purchased from Stratagene, La Jolla,
E. coli Strains CA.
2. MthK RCK plasmid: MthK RCK domain cDNA (residues
M107-A336 in MthK protein sequence) in pET21a vector
with D184N mutation generated using QuickChange
(Stratagene, La Jolla, CA). The MthK RCK domain sequence
was followed by a thrombin recognition/cleavage sequence
(amino acids LVPRGS) and C-terminal hexahistidine tag, and
the coding region was codon-optimized for E. coli expression.
2.2 Preparation and 1. Ampicillin (1,000× solution): 1 g per 10 mL H2O, sterilize

Transformation of through 0.22-μm filter and store in 1 mL aliquots at −20°C.
BL21(DE3) E. coli Cells 2. LB broth: 25 g Luria-Bertani (LB) Broth powder (BD, Sparks,
MD) per 1 L H2O, autoclaved.
3. Agar plates with ampicillin: autoclave ten capsules of Agar B
(Bio101, Carlsbad, CA) and 12.5 g LB broth powder per
500 mL H2O. Allow LB/agar solution to cool to approxi-
mately 50°C, add 0.75 mL ampicillin per 500 mL LB/agar,
and mix by swirling. Pour into plates, avoiding introduction
of air bubbles. Allow agar to cool to room temperature and
store at 4°C.
X-Ray Crystallography of MthK 279
4. NZYM + Glu medium: add 100 μL of 20% glucose solution to 5 mL

autoclaved, cooled NZYM medium (Bio 101 Carlsbad, CA).
5. Buffer B: 250 mM NaCl, 20 mM Tris–HCl, pH 8.0.
6. Sonication buffer: 250 mM NaCl, 50 mM Tris–HCl, pH 8.0.
7. Complete EGTA-free protease inhibitor (Roche, Indianapolis,
IN).
8. Phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) solution: 0.035 g in
1 mL acetone.
9. Thrombin solution: prepared by adding 800 μL Buffer B,
200 μL glycerol, to 20 U thrombin (Roche R&D, Indianapolis,
IN); aliquot in 100 μL (2 U) fractions and store at −80°C.
2.3 Chromatography 1. CoCl2 buffer.

2. Buffer B + 400 mM imidazole (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis,
MO).
2.4 Crystallization 1. 96-condition crystallization screening reagent kit (i.e., PEGs

suite, Qiagen, Valencia, CA).
2. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) 3350 stock solution: PEG3350,
50% w/v.
3. 1 M 2-(N-morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid (MES) stock solu-
tions, pH ranging from 5.9 to 6.5, in increments of 0.2 pH unit.
4. 1 M CaCl2 stock solution.
2.5 Equipment 1. Large-probe sonicator (i.e., VirSonic, VirTis, Gardiner, NY).

2. Preparative liquid chromatography system (i.e., ÄKTA FPLC,
GE Healthcare).
3. Superdex-200 10/300 column (GE Healthcare).
4. Metal-affinity chromatography column (i.e., HiTrap chelating
HP (5 mL) column, GE Healthcare).
5. Peristaltic pump system (i.e., Model EP-1 Econo Pump, Bio-
Rad).
6. UV Monitor (i.e., Model EM-1 Econo UV Monitor, Bio-
Rad).
7. 50 kDa molecular-weight cutoff concentrator unit (e.g.,
Vivaspin 15, from Sartorius Biotech, Gottingen, Germany).
8. 96-well Greiner Sitting Drop Plate (Hampton Research, Aliso
Viejo, CA).
9. 24-well, greased VDX crystallization plate (Hampton Research,
Aliso Viejo, CA).
3 Methods
3.1 BL21(DE3) E. coli 1. Pre-warm one agar plate (with ampicillin) to room
Transformation temperature.
2. Thaw BL21(DE3) cells on ice for 5 min.
3. Add 0.1 μg/μL MthK RCK plasmid solution to 25 μL
BL21(DE3) cells and store on ice for 15 min.
4. Heat shock the cells for 45 s at 42°C.
5. Cool cells on ice immediately for 5 min.
6. Add 400 μL NZYM + Glu medium.
7. Incubate for 45 min at 37°C with vigorous shaking (on a
shaker table at 225–250 rpm).
8. Plate the cell suspension on agar plate.
9. Incubate the plate overnight at 37°C.
3.2 MthK RCK 1. Prepare 1 L LB broth in a 2 L baffled culture flask by adding

BL21(DE3) Expression 1 mL 1,000× ampicillin; wash colonies from the agar plate
(from Subheading 3.1) using 5 mL LB broth and transfer into
the flask containing LB medium.
2. Incubate flask at 37°C with vigorous shaking (180–200 rpm)
and monitor cell growth by checking the optical density at
600 nm (OD600).
3. Once OD600 reaches the range of 0.60–0.80, induce protein
expression by adding 85 mg IPTG (pre-dissolved in 1 mL
ddH2O) to 1 L culture, and continue to incubate with shaking
at 37°C for 4 h.
4. Following 4-h incubation, transfer suspension to centrifuge
bottles and pellet bacterial cells by centrifugation at 7,200 × g
for 10 min. Discard supernatant. The bacterial pellet can be
stored overnight at 4°C, or up to 1 month at −80°C.
3.3 Lysis of 1. Add 25 mL sonication buffer to the cell pellet (from

BL21(DE3) Cells by Subheading 3.2) and resuspend completely. Transfer cell sus-
Sonication pension to stainless steel beaker. Add one tablet of complete
EGTA-free protease inhibitor to the cell suspension; incubate
on ice.
2. Prepare PMSF solution.
3. Sonicate using large-probe sonicator starting at 50% power
(setting of 5.0) for 1 min, on ice. Add 100 μL PMSF solution,
and allow to cool for 1 min.
4. Repeat sonication for 1 min at 5.0 two times with 1 min of cool-
ing between sonication rounds; increase power by 10% (1 step)
in each subsequent sonication round, alternating between 1-min
sonication and 1-min cooling, until setting of 9.0 is reached.
5. Transfer lysate into centrifuge tubes.

6. Centrifuge at 30,500 × g (16,000 rpm using a Sorvall SS-34
rotor) for 45 min.
7. Transfer cleared lysate to beaker and add imidazole to yield
final imidazole concentration of 20 mM.
3.4 Affinity 1. Prepare HiTrap chelating HP (5 mL) column (see Note 1):
Chromatography (a) Perfuse with 20–30 mL ddH2O at 2.5 mL/min.
(b) Perfuse with 20–30 mL 0.1 M CoCl2 buffer at 2.5 mL/min.
(c) Perfuse column with 20–30 mL ddH2O at 2.5 mL/min.
(d) Perfuse column with 20–30 mL Buffer B + 400 mM imi-
dazole at 2.5 mL/min.
(e) Perfuse column with 20–30 mL Buffer B + 20 mM imida-
zole at 2.5 mL/min.
2. Load cleared lysate (from Subheading 3.3) onto column at
4.5 mL/min. Monitor protein elution by UV detection (see
Note 1).
3. Once lysate is loaded onto column, perfuse column with Buffer
B + 20 mM imidazole buffer at 4.5 mL/min until unbound
protein is eluted, as indicated by reduction in UV signal to
baseline level (approximately 20–30 mL).
4. Once a baseline is reached, perfuse column with Buffer
B + 400 mM imidazole buffer to elute bound protein. Monitor
UV signal, and collect protein upon increase of UV signal in a
sterile 50 mL conical tube. Stop collection once UV signal
decreases to baseline level (around 5 mL).
5. Immediately add 4 U thrombin (two aliquots of thrombin
solution) to eluate and incubate 2 h at room temperature with
gentle shaking.
6. Filter protein using 0.22 μm SPIN-X tubes for 1 min in refrig-
erated desktop centrifuge at 18,000 × g, at 4°C.
3.5 Gel Filtration 1. Equilibrate Superdex-200 10/300 column with two column
Chromatography, volumes of degassed Buffer B, at a flow rate of 1 mL/min
Concentration, and (see Note 2).
Protein Storage 2. Load protein onto column via 1 mL sample loop and elute with
Buffer B, at a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min. Collect fractions begin-
ning at approximately 11 mL elution volume, and continue col-
lection until the UV signal falls to baseline, typically at approximately
13 mL elution volume. If automated fraction collection is used,
pool fractions collected during the major elution peak, which is
centered at approximately 12 mL elution volume.
3. Measure protein concentration using Bradford or similar
assay.
4. Prepare a 50 kDa molecular-weight cutoff concentrator unit

by adding 5 mL Buffer B and centrifuging at 2,000 × g for
10 min.
5. Add protein solution (pooled fractions from step 2) to concen-
trator and centrifuge at 3,100 × g until volume yields a final
protein concentration of 6 mg/mL.
6. Aliquot 100 μL portions of concentrated protein solution into
1.5 mL tubes; store protein in liquid nitrogen.
3.6 Setting Initial 1. Prepare crystallization screen in 96-well format by pipetting

Crystallization Screen 100 μL of each crystallization solution from the PEGs suite
in 96-Well Sitting-Drop into each reservoir of 96-well Greiner sitting-drop plate. Use
Format Greiner plates that enable setting of three drops per well. This
and subsequent steps are facilitated through use of multichan-
nel pipettors (see Note 3).
2. Pipette 1 μL of thawed protein solution into each of the three
drop compartments in each well. A total of approximately
300 μL of protein solution will be required for a 96-well screen,
with three drops per well (at 6 mg/mL, this is equal to around
1.8 mg purified protein).
3. To each protein drop in a given well, transfer 0.8 μL of the
corresponding reservoir solution.
4. To the drop at the lower left of each well, add 0.2 μL of ddH2O;
to the drop at the upper left of each well, add 0.2 μL of 200 mM
CaCl2; then to the drop at the upper right of each well, add
0.2 μL of 500 mM CaCl2.
5. Store tray in a location not prone to frequent temperature per-
turbations or excessive movement/vibrations.
6. Periodically monitor crystallization drops using a microscope,
noting crystal drop phenomena (see Note 4).
3.7 Optimization of 1. Add components to the appropriate reservoir chambers of a

Crystallization in 24-well, greased VDX crystallization plate, as described in
Polyethylene Glycol Table 1.
(PEG) 3350 in 24-Well 2. Following preparation of reservoir solutions, pipette 1.0 μL of
Hanging-Drop Format protein to the center of a clean, 22 mm plastic coverslip; then
add 1.0 μL of the appropriate reservoir solution to the protein
drop.
3. Gently flip the coverslip and firmly seal the coverslip to the
greased top of the well, with the protein drop hanging above
the reservoir solution.
4. Repeat the process with each well. This process may be facili-
tated by pipetting protein solution onto each of six coverslips,
following by transfer of the appropriate well solutions and seal-
ing of each coverslip sequentially.
5. Store tray in a location not prone to frequent temperature

perturbations or excessive movement/vibrations.
6. Periodically monitor crystallization drops using a microscope,
noting crystal drop phenomena; an example of successful crys-
tal formation is illustrated in Fig. 1 (see Note 5).
7. Finally, crystals may be mounted on nylon loops and rapidly
frozen and then stored in liquid nitrogen for subsequent X-ray
diffraction experiments. An example of a mounted crystal is
shown in Fig. 2 (see Note 6).
4 Notes
1. Perfusion of the HiTrap metal-affinity chromatography column
and fraction collection is facilitated by the use of a peristaltic
pump coupled to a UV detector (i.e., Model EP-1 Econo-
Pump and Model EM-1 UV Monitor, Bio-Rad), with the UV
detector signal output connected to a chart recorder.
2. Buffers used in gel filtration chromatography steps should be
degassed by dispensing buffer into a sidearm flask, sealing the
top with a rubber stopper, and connecting the sidearm to a
vacuum (via a vacuum trap) for a minimum of 1 h. Alternatively,
this could be performed immediately subsequent to filtration
using a vacuum-filtration unit, by leaving the buffer in the col-
lection bottle with the sidearm connected to vacuum for at
least 1 h after filtration. Gel filtration chromatography is per-
formed using a preparative fast protein liquid chromatography
apparatus (i.e., ÄKTA FPLC system, GE Healthcare), with elu-
tion monitored by UV detection. This chromatography proce-
dure is facilitated through use of automated fraction
collection.
3. Crystallization screens can alternatively be set in hanging-drop
format.
4. For this crystallization experiment, we were particularly inter-
ested in discovering conditions in which crystal growth was
more successful in drops containing 50 mM CaCl2, whereas
no crystal growth was noted in the drop with no added CaCl2
in the same well. It should be further noted that calcium (and
other divalent cations) is particularly prone to formation of
insoluble complexes and salt crystals with anions that are com-
monly included as additives in commercially available screens.
These anions include phosphate, sulfate, and citrate.
Distinguishing between calcium salt crystals and protein crys-
tals can be facilitated by setting a “control” tray, in which the
screen is set by mixing the well solution with the calcium-
containing protein buffer (i.e., with no protein). In this con-
trol screen, protein crystals will not form—only salt crystals.
284
Table 1
Example of a pos sible grid screen for optimization of crystal growth of the MthK RCK domain with D184N mutation in 50 mM CaCl2, using PEG3350 as
precipitant, at pH ranging from 5.9 to 6.3
PEG3350, 16% 18% 20% 22% 24% 26%

pH 5.9 320 μl PEG3350 360 μl PEG3350 400 μl PEG3350 440 μl PEG3350 480 μl PEG3350 520 μl PEG3350
(50% stock) (50% stock) (50% stock) (50% stock) (50% stock) (50% stock)
100 μl 1 M MES 100 μl 1 M MES 100 μl 1 M MES 100 μl 1 M MES 100 μl 1 M MES 100 μl 1 M MES
pH 5.9 pH 5.9 pH 5.9 pH 5.9 pH 5.9 pH 5.9
50 μl 1 M CaCl2 50 μl 1 M CaCl2 50 μl 1 M CaCl2 50 μl 1 M CaCl2 50 μl 1 M CaCl2 50 μl 1 M CaCl2
530 μl ddH2O 490 μl ddH2O 450 μl ddH2O 410 μl ddH2O 370 μl ddH2O 330 μl ddH2O
pH 6.1 pH 6.1 pH 6.1 pH 6.1 pH 6.1 pH 6.1
pH 6.3 pH 6.3 pH 6.3 pH 6.3 pH 6.3 pH 6.3
pH 6.5 pH 6.5 pH 6.5 pH 6.5 pH 6.5 pH 6.5
Fig. 1 Examples of MthK D184N RCK domain crystals grown in the presence of
calcium. Crystals were grown in a hanging drop, over a reservoir solution contain-
ing 20% PEG3350, 20 mM CaCl2, and 100 mM MES pH 5.9. These crystals display
a hexagonal morphology, and formed in 2–3 weeks under these conditions
Fig. 2 MthK D184N RCK domain crystal, mounted in a nylon loop and frozen in a
nitrogen stream at 100 K. This crystal was grown in a hanging drop, over a res-
ervoir solution containing 20% PEG3350, 100 mM CaCl2, and 100 mM MES pH
5.9 ( The photograph was captured at the National Synchrotron Light Source,
beamline X25. The dimension (see planaons) of the black box is 100 × 150 μm)
The morphology of the resulting salt crystals in each condition

can be compared to crystals which form in the experimental
(protein-containing) screen to determine the likelihood of
calcium salt crystal formation.
5. The grid screen presented can be further modified to optimize
crystal growth conditions, by systematically varying the range
of pH, PEG3350 concentration, or CaCl2 concentration used
in the screen.
6. A crystal grown using this protocol was used in diffraction exper-
iments to solve the structure of the MthK RCK domain D184N
mutant with Ca2+ bound, PDB accession number 3RBX (14).
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Karin Abarca-Heidemann, Andrew S. Thomson,

Matthew M. Callaghan, and Elsie Samakai for technical expertise
and helpful discussions. This work was supported by NIH grant
R01 GM68523 to B.S.R.
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Chapter 23
Isotope Labeling Strategies for Analysis of an Ion Channel

Cytoplasmic Domain by NMR Spectroscopy
Karin Abarca-Heidemann, Elke Duchardt-Ferner,
Jens Woehnert, and Brad S. Rothberg
Abstract
As large, multimeric, integral membrane proteins, ion channels pose technical challenges to analysis by
NMR spectroscopy. Here we present a strategy to overcome some of these technical hurdles, using a rep-
resentative ion channel modulatory domain, the regulator of K+ conductance (RCK) domain from a K+
channel cloned from Thermoplasma volcanium. By introducing a mutation to limit the stoichiometry of
the octameric RCK domain “gating ring” complex to its dimeric building block, NMR spectral resolution
can be greatly improved. Here we present protocols for efficient production of highly deuterated, uni-
formly 15N-labeled protein, as well as protein containing 15N-labeling to specific amino acid types. These
labeling strategies can be applied to improve spectral resolution and facilitate sequential resonance
assignments.
Key words Cytoplasmic domain, Resonance, Ligand, Potassium channel
1 Introduction
Analysis of ion channel structure has, over the last 10 years, become
an indispensible component of molecular physiology (1–3). Yet
while structural analysis of ion channels seems to be dominated by
the static (but remarkably detailed) pictures provided by X-ray
crystallography, a quantitative understanding of channel confor-
mational dynamics through nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
spectroscopy has remained relatively limited. This inequity may
arise in part from technical hurdles posed by ion channels and their
modulatory domains, which are frequently beyond the size limit
inherent to solution NMR, except (notably) in the cases of KcsA
and the glutamate receptor ligand-binding domain (4–8). Large
proteins yield broad spectral lines and consequently have an intrin-
sically low signal-to-noise ratio. In addition, the large number of
amino acids that makes up a large protein increases spectral over-
lap. Both of these phenomena contribute to difficulties in making
289
290 Karin Abarca-Heidemann et al.
Fig. 1 Comparison of structural properties of the TvoK WT RCK domain and RCK(ΔNAI) mutant. (a) Gel-filtration
elution profiles (measured by absorbance at 280 nm) of the wild-type RCK domain and RCK(ΔNAI) mutant. The
wild-type domain complex elutes from the Superdex-200 column at ~11 mL, consistent with a ~200 kDa
octamer, whereas the RCK(ΔNAI) mutant elutes at ~15 mL, consistent with a ~50 kDa dimer. (b) Circular
dichroism spectra for the TvoK RCK WT and RCK(ΔNAI) are nearly identical to one another. Together these
results are consistent with the (ΔNAI) mutation disrupting assembly of dimers to form an octameric complex,
but leaving secondary and tertiary structure intact
unambiguous sequence-specific resonance assignments, which are

critical to gleaning useful structural information from NMR exper-
iments (9, 10).
While these technical issues are a fact of life in the NMR com-
munity, numerous strategies have been developed to extract useful
information on the dynamics of large, multisubunit proteins; these
include improvements in instrumentation, data acquisition proto-
cols, and novel isotopic labeling strategies (10–13). Here we pres-
ent an approach toward overcoming some of these hurdles in the
case of a conserved class of K+ channel ligand-binding domains, the
regulator of K+ conductance (RCK) domain. RCK domains are
observed to form dimers or tandem “pseudo-dimers” (14–18); in
turn, these RCK dimers assemble to form a radially fourfold sym-
metrical “gating ring” complex, which is typically tethered or
bound to a K+ channel or K+ transporter (18–24). As the mass of
an individual RCK domain can range from 25 to 30 kDa, it becomes
clear that the mass of an overall octameric complex can be well over
200 kDa, beyond the reach of detailed NMR analysis.
Our approach toward this problem is similar, in principle, to the
approach taken toward NMR analysis of the GroEL-GroES chaper-
one complex (25). In our case, we exploit a mutation (deletion of
N196-I198; “ΔNAI”) that inhibits formation of the octameric
complex, and results in the formation of a stable, soluble 52 kDa
RCK dimer in which the secondary and tertiary structures of the
domain appear to be unaltered (Fig. 1). By reducing the number of
subunits in the RCK domain assembly, spectral quality is greatly
enhanced (Fig. 2). Resonance assignment can be further facilitated
by isotopic labeling of specific amino acid types, as described below
Isotope Labeling for NMR Spectroscopy 291
Fig. 2 15N,1H-TROSY-HSQC spectra obtained from deuterated, uniformly 15N-labeled protein. (a) TvoK RCK WT:
150 mM KCl, 50 mM HEPES, 2 mM β-mercaptoethanol, pH 7.5, 10% D2O, 47°C; (b) TvoK RCK(ΔNAI): 50 mM
KCl, 50 mM MES, 2 mM β-mercaptoethanol, pH 6.5, 10% D2O, 37°C. Both spectra were acquired using a
Bruker Avance 900 MHz spectrometer equipped with a cryoprobe. The ΔNAI (dimer) spectrum exhibits sharper,
more clearly distinguished crosspeaks than the spectrum from the octameric complex
(Fig. 3), combined with additional multidimensional experiments

(see Note 1). These strategies provide the initial steps toward prac-
tical NMR analysis of a large ion channel domain.
2 Materials
All solutions are prepared using deionized, distilled water (ddH2O).
2.1 Protein 1. Competent E. coli strain BL21(DE3) (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA).

Expression 2. E. coli strain CT19: derivative of BL21(DE3) carrying the
mutations aspC, ilvE, trpB, and tyrB, kindly provided by Dr.
David Waugh, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD.
3. TvoK RCK domain cDNA (N-terminal methionine followed
by residues R121-G348 in TvoK protein sequence), followed
by thrombin recognition/cleavage sequence (LVPRGS) and
C-terminal hexahistidine tag in pET21a vector, codon opti-
mized for E. coli expression.
4. TvoK RCK mutant cDNA (RCK(ΔNAI)), generated using
QuickChange (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA).
5. SOC medium: 0.5% yeast extract; 2% tryptone, 10 mM NaCl,
2.5 mM KCl, 10 mM MgCl2, 10 mM MgSO4, 20 mM glucose.
6. Luria-Bertani (LB) medium (BD, Sparks, MD): 1.0% tryptone,
0.5% yeast extract, 1.0% NaCl, pH 7.0.
a 10 9 8 7
b 10 9 8 7
15
105 N uniform labeling 105 105 105
15
N Lys
110 110 110 110

N chemical shift (ppm)

115 115 115 115
120 120 120 120

15
15
125 125 125 125
130 130 130 130
10 9 8 7 10 9 8 7
1 1
H chemical shift (ppm) H chemical shift (ppm)
c 10 9 8 7
d 10 9 8 7
15
105 105 105 N uniform labeling 105
15
N Lys
15 15
110 N Val 110 110
N Val 110
115 115 115 115
120 120 120 120

15
15
125 125 125 125
130 130 130 130
10 9 8 7 10 9 8 7
1 1
H chemical shift (ppm) H chemical shift (ppm)
Fig. 3 15N,1H-TROSY-HSQC spectra obtained from deuterated, uniformly 15N-labeled and uniformly deuterated,
amino acid-specific 15N-labeled RCK(ΔNAI). (a) Spectrum from deuterated, uniformly 15N-labeled protein;
(b) deuterated, 15N-Lys labeled protein; and (c) deuterated, 15N-Val labeled protein. (d) Overlay of spectra in
(a–c), illustrating superimposition of crosspeaks arising from Lys and Val N-H groups with those observed with
uniform 15N-labeling. Experimental conditions are the same as those described for Fig. 2b
7. Transformation buffer 1 (TfB1): 30 mM potassium acetate,

100 mM RbCl, 10 mM CaCl2, 50 mM MnCl2, 15% glycerol
(v/v), pH 5.8.
8. Transformation buffer 2 (TfB2): 10 mM MOPS, 75 mM
CaCl2, 10 mM RbCl, 15% glycerol (v/v), pH 6.5.
9. Ampicillin 1,000× solution: 1 g ampicillin (Sigma, St. Louis,
MO) per 10 mL H2O, filtered through 0.22 μm filter, stored
at −20°C.
10. Kanamycin (Sigma, St. Louis, MO): 200× solution, 100 mg per
10 mL H2O, filtered through 0.22 μm filter, stored at −20°C.
11. Isopropyl-β-D-1-thiogalactoside (IPTG; Sigma, St. Louis, MO).
12. Vitamin mix, 500×: per 100 mL, 250 mg thiamin, 500 mg
biotin, 500 mg choline chloride, 500 mg folic acid, 500 mg
niacinamide, 500 mg D-panthothenic acid, 50 mg riboflavin.
Store aliquots at −20°C.
13. Trace elements, 2,000×: per 100 mL, 2 g FeCl2, 25.6 mg
H3BO3, 7.2 mg CoCl2, 1.6 mg CuCl2, 136 mg ZnCl2, 242 mg
NaMoO4, 16 mg MnCl2. Store aliquots at −20°C.
14. Low glucose M9 medium: 47.7 mM Na2HPO4, 22 mM KH2PO4,
8.5 mM NaCl, 18.6 mM NH4Cl. After autoclaving, add 2 mM
MgSO4, 5.5 mM glucose, 100 μM CaCl2, 0.1 mL vitamin mix
(500×), 2 mL trace elements (2,000×) 0.5 mL, pH 7.4.
15. 15N,2H-Celtone: Celtone Base Powder (D, 97%+; 15
N 98%+;
Cambridge Isotope Laboratories, Andover, MA).
16. 2H-only-Celtone: Celtone Base Powder (D, 97%+; Cambridge
Isotope Laboratories, Andover, MA).
17. Spectra 9 medium (D, 97%; Cambridge Isotope Laboratories,
Andover, MA).
18. α-15N-Lys: L-Lysine:2HCl (ALPHA-15N, 95–99%; Cambridge
19. 15N-Val: L-Valine (15N 98%; Cambridge Isotope Laboratories,
Andover, MA).
20. 15N-Leu: L-Leucine (15N 98%; Cambridge Isotope Laboratories,
Andover, MA).
21. 15N,2H-Lys: L-Lysine:HCl (D9, 98%; 15
N2 98%; Cambridge
2.2 Protein 1. Sonication buffer: 250 mM KCl, 10% glycerol, 50 mM Tris–

Purification HCl pH 8.0 (prepared on the day before use, pH measured at
RT, buffer stored at 4°C).
2. Protease inhibitor cocktail (e.g., Complete™ EDTA-free
Protease Inhibitor Cocktail Tablets, Roche, Indianapolis, IN).
3. Phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF; Sigma-Aldrich, St.
Louis, MO).
4. 5 mL HiTrap Chelating column (GE Healthcare, Piscataway,
NJ).
5. Protein buffer B: 250 mM KCl, 20 mM Tris–HCl pH 8.0
(prepared on the day before use, pH measured at RT, buffer
stored at 4°C).
6. HiTrap elution buffer: 250 mM KCl, 500 mM imidazole,
20 mM Tris–HCl pH 8.0, (imidazole is added immediately
before elution, with adjustment of pH to 8.0 after addition of

imidazole).
7. HiTrap chelating column activation buffer: 100 mM CoCl2.
8. HiTrap chelating column stripping buffer: 0.02 M sodium
phosphate, 0.5 M NaCl, 50 mM EDTA, pH 7.2.
9. Centrifuge tube filters, 0.22 μm (i.e., Spin-X centrifuge tube
filters, Corning, Tewksbury, MA).
10. Superdex-200 10/300 size exclusion column (GE Healthcare,
Piscataway, NJ).
11. Thrombin solution: Prepared by adding 800 μL protein
purification buffer and 200 μL glycerol to 20 U thrombin
(Roche R&D, Indianapolis, IN); aliquot in 100 μL (2 U) frac-
tions and store at −80°C.
12. Amicon Ultra-15 centrifugal filter units, 10 kDa molecular
weight cutoff (EMD Millipore, Billerica, MA).
13. Slide-A-Lyzer mini dialysis cassettes, 10 kDa molecular weight
cutoff (Pierce, Rockford, IL).
2.3 NMR 1. NMR buffer: 50 mM KCl, 2 mM β-mercaptoethanol, 50 mM

Experiments Mes pH 6.5.
2.4 Equipment 1. Large-probe sonicator (i.e., VirSonic, VirTis, Gardiner, NY).

2. Preparative liquid chromatography system (i.e., ÄKTA FPLC,
GE Healthcare).
3. Superdex-200 10/300 column (GE Healthcare).
4. Metal-affinity chromatography column (i.e., HiTrap chelating
HP (5 mL) column, GE Healthcare).
5. Peristaltic pump system (i.e., Model EP-1 Econo Pump,
Bio-Rad).
6. UV Monitor (i.e., Model EM-1 Econo UV Monitor, Bio-Rad).
3 Methods
3.1 Preparation 1. Inoculate 6 mL LB medium with CT19 E. coli cells and incu-
of Competent CT19 bate the culture overnight at 37°C.
E. coli (RbCl Method) 2. Add 0.8 mL of the overnight culture to 80 mL pre-warmed
LB containing 20 mM MgCl2 and grow culture at 30–37°C
until OD600 ~ 0.4–0.5.
3. Chill the culture on ice at least for 10 min.
4. Spin at 2,500 × g for 15 min at 4°C.
5. Resuspend cells by gentle swirling in 32 mL ice-cold TfB1.
6. Incubate the cell suspension on ice for 10 min.
7. Spin cells at 2,500 × g for 15 min at 4°C.

8. Resuspend the pellet gently in 3.2 mL ice-cold TfB2 and keep
the suspension on ice for 15 min.
9. Aliquot the cell suspension at 50 μL per sterile prechilled
microcentrifuge tube.
10. Rapidly freeze the cell suspension in liquid nitrogen, and store
the tubes at −80°C.
3.2 Transformation 1. Thaw one aliquot of 50 μl competent cells (either BL21(DE3)

of Competent Bacteria or CT19) on ice for 5 min.
and Generation 2. Add 10 μL of ice-cold 0.1 μg/μL plasmid DNA solution to
of Starter Culture the competent cell suspension; mix gently.
(See Note 2) 3. Incubate the tube on ice for 10 min.
4. Heat-shock the cells for 45 s at 42°C in a water bath.
5. Cool the tube immediately on ice for 10 min.
6. Add 250 μL SOC medium to the tube.
7. Incubate with vigorous shaking for 45 min at 37°C.
8. Plate the cell suspension on an LB-agar plate containing ampi-
cillin; for CT19 cells, use an LB-agar plate containing kanamy-
cin in addition to ampicillin.
9. Incubate the plate overnight at 37°C.
10. Use several colonies from the plate to inoculate 50 mL LB
medium containing 50 μL 1,000× ampicillin; for CT19 cells,
also include 0.25 mL of 200× kanamycin in addition to
ampicillin.
11. Incubate the 50 mL starter culture overnight at 37°C with
vigorous shaking.
12. Pellet the cells at 1,500 × g for 10 min at room temperature.
13. Wash the pellet two times using M9 medium or LB/ampicil-
lin, depending on labeling method.
3.3 Protein 1. Resuspend pelleted BL21(DE3) transformants from overnight

Expression Using starter culture (Subheading 3.2) in 5 mL of low glucose M9
Isotope-Labeled medium.
Amino Acids 2. Use 1 mL of this suspension to inoculate 250 mL low glucose
3.3.1 Expression of M9 medium containing 0.25 mL of 1,000× ampicillin, 0.5 mL
Deuterated, Uniformly vitamin mix, and 0.125 mL trace elements.
15
N-Labeled RCK(ΔNAI) 3. Incubate cells with vigorous shaking at 37°C until OD600 ~ 0.6.
4. Add 550 mg of 15N, 2H-Celtone.
5. Continue to incubate cells with vigorous shaking at 37°C until
OD600 ~ 0.8 (~25 min).
6. Induce protein expression by adding IPTG (to 0.4 mM final
concentration in the culture).
7. Continue to incubate cells with vigorous shaking at 37°C for 4 h.

8. Harvest cells after 4 h of expression by centrifuging at 5,000 × g
for 15 min at RT.
9. Store cell pellet at −80°C.
3.3.2 Expression 1. Resuspend pelleted BL21(DE3) transformants from overnight

of Deuterated, Single starter culture (Subheading 3.2) in 5 mL of low glucose M9
Amino Acid 15N-Labeled medium.
RCK(ΔNAI) 2. Use 1 mL of this suspension to inoculate 250 mL low glucose
M9 medium containing 0.25 mL of 1,000× ampicillin, 0.5 mL
vitamin mix, and 0.125 mL trace elements.
3. Incubated culture with vigorous shaking at 37°C until
OD600 ~ 0.6.
4. Add 550 mg of 2H-only-Celtone.
5. Continue incubation of culture with vigorous shaking at 37°C
until OD600 ~ 0.7 (~20 min).
6. Add a fivefold excess (with respect to the content of the
2
H-only-Celtone) of the 15N-labeled amino acid of interest.
For example, to incorporate 15N-labeled lysine (Fig. 3b), we
add 250 mg α-15N-Lys; to incorporate 15N-labeled valine
(Fig. 3c), we add 100 mg 15N-Val.
7. Continue incubation of culture with vigorous shaking at 37°C
until OD600 ~ 0.8.
8. Induce protein expression by adding IPTG (0.4 mM final con-
centration in culture).
9. Continue incubation of culture with vigorous shaking at 37°C for
3 h. Pellet cells by centrifugation at 5,000 × g for 15 min at RT.
3.3.3 Expression of 1. Resuspend pelleted BL21(DE3) transformants from overnight

Deuterated, 15N-Lys starter culture (Subheading 3.2) in 6 mL of LB containing
Labeled RCK WT 6 μL of 1,000× ampicillin.
2. Use 3 mL of this suspension to inoculate 250 mL LB medium
containing 250 μL of 1,000× ampicillin.
3. Incubate cells with vigorous shaking at 37°C until OD600 ~ 1.
4. Pellet cells at 1,500 × g for 15 min at RT.
5. Wash pellet twice with 30 mL of Spectra 9 medium.
6. Resuspend the pellet in 250 mL Spectra 9 medium containing
250 μL of 1,000× ampicillin.
7. Incubate cells with vigorous shaking at 37°C until OD600 ~ 0.7.
8. Add 135 mg of 15N,2H-Lys.
9. Incubate cells with vigorous shaking at 37°C for 30 min.
10. Induce protein expression by adding IPTG (0.8 mM final

concentration in culture).
11. Incubate cells with vigorous shaking at 37°C for 8 h.
12. Harvest cells after 8 h of expression by centrifuging at 5,000 × g
for 15 min at RT.
3.3.4 Expression of 1. Resuspend pelleted CT19 transformants from overnight starter

Deuterated, 15N-Leu culture (Subheading 3.2) in 6 mL of LB medium containing
Labeled RCK(ΔNAI) in 6 μL 1,000× ampicillin and 30 μL 200× kanamycin.
CT19 Cells (See Note 3) 2. Use this suspension to inoculate 1 L LB medium containing
1 mL 1,000× ampicillin and 5 mL 200× kanamycin.
3. Incubate cells with vigorous shaking at 37°C until
OD600 ~ 0.7.
4. Pellet cells at 1,500 × g for 10 min at RT.
5. Resuspend the pellet into 250 mL low glucose M9 medium
containing 250 μL 1,000× ampicillin, 1.25 mL 200× kanamy-
cin, 0.5 mL vitamin mix, 0.125 mL trace elements, 1 g 2H-only-
Celtone, and 100 mg 15N-Leu.
6. Incubate cells with vigorous shaking at 37°C until OD600
reaches ~0.8.
7. Induce protein expression by adding IPTG (to 0.8 mM final
concentration in the culture).
8. Incubate cells with vigorous shaking at 37°C overnight; pellet
cells by centrifuging at 5,000 × g for 15 min at RT.
3.4 Protein 1. Resuspend bacterial pellet on ice in 50 mL sonication buffer.

Purification Transfer cell suspension to stainless steel beaker. Add protease
(See Note 4) inhibitor cocktail to the cell suspension; incubate on ice.
2. Prepare PMSF solution (0.035 g in 1 mL acetone).
3. Sonicate using large-probe sonicator, starting at 50% power
(setting of 5.0) for 1 min, on ice. Add 100 μL PMSF solution,
and allow to cool for 1 min.
4. Repeat sonication for 1 min at 5.0 two times with 1 min of cool-
ing between sonication rounds; increase power by 10% (1 step)
in each subsequent sonication round, alternating between 1 min
sonication and 1 min cooling, until setting of 9.0 is reached.
5. Pellet insoluble matter from lysate for 45 min at 30,500 × g
at 4°C.
6. Transfer the cleared lysate (supernatant) to a clean beaker and
add imidazole to 20 mM (final concentration). Adjust the pH
to 8.0, if necessary.
7. Load the cleared lysate to a CoCl2-activated and pre-equili-

brated HiTrap chelating column (GE Healthcare) according
to the manufacturer instructions.
8. Wash the column with protein buffer B containing 20 mM
imidazole until the absorbance returns to baseline.
9. Elute the bound protein with 5 column volumes of elution
buffer.
10. Directly after elution, add 2 U of thrombin per 1 mg of pro-
tein, for enzymatic cleavage of the hexahistidine tag. Incubate
with gentle shaking at RT for 2 h.
11. During thrombin digestion, equilibrate Superdex-200 10/300
size exclusion column (GE Healthcare) with 2 column vol-
umes of degassed protein buffer B, at a flow rate of 1 mL/min
(see Note 5).
12. Following thrombin digest, filter protein solution using
0.22 μm centrifuge tube filter for 1 min in refrigerated desktop
centrifuge at 18,000 × g at 4°C.
13. Load protein onto column via 1 mL sample loop and elute with
protein buffer B, at a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min. Collect appro-
priate fractions according to elution peak (see Fig. 1).
14. Measure protein concentration using Bradford or similar
assay.
15. Concentrate samples to 10 mg/mL using centrifugal concen-
trator unit, 10 kDa molecular weight cutoff.
16. Aliquot protein in microcentrifuge tubes and freeze in liquid
nitrogen.
3.5 Protein 1. Thaw protein on the day before NMR experiment.

Preparation 2. Dialyze protein overnight into NMR buffer using mini-dialysis
for NMR Experiments cassette.
3. Measure protein concentration using Bradford or other assay.
4. Concentrate protein to 15 mg/mL using centrifugal concen-
trator unit, 10 kDa molecular weight cutoff.
5. To 250 μL protein sample, add 25 μL D2O. The sample is now
prepared for transfer to an NMR sample tube and subsequent
acquisition of 15N-HMQC or other spectra.
4 Notes
1. We do not address NMR data collection or analysis in this

chapter; however, there are many excellent articles that describe
pulse protocols and data acquisition strategies for high molec-
ular weight proteins (26–28).
2. For optimal high-yield expression in minimal media, always

use freshly transformed competent cells. The expression con-
structs used in these experiments have been codon optimized
for expression in E. coli; in our case, codon-optimization
resulted in a large improvement in protein recovery using a
small culture volume, which reduces the expense in consump-
tion of isotope-labeled media, and also enables high protein
yield with short induction times, which minimizes scrambling
of the 15N isotope label introduced by a specific amino acid
through metabolic transamination (“scrambling”). We have
been able to typically recover 50 mg of purified protein per
liter of cell culture. The protein expression methods were
modified after (29).
3. CT19 is an E. coli strain that contains mutations that reduce
the function of aminotransferase enzymes as follows: aspC,
aspartate aminotransferase; ilvE, branched chain amino acid
aminotransferase; trpB, tryptophan synthase; and tyrB, aro-
matic amino acid aminotransferase. Use of this strain in expres-
sion of specific 15N-labeled amino acids thus greatly reduces
“scrambling,” or transfer of the 15N label among amino acids
through bacterial aminotransferase-catalyzed reactions. In our
hands, this cell strain did not express high amounts of labeled
protein, unless grown as described below.
4. It is advisable to subsequently analyze each purification step by
Coomassie-stained SDS-PAGE.
5. Gel-filtration chromatography is performed using a fast pro-
tein liquid chromatography apparatus, with elution monitored
by UV detection. This chromatography procedure is facilitated
through use of automated fraction collection.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Andrew Hinck for technical advice and helpful

discussions in the early stages of this work. This research was sup-
ported by NIH grant R01 GM68523 to B.S.R.
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Part V
Studying Ion Channels in Native Tissues

Chapter 24
Recording Dendritic Ion Channel Properties and Function

from Cortical Neurons
Mala M. Shah
Abstract
Dendrites emerging from the cell bodies of neurons receive the majority of synaptic inputs. They possess
a plethora of ion channels that are essential for the processing of these synaptic signals. To fully understand
how dendritic ion channels influence neuronal information processing, various patch-clamp techniques
that allow electrophysiological recordings to be made directly from dendrites have been developed. In this
chapter, I describe one such method that is suitable for making electrophysiological recordings from the
apical dendrites of hippocampal and cortical pyramidal neurons.
Key words Dendrites, Electrophysiology, Ion channels, Cortex
1 Introduction
Dendrites are extensive processes emerging from the cell body of

neurons. They cover a vast surface area and receive most of the
synaptic inputs impinging onto neurons. Dendrites also possess a
large variety of ligand-gated and voltage-gated ion channels (1, 2).
Often, the density and characteristics of these dendritic ion chan-
nels differ from those present at the soma. These ion channels play
an important role in determining the shape and integration of syn-
aptic inputs (1–3). To fully understand synaptic signal processing,
it is critical and essential to evaluate their properties and function.
There are a number of methods including immunohistochem-
istry and imaging that would provide valuable information on the
location and potential function of dendritic ion channels. Perhaps
the most direct method, though, for assessing dendritic ion chan-
nel biophysical properties and their effects on dendritic activity is
electrophysiological recording (4). The advent of the patch-clamp
technique together with advances in microscopy has made it pos-
sible to make electrophysiological recordings under visual guid-
ance from the dendrites of many neurons such as hippocampal and
303
304 Mala M. Shah
cortical pyramidal cells in the acute brain slice preparation. The

most common approach, which I will describe in this chapter,
involves the use of infrared differential interference contrast
(IR-DIC) optics. This generally allows dendrites that are greater
than 1 μm in diameter to be patched. Newer techniques involving
the use of confocal and two-photon laser microscopy to patch
smaller diameter dendrites such as basal dendrites are also being
developed (5). The ability to patch dendrites has resulted in con-
siderable new and interesting information about the contribution
of dendritic ion channels to neuronal cell excitability as well as
neural network activity.
2 Materials
Prepare all solutions using deionized 18 MΩ water at room tem-

perature and store at 4°C (unless otherwise indicated). All waste
materials should be disposed of according to local institutional
waste disposal regulations.
2.1 Solutions 1. Cutting solution: 110 mM choline chloride, 2.5 mM KCl,

1.25 mM NaH2PO4, 25 mM NaHCO3, 0.5 mM CaCl2, 7 mM
MgCl2, and 10 mM dextrose; bubbled with 95%O2/5% CO2
to obtain pH of 7.2; ~290 mOsm (see Note 1).
2. External solution: 125 mM NaCl, 2.5 mM KCl, 1.25 mM
NaH2PO4, 25 mM NaHCO3, 2 mM CaCl2, 2 mM MgCl2,
10 mM dextrose; bubbled with 95% O2/5% CO2 to obtain pH
7.2; ~300 mOsm (see Note 2).
3. Standard internal recording solution for whole-cell recordings:
120 mM KMeSO4, 20 mM KCl, 10 mM HEPES, 2 mM
MgCl2, 0.2 mM EGTA, 4 mM Na2-ATP, 0.3 mM Tris-GTP,
14 Tris-phosphocreatine; pH was adjusted to 7.3 with KOH;
~310 mOsm (see Note 3).
4. Cell-attached recording solution (mM): 140 KCl, 10 HEPES, 1
MgCl2, 2 CaCl2; pH adjusted to 7.3 (see Note 4).
2.2 Slice Preparation 1. Surgical instruments.

2. Beakers and other glassware.
3. Vibratome slicer.
4. Water bath.
5. Carbogen.
2.3 Patch-Clamp 1. Pipette puller.

Recording 2. Borosilicate glass capillaries.
Dendritic Ion Channel Recording 305
Fig. 1 An image of a typical electrophysiology setup that is used for making

patch-clamp recordings from dendrites
3. Patch-clamp rig. To view slices, it is preferable to use an upright

microscope equipped with differential interference contrast
(DIC) and high-magnification objective lens such as 60×
objective. The upright microscope is typically placed on a
vibration-isolation table and surrounded by a faraday cage.
The slices are placed in a slice chamber, which is positioned
between the objective and the condenser of the microscope.
The bottom of the slice chamber is often a glass coverslip.
Because dendrites are very thin, it is often necessary to use
further magnifying lens such as a 4× magnification infrared
tube. The microscope is coupled to a camera suitable for
detecting infrared images, which is connected to a video moni-
tor (either a black and white analog or a digital high-resolution
screen). The microscope sits on an XY stage that allows it to be
moved independently of the patch-pipettes or the slice cham-
ber (see Fig. 1 for an image of a typical setup; refer also to the
Chapter 7 of this book).
306 Mala M. Shah
3 Methods
3.1 Slicing 1. Make and freeze ~400 mL of cutting solution until ~45% of it
Procedure is ice. Depending on the freezer, this can take between 45 min
and 1 h.
2. In the meantime, lay out the tools for surgery, make the external
solution (usually 1 L), set up the slicer [including cleaning the
blade (e.g., Gillette blade) used for cutting slices with acetone
and/or ethanol], and prepare an incubation chamber for storing
slices. This usually consists of a beaker containing either an inter-
face chamber or a submerged chamber with cotton mesh on it in
which the slices rest. Add external solution to the chamber and
bubble it with 95% O2/5% CO2. The solution in this chamber is
pre-warmed to 37°C in a water bath prior to slices being added.
3. When the cutting solution is adequately frozen, take it out of
the freezer and use a handheld blender or equivalent to make
a slushy icy solution. This solution is bubbled with 95% O2/5%
CO2 and kept on ice for the remainder of the procedure.
4. Terminally anesthetize the animal in accordance with local eth-
ical guidelines (e.g., with an injectable anesthetic such as ket-
amine/xylazine solution).
5. When the animal is fully anesthetized (pinching the paw pro-
duces no reflexes), cut open the chest cavity and intracardially
perfuse the slushy cutting solution until the liver turns pale.
Decapitate the head and speedily remove the brain into the
ice-cold cutting solution. Appropriate regulations for animal
experimentation must be followed.
6. Place the brain on a suitable cold surface (block of cold metal
or petri dish with a sylgard bottom) and submerge it in ice-
cold cutting solution. For hippocampal slices from which
recordings from CA1 pyramidal dendrites can be made, first
hemi-sect the brain. Each half is then placed on the cut (medial
surface) and a cut at approximately 30°C to the base of the
half-brain is made on the dorsal surface. If the experiment
involves patching entorhinal cortex pyramidal cell dendrites,
then a few millimeters parallel to the ventral surface is cut from
the dorsal side (see Note 5).
7. This cut surface is then glued onto the slicing stage of a vibratome
using a thing film of cyanoacrylate glue or equivalent. The slic-
ing stage can be cooled prior, though this is not necessary.
8. Transfer the slicing stage into the slicing chamber of the
vibratome. Submerge the blocks of tissue with ice-cold cutting
solution. The solution in the chamber is also bubbled with 95%
O2/5% CO2.
9. Lower the blade for cutting slices to the appropriate position.
Cut thin tissue slices (200–400 μm) by advancing the blade at
an appropriate speed, vibration amplitude, and frequency such

that the tissue is not compressed or displaced (see Note 6).
10. Place the slices in the incubation chamber containing pre-
warmed external solution and bubble continuously with 95%
O2/5% CO2. After a period of 30 min to 1 h the slices can be
used for electrophysiological recordings.
3.2 Dendritic 1. Pull patch pipettes using thick-walled borosilicate glass with a
Electrophysiological suitable patch pipette puller.
Recordings 2. Add the slice to the slice chamber being perfused at a constant
rate (1–2 mL/min) with external solution bubbled with
95%O2/5% CO2. The slice should be orientated such that the
dendrites to be patched are perpendicular to the patch pipette
(Fig. 2).
3. The slices are held down in the slice chamber using a “harp.”
This is a horseshoe-shaped flat metal (either silver or platinum)
onto which thin threads are glued.
Fig. 2 A differential interference contrast (DIC) image of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal

cell somata and dendrites. Note that the patch pipettes are placed perpendicular to
the orientation of the neuron. The vertical scale bar represents 20 μm
308 Mala M. Shah
4. Once the slice is in the chamber and the external solution is

flowing at a constant rate, lower the objective into the fluid
and focus on the surface of the slice. It might be necessary to
optimize the optics at this stage to obtain a crisp image
(for details on adjusting DIC optics, see ref. 4).
5. Identify somata and then attempt to follow the dendrites
(Fig. 2; see Note 7).
6. Fill a patch-pipette with internal solution, which has been
filtered to remove any debris. Insert the pipette into a holder
securely attached to a micromanipulator.
7. Apply positive pressure to the pipette via tubing connected to
the pipette holder and use a three-way tap or a switchable valve
to hold the pressure in the pipette.
8. Lower the pipette to the identified dendrite. The pressure added
to the pipette will help clear the slice debris. A healthy dendrite
will not sway if the pipette is brought next to it.
9. Zero any offset caused between the pipette and the ground
wire (earth) using the patch-clamp amplifier.
10. Gently lower the pipette onto the top of the dendrite. If the
dendrite is healthy, a dimple will form. Release the pressure
and obtain a giga-ohm seal (see Note 8).
11. For cell-attached recordings, no further steps are required. If
whole-cell electrophysiological recordings are to be made, then
hyperpolarizing voltage or current should be applied, before
applying further gentle suction to break through the mem-
brane. A healthy CA1 hippocampal or entorhinal cortical pyra-
midal cell dendrite typically has resting membrane potentials
between ~−65 and −70 mV.
4 Notes
1. Additional types of solutions such as those containing sucrose

instead of choline chloride can also be utilized (4).
2. If appropriate for the experiment, this solution can be further
supplemented by other inhibitors of ligand-gated and voltage-
gated ion channels.
3. Ten times concentrated stocks of Na2-ATP, Tris-GTP, and
Tris-phosphocreatine can be preprepared and stored at −20°C.
If this option is chosen, then the internal solution without
these should be made in 90% of the volume.
4. Depending on the ion channel current that is to be isolated,
this basic solution is then supplemented with other inhibitors.
To maintain the osmolarity of the internal solution to
~310 mOsm, the concentration of KCl can be reduced.
5. The angle at which the brain is cut varies depending on the

region of interest. For more details on preparing slices in
which dendrites of other regions of the brain are preserved,
see ref. 4.
6. It might also be necessary to remove tough tissue such as white
matter to ensure that slices are smoothly cut. In between slices,
raise the blade by 50–100 μm above the surface of the tissue
before moving back to the start position.
7. Avoid sharp contrast dendrites, as these are often sick. Healthy
dendrites are very flat and sometimes difficult to visualize. To aid
with visualization of the dendrites, it is sometimes helpful to first
patch the soma using internal solution containing a fluorescent
dye (e.g., Alexa Fluor 594) and fill the cell with the dye. Dendrites
can then be easily viewed using a fluorescent microscope.
8. To obtain a giga-Ohm seal, it might be necessary to apply some
gentle suction pressure. Too much pressure can damage the
dendrite.
References
1. Nusser Z (2009) Variability in the subcellular 4. Davie JT, Kole MH, Letzkus JJ, Rancz EA,
distribution of ion channels increases neuronal Spruston N, Stuart GJ, Häusser M (2006)
diversity. Trends Neurosci 32:267–274 Dendritic patch-clamp recording. Nat Protoc
2. Shah MM, Hammond RS, Hoffman DA (2010) 1:1235–1247
Dendritic ion channel trafficking and plasticity. 5. Nevian T, Larkum ME, Polsky A, Schiller J
Trends Neurosci 33:307–316 (2007) Properties of basal dendrites of layer 5
3. Sjostrom PJ, Rancz EA, Roth A, Hausser M pyramidal neurons: a direct patch-clamp record-
(2008) Dendritic excitability and synaptic plas- ing study. Nat Neurosci 10:206–214
ticity. Physiol Rev 88:769–840
Chapter 25
M-Current Recording from Acute DRG Slices

Kirstin E. Rose, Sylvain Gigout, and Nikita Gamper
Abstract
Electrophysiological recordings from an acutely sliced preparation provide information on ionic currents
and excitability of native neurons under near physiological conditions. Although this technique is com-
monly used on central nervous system structures such as spinal cord and brain, structures within the
peripheral nervous system (including sensory ganglia and fibers) have proven to be much more difficult to
study in acute preparations. Here we describe a method for patch-clamp recordings from rat dorsal root
ganglion (DRG) slices.
Key words Dorsal root ganglion, Patch-clamp recording, Slice preparation, Ion channel, M-type K+
channel
1 Introduction
Peripheral somatosensory neurons sense and transmit all types of

tactile, temperature, and chemical information from the environ-
ment and viscera to the CNS. A subset of these neurons (known as
“nociceptive” neurons) specifically respond to tissue damage and
can mediate sensation of pain. Therefore, understanding the mech-
anisms controlling the excitability of somatosensory neurons holds
the key to the understanding of somatic sensation and pain.
Extensive research worldwide uses electrophysiological recordings
from these sensory neurons in order to study their excitability; how-
ever, a large share of such recordings is routinely carried out using
dissociated and cultured sensory neuron preparations. This is in
contrast to the research in the CNS where the “gold standard” is a
recording from the acute slices of a particular brain or spinal cord
region. Several anatomical features of the sensory ganglia make slice
recording particularly difficult including the small size of the ganglia
and “wrapping” of individual neuronal cell bodies by a satellite glia
cell sheath. However, cultured neurons are subject to various short-
and long-term changes (such as axotomy, enzymatic treatment,
311
312 Kirstin E. Rose et al.
mechanical stress, artificial environment) which can trigger

differentiation of neurons from their native state and thus compro-
mise the results of the investigation. In this chapter we describe the
DRG slice preparation for electrophysiological recordings with an
aim to allow recordings from an acute, enzyme-free preparation.
Here we have adopted the technique developed in previous
studies (1) to record M-type K+ current from the acutely sliced
DRG preparation using the perforated patch-clamp approach.
M current is a slow voltage-gated K+ current with a negative activa-
tion threshold (negative to-60 mV) which is increasingly recog-
nized as one of the major regulators of nociceptive neuron resting
membrane potential and excitability (2–9). M current is conducted
by the members of Kv7 family of K+ channel proteins with five
known subunits (Kv7.1–7.5). The Kv7.2 M channel subunit has
recently been shown to be present at cell bodies of nociceptive
DRG neurons (8, 9), nodes of Ranvier of myelinated sensory fibers
(10, 11), as well as in unnmyelinated fibers and free nociceptive
nerve endings in the skin (7); there is also evidence for the expres-
sion of other M channel subunits (Kv7.3 and Kv7.5) throughout
the peripheral nociceptive pathways (8–10). Additionally, there is
accumulating evidence for the presence of functional M channels
in nociceptive fibers and nerve endings (5, 7, 12). However most
patch-clamp recordings of M channels in sensory neurons were
performed using DRG cell cultures (2–4, 8). Therefore, in order
to investigate the presence of functional M channels in acute sen-
sory neurons in their native environment, we have utilized the per-
forated patch-clamp technique to record from an acutely sliced
DRG preparation. The perforated patch-clamp technique is a fur-
ther step to preserve native tissue properties as it prevents the dial-
ysis of the intracellular milieu (see Chapter 11 of this book); this is
particularly relevant for the M-current recording as M channel
activity can run down very rapidly in conventional whole-cell
patch-clamp (13).
2 Materials
1. Extracellular solution (ES) 124 mM NaCl, 26 mM NaHCO3,

10 mM Glucose, 3 mM KCl, 2 mM MgSO4, 2.5 mM NaH2PO4,
2 mM CaCl2. ES is continuously bubbled with carbogen gas
(95% O2, 5% CO2) during experiments.
2. Agar: 2% w/v in ES prepared fresh every day, usually 0.5 g in
25 mL.
3. Hanks’ balanced salt solution (HBSS).
4. Intracellular solution (IS): 140 mM KCl, 1 mM MgCl2, 10 mM
HEPES, 10 mM EGTA, 1 mM CaCl2, 1 mM ATP, 0.1 mM
GTP, pH 7.3.
Patch Clamp Recording from DRG Slices 313
5. Amphotericin B dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) to

obtain a stock solution 40–60 mg/mL that could be stored for
~7 days at 4°C. Every day the working solution is prepared
fresh by diluting 50–100 μL of stock solution in 900–950 μL
of IS, to obtain a maximum final amphotericin B concentration
of 400 μg/mL (for detailed advice on the preparation of the
amphotericin B solutions refer to Chapter 11 of this book).
6. (Optional) Lucifer yellow (Sigma): 0.5 mg Lucifer yellow can
be added to 1 mL of amphotericin B containing IS just prior
to pipette filling.
7. Pipettes manufactured from filamented borosilicate glass capil-
laries (GC15OF-10, Harvard apparatus, Kent) by using a con-
ventional microelectrode puller (e.g., DMZ-Universal Puller,
Zeitz Instrumente). The optimal resistance of the pipette
(when filled with the IS) is 3–5 MΩ.
8. Binocular stereo dissecting microscope.
9. Dissection tools: scissors, fine scissors, watchmakers forceps
with very fine tips, scalpel, and Pasteur pipettes.
10. Vibrating blade microtome (i.e., Leica VT100S or the Microm
HM 650 V).
11. Cyanoacrylate glue.
12. Slice recording setup: a vibration isolation table, an upright
microscope equipped with IR-DIC, a microscope stage, water-
immersion objectives, a video camera, a video monitor, a patch-
clamp amplifier, a recording equipment, micromanipulators,
pipette holders, and a perfusion system (see Chapter 7 of this
book for further advice on the patch-clamp rig assembly). An
exemplary rig is depicted on Fig. 1.
3 Methods
An exemplary set of tools and major steps of the procedures out-

lined in Subheadings 3.1 and 3.2 are depicted in the Fig. 2.
3.1 Removal and 1. Wash all tools (Fig. 2a) and sterilize with 70% v/v ethanol/
Embedding of DRG deionized water prior to tissue removal.
2. Following humane sacrifice of rat to local ethical standards,
place the body on a dissection board with the dorsal surface
facing uppermost. Cut away the skin overlying the lumbar
region and proceed to carry out a laminectomy of the exposed
lumbar region. Specifically, remove the entire posterior back-
bone along with overlying ligaments and muscles, which will
normally include DRGs L3–L6.
Fig. 1 Patch-clamp setup for slice recording. (1) Vibration isolation table; (2) Faraday cage; (3) upright
microscope equipped with IR-DIC; (4) microscope stage; (5) water-immersion objectives; (6) video camera (in
our case, connected to a monitor located in a rack beside the patch-clamp setup); (7) headstage and pipette
holder attached to a micromanipulator; (8) micromanipulators remote control panels (one controlling the
microscope stage (8a) and another one controlling the pipette (8b)), mounted on a bench separated from the
vibration isolation table; (9) 2 peristaltic pumps [one controlling inflow (9a) and the second the outflow (9b)];
(10) erlenmeyer containing carbogen-bubbled ES
3. Pin the excised section onto a dissection board with the ante-
rior surface facing uppermost. Make cuts through the lamina
body of the spinal vertebrae, starting at the anterior end, until
the left and right sides of the column are separated. Using fine
forceps remove the spinal cord and meninges to expose the
DRGs under the binocular stereo dissecting microscope. They
should look like little pearls at regular intervals along the col-
umn (Fig. 2b).
4. Use fine forceps to carefully remove the L4 and L5 DRGs (see
Note 1). Place the DRG into HBSS buffer on ice (see Note 2).
While in buffer on ice, remove any attached nerves and roots
using fine scissors (see Note 3).
5. Prepare a 2% w/v agar solution by diluting for example 0.5 g
agar in 25 mL ES. Heat the solution using a microwave owen
and stop the heating just before the solution boils. Pour liquid
2% w/v agar into a small weighing boat and carefully place
DRG into agar using fine forceps (see Note 4). Place weighing
boat containing embedded DRGs on ice for 5–10 min to allow
agar to set.
Fig. 2 Major steps of the procedure to prepare DRG slices. (a) General view of the setup for removal of DRGs.
(1) Binocular stereo dissecting microscope; (2) light source; (3) dissecting tools (from left to right: 2 watch-
maker forceps with very fine tips, fine scissors, scissors, Pasteur pipette, flat tip tweezers); (4) 2 ES-containing
Petri dishes (one large to keep the spine and one small to keep the DRGs) placed on ice. (b) View of DRGs
(indicated by the red arrows) still within the cut open vertebral column (with spinal cord removed) observed
with binocular stereo dissecting microscope. (c) General view of the slicing setup. (1) Vibrating blade micro-
tome; (2) brain slice keeper; (3) tools (from left to right : fine scissors, watchmaker forceps with very fine tips,
flat tip tweezers, spatula to prepare the agar solution, Pasteur pipette to transfer the slices to the slice keeper,
specimen disc, scalpel). (d) DRGs are embedded in cooled agar in a weighing boat placed on cold ES. (e) Blocks
of agar (each containing one DRG) dried by placing them on filter paper. (f) Each block of agar is glued on the
specimen disc, placed in the buffer tray (containing cold carbogen-bubbled ES) of the vibratome and cut into
slices. (g) Lateral view of a slice keeper containing ES continuously “bubbled” with carbogen. The flow rate of
the gas is adjusted with the needle valve
3.2 Slicing and Slice 1. Using a scalpel cut cubes of agar containing one DRG and glue
Incubation onto the specimen disc (see Note 5).
2. Slice cube containing DRG on a vibroslicer (i.e., vibrating
blade microtome Leica VT100S) in ES solution on ice. Set the
vibratome to a high level of vibration and low speed level

(see Note 6). We slice newborn rat DRG at 190 μm and adult
rat DRG at 250 μm (see Note 7).
3. Slices are then placed into ES after slicing and incubated at
30°C for 1 h and then at room temperature for the remainder
of the day (see Note 8). Slices can be used for patching for up
to 8 h after slicing (that is, GW seals are still achievable).
3.3 Perforated 1. Place slice in recording chamber (see Note 9) and hold in place
Patch-Clamp of Acute using a slice anchor usually made from a high-density material
DRG Slice stable in water (i.e., platinum, gold, or tungsten). Our experi-
ments were performed at room temperature. Optionally, a
desired temperature can be maintained by a temperature con-
troller heating solution prior its entry into the recording
chamber.
2. Perfuse the chamber with ES continuously saturated with car-
bogen at a flow rate of 3–5 mL/min (see Note 10).
3. When selecting a cell to patch generally smaller cells that did
not have any covering/surrounding glia are more amenable to
patching.
4. For perforated patch-clamp technique pipettes are backfilled
with amphotericin solution containing Lucifer yellow (optional;
see Note 11) and then tip is dipped in amphotericin-free IS for
30 s to 1 min.
5. The pipette is mounted into the headstage amplifier and small
amount of positive pressure is applied before the pipette enters
into the bath solution to maintain a clean electrode tip; the posi-
tive pressure can be maintained with bulldog clip up until the
contact with the cell surface is made (see below and Note 12).
The pipette is maneuvered down through bath until it is
approximately level with the cell of interest.
6. Once in close approximation to the cell, the pipette is slowly
advanced onto cell membrane until pipette resistance reaches
~10 MΩ (see Note 13).
7. Positive pipette pressure is then released and negative pressure
is progressively applied to pipette by mouth until GΩ seal is
achieved. Negative pressure is then slowly released.
8. The pipette capacitance (Cfast) is then compensated using an
amplifier/software. The cell membrane capacitance (Cslow) will
start increasing with time as the amphotericin perforation
developed. This can be monitored on the oscilloscope online;
the perforation usually takes up to 10 min (see Chapter 11 of
this book for more details).
9. Once membrane capacitance has reached a plateau it is cancelled
with the use of the amplifier/software. The method normally
a b c
d e f Capsaicin
XE991
Current density at –30 mV, pA/pF
Current density at –60 mV, pA/pF

10 0
–30 pA
–60 pA 9 –20
20 pA
Control 8
200 ms –40
7
XE991 –60
...................................... 6
0 pA
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600
Time, s Time, s
Fig. 3 Patch-clamp recording from DRG slice. (a) Low-magnification (×10) micrograph of the DRG.
(b) Micrograph depicting DRG slice with a patch-clamp pipette making a GΩ seal with a DRG neuron.
(c) Fluorescence micrograph of the DRG slice taken after the perforated patch recording was completed and
the recorded cell was filled with Lucifer yellow through the patch pipette (see Note 11). (d) Perforated patch
recording of M-like current from a small-diameter neuron in an acute DRG slice in the absence (control) or
presence (XE991) of specific M channel blocker XE991 (3 μM); voltage protocol is depicted above. (e) Time
course of M-current inhibition by 3 μM XE991 (black bar). (f) Activation of TRPV1 channel with capsaicin
(1 μM); perforated patch recording, currents were elicited with the same voltage pulse shown in (d), plotted is
a steady-state current at −60 mV. Panels (d) and (e) are modified from (9) with permission
gives an access resistance in the range of 10–35 MΩ; we aim to

achieve the access resistance below 15 MΩ to avoid large volt-
age error (see Note 14).
10. Once perforation is complete, the recording can be started.
Example recordings of M-like K+ currents and capsaicin-
induced TRPV1 currents from the DRG neuron of 7-day-old
rat (see Note 15) are given in Fig. 3.
4 Notes
1. Although DRGs from all spinal levels can be used, it is often

beneficial to use the same identified ganglia throughout the
study for consistency. In our studies we used L4 and L5 DRGs
that give rise to the sciatic nerve. To distinguish L4 and L5 DRG
relative to surrounding DRGs note that the L4 and L5 DRGs
are considerably larger in comparison to neighboring DRGs.
2. Alternatively ganglia can be placed in ES.

3. Specifically, for adult rat DRGs, care needs to be taken to
remove DRG sheath and attached axons, as close to ganglia as
possible, as these will prevent clean cutting of slices at a later
stage.
4. Let agar cool down slightly (to about 39°C) before embed-
ding DRGs; the temperature of the agar can be tested by plac-
ing agar on back of hand or wrist. When embedded in hot agar
the DRGs can be damaged and the resulting slices can be of
poor quality. On the other hand, when pushed into colder,
more solid agar, the DRGs can be damaged as they become
compressed within the harder agar.
5. For best results make sure the specimen disc and agar cube are
dry (by placing them on filter paper) before applying glue. The
amount of glue should be moderate; when too much glue is
applied, it can cover the agar block which renders the cutting
more difficult.
6. DRGs are tough. Therefore we suggest adjusting the blade
speed (forward movement) to an extremely low value
(1–4 mm/min) to avoid pushing the tissue. The highest avail-
able frequency should be selected for the vibration of the cut-
ting blade.
7. The first and last DRG slices should be discarded since they are
generally the most damaged during cutting and it is difficult to
recognize which side is covered with agar.
8. The temperature and time of incubation vary between differ-
ent labs. We have found that placing slices at 37°C for 10 min
also produced good quality slices. An incubation chamber
(submerged or interface type) providing sufficient oxygenation
of the tissue should be chosen (Fig. 2g).
9. We use a 1,000 μL perfusion chamber. A small volume of the
recording chamber allows a rapid solution exchange.
10. Two peristaltic pumps could be used (Fig. 1): independent
inflow and outflow facilitate the adjustment of the liquid height
in the recording chamber. It is advisable to use oxygen-imper-
meable tubing (e.g., Teflon) for perfusion. Alternatively a
gravity-fed perfusion system can also be used.
11. Lucifer yellow (Sigma, final concentration 0.5 mg/mL) can be
included into the IS to check the integrity of perforated patch-
clamp recordings. If a cell was labelled with Lucifer yellow dye
during any time point of the experiment, it is an indication that
the perforated patch-clamp configuration was lost and conven-
tional whole cell resulted, where amphotericin gains access to
intracellular contents of the cell and perforates plasma mem-
brane throughout. In addition, Lucifer yellow can be used for
post-recording identification of the neurons using complimen-

tary immunostaining. In such a case, a breakthrough into the
whole-cell mode is required at the end of recording
(Fig. 25.3d).
12. Pressure to pipette can be carried out by mouth or syringe and
a bulldog clip is used to seal off tubing to maintain pressure.
Optionally a manometer can be used to monitor the pressure.
13. Only cells from the top surface of the slice could be patched
using the DRG slice preparation. Generally, it is not possible to
patch from larger neurons on the surface as they are more
tightly wrapped in glia as previously reported (14) preventing
a tight contact between the tip of the electrode and the cell
membrane.
14. According to Ohm’s law, the larger is access resistance and the
larger is the recorded current, the higher is the error in voltage
applied by the amplifier. Therefore if the recorded currents
are large (i.e., in nA range) and the access resistance is also
large (i.e., above 10 MΩ), a series resistance compensation is
necessary (this issue is further discussed in Chapters 7 and 11
of this book).
15. In older animals the neuronal surface is firmly ensheathed by
satellite glial cells which preclude the experimenter from gain-
ing access to neuronal membrane; the sheath also impairs the
visualization of the neuronal membrane. We found that a rea-
sonable success rate (at least one recording a day) can be
achieved from DRG slices from rat pups up to 7 days old. We
have obtained very few recordings from the adult rat DRGs (9)
but the success rate of these recordings was negligible.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the MRC, BBSRC, and Wellcome

Trust.
References
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functions in small dorsal root ganglion neu- 4. Linley JE, Pettinger L, Huang D, Gamper N
rones of rat. J Physiol 493:393–408 (2012) M channel enhancers and physiological
2. Crozier RA, Ajit SK, Kaftan EJ, Pausch MH M channel block. J Physiol 590:793–807
(2007) MrgD activation inhibits KCNQ/M- 5. Linley JE, Rose K, Patil M, Robertson B,
currents and contributes to enhanced neuronal Akopian AN, Gamper N (2008) Inhibition of
excitability. J Neurosci 27:4492–4496 M current in sensory neurons by exogenous
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nerve injury. Pain 152:742–754
Chapter 26
Studying Ion Channels in Human Erythrocytes

by Direct and Indirect Means
Stephan M. Huber
Abstract
Mature human or mouse erythrocytes functionally express an unexpected diversity of ion channels that
endows these small enucleated cells with a toolkit for electrosignaling. Being largely dormant under resting
conditions, these ion channels enable erythrocytes to quickly respond to internal or external stimuli. They
are integral modules of complex programs such as oxygen-regulated ATP release or stress-induced pro-
grammed erythrocyte death. This article summarizes electrophysiologial and non-electrophysiological
methods to analyze erythrocyte ion channels and provides protocols for channel activation.
Key words Gardos channels (IK, SK4, KCa3.1), ClC-2, Organic osmolyte and anion channels, Protein
kinase A-activated anion channels, Ca2+-permeable nonselective cation channels, Patch-clamp,
Isosmotic hemolysis, Flow-cytometry, Tracer flux, ATP release
1 Introduction
The obvious task of erythrocytes is the transport of blood oxygen and

carbon dioxide. Hemoglobin and band 3 anion exchanger are the
most abundant proteins in the erythrocyte cytosol and membrane,
respectively. Because of this high abundance and the substantial
absence of intracellular organelles, mature human erythrocytes are
commonly simplified to hemoglobin-containing sacks. In sharp con-
trast to this view, emerging numbers of signaling molecules such as
functional surface receptors, kinases, and released factors are identified
in mature erythrocyte. These signaling molecules build up functional
signaling cascade participating in the cross talk between erythrocytes
and other blood cells or the endothelium. As a matter of fact, eryth-
rocytes fulfill many further functions beyond gas transport such as
regulation of vascular tone (1).
Therefore, it is no wonder that mature mammalian erythro-
cytes express a diversity of ion channels similar to nucleated cells.
In particular, functional expression of CFTR (2–4), ClC-2 (5, 6)
321
322 Stephan M. Huber
TMEM16A (7), 18 pS anion channels (8), 80 pS outwardly

rectifying organic osmolyte and anion channels (9, 10), peripheral-
type benzodiazepine receptor/voltage-dependent anion channels
(VDAC)-like maxi anion channels (11, 12), acid-sensitive anion
channels (13), Gardos KCa3.1 K+ channels (14), TRPC6 (15) and
possibly TRPC3 nonselective cation channels (16), acetylcholine-
stimulated cation channels (17), and pannexin-1 ATP-release chan-
nels (18) has been demonstrated in human (mouse) erythrocytes.
In addition, expression of tetrodotoxin-sensitive Na+ channels
Nav1.4 and Nav1.7 and ionotropic purinergic receptors P2X1,
P2X4, and P2X7 is evident from erythrocyte ghost immunoblotting
or reticulocyte mRNA analysis (19).
These ion channels are largely silent under resting condi-
tions. The whole-cell conductance of unstimulated human
erythrocytes recorded by patch-clamp fast whole-cell mode is in
the range of few pS at the very most and no ion channel gating
can be observed (20). The resting Cl− conductance of the eryth-
rocyte membrane, which is approximately 100-fold greater than
the resting cation conductance, is most probably generated by a
conductive operation mode of the AE1 (band 3) anion Cl−/
HCO3− exchanger (21).
Although being electrically very tight under resting conditions,
the erythrocyte membrane can generate conductances in the nS
range upon various signals. Strong activators of erythrocyte ion
channel activity are bacterial toxins (7, 14, 20) and the intraeryth-
rocytic amplification of the protozoa Plasmodium (1) suggesting
functional significance of erythrocyte channels in the pathophysiol-
ogy of septicemia and malaria. Experimentally, Plasmodium-
induced ion channel activation can be mimicked in uninfected
erythrocytes by applying oxidative stress (5, 9, 22). In addition,
erythrocyte channel activation is stimulated by hyperosmotic eryth-
rocyte shrinkage (23, 24), Cl− depletion (22, 23, 25), ligation of
receptors (26, 27), and kinases (8). This chapter provides proto-
cols for both the activation and the study of erythrocyte ion chan-
nels for those who are interested in the physiology and
pathophysiology of erythrocyte ion channels.
2 Materials
2.1 Cells 1. Human erythrocytes freshly drawn from healthy donors by

vein or finger tip puncture, collected in a heparinized vial, and
stored at a hematocrit of about 5% after washing trice in NaCl
solution (see below) at 8°C.
2. Mouse erythrocytes drawn by retro-orbital puncture, collected,
washed, and stored as described above.
Ion Channels in Human Erythrocytes 323
2.2 External 1. NaCl solution: 125 mM NaCl, 5 mM KCl, 5 mM D-glucose,

Solutions 1 mM MgCl2, 1 mM CaCl2, 32 mM HEPES; pH 7.4 with
NaOH.
2. KCl solution: 130 mM KCl, 5 mM D-glucose, 1 mM MgCl2,
1 mM CaCl2, 32 mM HEPES; pH 7.4 with KOH.
3. Na-D-gluconate solution: 125 mM Na-D-gluconate, 5 mM K-D-
gluconate, 5 mM D-glucose, 2 mM Ca-D-gluconate2, 32 mM
HEPES; pH 7.4 with NaOH.
4. NMDG-D-gluconate solution: titrate 150 mM N-methyl-D-
glucamine (NMDG), 2 mM Ca-D-gluconate2 with D-gluconic
acid to pH 7.4.
5. NMDG-Cl bath solution: titrate 180 mM NMDG, 2 mM
CaCl2 with HCl to pH 7.4.
6. Glucose-free NaCl solution: 125 mM NaCl, 5 mM KCl,
2.5 mM CaCl2, 1 mM MgCl2, 32 mM HEPES; pH 7.4 with
NaOH.
7. Sorbitol-containing solution: 100 mM sorbitol, 90 mM NaCl,
1 mM CaCl2, 1 mM MgCl2, 10 mM HEPES; pH 7.4 with
NaOH.
8. Ca2+-free NaCl solution: 125 mM NaCl, 5 mM KCl, 5 mM
D-glucose, 1 mM MgCl2, 0.5 mM EGTA, 32 mM HEPES; pH
7.4 with NaOH.
9. Elevated Ca2+-containing NaCl solution: 125 mM NaCl, 5 mM
KCl, 5 mM D-glucose, 2 mM CaCl2, 1 mM MgCl2, 32 mM
HEPES; pH 7.4 with NaOH.
10. Hypotonic lysis buffer: 30 mM KCl, 1 mM MgCl2,
3 mM Mg-ATP, 0.5 mM EGTA, 10 mM HEPES; pH 7.4 with
KOH.
11. Isosmotic sorbitol solution: 290 mM sorbitol, 5 mM HEPES;
pH 7.4 with NaOH.
12. Glucose-free KCl/NaCl solution: 80 mM KCl, 50 mM NaCl,
32 mM HEPES; pH 7.4 with KOH.
13. Hypotonic sorbitol solution: 200 mM sorbitol, 5 mM HEPES;
pH 7.4 with NaOH.
14. KCl/NaCl solution: 80 mM KCl, 50 mM NaCl, 5 mM D-glu-
cose, 0.2 mM MgCl2, 32 mM HEPES; pH 7.4 with KOH.
2.3 Pipette Solutions 1. K-gluconate/KCl pipette solution: 60 mM K-D-gluconate,

80 mM KCl, 1 mM EGTA, 5 mM MgCl2, 1 mM Mg-ATP, and
5 mM HEPES; pH 7.4 with KOH.
2. K-gluconate pipette solution: 140 mM K-D-gluconate, 1 mM
EGTA, 5 mM MgCl2, 1 mM Mg-ATP, and 5 mM HEPES; pH
7.4 with KOH.
3. KCl pipette solution: 140 mM KCl, 1 mM K-EGTA, 5 mM

MgCl2, 1 mM Mg-ATP, and 5 mM HEPES; pH 7.4 with
KOH.
2.4 Other Solutions 1. Poly-L-lysine (1:100 in phosphate buffered saline for 10 min).
and Reagents 2. Triarylmethane-34 (TRAM-34).
3. Tert-Butylhydroperoxide (tBHP).
4. 5-Nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)-benzoic acid, NPPB.
5. Ionomycin.
6. Sodium (meta)arsenite (NaAsO2).
7. Ca2+-pump inhibitor Na3VO4.
8. Fluo-3/AM or Fluo-4/AM.
9. Amiloride.
10. Ethylisopropylamiloride, EIPA.
11. 1-Ethyl-2-benzimidazolinone, 1-EBIO.
12. Gramicidin D.
13. Valinomycin.
14. Luciferin–luciferase assay kit (Roche Diagnostics, Mannheim,
Germany).
15. ELISA kit for the detection of trace amounts of free hemoglo-
bin (i.e., E-90HM; Immunology Consultants Laboratory,
Newberg, OR, USA).
16. Inosine.
45
17. Radioactive tracer Ca2+ (handling requires radioisotope
laboratory).
18. Trichloroacetic acid (6%).
2.5 Parasite Culture 1. Laboratory strains of Plasmodium falciparum such as BINH

(28) kept in continuous culture (requires biosafety level 2
practice and facilities).
2. RPMI medium supplemented with 0.5% Albumax (Life
Technologies, Invitrogen).
3. Gas: 90% N2, 5% CO2, 5% O2.
2.6 Equipment 1. Patch-clamp rig (see Chapter 7 by Jonnathan Lipipat) with

bath superfusion and 37°C heating.
2. Flow cytometer (e.g., Becton Dickinson FACS Calibur).
3. Luminometer.
4. ELISA plate reader.
5. β-scintillation counter.
3 Methods
3.1 Patch-Clamp 1. Mount Petri dish in your patch-clamp setup, superfuse with
Recording in Human NaCl solution and preheat the system to 37°C.
and Mouse 2. Earth the bath solution via salt bridge filled with NaCl
Erythrocytes solution.
3. Stop superfusion and add few microliter of erythrocyte
suspension.
4. Let the cells sediment and attach to the dish bottom. Remove
nonattached cells by fast superfusion (see Note 1).
5. Apply a constant superfusion of about 200 μL/min at 37°C.
6. Use borosilicate pipettes with resistances of 8–14 MΩ.
7. If necessary, improve giga-ohm seal formation (to 10–100 GΩ)
by applying negative pipette potential (−30 mV) at constant
(low) negative pipette pressure for up to 5 min and/or tran-
siently increase the bath CaCl2 concentration to 5 mM.
8. If your system is mechanically vulnerable, lift the giga-ohm sealed
cell from the bottom (not possible with poly-L-lysineated dish).
9. In cell-attached mode, continuously control for spontaneous
entry into whole-cell mode by microscopy (see below and
Fig. 1).
10. For entry into the whole-cell mode, rupture the membrane by
additional suction and/or brief electrical pulses (700 mV dur-
ing 100–200 μs). The whole-cell recording configuration is
indicated by a minute increase in capacitance and a simultane-
ous bleaching of the erythrocyte due to dialysis of hemoglobin
by the pipette solution (see Fig. 1 and Note 2).
11. Since whole-cell currents are low, control for formation of an
excised outside-out patch by monitoring the presence of a
“ghost” at the pipette tip (see Fig. 1c).
12. For patch excision, increase erythrocyte attachment to the dish
bottom by pre-coating the dish with poly-L-lysine.
13. Elicit currents by applying standard voltage pulse protocols
from −100 mV to +100 mV. Adapt protocol if high positive
voltages (³ +80 mV) result in loss of seal resistance. Sample
and low-pass filter currents at 10 and 3 kHz, respectively.
14. Estimate the leak current fraction by changing the electro-
chemical equilibrium of the charge-carrying ion species and/
or by pharmacologically inhibition of the involved ion chan-
nels (see Note 3).
15. Compute liquid junction potentials between pipette and NaCl
bath solution and between NaCl salt bridge and further bath
solution as reported (29) and correct voltages.
Fig. 1 Whole-cell patch-clamp recording in human erythrocytes. (a) The aspira-

tion of the erythrocyte membrane during formation of the whole-cell recording
mode is redrawn schematically. (b, c) Light phase-contrast micrographs taken
before (b) and after applying negative pressure to the pipette lumen (c). Note that
the erythrocyte bleached after the rupture of the membrane (c)
3.2 Activation 1. Record human erythrocytes at 37°C in cell-attached mode

of Dormant with K-gluconate/KCl pipette solution and NaCl bath solu-
Erythrocyte Channels tion at 37°C under continuous superfusion and −30 mV pipette
potential.
3.2.1 Activation of
Gardos KCa3.1 K+ Channels 2. Superfuse the Ca2+ ionophore ionomycin (1 μM) in NaCl bath
(See Note 4) solution.
3. Instantaneous echinocyte formation of the recorded erythro-
cyte and bystander cells indicates the ionomycin activity.
4. Test for unitary current transitions at positive pipette potential.
5. If single channels are apparent, superfuse KCl solution
(see Note 5) and record single channels at various voltages. Go
back in NaCl solution and break into whole-cell mode.
6. If single channels are not apparent, stay in NaCl solution and
directly break into whole-cell mode. Moderately negative cur-
rent reversal potentials indicate Gardos channel activation
(see Fig. 2).
7. Switch now to KCl solution. Gardos whole-cell currents exhibit
typical inward rectification in symmetrical KCl solution (not
shown in Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 Ca2+-permeabilization of the erythrocyte membrane induces activation of Gardos K+ channels.

(a) Whole-cell current traces and (b) I/V relationships (b; upper plot ) of a human erythrocyte recorded with
K-gluconate/KCl pipette and standard NaCl bath solution under control conditions (a, left traces; and b, open
circles) and upon bath application of the Ca2+ ionophore ionomycin (1 μM; a, right traces; and b, closed tri-
angles). (b) Lower plot shows the ionomycin-induced current fraction that reverses at K electrochemical
equilibrium
8. Confirm Gardos channel activity by applying inhibitors (e.g.,

triarylmethane-34, TRAM-34, 2 μM).
3.2.2 Activation of 1. Record human erythrocytes in fast whole-cell mode with

Nonselective Cation K-gluconate pipette solution and NaCl bath solution at 37°C
Channels (See Note 6) under continuous superfusion and −30 mV holding potential.
2. Replace NaCl bath by Na-D-gluconate bath solution.
3. Superfuse Na-D-gluconate bath solution for several min until
increase in whole-cell currents occurs.
4. Replace Na-D-gluconate bath by NMDG-D-gluconate or
NMDG-Cl bath solution (see Note 7).
5. Replace NMDG+ in the bath by Na+ and D-gluconate− by Cl−
to re-inactivate the current.
3.2.3 Activation of 1. Wash twice and suspend freshly drawn human erythrocytes in
Organic Osmolyte and Anion glucose-free NaCl solution to a hematocrit of 5% and store
Channels (See Note 8) them at 8°C for 1–7 days in order to energy deplete the cells
and to lower the oxidative defense.
2. Wash aliquots of 500 μL cell suspension with glucose-free
NaCl solution, pellet the cells (500 × g for 5 min), and discard
the supernatants.
3. Resuspend every 20 s a cell pellet in 1 mL of glucose-free NaCl
solution containing tert-butylhydroperoxide (tBHP, 0 or
1 mM). Prepare additional oxidized samples for isosmotic
hemolysis control (see Subheading 3.3.4).
4. Incubate for 5 min at room temperature.

5. Centrifuge the cells (500 × g for 5 min at room temperature).
Do not remove supernatant.
6. Compare the color of the erythrocyte pellet between control
(0 mM tBHP) and the first started oxidizing sample (1 mM
tBHP) by holding the pellets side by side.
7. Extend incubation at room temperature until the oxidizing
pellet becomes only just darker red than the control cells
(see Note 9).
8. Remove quickly and quantitatively (water-jet pump) the super-
natant of the samples and instantaneously resuspend the pellets
in 400 μL NaCl solution containing 100 μM Na-ATP
(see Note 10). These steps must be performed within <20 s
and the samples processed in the order of oxidation begin so
that each sample receives identical oxidation time.
9. Resuspend the remaining oxidized pellets (isosmotic hemolysis
control) in 400 μL of isosmotic sorbitol solution
(see Subheading 3.3.4) further containing the organic osmo-
lyte and anion channel inhibitor 5-nitro-2-(3-
phenylpropylamino)-benzoic acid, NPPB (0 or 50 μM).
10. Incubate all samples at 37°C under slight agitation for
1.5–3 h.
11. Stop incubation and harvest the cells in NaCl solution at that
time when a significant fraction of the sorbitol-incubated
cells have lysed isosmotically in a NPPB-sensitive manner (see
Subheading 3.3.4).
12. Wash harvested cells twice in NaCl solution and analyze the
organic osmolyte and anion channels in single channels and
whole-cell recording by the use of K-gluconate or KCl pipette
solution (see Note 11).
3.2.4 Activation of ClC-2 1. Infect human erythrocytes (blood group 0) with laboratory
Cl− Channels (See Note 12) strains of Plasmodium falciparum and culture the infected cells
asynchronously at a hematocrit of 5% and a parasitemia of
2–10% in RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with Albumax II
(0.5%) in an atmosphere with reduced oxygen tension.
2. Mount a Petri dish in your patch-clamp setup and start super-
fusion with NaCl solution at 37°C. Transfer a 10 μL aliquot of
the infected culture directly in the NaCl solution. Prior to that,
stop superfusion.
3. Restart superfusion when erythrocytes have been sedimented
and attached to the dish bottom.
4. Identify erythrocytes parasitized with the trophozoite stage of
Plasmodium falciparum by light microscopy (see Note 13).
5. Record trophozoite-parasitized erythrocyte under continuous

superfusion in fast whole-cell mode at 37°C with NaCl pipette
solution.
6. Replace the NaCl bath solution by sorbitol-containing bath
solution.
7. Induce cell swelling and shrinkage iso-ionically by decreasing
and increasing the sorbitol concentration of the bath to 0 and
250 mM; swelling activates and shrinkage inactivates ClC-2,
respectively (see Note 14).
3.2.5 Activation of 18 pS 1. Resuspend washed human erythrocytes in NaCl solution addi-

Cl− Channels (See Note 15) tionally containing sodium (meta)arsenite (NaAsO2, 1 mM) to
a hematocrit of 1–5%.
2. Incubate for 1–3 h at 37°C.
3. Transfer 10 μL aliquots in your patch-clamp Petri dish super-
fused at 37°C with NaCl solution.
4. Analyze 18 pS channels by single-channel and whole-cell
recording at 37°C by the use of K-gluconate or KCl pipette
solution (see Fig. 3).
3.3 Indirect 1. Wash human erythrocytes twice in Ca2+-free NaCl solution.

Measures of 2. Resuspend the erythrocytes in Ca2+-free NaCl solution (100 μL
Erythrocyte Ion in a FACS tube, adjust to a hematocrit of about 5%) containing
Channels the membrane-permeable AM ester of Fluo-3 (or Fluo-4;
3.3.1 Ca2+-Permeable
2 μM, Calbiochem).
Channels Measured by 3. Load the erythrocytes with Fluo-3/AM (Fluo-4/AM) for
Ca2+-Sensitive 30 min at 37°C.
Fluorescence Dyes 4. Wash two times and resuspend erythrocytes in 100 μL of Ca2+-
(See Note 16): Protocol free NaCl solution (washing steps may be omitted).
for Intact Erythrocytes
5. Add nine volumes (900 μL) of pre-warmed (37°C) elevated
Ca2+-containing NaCl solution further containing 0 or 1 mM
of the Ca2+-pump inhibitor Na3VO4 at time zero.
6. Measure at 37°C time course of changes in Fluo-3 (Fluo-4)
fluorescence intensities (e.g., by a FACS Calibur flow cytome-
ter, Becton Dickinson, at FL-1, excitation at 488 nm, emission
at 530 nm).
7. Plot fluorescence intensity against time and calculate slope of
fluorescence intensity increase during the initial linear course.
8. Control in every experimental condition for fluorescence dye
loading by Ca2+-permeabilizing the erythrocyte membrane
(e.g., by 1 μM of ionomycin added to the elevated Ca2+-
containing NaCl solution).
9. Control for fluorescence quenching or autofluorescence of
drugs/vehicle if applicable.
Fig. 3 Activation of the 18 pS Cl− channels by arsenite. (a) Macroscopic cell-attached currents of a control erythrocyte
(left ) and an erythrocyte pretreated for 3 h with arsenite (1 mM, right). Currents were elicited by the indicated pulse
protocol (inset ) and recorded with K-gluconate pipette and NaCl bath solution. (b) Single-channel tracings recorded
at different voltages as in (a). (c) Relationship between channel amplitude and voltage
3.3.2 Ca2+-Permeable 1. Wash erythrocyte three times in Ca2+-free NaCl solution.

Channels Measured by
2. Lyse and pellet human erythrocytes (70 μL pellet) on ice in
Ca2+-Sensitive
1 mL of hypotonic lysis buffer additionally containing 2 μM
Fluorescence Dyes:
Fluo-3/AM or Fluo-4/AM.
Protocol for Erythrocyte
Ghosts 3. Entrap antibodies, signaling proteins or other membrane-
impermeable molecules of interest during hypotonic hemolysis
by adding them to the lysis buffer.
4. Spin down non-lysed erythrocytes (2,000 × g for 5 min at
4°C).
5. Harvest erythrocyte ghosts (25,000 × g for 20 min at 4°C).
6. Resuspend ghosts in 300 μL of 37°C pre-warmed elevated
CaCl2-containing NaCl solution at time zero and measure
time-dependent increase in fluorescence intensity as described
above in the absence and presence of a Ca2+-pump inhibitor

(1 mM Na3VO4) or cation channel blockers (e.g., 1 mM
amiloride, or 50 μM ethylisopropylamiloride, EIPA).
7. For negative and positive control resuspend the pelleted ghosts
in Ca2+-free NaCl solution and in Ca2+-containing NaCl solu-
tion additionally containing the Ca2+ ionophore ionomycin
(1 μM), respectively.
3.3.3 Gardos K+ 1. Resuspend washed erythrocytes in NaCl solution to a hemat-

Channels Measured ocrit of 1% (500 μL aliquots in FACS tubes) and place them on
by Cell Volume Changes 37°C.
(See Note 17) 2. Add the same volume (500 μL) of 37°C pre-warmed NaCl
solution additionally containing Gardos channel activator (e.g.,
ionomycin, 2 μM, or 1-ethyl-2-benzimidazolinone, 1-EBIO,
200 μM) or inhibitor (e.g., TRAM-34, 2 μM) at time zero.
3. Determine every 60 s forward scatter by flow cytometry as a
measure of erythrocyte volume and calculate slope of forward
scatter decline.
3.3.4 Organic Osmolyte 1. Resuspend pelleted erythrocytes (25 μL aliquots) in 400 μL of

and Anion Channels isosmotic sorbitol solution further containing inhibitors of the
Measured by Isosmotic organic osmolyte and anion channels (e.g., NPPB, 0 and
Hemolysis (See Note 18) 50 μM).
2. For determination of background hemolysis, immediately spin
down (500 × g for 5 min) and harvest supernatant (350 μL).
3. Heat the remaining aliquots to 37°C and incubate under slight
shaking.
4. Harvest the supernatants (350 μL) of the remaining aliquots at
different time points.
5. Determine the free hemoglobin concentration in the superna-
tants photometrically (e.g., absorption at 546 nm).
6. For standard curve, hemolyze 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 μL pelleted
erythrocytes in 400 μL of distilled water, spin down, harvest
350 μL supernatant, and determine the absorption.
7. Run further hemoglobin standard curves in the presence of the
applied inhibitors to control for impairment of the photometry
by the drugs.
3.3.5 ClC-2 Chloride 1. Wash (three times) and equilibrate erythrocytes (5% hemat-
Channels Measured ocrit) for 15 min with glucose-free KCl/NaCl solution
by Cell Volume Changes (100 μL) containing 4 μM gramicidin D, 2 μM valinomycin,
(See Note 19) and 50 μM NPPB in order to Na+-permeabilize and to K+-
permeabilize the erythrocyte membrane and to inhibit organic
osmolyte and anion channels, respectively.
2. Add at time zero 9 volumes (900 μL) of a hypotonic sorbitol

solution additionally containing 4 μM gramicidin D, 2 μM val-
inomycin, and 50 μM NPPB.
3. Determine every 60 s forward scatter by flow cytometry as a
measure of erythrocyte volume and calculate slope of forward
scatter decline.
3.3.6 Pannexin-1 1. Wash (three times) and resuspend erythrocytes (5% hemat-
and VDAC ATP Channels ocrit) in NaCl solution.
Measured by Extracellular 2. Place 200 μL aliquots in a 96-well plate on ice.
ATP Accumulation
3. Let the erythrocytes sediment.
(See Note 20)
4. To avoid ATP release induced by mechanical perturbation,
replace carefully 180 μL supernatant by the same volume of
ice-cold NaCl solution containing inducer (e.g., 0 or 200 μM
of tert-butylhydroperoxide) or/and inhibitors of ATP release
(e.g., 0 or 50 μM of NPPB).
5. Heat the cells to 37°C.
6. Harvest immediately after re-sedimentation (background val-
ues) and every 60 min thereafter the supernatants (100 μL).
7. Spin down supernatants (500 × g for 5 min) to remove residual
erythrocytes immediately after harvesting; again harvest super-
natant (90 μL) and freeze it at −25°C.
8. Quantify the extracellular ATP concentration of the aliquots
(50 μL) by a luciferin–luciferase assay kit and a luminometer
according to the supplied experimental protocol.
9. Subtract mean background values and calculate ATP release
per number of cells and time.
10. Run further ATP standard curves in the presence of the applied
inducers/inhibitors to control for impairment of the luciferin–
luciferase reaction by the drugs.
11. Determine the hemoglobin concentration of the remaining
supernatant volume by ELISA according to the instructions of
the supplier to control for hemolysis-mediated contamination
by intracellular ATP.
3.3.7 Tracer Flux 1. Wash erythrocytes in KCl/NaCl solution (see Note 22).
(See Note 21) Protocol 2. Pre-incubate the cells (10% hematocrit) for 10 min at 37°C in
for 45Ca2+ Uptake 400 μL of KCl/NaCl solution supplemented with 10 mM
inosine (to replenish the erythrocytic nucleoside pool which
diminishes by ATP release) and 1 mM Na3VO4 (to inhibit the
Ca2+-ATPase).
3. Add 400 μL of the same solution (37°C) additionally contain-
ing the radioactive tracer (~2 μCi/mL 45Ca2+) and 0.4 mM
CaCl2 and incubate at 37°C under slight agitation.
4. Remove 100 μL of cell suspension at time point zero and every

10 min after careful resuspension of the erythrocytes and
deliver them into ice-cold KCl/NaCl solution (900 μL).
5. Centrifuge at 4,000 × g for 10 s and discard supernatant.
6. Wash the pellet in 1 mL of the same solution and centrifuge
and discard the supernatant.
7. Lyse and deproteinize the cell pellet by addition of 250 μL of
trichloroacetic acid (6%) and finally centrifuge (17,000 × g for
5 min).
8. Count the radioactivity of the supernatant by a β-scintillation
counter.
4 Notes
1. For superfusion, we use 3 cm cell culture Petri dishes and a

ring-shaped dish insert which besides reducing the bath vol-
ume to <200 μL carries the superfusion and heating unit.
Erythrocytes remain sticking to the plastic surface of the dish
at moderate superfusion flows. If superfusion chambers with
glass surfaces are used, erythrocyte adherence can be achieved
by coating the surface (e.g., with poly-L-lysine).
2. Unstimulated human or mouse erythrocytes usually show no
spontaneous ion channel activity in whole-cell mode.
Macroscopic whole-cell currents are therefore often not larger
than macroscopic (leakage) currents in the cell-attached mode
before. Changes in capacitance upon entry into whole-cell
mode are in the range of 1 pF and usually too low to safely
define whole-cell recording mode.
3. Current leakage of erythrocytes shows many features of bio-
logical currents, i.e., voltage dependence, time-dependent
activation/inactivation rectification, and somehow nonselective
cation specificity (e.g., replacement of bath Na+ by NMDG+
decreases inward current leakage without large change of cur-
rent reversal potential). Moreover, current leakage may change
with modification of the divalent cation concentration in the
bath and with applied voltage (negative pipette potentials may
decrease and positive potentials increase current leakage). Since
in whole-cell mode, transmembrane currents of unstimulated
erythrocytes are usually smaller than the current leakage, the
biological current fraction must be extracted experimentally,
e.g., by an agonist-activated or inhibitor-sensitive current frac-
tion. The biological nature of this current fraction is also
confirmed (and additionally its ion selectivity) if (1) the acti-
vated/inhibited current fraction exhibits a reversal potential
close to electrochemical equilibrium E of the charge-carrying
ion and (2) the electrochemical equilibrium E has been set to

voltages clearly different from zero (by the use of asymmetrical
solutions, see Fig. 2b, here the ionomycin-stimulated current
fraction reverses at EK).
4. Gardos (IK, SK4, KCa3.1) channels are Ca2+-activated inwardly
rectifying and intermediate conductance K+ channels. Reported
Gardos whole-cell currents in human (20) and mouse erythro-
cytes (14) suggest only low number of functional channel cop-
ies (see Fig. 2). In the provided protocol, Gardos activation is
stimulated by Ca2+-permeabilization of the plasma membrane.
Alternatively, channel activator 1-ethyl-2-benzimidazolinone
(1-EBIO, 100 μM (14)) can be used.
5. Activation of Gardos channels hyperpolarizes the erythrocyte
membrane potential from about −7 mV to high negative volt-
ages. Membrane potential is zeroed by a high KCl concentra-
tion in the bath solution which is required to define the applied
voltage in cell-attached mode.
6. Ca2+-permeable nonselective cation channels with a permselec-
tivity for monovalent cations of Cs+ > K+ > Na+ = Li+ >> NMDG+
are reversibly activated in human erythrocytes by oxidative
stress (1 mM tert-butylhydroperoxide for 15 min) or decrease
of the extracellular Cl− concentration (half maximal effect at an
extracellular Cl− concentration of about 25 mM Cl−) (22).
These channels are probably identical to those activated by
prostaglandin E2 (100 nM) or hyperosmotic cell shrinkage
(23, 24, 26). These channels are inhibited by amiloride (1 mM
(22)) and ethylisopropylamiloride (EIPA, 10 μM). Hereinafter
is the Cl− depletion protocol which produces very reproducibly
channel activation.
7. Decrease of inward current and shift of reversal potential to
high negative voltages upon replacement of bath Na+ by the
less permeable NMDG+ indicates (1) the biological nature of
the current and (2) the cation selectivity of the Cl− removal-
stimulated current fraction. It further excludes the possibility
that the activated current is simply due to an increase in cur-
rent leakage.
8. Activation of the organic osmolyte and anion channels in
Plasmodium-infected erythrocytes (9, 10, 30, 31) develops
over several hours suggesting complex signaling and biochemi-
cal channel modification. Similarly, oxidation-stimulated chan-
nel activation takes several hours (9, 32). Here, a protocol for
human erythrocytes is provided (for mouse erythrocytes,
see (27))
9. The oxidation of the erythrocytes is the most critical step.
Brown or even black pellets indicate over-oxidation and eryth-
rocyte death.
10. Autocrine purinergic signaling via ATP release and P2Y recep-
tors facilitates the induction of active organic osmolyte and
anion channels (27).
11. Unusual features of organic osmolyte and anion channel-gen-
erated whole-cell currents are that a negative holding potential
(−30 mV) induces time-dependent inactivation of the inward
currents and that micromolar concentrations of serum albu-
min stimulate outward rectification (33, 34).
12. Human and mouse erythrocytes express volume-sensitive
ClC-2 Cl− channels which are not activated by cell volume
changes in unstimulated erythrocytes. Infection by the malaria
parasite Plasmodium or oxidative stress “resurrects” the dor-
mant channels which are then reversibly activated by cell
swelling and inactivated by cell shrinkage. ClC-2 channels
have very low single-channel conductance (3–4 pS) and are
best recorded by fast whole-cell mode where they exhibit
typical inward rectification and time-dependent activation at
negative voltages (5, 6). Here a protocol for Plasmodium-
infected human erythrocytes is given. This protocol can also
be used to activate the organic osmolyte and anion channels
(see Subheading 3.2.3).
13. Trophozoites detoxify hem as hemozoin which is clearly visible
as black dot in the food vacuole of the intraerythrocytic para-
site. These “dots” typically moves by Brownian motion.
14. The ClC-2 generated whole-cell current fraction is sensitive to
Zn2+ (1 mM).
15. The 18 pS anion channel of human erythrocytes is activated in
inside-out patches by protein kinase A (8). Sodium (meta)
arsenite confers oxidative stress to cells and perturbs intracellu-
lar phosphorylation/dephosphorylation pathways by targeting
several kinases (35). Here a simple protocol is provided to
activate 18 pS anion channels by pretreating the cells with
arsenite. Figure 3 gives an example of such activation.
16. Erythrocytes lack intracellular Ca2+ stores. Hence, steady-state
cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration [(Ca2+)i] depends solely on
Ca2+ entry and extrusion across the plasma membrane as
well as on cytosolic Ca2+ buffering by Ca2+-binding proteins.
The latter have high affinity but low capacity and low resting
Ca2+ concentrations are mainly maintained by the activity of
the powerful Ca2+ pump in the erythrocyte membrane. Thus,
perturbations of the pump leak equilibrium results in instanta-
neous changes in [Ca2+]i which can be measured by Ca2+-
specific dyes such as Fluo-3 or Fluo-4. Increase in fluorescence
(expressed here as a slope of the fluorescence increase with
time) in Ca2+-depleted erythrocytes after re-addition of extra-
cellular Ca2+ reflects channel-mediated Ca2+ entry when deter-

mined in the presence of a Ca2+-pump inhibitor. This protocol
can easily be extended for measuring Ca2+ entry into erythro-
cyte ghosts which allows inclusion of membrane-impermeable
molecules in the ghosts during ghost preparation (15).
17. The resting background permeability of human erythrocytes
for Cl− exceeds that for K+ (see Subheading 1). Under physio-
logical conditions, Ca2+-mediated activation of Gardos chan-
nels hyperpolarizes the membrane potential from about −7 mV
towards K+ equilibrium potential (−85 mV) which imposes a
high outwardly directed driving force for Cl−. This results in
rapid shrinkage by the loss of KCl and osmotically obliged
water.
18. Organic osmolyte and anion channels of human erythrocytes
are permeable for neutral organic osmolytes such as sorbitol
(30). Cells with active channels hemolyze when suspended in
isosmotic solutions of sorbitol (or other channel-permeating
neutral organic osmolytes). The time required for hemolysis of
50% of the cells (t1/2) in a given solute species is a measure of
channel activity. On the other hand, t1/2 in different solutes at
a given channel activity reflects the relative permeability of the
solutes. Finally, anion channel inhibitors (such as micromolar
concentrations of NPPB) delay or even block hemolysis which
allows pharmacological characterization of the organic osmo-
lyte and anion channels (9).
19. Efflux of Cl−, counter cations, and osmotically obliged water
results in erythrocyte shrinkage provided that outwardly
directed chemical gradients for these ions are applying.
Shrinkage is limited and therefore is reflecting Cl− channel
activity if the cation permeability exceeds that for Cl− by far.
Experimentally, this is accomplished by permeabilizing the
erythrocyte membrane with cation-specific ionophores (5).
Inducing efflux in hyposmotic solution transiently swells the
erythrocytes which increases the activity of swelling-induced
Cl− channels such as ClC-2. Different anion channel types can
be distinguished by applying anion channel inhibitors. For
instance, the organic osmolyte and anion channels are inhib-
ited by NPPB (50 μM) while the ClC-2 Cl− channels are
inhibited by ZnCl2 (1 mM).
20. Erythrocytes release ATP upon a variety of stimuli (e.g.,
hypoxia, hypercapnia, mechanical deformation) via a pannexin-
1-dependent (18, 36) and a pannexin-1-independent (proba-
bly VDAC-dependent) (12, 37) conductive pathways. Activity
of these channels can be monitored by determining the accu-
mulation of ATP in the medium (27, 31).
21. Uptake of radioactive tracers can be used to assess erythrocyte

ion channel activity. To delineate channels from other
transporter-mediated tracer uptake, fractions are determined
either that are sensitive to specific ion channel blockers or that
are insensitive to an inhibitor cocktail which blocks all putative
non-channel-generated transports. Nuclides such as 86Ru+,
45
Ca2+, 22Na+, and 36Cl− are used as tracers for K+- Ca2+-, Na+-,
and Cl−-permeable channels, respectively. Uptake rates are cal-
culated from the slope of the linear phase of time-dependent
uptake. Uptake rates [μmol/h] are usually given for 1 mM
extracellular tracer and 1013 erythrocytes which correspond to
1 L of erythrocyte pellet. The tracer flux techniques have been
described elsewhere in detail (38). Hereinafter is an example
protocol for the uptake of 45Ca2+ (39).
22. High K+ concentrations are used to avoid alteration of erythro-
cyte membrane potential or volume.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by a Wilhelm-Sander-Stiftung grant

(2011.083.1) and by the DFG International Graduate School
1302.
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Chapter 27
Recording Ion Channels in Isolated, Split-Opened Tubules

Elena Mironova, Vladislav Bugay, Oleh Pochynyuk,
Alexander Staruschenko, and James D. Stockand
Abstract
Ion channels play key roles in physiology. They function as protein transducers able to transform stimuli
and chemical gradients into electrical signals. They also are critical for cell signaling and play a particularly
important role in epithelial transport acting as gateways for the movement of electrolytes across epithelial
cell membranes. Experimental limitations, though, have hampered the recording of ion channel activity in
many types of tissue. This has slowed progress in understanding the cellular and physiological function of
these channels with most function inferred from in vitro systems and cell culture models. In many cases,
such inferences have clouded rather than clarified the picture. Here, we describe a contemporary method
for isolating and patch-clamping renal tubules for ex vivo analysis of ion channel function in native tissue.
Focus is placed on quantifying the activity of the epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC) in the aldosterone-sensitive
distal nephron (ASDN). This isolated, split-open tubule preparation enables recording of renal ion chan-
nels in the close to native environment under the control of native cell signaling pathways and receptors.
When combined with complementary measurements of organ and system function, and contemporary
molecular genetics and pharmacology used to manipulate function and regulation, patch-clamping renal
channels in the isolated, split-open tubule enables understanding to emerge about the physiological func-
tion of these key proteins from the molecule to the whole animal.
Key words Patch clamp, Isolated renal tubules, Ion channel recording, Collecting duct, ENaC
1 Introduction
Ion channels are key intrinsic membrane proteins. They are respon-
sible for the diversity of electrical signaling found in every living cell.
In addition, electrolytes and water, the latter of which follows the
movement of electrolytes via osmosis, are transported across epithe-
lial barriers of the integumentary system, gastrointestinal tract, the
kidney, secretory glands, and many other organs, in part, via ion
channels. Vectorial ion transport across epithelia is a consequence of
the selective expression of ion channels and transporters in apical
and basolateral membranes of epithelial cells. Understanding the
basics of ion channel biophysics and function as well as regulation is
341
342 Elena Mironova et al.
critical to understanding the physiological role of these important

proteins and how, when dysfunctional, they contribute to pathology.
The recent elucidation of many human diseases caused by ion chan-
nel dysfunction provides fascinating insights into the diverse roles
ion channels serve (1–9). However, our limited ability to record ion
channel activity in native tissue has limited discovery of channel
function in physiological and pathological conditions. This is par-
ticularly true for ion channels in epithelia, such as those expressed in
renal tubule cells critical to the fine-tuning of the electrolyte and
water concentrations of plasma and urine.
Most electrophysiological studies of ion channels have been
performed in either cell culture or recombinant systems (10–13).
Because in vivo function must be extrapolated from findings in
these artificial systems, such studies often produce results that dif-
fer from the channels’ real function in native cells. Importantly, the
patch-clamp method, which is often used to quantify channel activ-
ity in cultured cells, also provides an opportunity, when applied to
native tissue, to explore the properties of ion channels in their more
native environment. We describe here an isolated, split-open tubule
preparation that is suitable for ex vivo analysis of renal ion channels.
This preparation allows access to both the apical and basolateral
membranes of tubule epithelial cells. Here we describe key aspects
of this methodology, including mechanical isolation of the aldos-
terone-sensitive distal nephron, preparation of these tubules for
patch-clamp analysis, and the recording of ion channel activity in
the cell-attached configuration. Focus is placed on recording the
activity of the epithelial Na+ channel, ENaC, in the apical mem-
brane of principal cells in the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron.
The power of in vivo and ex vivo analysis of ion channel func-
tion is that it preserves the native setting and control of these
critical proteins within the cell and retains many of the emergent
properties inherent to real tissue. From these types of studies,
structural and functional details, as well as understanding of reg-
ulation, can be obtained under normal and pathological
conditions. Moreover, combining this readout of channel activity
with genetically altered mice enables definition and clarification
of the in vivo function of proteins that have been studied in vitro
(14–18). In addition to being a tool for understanding the physi-
ological function of particular proteins, mutant mice can also be
used to model human diseases. Applying ex vivo analysis of ion
channel function to preparations prepared from these animals
then also enables the exploration of ion channels as causative
agents and/or targets for disease.
Here we focus on a murine kidney preparation. However, this
approach can be, and has been, used to study renal channels in
other mammals. For instance, we have successfully used this
approach with minor changes to investigate ENaC in rat and
canine kidneys (unpublished data). In combination with other
Channels in the Split-Open Tubule 343
contemporary cell biology methods, measurements of organ and

system function, and incorporation of genetically modified animals,
this electrophysiological approach represents a powerful tool to
study electrolyte transport in specific nephron segments, and enables
precise understanding of the physiological role of specific channel
proteins along the nephron (19–23). Knowledge gained from
such studies in recent years has been instrumental in increasing
our understanding of basic and clinical aspects of renal disease.
2 Materials
2.1 Mouse Sacrifice 1. Six-week-old C57BL/6J male mice (this mouse strain is
and Kidney Isolation broadly commercially available, for instance from Jackson
Laboratory, USA; strain code 000664) (see Note 1).
2. CO2 gas tank and hermetic chamber for sacrifice.
3. Cold Hanks balanced salt solution (HBSS) (Sigma Aldrich,
USA).
4. 6-cm-diameter plastic Petri dishes (BD Falcon, USA).
5. Standard straight forceps (Fine Science Tools, USA).
6. Straight surgical scissors (Fine Science Tools, USA).
7. Nitrile gloves (Kimberly-Clark, USA).
2.2 Isolation 1. Cold HBSS (Sigma Aldrich, USA).

of Renal Tubules 2. One freshly harvested kidney kept on ice in HBSS.
3. 10-cm-diameter plastic Petri dishes (TPP, Fisher Scientific,
USA).
4. Single-edge steel blade (American line, USA).
5. 6-cm-diameter plastic Petri dishes (BD Falcon, USA).
6. Two Dumont #4 forceps (Fine Science Tools, USA).
7. Stereo microscope (Nikon SMZ 645, Melville, NY, USA) (see
Note 2).
8. 18 × 18—Cover glass #2 cover glass (Fisher Scientific, USA)
cut into 5 × 5 mm chips.
9. Diamond scriber with diamond tips (Techni-Tool, USA).
10. 0.01% solution of poly-D-lysine (Sigma Aldrich, USA).
2.3 Single-Channel 1. Patch clamp amplifier (we use Axopatch 200B Molecular
Analysis of ENaC Devices., Downingtown, PA, USA; see Note 3).
Activity in Isolated 2. Digitizer, i.e., Digidata 1322A or 1400 A/D board (Molecular
Tubules Using the Devices) interfaced with a PC running appropriate data acqui-
Patch-Clamp Method sition and analysis software (i.e., pClamp 9.2 or newer software
suite from Molecular Devices).
3. Precision micromanipulator (we use MP-285 from Sutter Instr.

Co., Novato, CA, USA) and mechanical micromanipulator
(i.e., NMN-21 Narishige, East Meadow, NY, USA).
4. Vibration isolation table with Faraday cage (i.e., Tech.
Manufacturing Co., Peabody, MA, USA).
5. Inverted microscope (i.e., Nikon TE2000-U, Melville, NY,
USA).
6. Micropipette puller (i.e., Model P-97 Flaming/Brown puller,
Sutter Instrument Co., USA).
7. Micro-forge (MF-830 Narishige, East Meadow, NY, USA).
8. Borosilicate glass capillaries (World Precision Instruments,
Sarasota, FL, USA) pulled and forged to 7–10 mΩ for cell-
attached patch-clamp recording.
9. Fast exchange recording/perfusion chamber (we use model
RC-22, Warner Instruments, USA).
10. Multichannel valve perfusion system (i.e., Valve Bank II,
AutoMake Scientific, USA).
11. Pipette solution: 140 mM LiCl, 2 mM MgCl2, and 10 mM
HEPES (pH 7.4) (see Note 4).
12. Extracellular bathing solution: 150 mM NaCl, 5 mM KCl,
1 mM CaCl2, 2 mM MgCl2, 5 mM glucose, and 10 mM
HEPES (pH 7.4) (see Note 4).
13. Adjustable volume pipette (10–100 μL) with appropriate tips
(Eppendorf Research plus 100 μL, Eppendorf, USA) for drug
application.
14. Eight-pole low-pass Bessel filter (LPF-8, Warner Instr. Corp.
Hamden, CT, USA).
3 Methods
Isolating tubules for patch-clamp analysis has much in common

with isolating them for perfusion and microelectrode work (19,
24–27). Similarly, patch-clamp analysis of channels in native cells
of isolated tubules is similar to that of immortalized and freshly
isolated cells held in culture (28–33).
To be able to study ENaC in ASDN isolated from normal and
genetically altered mice, the technique used to isolate tubules was
modified to allow patch clamping of the apical plasma membrane of
tubule cells. This modification combines splitting open the tubule
followed by patch clamping of individual cells. In addition to the
electrophysiological measurements described below, the modified
approach for isolation may be useful for several other applications,
e.g., immunohistochemical, biochemical, and molecular analysis of
this tissue. Figure 1 illustrates the steps required to mechanically
slicing
isolation of kidney
Physiological saline solution

Single tubules
Microscopic surgery:
Tubule Isolation
Fig. 1 Schematic illustration of the method used to isolate cortical collecting ducts for patch-clamp analysis.
The kidney is isolated from the mouse and then cut into thin slices (<1 mm). Segments of interest are then
mechanically isolated from these slices with microdissection typically using watchmaker forceps and a
stereomicroscope
Fig. 2 Shown here is a segment of the cortical collecting duct. The top of this segment has been split open to
allow patch-clamp access to the apical membranes of lining epithelial cells
isolate tubules from the kidney without enzymatic treatment.

Opening of the tubule with two micropipettes is shown in Fig. 2.
Enzymatic techniques have been commonly used for the preparation
of isolated tubules as a model for many biochemical and physiologic
investigations. However, they are not recommended for electro-
physiology study since changes during digestion may lead to drastic
disturbances in protein function. Destroying the normal cellu-
lar environment and connections with other cells may also
result in conditions different than normally seen in physiology.
a b 0 mV c c V (mV)
LiCl –60 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10
–20 mV c
c–a NaCl –0.2
–40 mV c –0.4
–0.6
–60 mV c
–0.8
I (pA)
1 pA –1.0
2 sec
Fig. 3 Recording ENaC at the apical membrane of a principal cell in an isolated, split-open collecting duct.
(a) Patch-clamp recording in cell-attached configuration. Major ions in bath and pipette solutions are shown.
(b) Representative single-channel current traces for ENaC from a principal cell. All recordings were performed
in the cell-attached configuration in the voltage-clamp mode. Current was recorded at test potentials that
ranged from 0 to −60 mV. Inward Li+ currents are depicted as downward deflection, and the dashed lines show
the 0 current level (closed state) at each voltage. (c) Single-channel current–voltage relationship for ENaC in
cell-attached patches that were made on the apical membrane of principal cells in isolated split-open mouse
collecting ducts
Thus, mechanical dissociation of tubules, which preserves tissue

and cellular integrity protecting native structure and surroundings,
is recommended.
There are four main patch-clamp configurations: cell attach,
inside-out, outside-out, and whole cell (34) (See also Chapter 7 of
this book). We mostly use in our experiments the cell-attached
configuration. However, these other configurations are also com-
patible with this preparation. With the cell-attached configuration,
as shown in Fig. 3a, the intracellular face of the channel is exposed
to the native intracellular milieu and the extracellular face to solu-
tion in the recording pipette. Figure 3b shows ENaC current traces
from a cell-attached patch of a native principal cell in a freshly iso-
lated mouse ASDN. The patched membrane was presented with
test potentials that ranged from 0 to −60 mV. This seal contained
at least three ENaC channels. Figure 3c shows the single-channel
current–voltage relation for ENaC in mouse principal cells in
freshly isolated ASDN. Similar current–voltage relationships are
observed in rat tubules (32, 35–37). From this relationship, the
conductance of ENaC can be determinate. In cell-attached patches,
ENaC has a conductance of 4–5 pS with 140 mM NaCl in the
pipette (38). To increase channel conductance without affecting
any other channel property, the permeant ion in the patch pipette,
Na+, was replaced by Li+. The latter permeates through ENaC bet-
ter, increasing channel conductance.
As shown in Fig. 4 the effect of acute application of regula-
tory factors on ENaC activity can be studied in freshly isolated
renal tubules. Figure 4 shows representative current traces for
ENaC in native principal cells before and after application of 1 μM
of arginine vasopressin (AVP) (Fig. 4a) and 10 μM ATP (Fig. 4b).
a b
1 AVP 2 1 ATP 2
1 pA 1 pA
60 sec 20 sec
1. before 1. before
c c
2. + AVP
c 2 sec
2. + ATP
c
2 sec
Fig. 4 Activation of ENaC in principal cells of isolated cortical collecting ducts by arginine vasopressin (AVP) (a)
and inhibition by ATP (b). Shown here are representative single-channel current traces for ENaC in a cell-
attached patch from a principal cell before and after application of 1 μM AVP (a) and 10 μM ATP (b). Arrows
indicate addition of AVP and ATP to the external bath solution. These patches were clamped to a holding potential
of −Vp = −60 mV. Closed state noted with c and areas below 1 (before) and 2 (after addition of AVP or ATP) shown
at an expanded time scale below. Data originally presented in (39, 46) and reproduced here with permission
As is clear in these representative current traces and as we previously

demonstrated, AVP increases ENaC activity (39–44). In contrast,
ATP decreases ENaC activity (31, 45, 46).
The mechanism of ENaC regulation by dietary salt intake was
studied in isolated tubules from animals maintained with different
salt diets for at least 1 week (14–16). Experiments were performed
on mice (Fig. 5) and rats (Fig. 6) kept on low (<0.01%) Na+, regu-
lar (0.32%) Na+, and high (2%) Na+ diets. As clear from the current
traces in Figs. 5a and 6a, ENaC activity is inversely related to
dietary salt intake. In addition to revealing biophysical characteris-
tics, single-channel resolution also provides information about the
number of active channels within a patched membrane (N) and the
average probability that a channel will be open, commonly referred
to as open probability (Po). Channel activity is routinely reported
as NPo. In addition to N, information can be gleamed about chan-
nel density by quantifying the frequency ( f ) of observing a chan-
nel where f = patches with at least one active channel of that type/
total number of viable seals for that condition. As demonstrated in
Figs. 5b and 6b salt diet affected both Po and N.
Successful isolation and splitting of renal tubules and electro-
physiological analyses is detailed as described below:
3.1 Mouse Kidney 1. Make sure that your handling of animals adheres to the appro-
Isolation priate ethical guidance and legislation (see Note 5).
2. Animal work is performed using protective gloves under appro-
priate safety conditions.
b
0.5
Po
0.4
0.3
a
0.2
0.01 % [Na+]
0.1
c n=29 n=20 n=18
0.0
<0.01% 0.32% 2.0% [Na+]
4
N
3
0.32 % [Na+] 2
c
1
0
<0.01% 0.32% 2.0% [Na+]
2.0 % [Na+] 0.8

fNPo
c 0.6
0.4
1 pA 0.2
2 sec 0.0
<0.01% 0.32% 2.0% [Na+]
Fig. 5 ENaC activity and density are controlled by dietary NaCl intake in mice. (a) Representative current traces
from cell-attached patches containing ENaC from mice kept on low (<0.01%)-Na+ (top), regular (0.32%)-Na+
(middle), and high (2%)-Na+ (bottom) diets. C denotes the closed state. (b) Summary of ENaC Po, fNPo, and N
for mice kept on low, regular, and high-salt diets. *P < 0.05 vs. regular (0.32%)-Na+ diet; data are expressed
as means ± SE. Numbers inside bars indicate number of experiments. Figure originally presented in (45) and
reproduced here with permission
a b
0.32 % [Na+] 0.5 ∗
c Po
0.4
0.3
1 pA
2 sec 0.01 % [Na+] 0.2
c 0.1
n=27 n=13
0.0
0.32% <0.01% [Na+]
Fig. 6 ENaC activity and density are controlled by dietary NaCl intake in rats. (a) Representative current traces
from cell-attached patches containing ENaC from Sprague–Dawley rats kept on low (<0.01%)-Na+ (bottom)
and regular (0.32%)-Na+ (top) diets. C denotes the closed state. (b) Summary of ENaC Po for rats kept on low
(<0.01%)-Na+ and regular (0.32%)-Na+ diets. *P < 0.05 vs. regular (0.32%)-Na+ diet; data are expressed as
means ± SE. Numbers inside bars indicate number of experiments. Figure originally presented in (32) and
reproduced here with permission
3. 6–8-week-old male mice are sacrificed by CO2 administration

followed by cervical dislocation (see Note 6).
4. The animal is placed on a surgical table. Using forceps and scis-
sors make an incision exposing the chest cavity. Retractors can
be used to keep the incision open (see Note 7).
5. The kidney is then removed and immediately put on ice in a
6-cm-diameter plastic Petri dish with approximately 4 mL of
the HBSS solution.
3.2 Isolation of 1. The kidney is taken from the HBSS solution and decapsulated
Mouse Renal Tubules using forceps. Figure 1 illustrates the steps of this procedure
for reference.
2. The decapsulated kidney is cut into thin slices (<1 mm) with a
razor blade in a 10-cm-diameter plastic Petri dish.
3. One of the slices is placed into a new 6-cm-diameter plastic
Petri dish with approximately 3 mL of fresh ice-cold HBSS
solution. This Petri dish is put under the stereomicroscope.
4. Using two watchmaker forceps the slice is divided into sections
using blunt dissection. Each section should contain approxi-
mately 10–20 tubules. From the cortical part of each section,
the collecting tubules of individual nephrons are carefully iso-
lated (see Note 8).
5. Isolated tubules are transferred to poly-D-lysine pre-coated
5 × 5 mm glass chips (see Note 9).
3.3 Splitting 1. A chip containing tubules is placed into the recording chamber
Open Tubules affixed to the stage of an inverted microscope. The chip is per-
fused with bath (extracellular) solution for 2–3 min to remove
cell debris (see Note 10).
2. The tubule is then split open with two sharp micropipettes con-
trolled with separate micromanipulators to gain access to the
apical plasma membrane of epithelial cells within the tubule.
3. The tubule is oriented in the chamber so that its midline is
perpendicular to the front of the microscope.
4. The tubule is gently pinned with the left micropipette, taking
care not to press through to the bottom cells. With the left
pipette stationary, the top surface of the tubule is scraped away
with the right pipette to open it (see Fig. 2).
5. When the tubule is opened the left pipette is moved a small dis-
tance closer to the front, and step number 4 is repeated. Continue
to split open the tubule as needed for your experiment.
6. The apical membranes of cells within the tubule are cleaned
with a suction pipette under microscopic observation. With
this cleaning procedure, the success rate in obtaining gigaohm
seals increases.
3.4 Single-Channel 1. Prepare bath (extracellular) and pipette solutions, and patch
Analysis of ENaC pipettes (see Note 11).
Activity Using the 2. The fire-polished glass patch pipette is slowly lowered to the
Patch-Clamp Method surface of the selected cell (see Note 12) and a high-resistance
(>1 gΩ) seal is formed between the pipette and plasma mem-
brane by applying negative pressure to the back of the record-
ing pipette usually through gentle suction. Seal formation is
assessed by monitoring pipette resistance with resistance going
from ~7–10 mΩ to more than 8–10 gΩ upon successfully
forming the cell-attached seal.
3. The patch membrane can then be voltage clamped (keeping
the voltage constant) to observe changes in current or current
clamped (keeping current constant) to observe changes in
membrane voltage. For our cell-attached voltage-clamp stud-
ies, currents were low-pass filtered at 100 Hz by an eight-pole
Bessel filter and digitized and stored on a PC hard drive using
the Digidata interface (see Note 3).
4 Notes
1. It is also possible to use other mouse strains and gender. This

approach also can be used to study renal channels in rat, rabbit,
canine, and other mammals.
2. The stereomicroscope Nikon SMZ 645 is not produced any-
more. However Nikon AMZ 745 or any other comparable
model should be sufficient for tubule isolation.
3. There are many different patch-clamp amplifiers, A/D acquisi-
tion boards and programs, micromanipulators, isolation tables,
microscopes, pipette pullers, perfusion chambers, etc. available
for patch-clamp analysis. The user should use those best suited
to their experiments and personal preference. For a detailed
description of the patch-clamp method, the reader is directed
towards the excellent book by B. Sakmann and E. Neher (34);
see also Chapter 7 of this book.
4. The pipette and extracellular bathing solutions should be
appropriate for the channel of interest. The choice of solutions
depends on experiments conditions.
5. Non-survival surgeries are performed in septic but clean condi-
tions. Instruments used should be clean, but not necessary
sterile. All solutions used in this preparation should be sterile
and kept on ice.
6. Carbon dioxide (CO2) inhalation is a common method of
euthanasia used for rats and mice. Without pre-charging the
chamber, place the animals in the chamber and introduce 100%
CO2 at a slow rate so as to minimize distress. Animals should
be exposed to CO2 for at least 5 min. It is also possible to use

other euthanasia techniques. Upon completion of the proce-
dure, death must be insured by cervical dislocation or other
methods approved by the Institutional Ethics (or equivalent)
Committee.
7. A retractor helps in keeping the incision open and to keep the
skin and tissue away from organs. The user should use those
best suited to their experiments and personal preference.
8. Isolated tubules can be identified by morphology under the
stereomicroscope. The ASDN can be identified as merging of
connecting tubule into cortical collecting duct. Proximal
tubules in the cortex can be distinguished by their cloudy pale
color and very broad structure. In contrast, distal elements
(cortical ascending limb, distal convoluted tubule, cortical col-
lecting duct, and loop of Henle) are more transparent and nar-
rower. Cortical collecting duct can be readily distinguished by
the ability to see individual cells within the tubule (26, 27).
9. Construct glass chips as follows: coverslips are placed onto a
hard glass surface and held in place with plastic overlays. One
coverslip is scored with a scriber pen with a diamond tip in a
4 × 4 grid. Scorings are tapped to separate chips. The resulting
glass pieces are approximately 5 × 5 mm and are held in a 35 mm
tissue culture dish until use. Cover glass chips are coated with
poly-D-lysine a day before experiments. Poly-D-lysine is used to
facilitate adherence of tubules to cover glass. This, in some
instances, can be particularly important for patch-clamp experi-
ments performed with constant bath perfusion. We do not rec-
ommend using coverslips with lysine coating that are more than
5–7 days old. Cell-Tak (BD Bioscience) or other adhesive mate-
rials can be used as alternative to poly-D-lysine.
10. Other chips with tubules should be kept on ice in a Petri dish
in HBSS solution until needed. The number of chips and
tubules depends on experimental needs, but the researcher
should take into account that the experimental window for
using freshly isolated tubules is less than 2–3 h.
11. The various configurations of the patch clamp technique may
be used to record ion channel activity in renal tubules. The
interior of the pipette should be filled with an appropriate solu-
tion. We use a standard physiological saline solution for the
bath while performing cell-attached recordings. We recom-
mend checking the osmolarity of pipette solutions which
should be 295 ± 5 mOsm. After preparation, the pipette solu-
tion should be aliquoted and stored in a freezer before experi-
ments to prevent degradation of labile ingredients.
12. The collecting ducts contain two main cell types, principal and
intercalated cells. For our study we used principal cells, which
are the more abundant type.
Acknowledgments
Research from the author’s laboratories is supported by the NIH

grants R01 DK59594, R01 DK087460, R01 DK070571 (to
J.D.S.), and R01HL108880 (to A.S.).
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Chapter 28
Single-Channel Analysis of TRPC Channels in the Podocytes

of Freshly Isolated Glomeruli
Daria V. Ilatovskaya and Alexander Staruschenko
Abstract
One of the most important functions of the kidney is the filtration of the blood that takes place in the
glomeruli. Glomerular epithelial cells (podocytes) have several functions, including regulation of the
filtration process and glomerular basement membrane turnover. Dysfunction of podocytes is a major cause
of glomerular kidney diseases. Gain-of-function mutations in the TRPC6 channel underlie a subset of
familial forms of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS). While growing evidence supports an impor-
tant role of TRPC channels in podocytes, the regulation of these channels has yet to be investigated in
freshly isolated glomeruli. Native settings in glomeruli provide, by all means, the most appropriate as well
as one of the most challenging environments to study ion channel regulation. Thus, it is important to
develop new methods that would better reflect the native settings of the podocytes. To address this ques-
tion, we have established an experimental approach that allows studying podocytes in the freshly isolated
decapsulated intact glomeruli. Here we describe the preparation of the rat glomeruli for patch-clamping,
focusing on special conditions required for single-channel analysis of TRPC channels. Several tricks useful
for cell-attached patch-clamping of the glomerular podocytes and solutions appropriate for registration of
the TRPC channels are also provided.
Key words TRPC channels, TPC6, Glomeruli, Podocytes, Patch clamp, FSGS
1 Introduction
One of the main functions of the kidney is blood filtration that is

tightly controlled by renal glomeruli. Glomerular podocytes are
the central components of the renal filtration barrier. Podocytes are
very dynamic cells which, at least in part, play a role in the patho-
genesis of most proteinuric glomerulopathies (1, 2).
Transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels belong
to the larger superfamily of the TRP channels. TRPC channels play
an important role in the pathogenesis of renal and cardiovascular
diseases (3–6). Several members of the TRPC family, including
TRPC6, are essential components of the podocyte slit diaphragm,
where they are integrated into a signaling complex that interacts
355
356 Daria V. Ilatovskaya and Alexander Staruschenko
with a number of podocyte structural proteins, including nephrin,

podocin, alpha-actinin-4, and calcineurin (7–10). It was demonstrated
that TRPC6 protein is the genetic impetus for an autosomal dominant
form of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) (11–13).
The known TRPC6 gain-of-function mutations cause an increase
in calcium current in podocytes.
A number of studies provided new insights into the role of
TRPC channels, and particularly TRPC6, in the functionality of
the glomeruli and highlighted their role in mediating concomitant
diseases (11, 12, 14). Most of these studies were conducted on the
cultured podocytes (15–17) or in the recombinant systems (18,
19) which, although being quite sustainable, cannot provide the
comprehensive setting for understanding the regulation of the
channels under physiological conditions. The lack of such studies
has not been a result of their unimportance, but rather resulted
from the fact that electrophysiological recording of endogenous
ion channels in their native surrounding is a complicated proce-
dure requiring a combination of pure isolation of glomeruli, sepa-
ration of endogenous currents, electrophysiological skills, etc. Gloy
et al., who have developed a technique allowing to measure mem-
brane voltages and ion conductances of podocytes in isolated
glomeruli (20), stated later describing the approach they devel-
oped that “it is important to develop new methods that better
reflect the in vivo situation of podocytes, but studying podocytes
function in situ is methodologically very difficult” (2).
Taking into account the emerging need to comprehend the
functionality of ion channels of the podocytes, we have attempted
to perform single-channel analysis of endogenous TRPC-like ion
channels in the podocytes of isolated decapsulated glomeruli on
the basis of the technique suggested by Gloy and colleagues (2, 20).
The method described here consists of several steps including
removal and perfusion of the rat kidney, isolation of the glomeruli
fraction by sequentially pushing the kidney cortex through the
steel sieves of different mesh, preparation of the glomeruli for
patch-clamping, and electrophysiological cell-attached recordings
themselves.
In contrast to Gloy et al., who removed the Bowman’s capsule
mechanically with a small broken glass pipette, we used sieving of
the glomeruli as it was described previously (21–23). This approach
allowed to avoid a time-consuming and potentially podocytes-
damaging step of manual removal of the glomerular basement
membrane. Fluorescence and electron microscopy techniques
confirmed the integrity of podocytes in the isolated glomeruli after
this isolation. Thus, the technical approach developed by us and
described here could be used to search for physiologically relevant
mechanisms of various ion channels regulation in both physiologi-
cal and pathophysiological conditions and opens new directions of
research into glomerular diseases.
TRPC Channels in Podocytes 357
2 Materials
2.1 Rat Kidney 1. Eight-week-old Sprague–Dawley male rat (we used internal
Isolation Surgery MCW colony; however this rat strain is broadly commercially
and Perfusion available (for instance, Charles River, USA, strain code 400)).
2. 25 mL of the cold Hanks Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS)
(Sigma-Aldrich, USA).
3. 100 μL of pentobarbital (Sigma-Aldrich, USA).
4. 10 mL of the physiological salt solution (saline) (Sigma-
Aldrich, USA).
5. Polyethylene tubing (PE50, Sigma-Aldrich, USA).
6. Syringe pump-based perfusion system (Harvard Apparatus,
USA).
7. 1 × 2 teeth tip 12 cm Adson forceps (Fine Science Tools,
USA).
8. Straight sharp 13 cm surgical scissors (Fine Science Tools,
USA).
9. Straight 10 cm Graefe forceps (Fine Science Tools, USA).
10. Straight 12.5 cm Halsted-Mosquito hemostats (Fine Science
Tools, USA).
11. Schwartz 26 mm sharp-bend micro serrefines (Fine Science
Tools, USA).
12. Straight 11 cm Dumont #4 forceps (Fine Science Tools,
USA).
13. Surgical suture, braided silk (Surgical Specialties Corporation).
14. Temperature controlled surgical table for rodents (Harvard
Apparatus, USA).
15. Nitrile gloves (Kimberly-Clark, USA).
16. Binocular microscope (Nikon Eclipse TS100, Nikon, USA).
2.2 Isolation 1. One freshly removed perfused kidney of an 8-week-old

of the Rat Glomeruli Sprague–Dawley male rat, kept on ice in HBSS.
2. Single-edge steel razor blade (Fisher Sci, USA).
3. Steel sieves (#100 (150 μm), 140 (106 μm) (Fisher Sci, USA))
and mesh 200 (screen for CD-1, Sigma-Aldrich, USA).
4. 5 mL of 30% albumin solution from bovine serum (BSA)
(Sigma-Aldrich, USA).
5. 25 mL of culture media solution RPMI 1640 without antibi-
otics or FBS (Sigma-Aldrich, USA).
6. Steel “spoonulet” lab spoon (Fisher Sci, USA).
7. 6.75 cm straight Mayo dissecting scissors (Fisher Sci, USA).
8. Two 10-cm diameter plastic Petri dishes (TPP, Switzerland).

9. Five Fisherbrand Urisystem disposable plastic transfer pipettes
(Fisher Sci, USA).
10. One 15 mL plastic conical Falcon tube (Santa Cruz, USA).
2.3 Single-Channel 1. 25 × 25 Cover glass #2 (Corning, USA) cut into 5 × 5 mm

Analysis of TRPC pieces.
Channel Activity Using 2. 0.01% solution of MW 70,000–150,000 poly-D-lysine (Sigma-
Patch-Clamp Method Aldrich, USA).
3. Multiclamp 700B patch-clamp amplifier (Molecular Devices,
USA).
4. Digidata 1440A analog-to-digital board (Molecular Devices,
USA) interfaced with a personal computer running the pClamp
10.2 software suite (Molecular Devices, USA).
5. MP-225 motorized micromanipulator (Sutter Instrument Co.,
Novato, USA).
6. Microvibration isolation table equipped with Faraday cage
(TMC, USA).
7. Inverted microscope (Nikon Eclipse Ti, USA).
8. Model P-87 Flaming/Brown micropipette puller (Sutter
Instrument Co., USA).
9. MF-830 microforge (Narishige, Japan).
10. Borosilicate glass capillaries (World Precision Instruments,
USA) pulled and forged to 7–10 MΩ for cell-attached patch-
clamp recordings.
11. Recording/perfusion chamber RC-26 (Warner Instruments,
USA).
12. Multichannel valve perfusion system (Valve Bank II, AutoMake
Scientific, USA).
13. Intracellular pipette solution: 126 mM NaCl, 1.5 mM CaCl2,
10 mM HEPES, 10 glucose; pH 7.4 (all salts and chemicals
purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, USA, unless noted
otherwise).
14. Extracellular bathing solution: 135 mM NaAsp, 1 mM CaCl2,
10 mM HEPES, 2 mM MgCl2, 10 mM glucose; pH 7.4.
15. Chloride and potassium channels inhibitors in their final con-
centrations: 100 μM niflumic acid (Sigma-Aldrich, USA) or
DIDS (Sigma-Aldrich, USA), 10 mM TEA chloride (Tocris,
USA), 10 nM iberiotoxin (Sigma-Aldrich, USA), 10 μM nicar-
dipine (Sigma-Aldrich, USA).
16. Adjustable volume pipette (10–100 μL) with appropriate tips
(Eppendorf Research plus 100 μL, Eppendorf, USA).
3 Methods
For the successful isolation of rat kidneys, male rats of approxi-

mately 8 weeks old are used. The kidneys are flushed with PBS to
clean out blood and urine. In addition to the electrophysiological
measurements described below, this procedure may be useful for
several other applications, e.g., immunohistochemical, biochemi-
cal, or molecular analysis of the tissue, etc. Figures 1 and 2 demon-
strate steps required to isolate the glomeruli. Figure 3 shows the
electron microscopy of the freshly isolated glomerulus fixed with
2% glutaraldehyde buffered in 0.1 M cacodylate (pH 7.4). As seen
on these images acquired by the transmission electron microscopy,
a normal configuration of podocytes with coordinated pattern of
foot processes was observed (Fig. 3). With the help of the patch
clamp technique, we have examined the biophysical properties of
native TRPC channels in the podocytes of the freshly isolated
decapsulated glomeruli. Our results demonstrate that it is possible
to study functional channels in these intact glomeruli. The use of
specific inhibitors within the patch pipette together with the com-
position of the pipette and bath solutions and the parameters of
the current–voltage dependencies allowed distinguishing two
channel types with distinct TRPC properties. However the devel-
opment of this approach and identification of the precise composi-
tion of TRPC channels in podocytes require additional studies.
3.1 Rat Kidney
1. Appropriate ethical approvals need to be obtained before the
Isolation Surgery
work can be carried out; i.e., in our experiments, animal use and
and Perfusion
welfare adhered to the NIH Guide for the Care and Use of
Laboratory Animals following a protocol reviewed and approved
by the IACUC at the Medical College of Wisconsin.
2. 8-week-old male rats are anesthetized with pentobarbital i.p.
injections (50 mg/kg) (see Notes 1 and 2). The rat is restrained
manually and a 25 gauge or smaller needle attached to a syringe
is inserted into the lower right quadrant of the abdomen.
Before injecting, the syringe plunger is withdrawn to ensure
that the needle has not entered a blood vessel or possibly the
bowel. While anesthetized, the monitoring of anesthetic depth
via assessments of toe-pinch withdrawal, respiratory rate, and
related observational methods are utilized.
3. The anesthetized animal is brought to the animal preparation
room where it is weighed and inspected.
4. After anesthesia the animal is placed on a temperature-con-
trolled surgical table before a midline incision of the abdomen
is made (see Fig. 1 for the schematic illustration of the follow-
ing procedure).
5. The abdominal aorta is then catheterized with a polyethylene
tubing (PE50), the vessel clamp is removed, and chilled
3 ml/min
celiac ligation aortha ligation

mesenteric ligation
catheterization
renal vein incision
Fig. 1 Schematic illustration of the rat kidney perfusion protocol
mincing
isolation of cortex
mesh 100
15 ml
mesh 140
mesh 200
Fig. 2 Scheme of the glomeruli isolation protocol. Kidney cortex was isolated
from the Sprague–Dawley rat kidney and then homogenized with a blade. The
homogeneous cortex fraction was pushed through the consecutive steel sieves
of the different mesh size and then collected into a Petri dish
Fig. 3 Electron microscopy of freshly isolated decapsulated glomerulus. Fragments of the decapsulated
glomerulus were visualized with electron microscopy at 1,500×, 5,000×, and 20,000× (a, b, and c, respectively;
scale bars are shown). PB podocyte body, PN podocyte nucleus, EF endothelial fenestrations, FP foot processes
(reproduced from ref. 24 with permission from Elsevier)
physiological salt solution (PBS) infused for 2–3 min at a rate

of 3 mL/min.
6. A clamp is placed just below the renal arteries around the
abdominal aorta. The abdominal aorta is then ligated below
the clamp and the celiac and superior mesenteric arteries also
ligated (see Note 3 for a reference to other methods of the
kidney perfusion).
7. The vena cava near the renal veins is incised to prevent pressure
buildup from fluid.
8. After 2–3 min of infusion, the kidneys are excised and the dia-
phragm is cut to euthanize the animal.
9. The kidneys are put on ice into a 50 mL tube with 25 mL of
the HBSS solution.
3.2 Isolation 1. Before the experiment, fresh solution of the RPMI 1640 with
of the Rat Glomeruli BSA is prepared adding 5 mL of 30% BSA to 25 mL of the
media (see Note 4) (from here on referred to as solution A).
2. The kidney is taken from the HBSS solution and decapsulated
with the help of the surgical scissors. See Fig. 2 that illustrates
all the steps of the procedure for reference.
3. The decapsulated kidney is coronary cut in two halves with a
razor blade (see Note 5) and then cortex is isolated and placed
into approximately 4 mL of the ice-cold solution A.
4. The kidney is minced with a razor blade and mixed with a fine
transfer pipette to obtain a homogenous substance (see Note 6).
5. The homogenate from step 4 is transferred onto the top of the
100 mesh sieve (see Note 7 that comments on the mesh size)
and is pushed through the sieve with a spoon-shaped end of

the spatula and is collected into a Petri dish (see Note 8).
6. The solution from a Petri dish from step 5 is transferred onto
the top of the presoaked 140 mesh steel sieve, is let to flow
through the sieve by gravity force, and is collected into a new
Petri dish.
7. The solution collected at step 6 is filtered through the pre-
soaked 200 mesh sieve and the filtrate is discarded (see Note 9).
The glomeruli fraction sediments on the top of the sieve.
8. The top of the 200 mesh sieve is washed with approximately
15 mL of the solution A, and then glomeruli fractions are collected
into a 15 mL tube and stored on ice (see Notes 10 and 11).
3.3 Single-Channel 1. Immediately after isolation, the 15 mL tube with the fraction
Analysis of the TRPC of the glomeruli (see Note 12) is left on ice for up to 20 min
Channel Activity Using to let the glomeruli settle down and concentrate at the bottom
Patch-Clamp Method of the tube (see Note 13).
2. After sedimentation the supernatant is removed and the rest of
the solution containing the concentrated fraction of the glom-
eruli is kept on ice.
3. Before the patch-clamp experiment, the solution containing
glomeruli is mixed and 50 μL of obtained solution are removed
by a pipettor and placed on the poly-D-lysine pre-coated 5 × 5
mm cover glasses (see Note 14); the chip is left at room tem-
perature for 5–10 min to let the glomeruli settle down and
attach to the surface. As demonstrated in Fig. 3, the podocytes
of isolated glomeruli are intact.
4. The glass chip placed into the recording chamber of the patch-
clamp setup is filled with the extracellular bathing solution and
the chamber is perfused with the solution for 2–3 min to
remove the unattached glomeruli and ensure the replacement
of the BSA-containing solution with the bath solution.
5. Directly before the patch-clamp experiments the pipette solu-
tion used for the single-channel recordings is complimented
with various inhibitors to prevent the registration of the unre-
lated chloride, calcium, and potassium currents: 100 μM
niflumic acid or DIDS, 10 mM TEA, 10 nM iberiotoxin,
10 nM nicardipine (see Note 15).
6. The patch pipette is slowly lowered to the surface of the glom-
erulus (see Note 16) and a high-resistance seal is formed with
application of gentle suction. The formation of a gigaohm seal
(>1 GΩ) is monitored by the pipette resistance that is increas-
ing from 7 to 10 MΩ to more than 1 GΩ after the suction is
applied. Figure 4 illustrates the decapsulated rat glomerulus in
the patch-clamp setup with a patch pipette attached to a podo-
cyte on the edge of the glomerulus.
Fig. 4 A representative image of a decapsulated rat glomerulus in the patch-clamp setup with a patch pipette
attached to a podocyte on the edge of the glomerulus (40× and a close-up image) (reproduced from ref. 24
with permission from Elsevier)
7. Upon the formation of a high-resistance seal and compensa-

tion of the offsets, the cell membrane patch isolated by the
pipette is voltage clamped with the potential set in the soft-
ware. The currents evoked by the potentials are recorded and
stored in the PC hard drive. For the cell-attached measure-
ments, the currents are low-passed at 300 Hz by an eight-pole
Bessel filter and digitized at 1 kHz.
8. The membrane is voltage clamped at −60 mV test potential
using Clampex in the gap-free mode. If the channels activity is
present then a current–voltage dependency is recorded.
Figure 5a, b illustrates the activity of the two distinct types of
ion channels registered in the cell-attached conditions at differ-
ent potentials (from −120 to +70 mV) in the membrane of the
podocytes of the freshly isolated glomeruli. The data revealed
that the channels recorded were active throughout the range of
holding potentials tested (see Notes 17 and 18). The current–
voltage dependency shown at Fig. 5d allowed distinguishing
two channel types. The identified TRPC-like channels were
characterized by different conductances and displayed similar
gating properties. Data analysis revealed two major channel
populations with the conductance values of 10.3 ± 0.8 pS
(n = 11) and 20.1 ± 0.7 pS (n = 10) (Fig. 5d). Both channels had
a reversal potential (Erev) of 0 mV. We termed these channels as
“big” and “small” TRPC-like channels, respectively. Different
conductances were sometimes found to coexist in the same
patch as illustrated in Fig. 5c (24).
9. The cell-attached configuration allows applying the drugs and
observing the changes in the channels activity in the native
preparation of the intact glomerulus. Figure 6 shows the mod-
ulation of the TRPC-like channels in the podocytes as repre-
sented by inhibition by 500 μM of the nonsteroid
anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac (see Notes 19–21).
a b
o o
+40 mV c
+70 mV
c
o
c +60 mV
o
c +20 mV
o
c +40 mV
c 0 mV
c 0 mV
c
o -20 mV c
o -40 mV
c c
-40 mV o -60 mV
o
c
c
o -80 mV
-60 mV
o c
-100 mV
o
c
-80 mV c
-120 mV
o o
1 pA 1 s 1 pA 1 s
2
c d
C 1
Y1
-60 mV
Y2 Em, mV
-100 -50 50 100
C
-1
Y1
-60 mV I, pA
Y2 -2
1 pA 2s
Fig. 5 Single-channel biophysical properties of TRPC-like channels identified in podocytes of freshly isolated
rat glomeruli. All recordings were performed in cell-attached configuration in voltage-clamp mode.
Representative current traces of “big” (a) and “small” (b) channels identified in the podocytes. The holding
membrane potentials are indicated near the traces. c and o denote closed and open current levels, respec-
tively. (c) Typical current traces held at −60 mV demonstrating coexistence of the two types of the channels in
the same patch. Yi denotes the open current levels of channels with different conductances. (d) Single-channel
current–voltage relationship for two types of channels identified. Values are means ± SEM of at least four
experiments (reproduced from ref. 24 with permission from Elsevier)
4 Notes
1. Non-survival surgeries are performed in septic but clean condi-

tions. Instruments used should be clean, but not necessary
sterile. All solutions used in this preparation should be sterile
and kept on ice.
2. Anesthesia can also be performed using isoflurane gas. In the
case of inhalant anesthesia, the rat is placed in a transparent
diclofenac (500 µM)

I II
c
o1
o2
o3
I 1 pA 2 min/4 s
c
o1
o2
o3
II
c
o1
o2
Fig. 6 Diclofenac modulate the activity of TRPC channels in podocytes of isolated

glomeruli. Representative experiment from a cell-attached patch containing TRPC
channels. Continuous current trace as well as the fragments of the traces at the
expanded time scale are shown. Arrows demonstrate addition of diclofenac to
the external bath solution. The patch was held at a −60 mV test potential during the
course of the experiment. The c and oi denote closed and open current levels,
respectively (figure reproduced from ref. 24 with permission from Elsevier)
induction chamber. Isoflurane is delivered to the chamber via a

precision vaporizer and compressed O2. For induction, the
percentage of isoflurane may be as high as 5%. Once the animal
is unconscious, it is removed from the chamber and laced on a
heated surgical table and a nose cone applied to continue deliv-
ery of anesthetic. The nose cone is attached to the vaporizer
and oxygen source. At this point the concentration is reduced
to that level which maintains the proper plane of anesthesia;
typically this is between 1 and 3%.
3. There are other slightly different methods of kidney perfusion
than we described in this procedure. Here we provide a brief
description of two additional methods.
(a) Ligate the distal abdominal aorta and distal inferior cava
vein and clip the abdominal aorta and inferior cava vein by
vessel clamp below the renal arteries and veins. Then cath-
eterize the abdominal aorta and ligate the mesenteric and
celiac arteries and abdominal aorta above the renal artery.
After that remove the clamp and cut the inferior cava vein
to ensure the flow of the perfusion solution and start per-
fusing the kidney.
(b) Another method of kidney perfusion suggests that the dis-
tal abdominal aorta and distal inferior cava vein, as well as
the superior mesenteric and celiac arteries, should be
ligated. Then the thoracic aorta is to be catheterized with
venous retention needles (24 G) and a hole should be cut
in the inferior cava vein to ensure venous drainage.
4. We have tested different solutions for isolation of the glomer-
uli to lower the cost of this procedure (i.e., RPMI media with
FBS, DMEM media with FBS) and got a lower yield of the
glomeruli, and the preparation was very difficult to patch; the
glomeruli seemed to be too soft compared to original
preparation.
5. We suppose that it might be more convenient to cut the kidney
coronary in the ratio 1:3; this will allow removing the medulla
from one piece, only. The second part will consist of the cortex
only.
6. It is supposed that 2–3 mL of the solution A is added to the
fraction isolated after every step and then it is mixed with a fine
transfer pipette until homogeneity is reached.
7. The mesh size of the sieves listed in this chapter is adjusted for
the 8-week-old male Sprague–Dawley rats; if you are going to
isolate the glomeruli from mice or rats of other age, we would
recommend adjusting the mesh size accordingly. The probable
starting point for adjusting the mesh size for mice can be found
in the works of Akis et al. and Rops et al. (25, 26).
8. Steel sieves need to be soaked in the solution A. For large
sieves, a drop of the solution is to be spread on the top of the
sieve in the area you are going to use (up to 6–7 cm in diam-
eter), and the small sieve is to be fully soaked in the solution A.
The flow of the homogenate can be facilitated with the spoon-
shaped end of the spatula. The homogenate that stayed on the
reverse side of the sieve and did not get into the Petri dish can
be collected from the reverse side of the sieve with a razor
blade. Homogenate pushed through a new sieve always requires
being collected into a new Petri dish.
9. We would recommend being very careful with the last sieve as
the pure fraction of the glomeruli rests of the top of it and it is
likely to lose them at this step, so it would be reasonable to
seep the solution onto it slowly, drop by drop.
10. After the glomeruli fraction settles down to the bottom of the
tube, we recommend removing most of the supernatant and
leaving about 800 μL of the solution in the tube.
11. Takemoto et al. (27) suggested that the glomeruli of the mice
can be efficiently isolated with the Dynabeads. In brief, the kid-
ney is perfused with the solution containing magnetic Dynabeads,
then minced, digested with collagenase, pushed through the
sieve, and then the Dynabeads-containing glomeruli are sepa-
rated with a magnetic particle concentrator. However, this
approach seems to be more time-consuming and disturbs the
native setting of the glomerulus with the Dynabeads.
12. The fraction that is isolated with this preparation is highly pure
and consists mostly of the decapsulated glomeruli; however, up
to 10% of the glomeruli in the solution might still have a capsule.
The final mixture contains very low quantity of other nephron

segments. We (24) and others (21) successfully used this prepara-
tion for other applications such as Western blotting.
13. The glomeruli fraction can be spun (5 min at 500 × g) to facili-
tate the sedimentation if the preparation is used for biochemi-
cal assays. However, we do not recommend this step if
preparation is to be used for patch-clamp experiments as spin-
ning makes the glomeruli more difficult to patch.
14. Glass coverslips cut into pieces of approximately 5 × 5 mm are
covered with poly-D-lysine before the experiment. We do not
recommend using coverslips with lysine coating that are more
than 3 days old.
15. 100 μM niflumic acid or DIDS are added to block Ca2+-
activated Cl− channels; 10 mM TEA is used to inhibit the activ-
ity of the large-conductance Ca2+-dependent K+ channel;
10 nM iberiotoxin blocks the Ca2+-activated K+ channels; and
10 μM nicardipine inhibits the N-type Ca2+ channels (24, 28).
We recommend keeping the pipette solution on ice to main-
tain the inhibitors active.
16. The podocytes are found on the surface of the glomerulus; the
most amenable for patching podocytes are usually found on
the edges of the glomerulus and have an oval prominent form
on its surface (see Fig. 4 for reference).
17. In our experiments the next day after isolation of the glomeru-
lar fraction, we succeeded to obtain stable patches with chan-
nels with approximately the same activity as on the same day of
isolation. We have not tried to keep the glomeruli any longer,
but it is possible that they might be vital for up to 1 week if
they are kept at 4 °C. If this works, the same approach can be
successfully used for over- or down-regulation of proteins of
interest.
18. Active channels were observed in up to 30% of the cell-attached
patches obtained, whereas in approximately 50% of the patches
that initially showed no channel activity, channels were acti-
vated by respective drugs (data not shown). Thus, there is a
possibility that majority of channels are silent in this
preparation.
19. As reported by Gloy and colleagues, whole-cell current mea-
surements are also possible on the freshly isolated preparation
of the glomeruli (20).
20. The patches once formed remained stable and the activity of the
single channels was monitored for up to 20 min; without applica-
tion of the drugs no spontaneous activation or rundown of the
channel activity and changes of the channel gating was observed.
21. Biophysical properties, inhibition by SKF-096365 (blocker of

TRP cation channels (29), insensitivity to the inhibitors within
the patch pipette, and the parameters of the current–voltage
dependence (Fig. 5) strongly suggest that the channels recorded
in the membrane of the freshly isolated rat glomeruli are the
members of the TRPC superfamily. However, several types of
TRPC channels are identified in the podocytes, and formation
of homo- and heteromeric complexes of these subunits are
proposed (10, 30–33). Thus, precise identification of TRPC
composition remains to be identified.
Acknowledgments
We wish to thank Dr. Allen W. Cowley, Jr., and Dr. David R.

Harder (Medical College of Wisconsin) for helpful discussion and
help with development of this approach. Vladislav Levchenko,
Debebe Gebremedhin, Robert P. Ryan, Glenn Slocum, Christine
Duris, and Clive Wells (all Medical College of Wisconsin) are rec-
ognized for excellent technical assistance and initial help with
described experiments. This research was supported by the
American Diabetes Association Grant 1-10-BS-168 and the
National Institutes of Health grant HL108880.
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glomeruli via hydroxyl radicals. Kidney Int cell motility by TRPC5 and TRPC6 channels.
58:131–136 Sci Signal 3:ra77
Chapter 29
Ca2+ Imaging as a Tool to Assess TRP Channel Function

in Murine Distal Nephrons
Mykola Mamenko, Oleg Zaika, Roger G. O’Neil, and Oleh Pochynyuk
Abstract
Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels are expressed in almost every segment of renal nephron from
the glomerulus to the inner medullary collecting duct. Serving as a route for Ca2+ entry from the intratubu-
lar space into cells in response to external cues, TRP channels modulate water–electrolyte transport, thus
determining functional properties of the renal tubule. In this chapter, we discuss technical aspects of using
Ca2+ imaging to monitor activity of TRP channels in situ, namely, in the freshly isolated distal nephrons,
with a special emphasis on the mechanosensitive TRPV4 channel and its role in tubular flow sensing.
Key words Collecting duct, Connecting tubule, Fura-2, Mechanosensitivity, Shear stress
1 Introduction
Water and electrolytes transport in the distal part of the renal

nephron determines urinary volume and composition. This tubular
segment is comprised of the connecting tubule and the collecting
duct and has two morphologically and functionally distinct cell
types: principal cells (PC, 70% of total cell number) and intercalated
cells (IC, ~30% of total cell number). PC cells are involved in regu-
lation of Na+, K+, and water handling whereas IC cells control acid–
base balance. The distal nephron is heavily influenced by circulating
levels of hormones, such as aldosterone, vasopressin, and atrial
natriuretic peptide (1–4). In addition to these systemic endocrine
inputs, dynamic changes in tubular fluid flow and composition also
affect functional properties of the distal nephron cells. This is
thought to be a physiologically relevant local mechanism for regula-
tion of water and electrolyte transport in this segment that comple-
ments systemic hormonal control (2, 5–7). Numerous observations
are consistent with the idea that elevations in [Ca2+]i in distal
nephron cells serve to mediate adaptations of the transport rates in
response to mechanical stimuli (6, 8–17). The primary cilia of epi-
thelial cells were proposed to play a critical role in flow-mediated
371
372 Mykola Mamenko et al.
cellular responses (14, 18). However, ICs, which lack the primary
cilia, respond to flow changes with comparable increases in [Ca2+]i
as PCs which possess primary cilia (11). Furthermore, mechanosen-
sitive Ca2+ responses are abolished upon Ca2+ removal from extra-
cellular media (14, 19). This suggests that mechanotransduction in
the distal nephron involves direct Ca2+ entry via Ca2+-permeable
channels/conduits at the apical/luminal plasma membrane.
Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels belong to one of
the most versatile superfamily of ion channels. TRP channels are
known to participate in cellular adaptations to a variety of environ-
mental stimuli, including thermo-sensation, chemo-sensation, and
mechanical forces (reviewed in ref. 20). TRPs are Ca2+-permeable
channels, but can also conduct other physiologically relevant cat-
ions (Na+, K+, Mg2+) with various degrees of selectivity (20).
Activation of these channels drives Ca2+ entry from the extracellu-
lar media, thus, likely contributing to the elevation of [Ca2+]i in
response to environmental changes (20). Several TRP channels,
including TRPC3, TRPC6, TRPV4-6, and TRPP2, can be detected
with immunohistochemistry in the native distal nephron cells and
distal nephron-derived cultures (14, 21–23). Among these chan-
nels, TRPV4 has routinely been shown to be activated by mechani-
cal stimuli in many cell types (23–27). Indeed, recent experimental
evidence points to a pivotal role of TRPV4 and likely TRPV4–
TRPP2 heteromers in responses to elevations in tubular flow in
distal nephron cells (19, 28).
Conventional patch clamp is the most direct experimental
methodology to assess functional status of ion channels at the
plasma membrane (29). This approach, though, has serious technical
difficulties when applied to study mechanosensitive TRP channels
in native epithelia, including that of the distal nephron. Electrical
coupling between cells within epithelial monolayer and/or high
constitutive background currents preclude obtaining high-resistant
(~GW) seals in both “whole-cell” and “perforated-patch”
configurations and thus, accurate voltage clamping. Furthermore,
basal activity of mechanosensitive TRP channels is generally low.
Direct mechanical stimulations to enhance channel activity are also
difficult to perform. This makes single-channel recordings of
mechanosensitive channels in isolated nephrons in “cell-attached”
configuration an inefficient and daunting task. In contrast, Fura-2-
based ratiometric imaging provides a reliable way to probe TRP
channels activity by monitoring changes of [Ca2+]i in individual
cells as a reflection of Ca2+ entry through the channels.
Since developed by M. Burg and colleagues (30, 31), the tech-
nique to perfuse isolated segments of renal tubule has been instru-
mental to study regulation of transport of water and solutes as well
as [Ca2+]i dynamics by pharmacological and mechanical stimuli. This
technique allows perfusing the tubular lumen at physiologically
relevant rates presented in the intact nephron and distinguishing
Ca2+ Imaging in Distal Nephrons 373
Fig. 1 Ca2+ imaging in freshly isolated split-opened distal nephron. Representative micrographs of the same
split-opened distal nephron taken with bright-field illumination (a), excitation at 380 nm after loading with
Fura-2 (b), the combined illumination with visible light and 380 nm (c), and after fixation and staining of the
distal nephron with anti-AQP2 antibodies (d). Nuclear DAPI staining is also shown (pseudocolor blue). Examples
of AQP2-positive principal cells (PC) and AQP2-negative intercalated cells (IC) are pointed with arrows
contributions of channels/transporters and membrane receptors

from apical versus basolateral sides. Precise separation of fluorescent
[Ca2+]i signals from individual cells within a perfused tubule is,
though, not readily feasible and often requires expensive instrumen-
tations, such as a fast-scanning confocal microscope. Furthermore,
perfusion with high flow rates causes a prominent increase (~20%) in
tubular diameter and, as a consequence, significant changes in vol-
ume (32). This phenomenon is greatly alleviated in the intact renal
tissue due to rigid support from the surrounding nephrons. Tubular
stretching by high perfusion rates leads to elevation of [Ca2+]i per se
distorting cellular responses to luminal shear stress (32). Split-
opening of an isolated renal tubule allows to gain access to the apical
membrane of epithelial cells and to circumvent many technical pit-
falls present in perfused tubules. First, Ca2+ signal from individual
cells can be routinely separated using conventional wide-field
fluorescent microscopy setup (Fig. 1). Second, split-opened tubules
do not undergo lateral stretch even during elevated flow perfusion
rates due to support provided by a coverslip. Third, the luminal shear
stress can be precisely estimated and quantified using a parallel plate
perfusion chamber (see Subheading 3.3). In addition, split-opened
tubular segment can be further subjected to immunohistochemical
staining with specific markers (i.e., aquaporin 2, AQP2) to separate
fluorescent Ca2+ signals from different cell types (i.e., PC versus IC;
see Subheading 3.4).
In summary, monitoring [Ca2+]i dynamics in split-opened distal
nephrons represents a convenient and physiologically relevant way
to assess mechanosensitivity of the distal nephron and to probe
involvement of Ca2+-permeable TRP channels in this process.
2 Materials
2.1 Rodent Kidney 1. A rat or a mouse (6–8 weeks of age) of wild-type (such as S/D
Extraction and C57BL/6, respectively) or a genetically modified strain of
interest.
2. CO2 gas tank and a hermetic chamber for sacrifice.
3. Dissecting scissors (Walter Stern, Port Washington, NY, USA).
4. Specimen forceps (Walter Stern, Port Washington, NY, USA).
5. Gloves (Microflex Tranquility powder-free nitrile gloves).
6. Ice-cold balanced salt solution (BSS): 150 mM NaCl, 5 mM
KCl, 2 mM MgCl2, 1 mM CaCl2, 10 mM Hepes, 5 mM
Glucose; pH = 7.4.
7. 60 × 15 mm plastic tissue culture dishes (Sarstedt, Newton,
NC, USA).
2.2 Isolation and 1. Nikon SMZ645 stereomicroscope (or equivalent from other
Split-Opening of Distal vendors).
Nephrons 2. Dumont SS fine forceps (Fine Science Tools, Foster City, CA,
USA).
3. 60 × 15 mm plastic tissue culture dishes (Sarstedt, Newton,
NC, USA).
4. Balanced salt solution (BSS, see Subheading 2.1, item 6).
5. 5 × 5 mm coverslips, cut from square 22 × 22 mm, No. 1.5
cover glasses (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA, USA).
6. 0.01% solution of poly-L-lysine (Sigma-Aldrich Corp., St.
Louis, MO, USA).
7. Single-edge razor blades (American Line 66–0089, available
from numerous vendors).
8. Freshly isolated murine kidney.
9. Inverted microscope (Nikon Eclipse Ti-U microscope or
analogue).
10. Two micromanipulators (Sutter Instrument Company, Novato,
CA, USA; MP-285 motorized micromanipulators or analogue).
11. Glass borosilicate pipettes (World Precision Instruments,
Sarasota, FL, USA).
2.3 Monitoring 1. 35 × 10 mm plastic tissue culture dishes (Sarstedt, Newton,

[Ca2+]i in Individual NC, USA).
Cells of Freshly 2. Balanced salt solution (see Subheading 2.1, item 6).
Isolated Distal
3. Stock solution of 100 mg Fura-2/AM (EMD Biosciences/
Nephrons
Calbiochem, La Jolla, CA, USA) dissolved in 50 mL dimethyl
sulfoxide (DMSO, Sigma-Aldrich Corp., St. Louis, MO, USA).
4. Inverted microscope (Nikon Eclipse Ti-U or analogue), with a

40× CFI Super Fluor (0.9 NA) objective (Nikon Instruments,
Melville, NY, USA).
5. Fast exchange 0.5 mL recording chamber (RC-24 N, Warner
Instruments, Hamden, CT, USA) or a proflow shear flow
chamber (PFC-1, Warner Instruments, Hamden, CT, USA) or
analogues.
6. Multichannel valve perfusion system (VC-8P eight channel
perfusion valve control system by Warner Instruments,
Hamden, CT, USA, or analogue).
7. Fluorescence light source, we use Lambda LS stand-alone
xenon lighting system (Sutter Instrument Company, Novato,
CA, USA) with 150 W Xenon Lamp (Hamanatsu Corp., Kista,
Sweden).
8. ET FURA2 filter set (Chroma Technologies Corp., Bellows
Falls, VT, USA) with 340/380 nm excitation filters, 400 nm
long pass dichroic mirror and 510/80 nm emission filter with
Lambda 10-C optical filter changing system (Sutter Instrument
Company, Novato, CA, USA).
9. CCD camera (we use QIClick digital monochrome 12-bit
non-cooled CCD camera by Q-Imaging, Surrey, BC, Canada;
Model: QIClick-F-M-12).
10. Nikon NIS elements 4.00 or alternative software with capacity
to run camera and switch filters (InCa, Intracellular Imaging,
Inc., Cincinnati, OH).
2.4 Immunostaining 1. 12-well microtiter plate (BD Falcon, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA)
of Distal Nephron Cells or 35 × 10 mm diameter plastic tissue culture dishes (Sarstedt,
and Visualization of Newton, NC, USA).
the Tubules with 2. Phosphate buffer saline (PBS), pH = 7.4 (made of 10× concen-
Immunofluorescence trate, Sigma-Aldrich Corp., St. Louis, MO, USA).
3. 4% paraformaldehyde (Sigma-Aldrich Corp., St. Louis, MO,
USA) solution in PBS (pH = 7.4).
4. 0.1% Triton X-100 (Sigma-Aldrich Corp., St. Louis, MO,
USA) solution in PBS (pH = 7.4).
5. 0.05% Tween 20 in PBS (PBS-Tween buffer, also available as a
dry powder from Sigma-Aldrich, USA).
6. Normal goat serum (NGS, Jackson Immunoresearch, West
Grove, PA, USA).
7. Anti-AQP2 antibodies labeled with ATTO-550 fluorescent
dye (Alomone labs, Jerusalem, Israel).
8. 300 nM solution of 4¢,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI,
Sigma-Aldrich Corp., St. Louis, MO, USA) in PBS.
9. Mounting medium (Thermo Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA, USA).
10. Microscope glass slides (VWR, Radnor, PA, USA).

11. Nikon Eclipse Ti-U inverted microscope with a 40× CFI
Super Fluor (0.9 NA) objective (Nikon Instruments,
Melville, NY, USA), a metal halide lamp (Nikon Instruments)
and UV-2E/C (Nikon Instruments) and G-2E/C filter sets
(Nikon Instruments).
12. CCD camera (QIClick digital monochrome 12-bit non-cooled
CCD camera by Q-Imaging, Surrey, BC, Canada; Model:
QIClick-F-M-12).
13. Nikon NIS elements 4.00 or alternative software allowing
recording the images from a CCD camera.
3 Methods
Using freshly isolated renal tubular fragments, while technically

more challenging, provides an invaluable opportunity to investigate
functional properties of ion transport and signaling mechanisms in
physiologically relevant tissue and native environment. Moreover, it
allows to establish a link between dietary (food and water intake),
pharmacological (systemic injections/treatment with a drug and/
or hormone), and genetic (knockout or knock-in different genes)
manipulations at the level of whole organism with changes in func-
tional status of a particular molecule, such as a TRP channel.
Culturing of epithelial cells, while proved to be a reasonable and
simpler approach, often leads to phenotypic changes in expression
patterns of ion channels and transporters. Therefore, the experi-
mental evidence obtained in these systems might be distorted and
require careful reevaluation in in vivo and ex vivo studies.
3.1 Preparations 1. Preparation of native murine tubular segments starts with

of Split-Opened Distal extraction of kidneys from sacrificed animals. This proce-
Nephrons dure is simple and requires basic knowledge about rat and
mouse anatomy. For experiments, rats or mice 6–8 weeks
old are commonly used (see Note 1). We recommend con-
tacting veterinarians to comply with specific local/national
ethic requirements. Typically, rats and mice are sacrificed by
decapitation or administration of CO2. Unless necessary for
experimental design, sterile conditions for kidneys extrac-
tion are welcomed, but not absolutely required. It is
sufficient to work in latex gloves and to treat surgical table
and instruments with alcohol. After incision of the body
cavity, kidneys are removed and placed onto 60 × 15 mm tis-
sue culture dish with ice-cold BSS.
2. Mechanical isolation of individual distal nephrons from murine
kidney is much more difficult to perform. It requires sufficient
practicing and coordination. The detailed description of the
procedure is not covered in this chapter. Here, we will con-

cisely highlight key steps of the preparation. The kidney is
placed into a dry tissue culture dish, decapsulated using two
sharpened forceps (see Note 2), and axially cut into thin slices
with a sharp razor blade. Kidney slices are immediately placed
into a tissue culture dish with ice-cold BSS. Small longitude
sectors containing ~20–30 tubules are gently teased out of a
kidney slice under a stereomicroscope using watchmaker for-
ceps. Individual sectors are further disassembled into individual
tubules under a higher magnification. Distal nephrons can be
visually identified by their pale color, coarse shape, and, in
many cases, bifurcations. Of note, only a minority (~10–15%)
of isolated tubules are distal nephrons. For beginners, we rec-
ommend to verify the origin of the isolated segments under a
high-magnifying microscope. In contrast to all other segments,
distal nephrons have clearly distinguishable cells inside an intact
tubule. Isolated distal nephrons are subsequently affixed to the
poly-L-lysine-coated 5 × 5 mm coverslips.
3. Split-opening of a distal nephron is another technical challenge
to overcome. A coverslip with attached tubule is transferred to
a recording/imaging chamber on the stage of an inverted
microscope. Tubule is split-opened with two micropipettes
controlled with different micromanipulators. Using sharp glass
micropipettes with resistances higher than 20 MW generally
yields the best result. We encourage putting maximal effort
towards split-opening a tubule along its length as fully as pos-
sible. This will allow to monitor [Ca2+]i dynamics simultaneously
from a greater number of cells within a split-opened area. An
example of split-opened distal nephron is shown in Fig. 1a.
4. A coverslip with split-opened tubule is transferred into a 35 mm
tissue culture dish with 3 mL BSS solution containing 2 mM of
an ester form of a [Ca2+]i-sensitive dye, Fura-2 AM, and incu-
bated for 40–45 min in darkness (see Note 3). It is critical to
minimize exposure of the solution to visible light during trans-
ferring and incubation since Fura-2 is light sensitive. In a sim-
plest scenario, a tissue culture dish is wrapped with aluminum
foil. After incubation, the coverslip is placed back to the record-
ing chamber and washed with bath solution for 10 min to
remove an excess of Fura-2 AM.
3.2 Monitoring TRP 1. The major principle of monitoring [Ca2+]i in individual cells is
Channels Function based on the phenomenon that fluorescent excitation spec-
Using [Ca2+]i Imaging trum of Fura-2 shifts towards shorter wavelengths upon bind-
in Distal Nephron Cells ing Ca2+. Typically, Fura-2 emission is collected at 510 nm in
response to repetitive brief excitation at 340 and 380 nm after
certain periods of time (see Note 4). The ratio of fluorescent
intensities R = F340/F380 represents an index of relative changes
in [Ca2+]i. If necessary, the ratio can be converted to actual

[Ca2+]i values after calibration of fluorescent intensities in per-
meabilized cells (with ionomycin) in solutions with known
Ca2+ concentration using well-defined protocols (33).
2. Commercially available software (NIS elements, InCa Imaging,
etc.) is required for visualization and quantification of Fura-2
fluorescence in split-opened distal nephrons. A snapshot of
Fura-2 fluorescent with 340 and 380 excitation is used to
adjust exposure times as necessary. Typically, exposure times
are in the range of several hundred milliseconds (~300 ms). We
recommend monitoring Fura-2 fluorescent signals every 3–5 s.
These parameters do not typically lead to more than 10% of
decay in Fura-2 signals (due to photobleaching) over 30-min
experimental period and are sufficient to reliably monitor
changes in [Ca2+]i in response to activation of TRP channels
and membrane G-protein-coupled receptors (such as puriner-
gic and bradykinin receptors). If this is not the case, the expo-
sure times need to be decreased to prevent Fura-2 bleaching.
It is important to keep the ratio of the exposure times for 340
and 380 nm constant (e.g., identical exposure times) since
otherwise it will complicate comparison of Ca2+ dynamics from
distinct distal nephrons. Fluorescent signals from individual
cells within split-opened area of distal nephron can be easily
separated (see Fig. 1a–c). This allows to draw multiple regions
of interest (ROI) to monitor changes in [Ca2+]i simultaneously
from many cells. Furthermore, post-experimental fixation and
immunohistochemical staining with a selective marker of prin-
cipal cells, AQP2, enable to probe a role of TRP channels in
[Ca2+]i signaling in different cell types (Fig. 1d; see further
Subheading 3.4).
3. Recent pharmacological advances resulted in development of
several highly potent agonists for certain TRP channel sub-
types. These agonists can be effectively used to probe func-
tional status of TRP channels in distal nephron cells. This is
particularly the case for the mechanosensitive TRPV4 channel
which can be selectively activated by GSK1016790A (EC50 ~ 15
nM) and RN1747 (EC50 ~ 1 mM). As exemplified in Fig. 2a,
application of 30 nM of GSK1016790A elicits a sustained ele-
vation of [Ca2+]i in PC to a greater extent than that in IC. This
is consistent with a recently reported higher level of TRPV4
expression in PC as was detected with immunohistochemistry
(19). In contrast, GSK1016790A has no effect on [Ca2+]i in
mice genetically engineered to lack TRPV4 channel (Fig. 2b).
4. Pharmacological inhibition in combination with existing
genetic knockouts of TRP subtypes is instrumental to assess
contribution of these channels in generation of [Ca2+]i signal in
response to activation of G-protein-coupled receptors, such as
Fig. 2 TRPV4 activity determines flow-mediated [Ca2+]i responses in both principal and intercalated cells.
Representative time courses of changes in [Ca2+]i in PC and IC (similar to that show in Fig. 1) in response to
application of the TRPV4 activator GSK101679A in C57BL/6 wild-type (a) and TRPV4−/− (b) mice. Changes in
[Ca2+]i in response to an abrupt 10× elevation in perfusion rate from 1.5 to 15 mL/min in PC and IC of wild-type
(c) and TRPV4−/− (d) mice. Respective scale bars for a, b and c, d are also shown
P2Y2 (13), and to mechanical stimulation of distal nephron

cells, such as elevated flow (19). As an example, a rapid 10×
elevation in luminal flow produces a sustained increase in
[Ca2+]i in both PC and IC from wild-type mice (Fig. 2c) but
not in distal nephron cells from TRPV4−/− mice (Fig. 2d). This
unequivocally suggests a critical role of TRPV4 channel in
flow-mediated Ca2+ signalization in murine distal nephron. To
accurately quantify shear stress which is generated by elevated
flow and to determine if the produced mechanical stress fits
within the physiological range present in intact distal nephron,
a parallel plate chamber is commonly used.
3.3 Using Parallel 1. Shear stress is the force per unit area that is generated on the
Plate Chamber to cell surface due to fluid flow over the surface. In the kidney the
Assess Shear Stress tubular fluid has a low viscosity, relative to vascular vessels, due
to protein-free tubular fluid. Nonetheless, because of high
tubular flow rates, the shear stresses in the distal nephron can
still be very high with typical values ranging from 0.3 to
25 dyn/cm2, although even higher values are likely in various
pathophysiological states (23, 34). Further, other mechanical
stresses may also be at play for a given experimental condition
(e.g., stretching, pressure, cytoskeletal tension) so that a simple

shear stress estimate of the forces acting on a surface or chan-
nel may not always be possible for many preparations without
clearly defining the experimental conditions being employed
(35, 36).
2. The application of a defined shear stress to the split-opened
tubule requires that the tubule, attached as a flat sheet, be
enclosed in a flow chamber of defined geometry and fluid flow
properties. A parallel plate chamber is typically used for this type
of study where the split-opened tubule, attached to coverslip, is
placed on the bottom plate of the parallel plate chamber. An
open-top chamber cannot be employed as fluid turbulence and
unstirred layers over the tissue will lead to turbulent flow, i.e.,
non-laminar (see below), and, hence, estimation of the shearing
force at the tissue/cell surface cannot be accomplished.
3. A parallel plate chamber can either be constructed from
Plexiglas blocks with defined dimensions or purchased from
several commercial sources (see Subheading 2.3 for examples).
A coverslip forms the bottom portion of the chamber that
allows cells to be visualized. This also allows application of
fluorescence techniques, such as measurement of intracellu-
lar Ca2+ while performing shear stress studies. Typical dimen-
sions for such a parallel plate chamber are 250 mm
H × 1 cm W × 2–5 cm L (or similar). Fluid enters at one end
and is collected at the opposite end. All chamber sides must be
parallel and polished so as to achieve laminar, not turbulent,
flow (see also (34)). Typical flow rates through the chamber
are controlled with a perfusion pump, such as a peristaltic
pump, to yield flow rates from 0 to 30 mL/min or more to
generate shear stresses from 0 to 30 dyn/cm2. For a rectangu-
lar chamber, the shear stress at the middle of the chamber
(laminar flow) can be calculated as
t = 6 mQ / bh 2 ,
where t is the shear stress (dyn/cm2), m is the fluid viscosity
(using the fluid viscosity of water: 0.01002 P at 20°C and
0.006915 P at 37°C. Note, 1 P = 1 dyn·s/cm2), Q is the flow
rate (mL/s), b is the chamber width (cm), and h is the chamber
height (cm). With laminar flow the shear stress is linearly
dependent upon fluid flow rate. The major determinants of
shear stress in this setting are fluid flow rate, fluid viscosity, and
temperature (see Note 5).
3.4 Identification 1. In order to differentiate [Ca2+]i signals recorded from different

of Distal Nephron Cell cell types of distal nephron, split-opened tubules are stained
Types with Immuno- for AQP2 (a specific marker of principal cells) following the
histochemistry Ca2+ imaging experimentation. A coverslip with a split-opened
tubule is placed into one of the wells of a 12-well microtiter

plate (see Note 6) and fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde solution
in PBS (pH = 7.4) for 15 min at room temperature. Fixation
with paraformaldehyde for more than 15 min is not recom-
mended as the proteins will be cross-linked to the point where
the antibody’s binding to its epitope may be significantly
diminished. The coverslip is then transferred to another well to
permeabilize the sample with 0.1% Triton X-100 in PBS for
10 min (see Note 7) and to be subsequently washed with PBS
3 times for 5 min. If necessary the fixed samples can be stored
in PBS at +4°C for at least 1 week.
2. Nonspecific binding of the antibodies is blocked with 10% nor-
mal goat serum (NGS) in PBS-Tween for 30 min at room tem-
perature. The samples are further incubated with anti-AQP2
antibodies labeled with ATTO-550 (1:100 dilution) in 1%
NGS in PBS-Tween for 2 h at room temperature in dark. It is
sufficient to cover 12-well microtiter plate with aluminum foil
to protect the fluorescent dye from photobleaching. After the
incubation with anti-AQP2 antibodies, the samples are washed
in PBS three times for 5 min. The samples are then incubated
with 4¢,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) in PBS (300 nM)
for 1 min to visualize nuclei. Alternatively, a mounting medium
with DAPI stain can be used. Finally, the samples are dehy-
drated, covered with a permanent mounting media (one drop
on top of the coverslip) and the coverslip is attached to a micro-
scope glass slide. The slide is put in the dark overnight to let
the mounting medium dry.
3. Stained tubules are examined with an inverted fluorescent
microscope using a 40× objective. Samples are excited with a
metal halide lamp through UV-2E/C (for DAPI) and G-2E/C
(for ATTO-550) filter sets. We recommend searching for the
specimen in epifluorescent mode for the best convenience/vis-
ibility. Images are acquired with a CCD camera interfaced to a
PC running NIS Elements 4.00 software. The representative
micrograph of AQP2 (pseudocolor red) and nuclear DAPI
(pseudocolor blue) staining of a split-opened tubule is shown
in Fig. 1d. AQP2-positive PC and AQP2-negative IC can be
clearly distinguished. This allows further separate quantification
of fluorescent [Ca2+]i signals from these cell types.
4 Notes
1. We recommend using younger (6–8 weeks) mice or rats for

experiments as they typically have less connective tissue. It is
also considerably easier to visibly identify distal nephrons in
these animals. Moreover, the basal membrane, that covers
isolated tubule, is less rigid which makes split-opening much

more successful. This, though, does not preclude using older
(up to 1 year) animals if necessary for experimentations.
2. We recommend using different sets of forceps for isolation of
distal nephrons from murine kidneys. The dullest forceps are
necessary to move coverslips (dragging and transferring to
another tissue culture dish). The fine forceps are used for teas-
ing out of thin longitude sectors from kidney slices and for
providing holding support of individual sectors. The finest for-
ceps are critical for effective pinching and stripping of individ-
ual tubules out of a sector. While finest forceps are available
from commercial vendors, they are expensive and worn out
quickly. With a little practice, an investigator can quickly learn
to manually hone dull or worn-out forceps under a stereomi-
croscope using fine sharpener stones.
3. While this chapter focuses on using Fura-2, several other Ca2+-
sensitive dyes, such as indo-1 and fluo-4, are available. They
can also be successfully used to monitor Ca2+ dynamics in distal
nephron cells if necessary.
4. Excitation light at 340 nm does not freely penetrate through
glass, particularly through coverslips. This results in decreased
intensity of Fura-2 signal at this excitation wavelength. If the
signal is low, we recommend using thinner coverslips to affix
distal nephrons. Quartz slides do not have this problem, but
they are expensive. Alternatively, the fluorescent ratio can be
quantified using excitation at 360 nm (Ca2+-insensitive isos-
bestic point of Fura-2 spectra) and 380 nm but the dynamic
range of the ratio will be reduced. The required filters for all
wavelengths (340, 360, 380 nm) are available from many ven-
dors (such as Chroma Technology).
5. Mechanosensitive Ca2+ responses become greatly potentiated
by increasing temperature from 23°C to more physiologically
relevant 37°C. Furthermore, gating properties of several TRP
channels, including TRPV4, are also temperature dependent.
It is a good idea to perform key experiments under both tem-
peratures to bolster experimental conclusions. Several temper-
ature-controlled systems (for example TC-324B/344B from
Warner Instruments) are commercially available.
6. Fixation and immunostaining procedures are performed in a
12-well microtiter plate. This enables easy access and transfer of
coverslips with forceps while using relatively small volumes of
solutions. The volume can be reduced to as low as 500 mL, if
the amount of available antibody/reagent is limited. Alternatively
3.5 × 10 mm tissue culture dishes can be used.
7. Triton X-100 is the most widely used detergent to improve the
penetration of antibodies. However, it partially dissolves the
membrane lipids and destroys the membranes, thus potentially

affecting the staining results. Therefore, the utilization of this
detergent for membrane-associated antigens is not always
appropriate. There are much milder membrane solubilizers,
such as Tween 20, Saponin, Digitonin, and Leucoperm. When
used at 0.2–0.5% concentrations for 10–30 min, they make
“pores” large enough for antibodies to penetrate through the
plasma membrane without dissolving it.
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Chapter 30
Patch-Clamping Drosophila Sensory Neurons

Volodymyr Kucher, Benjamin A. Eaton, James D. Stockand,
and Nina Boiko
Abstract
Electrophysiological studies provide essential clues about the regulation and physiological function of ion
channel proteins. Probing ion channel activity in vivo, though, often is challenging. This can limit the
usefulness of such model organisms as Drosophila for electrophysiological studies. This is unfortunate
because these genetically tractable organisms represent powerful research tools that facilitate elaboration
of complex questions of physiology. Here, we describe a recently developed method for recording ion
channel activity in Drosophila sensory neurons. This approach is based on patch-clamping primary neuron
cultures from Drosophila embryos. Such cultures allow the study of ion channels in different genetic back-
grounds. In addition to describing how to prepare a primary neuronal cell culture from Drosophila embryos,
we discuss, as an example of utility, analysis of Na+ currents in cultured class IV multidendritic (md) sen-
sory neurons with the patch clamp technique. Excitability of md sensory neurons, manifested as action
potential firing, is revealed with whole-cell current-clamping. Voltage-clamping class IV md neurons
revealed the activity of the voltage-gated Na+ channel, paralytic. Moreover, challenging class IV md neu-
rons with acidic pH activates acid-sensing inward Na+ currents. Genetic manipulation of Drosophila com-
bined with this electrophysiological readout of activity identifies pickpocket1 (Ppk1), a member of the
Deg/ENaC channel family, as responsible for conducting an acid-sensing Na+ current in class IV md sen-
sory neurons.
Key words Patch clamping, Primary cell culture, Ion channel, Drosophila sensory neurons
1 Introduction
Ion channels are integral membrane proteins that form pores

through the lipid bilayer to facilitate ion permeation. This func-
tion makes channel proteins important regulators of a variety of
biological processes. For instance, they play a vital role in neu-
ronal signal transduction, neurotransmitter release, muscle con-
traction, cell secretion, and gene transcription. The patch clamp
technique allows direct measurement of ion channel function
and can provide essential clues about ion channel expression,
regulation, and physiological function. However, probing ion
385
386 Volodymyr Kucher et al.
channels in native cells and tissues often can be challenging and

experimentally limiting.
Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful model organism for the
study of physiology, including physiological functions of ion chan-
nels. The reasons for this are (a) the genetic tractability of this
model organism as its complete genome has been decoded and
sequenced; (b) many tools are available to modify the genetics of
these animals; (c) the structure of the Drosophila nervous system is
well defined and understood; and (d) the short life span, small size,
and simple diet of these animals keep husbandry inexpensive.
However it has been impossible, until recently, to take full advan-
tage of the utility of the Drosophila model organism for studying
ion channels as techniques for recording native ion channels from
Drosophila neurons were missing. Recent advances in Drosophila
cell culture and electrophysiology techniques, as described here,
have overcome many of these limitations increasing the utility of
Drosophila as a model organism for the study of ion channel biol-
ogy and physiology.
Preparation of primary cell cultures from Drosophila embryos
was first developed in the laboratory of Seecof and colleagues in
1968 (1). Several variations in this technique are available for cul-
turing neuronal as well as nonneuronal cell types (2–4). These cul-
tures are suitable for probing ion channel activity, regulation, and
function with the patch clamp method (5, 6). Moreover, neurons
in primary neuronal cultures from Drosophila retain their native
physiological properties: they form functional synaptic connections
and exhibit electrical excitability (5, 6). Here we describe the prep-
aration of a primary neuronal cell culture from midgastrula-stage
Drosophila embryos and detail patch-clamp analysis of class IV
multidendritic (md) sensory neurons in this culture to demonstrate
their utility for investigating ion channel function and regulation.
2 Materials
2.1 Preparation of 1. The appropriate Drosophila melanogaster line preferably with

Primary Neuronal Cell the cell type of interest labeled in some manner (see Note 1).
Culture from 2. Agar, Granulated (Genesee Scientific; Seattle, WA).
Drosophila Embryos
3. Sucrose (Sigma, St. Louis, MO).
4. Apple juice, 100% (Hill Country, can be purchased in any gro-
cery store).
5. Acetic Acid, Glacial (EMD, Gibbstown, NJ).
6. Ethanol, absolute, 200 proof (Sigma St. Louis).
7. Inactive dry yeast (Genesee Scientific; Seattle, WA).
8. Embryo collection cage (Genesee Scientific; Seattle).
Patch-Clamping Drosophila Sensory Neurons 387
9. Graduated plastic centrifuge tubes, 50 mL (Corning, Corning,

NY).
10. Mesh, Nitex Nylon 64 μm (Genesee Scientific; Seattle, WA).
11. Paint brush, size three round (Loew Cornell, can be purchased
in any art store).
12. Plastic Petri Dishes, 60 mm (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburg, PA).
13. Autoclaved distilled water.
14. Ham’s F12/DME Media (DMEM; Irvine Scientific, Santa
Ana, CA).
15. Insulin, from bovine pancreas (Sigma, St. Louis, MO).
16. Progesterone (Sigma St. Louis, MO).
17. Transferrin (Sigma St. Louis, MO).
18. Putrescine (Sigma St. Louis, MO).
19. Sodium Selenite (Sigma St. Louis, MO).
20. Tissue culture dishes, 35 and 100 mm (Corning, Corning,
NY).
21. Microscope cover glass, 18 × 18 − 2 (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh,
PA) cut into 5 × 5 mm chips.
22. Borosilicate glass capillaries (World Precision Instr., Sarasota, FL).
23. Dissection stereomicroscope (i.e., Stemi 2000; Carl Zeiss
Microscopy, Thornwood, NY).
2.2 Electro- 1. Inverted microscope (we use Eclipse Ti; Nikon, Melville, NY)
physiological Analysis fitted with epifluorescence and excitation and emission filters
of Class IV md for GFP (FITC/RSGFP LP emission; #21012, Chroma Tech.
Sensory Neurons Corp., Rockingham, VT) as needed to identify the cell type of
interest.
2. Patch-clamp amplifier (we use Axopatch 200B; Molecular
Devices, Sunnyvale, CA; see Note 2).
3. Digitizer, i.e., Digidata 1322A A/D board (Molecular Devices)
interfaced with a PC running an appropriate acquisition and
analysis software (we use pClamp 9.2 software suite; Molecular
Devices).
4. Micromanipulator (i.e., MP-285; Sutter Instr. Co., Novato,
CA).
5. Fast exchange recording chamber (i.e., Model RC-22, Warner
Instr., Hamden, CT).
6. Perfusion system (we use Valve Bank II pinch valve perfusion
system from AutoMate Scientific Inc., San Francisco, CA).
7. Micro-vibration isolation table with Faraday cage.
8. Micropipette puller (we use Model P-97 flaming/brown puller,
Sutter Instr. Co.)
9. Micro-forge (we use MF-830; Narishige, East Meadow, NY).

10. Borosilicate glass capillaries (World Precision Instr., Sarasota,
FL) pulled and forged to 10–13 mΩ.
11. Extracellular bathing solution: 140 mM NaCl, 5 mM KCl,
1 mM CaCl2, 10 mM d-glucose, 10 mM HEPES, and 10 mM
MES (pH 7.4; see Note 3).
12. Intracellular pipette solution for current-clamp experiments:
120 mM K-gluconate, 20 mM NaCl, 0.1 mM CaCl2, 1 EGTA,
and 10 mM HEPES (pH adjusted to 7.2 with KOH).
13. Intracellular pipette solution for voltage-clamp experiments:
120 mM Cs-gluconate, 20 mM NaCl, 0.1 mM CaCl2, 1 mM
EGTA, and 10 mM HEPES (pH adjusted to 7.2 with CsOH;
see Note 3).
14. Tetrodotoxin (TTX).
15. Amiloride.
3 Methods
The Drosophila fly line ppk1-Gal4,UAS-mCD8-GFP that is used as

an example in the subsequent sections is a kind gift from Dr. Darren
Williams (King’s College London, UK). These flies have targeted
expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP) specifically in class
IV multidendritic (md) sensory neurons regulated by the ppk1-
promoter/enhancer GAL4 and upstream activating sequence
(UAS) system (7, 8). Class IV md neurons tile the larval body wall
and ramify beneath the epidermis (9). These are polymodal sen-
sory neurons involved in proprioception and nociceptive responses
(10–12). Figure 1a shows a negative fluorescence micrograph of a
dissected ppk1-Gal4,UAS-mCD8-GFP larvae stained for GFP
expression. The GFP-expressing dorsal da neuron (ddaC, circled)
and ventral nerve cord (vnc) are indicated. The fluorescence micro-
graph in Fig. 1b shows the group of dorsal da neurons co-stained
for GFP and neuronal membranes (anti-HRP). The GFP-expressing
ddaC neuron indicated in Fig. 1a is shown. Figure 1c demonstrates
the identity of dorsal da neurons shown in Fig. 1b (indicated with
asterisks). Such GFP expression provides a means to specifically
target class IV md neurons in the heterogeneous population of
neurons growing in this primary culture. This allowed us to inves-
tigate ion channels specifically in this subset of neurons.
3.1 Preparation 1. Fly stocks are maintained on standard food at 25°C and a 12 h
of a Primary Neuron light/dark cycle. Preparation of the primary neuron culture
Culture from from embryos is performed as previously described (2) with
Drosophila Embryos some modifications.
Fig. 1 Drosophila class IV md sensory neurons. (a) A negative fluorescence

micrograph of a dissected ppk1-Gal4,UAS-mCD8-GFP larvae stained for GFP
expression with anti-GFP antibody and all neurons with HRP. The GFP-expressing
dorsal da neuron (ddaC, circled) and ventral nerve cord (vnc) are indicated.
(b) Fluorescence micrograph of a group of dorsal da neurons (from a) co-stained
for GFP and neuronal membranes (anti-HRP). The GFP-expressing ddaC neuron
circled in (a) is shown. (c) The identity of dorsal da neurons shown in (b) is indi-
cated with asterisks in this scheme
2. For Drosophila embryo collection, prepare embryo collection

apple-juice agar plates using the following recipe: boil 375 mL
ddH2O with 125 mL apple juice, 15 g agar, and 6 g sucrose for
6 min. Cool to 50–60°C; add 10 mL ethanol and 5 mL glacial
acetic acid. Pour into 100 mm plastic Petri dishes (recipe yields
approximately 25 dishes). Cool and store at 4°C.
3. Next place 300–500 young (up to 2 weeks old) flies into a
large embryo collection cage. Cover the cage with an embryo
collection apple-juice plate containing a small stroke of inactive
yeast paste in the center. Make the inactive yeast paste to the
consistency of toothpaste by mixing dry inactive yeast with dis-
tilled water. Flip the cage and plate where the cage now is
standing on the plate. Replace the plate once a day for 2–3
days prior to cell culture preparation (see Note 4).
4. On the third day of cell culture preparation, collect embryos
on a fresh apple-juice agar plate containing the inactive yeast
paste for 3 h and age them for 4–6 h after egg laying.
5. Add 5 mL of distilled water to the top of the collecting plate
and using a fine-tipped paint brush, collect and then transfer
the embryos into a dechorionation vessel (see Note 5). After
transfer, the embryos should be resting on the mesh netting in
the dechorionation vessel.
6. Place the dechorionation vessel containing embryos into a

60 mm plastic Petri dish and gently wash embryos with dis-
tilled water three times. The mesh netting should prevent
embryos from washing thru.
7. Dechorionate by filling the 60 mm Petri dish with 50% bleach
solution to a level above the meshwork containing the embryos
for 3 min.
8. Rinse embryos again with sterile (autoclaved) distilled water
thoroughly (three to four times) and transfer them to a fresh
sterile 60 mm plastic Petri dish by unscrewing the 50 mL coni-
cal tube cap and then removing and inverting the mesh net-
ting. Gentle rinsing of the mesh netting can enhance transfer
(see Note 6). Dechorionated embryos will stick to the bottom
of the plastic dish. Following rinsing, fill the culture dish with
6 mL of culture medium.
9. For cell culture preparation, remove the contents of midgas-
trula-stage embryos under stereomicroscope (see Note 7).
Contents are removed by piercing the dechorionated embryo
with a sharpened micropipette (tip diameter 50–100 μm) and
gently sucking the content into the pipette leaving the decho-
rionated embryo husk attached to the Petri dish (see Note 8).
The contents of 3–4 embryos are collected into a single
pipette.
10. Prepare cover-glass chips prior to seeding with embryonic cells.
Chips are prepared by soaking them in 100% ethanol and rins-
ing with sterile water. Place eight to ten 5 × 5 mm cover glass
chips into a sterile 35 mm tissue culture Petri dish. Allow them
to air dry and do not cover with media at this time.
11. To each chip add a 10 μL drop of culture medium. Transfer
the contents of 3–4 embryos from the collecting pipette (col-
lected in step 9) to each chip by resuspending the contents in
this 10 μL drop of culture medium. Let cells settle for 10 min
and then fill the culture dish with 3 mL of culture medium.
12. Maintain cultures in a 5% CO2 incubator with 95% humidity at
23–25°C for 2–3 days (see Note 9).
13. For primary neuronal cell culture, use serum-free Ham’s F12/
DME media (DMEM) with 20 mM HEPES and 2.5 mM l-Glu-
tamine. Supplement media with insulin from bovine pancreas
(50 μg/mL), progesterone (20 ng/mL), transferrin (100 μg/
mL), putrescine (100 μM), and sodium selenite (30 nM)
(see Note 10).
14. For electrophysiology experiments, cultured neurons can be
used 2 days after seeding and for up to 2 weeks (see Note 11).
In these cultures from Drosophila midgastrula-stage embryos,
neurons arise from neural precursors. Shown in Fig. 2a is a bright
field image of midgastrula embryonic cells 1 h after being plated.
Fig. 2 Morphological development of primary neurons from Drosophila embryos plated in cell culture. Bright
field images of primary cells from Drosophila embryos (a) 1 h after plating and (b) 72 h after growing in culture.
Higher magnification bright field (c) and fluorescence (d) images of cultured GFP-expressing class IV md sen-
sory neurons. Scale bars are 50 μm (a, b) and 3 μm (c, d)
These cells are round and mostly dissociated. Figure 2b–d shows
the same cells after 72 h in culture. By this time, the cells have dif-
ferentiated into neurons containing branching neuronal extensions
(big arrow) and forming neuronal clusters (small arrow).
3.2 Electro- 1. Patch-clamping Drosophila class IV multidendritic sensory

physiological Analysis neurons follows standard procedures using common equip-
of Drosophila Class IV ment (see Note 12).
md Sensory Neurons 2. Place a glass chip containing cultured neurons into a fast
Held in Culture exchange recording perfusion chamber mounted to the stage
of an inverted microscope. Rinse the chip with constant perfu-
sion of the extracellular bath solution to remove culture media
and debris.
3. Class IV md sensory neurons are identified in primary neu-
ronal cultures by eGFP emission upon proper excitation. An
example of a GFP-expressing md neuron with eGFP emissions
is shown in Fig. 2d.
Fig. 3 Recording action potentials in current-clamped Drosophila class IV md

sensory neurons. Representative action potentials in a current-clamped class IV
md sensory neuron evoked by injecting a 40 pA suprathreshold depolarizing cur-
rent for 600 ms (left ). The effects of 50 nM TTX on action potential firing is shown
to the right
4. After compensating offsets, form a high-resistance cell-attached

seal on a neuron of interest by lowering a patch pipette (open
pipette resistance ~10–13 mΩ) to the cell with a micromanipu-
lator and applying gentle suction. Upon contacting the cell
membrane, pipette resistance should increase to ~30–40 mΩ.
Seal formation normally occurs when pipette resistance exceeds
1 mΩ (see Note 13). Gentle suction facilitates seal formation.
Following seal formation, capacitance is compensated. For
whole-cell current- and voltage-clamp experiments, the mem-
brane is ruptured with additional gentle suction to provide
access to the intracellular environment (see Note 14). Cell
capacitance (~20 pF for md neurons) is determined by inte-
grating the area of capacitive transients from an average of 10
voltage-ramps from −60 to −80 mV. Upon formation of the
whole-cell patch, seal resistance decreases below >1 gΩ to
~500–800 mΩ (at a holding potential of −60 mV).
5. Current clamping allows determination of resting membrane
potential (the electrical potential across the membrane of neu-
rons at rest). For md neurons this is ~ −56 mV. Stimulation of
a neuron with a depolarizing current injection sufficient to
bring the neurons to the threshold for the action potential
firing evokes a train of action potentials. Figure 3a shows rep-
resentative action potentials from current-clamped class IV md
sensory neurons. These action potentials were evoked with a
suprathreshold 40 pA depolarizing current for 600 ms. As
shown in Fig. 3b, action potential firing in Drosophila md neu-
rons is sensitive to inhibition of voltage-gated sodium channels
with tetrodotoxin (TTX).
50 pA
5 ms
Fig. 4 Recording voltage-gated Na+ currents conducted by para in voltage-

clamped Drosophila class IV md sensory neurons. Representative macroscopic
para Na+ currents in a voltage-clamped md neuron evoked by stepping the hold-
ing potential from −60 mV to −40 mV in the presence of pH 7.4 (1) and pH 5.0
(2) and 2 min after returning to pH 7.4 (3). Inward Na+ current is downwards
6. Macroscopic currents can be quantified with the whole-cell

voltage-clamp configuration. Figure 4 shows representative
macroscopic currents from the Drosophila TTX-sensitive, volt-
age-gated Na+ channel paralytic. These macroscopic para cur-
rents are from a whole-cell patch formed on a class IV md
neuron. In this example, current was evoked by stepping mem-
brane potential from the holding potential of −60 to −40 mV.
The activity of voltage-gated Na+ channels, as shown in Fig. 4,
is also sensitive to extracellular pH, i.e., decrease in current
amplitude is observed in acidic (<5.0) pH. Here application of
low pH was performed using a computer controlled fast perfu-
sion system.
In addition to inhibiting para, lowering extracellular pH
elicits two distinct acid-sensitive Na+ currents in class IV md
neurons: a sustained (Is) and transient (It) current. These are
shown in Fig. 5. For this experiment, voltage was clamped to
−60 mV with current evoked by rapidly lowering bath pH from
7.4 to 4.5 (noted with hatched gray bar); and for It subsequently
washing 1 mM amiloride (noted with black bar). Current was
recorded in the Clampex gap-free acquisition mode.
7. Combining the patch clamp technique, which is a readout of
function, with forward genetics in Drosophila provides a pow-
erful tool for studying ion channel physiology. As shown in
Fig. 6, genetic knock down of ion channel of interest together
Amiloride
pH4.5
100 pA
Is 30 sec It
Fig. 5 Recording macroscopic acid-sensing Na+ currents in voltage-clamped

Drosophila class IV md sensory neurons. Representative sustained (Is) and transient
(It) acid-sensing macroscopic Na+ currents in a voltage-clamped class IV md neuron.
Inward Na+ current is downwards. This cell was voltage-clamped to −60 mV with
current evoked by rapidly lowering bath pH from 7.4 to 4.5 (noted with hatched gray
bars); and for It subsequently washing 1 mM amiloride (noted with black bar)
with the rescue of null mutants with a transgene, and

overexpression of a gain-of-function mutant channel can be used
to identify the specific cellular currents conducted by a particular
ion channel. Voltage-clamping class IV md sensory neurons in
genetically manipulated flies identified the transient acid-sensing
current (It) as being conducted by pickpocket1 (Ppk1), a
Drosophila Deg/ENaC channel family homolog (9). Deletion
of the ppk1 gene abolished It but was without effect on Is.
Targeted expression of the wild-type ppk1 transgene in class IV
md neurons of ppk1 null mutant flies rescued It, having no
effect on Is. Moreover, expression of the degenerin gain-of-
function Ppk1deg mutant (13, 14) in these neurons resulted in
larger and more prolonged It.
4 Notes
1. We used the ppk1-Gal4,UAS-mCD8-GFP fly line (a gift from

Dr. Darren Williams, King’s College, London, UK), which
restrictively expresses GFP in class IV md neurons (7, 8).
2. There are few different patch-clamp amplifiers, A/D acquisi-
tion boards and software, micromanipulators, isolation tables,
microscopes, pipette pullers, perfusion chambers, et cetera
available for patch-clamp analysis. The user should use those
best suited to their experiments and personal preference (see
also Chapter 7 of this book).
wild type ppk -/- rescue ppk deg

pH 4.5
Amiloride Wash
It
100 pA
100 pA
100 pA
It
20 sec 20 sec 20 sec
It It
500 pA
100 sec
Fig. 6 Identification of the current conducted by Ppk1 in Drosophila class IV md sensory neurons. Representative
acid-evoked macroscopic Na+ currents in voltage-clamped (holding potential −60 mV) class IV md neurons
from wild type (left ), ppk1−/− null mutants (second from the left ), ppk1−/− mutants rescued with expression of
the wild-type ppk1 transgene in md neurons (third from the left ), and flies with targeted expression of the
gain-of-function ppk1deg transgene in class IV md neurons (right ). In these experiments, neurons were treated
with 1 mM amiloride prior to providing the activating acid pulse with blocker and low pH subsequently washed
simultaneously to evoke It
3. The pipette and extracellular bathing solutions should be

appropriate for the channel of interest. The choice of solutions
depends on experiments conditions (15).
4. Replacement of embryo collecting plates prior to preparation
of the culture allows flies to adapt to the new environment
increasing egg laying and the number of eggs available for
harvesting.
5. We make the dechorionation vessels by removing the bottom
two-thirds of a 50 mL conical centrifuge tube and drilling a
~ 1 in. diameter hole into the cap. The cap is then removed and
the top of the tube is covered with 8 × 8 cm mesh netting with
the cap then screwed back on. Dechorionation is the removal of
the outer protective layer (chorion) from an embryo.
6. Avoid coated tissue culture dishes for dechorionated embryos
do not stick to these dishes. We routinely use plastic Petri
dishes from Fisher Scientific.
7. Midgastrula-stage embryos appear 5:20–7:20 h after egg laying

at 25°C. Embryos in this stage can be identified by having the
origins of tracheal placode invaginations. Parasegmental fur-
rows also form and segment boundaries deepen. In addition,
gnathal protuberances within the head become apparent.
A distinct cleft at the posterior pole of the embryo, which
becomes detached from the vitelline membrane, appears at the
end of this stage (16).
8. For transferring embryonic cells, we routinely pull pipettes to
a fine tip using a P-97 puller (Sutter Instruments) and cut these
tips using a ceramic tile cutter under stereomicroscope. We
recommend the pipette tips be small enough to prevent suck-
ing whole embryos into the pipette but big enough to avoid
damaging individual cells. This should be empirically deter-
mined. Cell transfer is accomplished by mouth suction using
40 cm silicon tubing connected to the pipette.
9. We use a standard mammalian incubator with temperature
control set at 23°C. The CO2 level in the incubator was adjusted
under control of Bacharach Fyrite Gas Analyzer (Bacharach
Inc.).
10. Media not supplemented can be stored at 4°C for up to 2
weeks. The appropriate amount of media should be supple-
mented just prior to culture preparation. These supplements
are designed for in vitro cell growth and differentiation in
serum-free medium.
11. For patch-clamp experiments we use the cells growing in cul-
ture between 2 and 6 days. The media in the culture is never
changed during this time.
12. For a detailed description of the patch clamp method, the
reader is directed to the excellent book by B. Sakmann and
E. Neher (17) and also to Chapter 7 of this book.
13. A high-resistance seal (>5 gΩ) is formed readily on the mem-
brane of Drosophila neurons in culture using minimal suction.
For gentle suction we recommend using of 1 mL syringe.
14. Many patch-clamp amplifiers can apply a brief but intense volt-
age step to facilitate membrane rupture. On the Axopatch
200B this is initiated with the “zap” button. With our condi-
tions, we recommend not using this method for membrane
rupture. Rather we prefer to rupture the membrane using
additional gentle suction.
References
1. Seecof RL, Unanue RL (1968) Differentiation 2. Sicaeros B, O’Dowd, DK (2007) Preparation
of embryonic Drosophila cells in vitro. Exp of neuronal cultures from midgastrula stage
Cell Res 50:654–660 Drosophila embryos. J Vis Exp 5:226
3. Cross D, Sang J (1978) Cell culture of indi- Welsh MJ, Johnson WA (2003) Enhanced
vidual Drosophila embryos: I. Development of Locomotion Caused by Loss of the Drosophila
wild-type cultures. J Embryol Exp Morphol DEG/ENaC Protein Pickpocket1. Curr Biol
45:161–172 13:1557–1563
4. Shields G, Sang JH (1977) Improved medium 11. Zhong L, Hwang RY, Tracey WD (2010)
for culture of Drosophila embryonic cells. Pickpocket Is a DEG/ENaC Protein Required
Drosoph Inf Serv 52:161 for Mechanical Nociception in Drosophila
5. Hodges DD, Lee D, Preston CF, Boswell K, Larvae. Curr Biol 20:1–6
Hall LM, O’Dowd DK (2002) tipE regulates 12. Kim SE, Coste B, Chadha A, Cook B,
Na+-dependent repetitive firing in Drosophila Patapoutian A (2012) The role of Drosophila
neurons. Mol Cell Neurosci 19:402–416 Piezo in mechanical nociception. Nature
6. O’Dowd DK (1995) Voltage-gated currents 483:209–212
and firing properties of embryonic Drosophila 13. Hong K, Driscoll M (1994) A transmembrane
neurons grown in a chemically defined domain of the putative channel subunit
medium. J Neurobiol 27:113–126 MEC-4 influences mechanotransduction and
7. Matthews BJ, Kim ME, Flanagan JJ, Hattori neurodegeneration in C. elegans. Nature
D, Clemens JC, Zipursky SL, Grueber WB 367:470–473
(2007) Dendrite self-avoidance is controlled 14. Waldmann R, Champigny G, Voilley N,
by Dscam. Cell 129:593–604 Lauritzen I, Lazdunski M (1996) The mam-
8. Grueber WB, Ye B, Yang CH, Younger S, malian degenerin MDEG, an amiloride-sensi-
Borden K, Jan LY, Jan Y-N (2007) Projections tive cation channel activated by mutations
of Drosophila multidendritic neurons in the causing neurodegeneration in Caenorhabditis
central nervous system: links with peripheral elegans. J Biol Chem 271:10433–10436
dendrite morphology. Development 15. Hamill OP, Marty A, Neher E, Sakmann B,
134:55–64 Sigworth FJ (1981) Improved patch-clamp
9. Adams CM, Anderson MG, Motto DG, Price techniques for high-resolution current record-
MP, Johnson WA, Welsh MJ (1998) Ripped ing from cells and cell-free membrane patches.
pocket and pickpocket, novel Drosophila Pflugers Arch 391:85–100
DEG/ENaC subunits expressed in early devel- 16. Ashburner M, Golic KG, Hawley RS (2005)
opment and in mechanosensory neurons. J Drosophila. A laboratory handbook, Secondth
Cell Biol 140:143–152 edn. Cold Spring Harbor, New York, NY
10. Ainsley JA, Pettus JM, Bosenko D, Gerstein 17. Sakmann B, Neher E (1983) Single-channel
CE, Zinkevich N, Anderson MG, Adams CM, recording. Plenum Press, New York, NY
Part VI
Ion Channels as Research Tools

Chapter 31
Production and Validation of Recombinant Adeno-Associated

Virus for Channelrhodopsin Expression in Neurons
John Y. Lin
Abstract
Recent discovery of the light-activated ion channel, channelrhodopsin (ChR), has provided researchers a
powerful and convenient tool to manipulate the membrane potential of specific cells with light. With
genetic targeting of these channels and illumination of light to a specific location, the experimenter can
selectively activate the voltage-gated ion channels (VGICs) of ChR-expressing cells, initiating electrical
signaling in temporally and spatially precise manners. In neuroscience research, this can be used to study
electrical signal processing within one neuron at the cellular level, or the synaptic connectivity between
neurons at the circuitry level. To conduct experiments with ChRs, these exogenous channels need to be
introduced into the cells of interest, commonly through a viral approach. This chapter provides an over-
view of the design, production, and validation of recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) for ChR
expression that can be used in vitro or in vivo to infect neurons. The virus produced can be used to con-
duct “optogenetic” experiments in behaving animals, in vitro preparations and cultured cells, and can be
used to study signal transduction and processing at a cellular or circuitry level.
Key words Optogenetics, Channelrhodopsin, Recombinant adeno-associated virus, Optical stimulation,

Membrane excitability
1 Introduction
Excitable cells such as neurons and myocytes express voltage-gated

ion channels (VGICs) on their plasma membrane. These cells utilize
electrical signals to process and convey information between different
cells or between different cellular compartments within one cell.
The ability to manipulate the electrical signaling in a temporally
and spatially precise manner would provide important insights to
this complex electrical signaling. The ability to manipulate the cel-
lular electrical signaling with an optical approach provides several
advantages, as light is relatively unintrusive in living tissue and can
be modulated easily and precisely in spatial and temporal domains
with modern optical instrumentations. This “optical manipula-
tion” of the cellular electrical signaling would require the cells of
interest to be “light responsive,” as most cells do not respond to
401
402 John Y. Lin
Fig. 1 Schematic of the light-induced activation of voltage-gated ion channel (VGIC) with channelrhodopsin
(ChR) and examples of ChR expression in neurons. (a) Illumination of plasma membrane expressing ChR leads
to the depolarization of the membrane, and the activation of voltage-gated ion channel (VGIC). The opening and
closing of ChR is controlled by the photo-isomerization of all-trans retinal incorporated in the ChR protein.
(b) Examples of neurons infected by recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) expressing ChR-Citrine (eYFP)
fusion protein as visualized with the fluorescence of the mCitrine. (c) Examples of light-induced depolarization
in cultured neurons expressing the ChR variant ChIEF. The left trace shows the cell in response to 750 ms light
pulse and the right trace showed the membrane response to two bursts of 10 Hz light stimulation
light natively. The recent discoveries of light-responsive ion channels,

channelrhodopsins (ChRs), from the algae Chlamydomonas rein-
hardtii and Volvox carteri have been major breakthroughs in
achieving optical manipulation of cellular excitability (1–3). By
expressing these exogenous channels in the cells of interest, the
experimenters can selectively depolarize the specific cells with light
to activate VGICs (Fig. 1). This also creates the opportunity to
manipulate selective neurons through genetic targeting. Although
other approaches have been previously developed to depolarize
membrane potential with light, these alternative approaches often
required the introduction of synthetic organic chemicals such as
modified azobenzene compounds (4) or caged ligands to act as
chromophores (5). These synthetic chemicals are not commercially
available and sometimes are difficult to introduce into living tissue.
ChRs, on the other hand, utilize all-trans retinal, a naturally occur-
ring precursor of retinoic acid in many tissues (6), which simplifies
the approach for many biologists. The genes encoding the func-
tional channel components of ChRs are <1,050 bp, which are small
enough to be used in various recombinant viral vectors. As native
Optogenetic Excitation with Channelrhodopsin in Neurons 403
ChRs are evolved to provide algae with a simple vision, there are
many properties of these proteins that are not ideal for its use as a
research tool (7). However, many subsequent developments and
engineering of ChRs have improved kinetics, desensitization/inac-
tivation, and membrane trafficking of ChR, with the variant ChIEF
being thus far the best general purpose ChR variant with good
membrane trafficking, a low level of desensitization, and fast kinet-
ics (7–9). Two aspects that have yet to be improved are the low
conductance of ChRs (8, 10, 11), and having different variants
with selective ion permeability (2, 8). To compensate for these two
properties, a high expression level in the cells of interest is often
necessary to achieve significant depolarization.
Neuroscientists have utilized ChRs to selectively excite geneti-
cally defined neurons or neurons of a defined location. By express-
ing ChRs in specific neurons, the experimenters can trigger action
potentials in these neurons and artificially induce synaptic release
with light in in vitro and in vivo preparations (Fig. 1). The majority
of studies utilizing ChRs in rodents achieve targeted expression
with recombinant viral vectors. Expressing ChR utilizing a viral
vector is a quick, simple, and effective approach compared to alter-
natives such as generating transgenic animals and in utero elec-
troporation. Of the different recombinant viruses that have been
used with ChR, recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) has
been the most successful and efficient viral vector for in vivo use.
Recombinant AAV is small in size and can be concentrated at a
high titer, which can lead to high numbers of infected cells in vivo.
At this moment, many core facilities and commercial services can
produce high-titer rAAV, although this is typically expensive (~US
$1,500/strain) and time-consuming (3–4 weeks). In this chapter,
the protocol utilized within our laboratory to generate high-titer
rAAV is described. The resulting virus is suitable for use in culture
and in vivo in rodents. The protocol typically takes 1–1.5 weeks to
complete and generate >200–300 mL of rAAV at titer >1012 genome
copy (GC)/milliliter. The simplified flow chart of rAAV produc-
tion is shown in Fig. 2. The main instruments required are cell
culture facilities approved for virus generation and ultracentrifuge
with suitable rotor, which are available in many research facilities
(see Note 1 regarding safety and precautions about handling
recombinant virus). Although there are many alternative methods
for some of the steps described here (transfection methods, cell
line used, virus purification), I have provided the methods that
have consistently generated high-titer rAAV in our laboratory in a
cost-effective manner.
Prior to generating rAAV for ChR expression, it is important to
design the appropriate viral vector for the desired experiment. In
the system described here, the maximum genetic insert that can be
placed between the standard AAV inverted terminal repeats (ITRs)
is ~4.7 kbp, which includes the genetic material for the promoter,
404 John Y. Lin
Fig. 2 The flow chart for the production and validation of rAAV for ChR expression.
This chart shows the steps and typical time requirement involved in the produc-
tion and validation of rAAV for ChR experiment. The molecular cloning of the viral
vector can be done in parallel to the preparation of cells for transfection
gene encoding ChR, poly(A) sequence, and other features such as

fluorescent protein (FP), woodchuck hepatitis virus posttranscrip-
tional regulatory element (WPRE), introns, and lox sites. When
utilizing these viral vectors, it is important to understand the func-
tions of these features and the length limitation to produce viable
virus for the experiments.
As for the choice of ChR variant, the native ChR2 and VChR1
are now obsolete as they have unfavorable properties. For blue-light-
responsive ChR, ChIEF is the variant with thus far the best opti-
mized properties (7, 9). For red-shifted ChR variant, C1V1 with
additional trafficking sequence has better membrane expression than
VChR1 (12). Both ChIEF and C1V1 are ~1,050 bp in size.
The inclusion of fluorescent protein (FP) allows for the visual-
ization of expressing cells, although it is not essential for the func-
tion of ChRs. For direct fusion of FP to the ChRs, monomeric
green fluorescent protein (GFP)-based FPs such as eGFP or eYFP/
mCitrine are preferred over monomeric red fluorescent protein
(mRFP)-based FPs (e.g., mCherry). This is due to the punctate
membrane aggregation that is observed when mRFP-based FPs are
used as ChR fusion. For RFP-based fusion, tandem dimer Tomato
(tdTomato) is the preferred choice, as this design minimizes the

aggregation (13). However, tdTomato is ~1.4 kbp in size, twice
the size of a monomeric FP, and this difference in size would limit
the use of a larger cell-specific promoters. It is also possible to visu-
alize the expressing cells using a non-fusion FP expression system
by using an IRES (14) or 2A sequence (15) that will result in cyto-
solic FP expression in the ChR-expressing cells.
A poly(A) tail is necessary for high expression of the transgene.
Commonly used poly(A) tails are the bovine growth hormone
(bGH), human growth hormone (hGH), and simian virus 40 (SV40)
poly(A) tails. These sequences are typically 0.2 kbp in length.
Several different promoters have been used to express ChRs
with rAAV in neurons; the most common ones include the
a-CamKII promoter, CAG promoter (cytomegalovirus/CMV
early enhancer element and chicken beta-actin promoter), human
synapsin promoter, and EF-1a promoter. Although the a-CamKII
promoter (1.3 kbp) is reported to be selective for excitatory neu-
rons in lentiviral vectors (16), it failed to confer such selectivity in
rAAV, possibly due to the enhancer property of the AAV-ITR
sequence (17, 18). We have also found that the a-CamKII pro-
moter in the lentivirus leads to the selective expression of ChR in
an unidentified subset of cells in the mouse cortex or primary cell
culture. However, the a-CamKII promoter is one of the strongest
neuronal promoters available, which can be used to compensate
for the poorer properties of some ChR2-based ChR variants. We
have found that the human synapsin promoter (~0.5 kbp) gives
neuron specificity (e.g., non-expressing in astrocytes or glial cells)
and sufficient expression with ChIEF and other variants with
improved membrane trafficking. CMV (~0.4 kbp), CAG (~1.6 kbp),
and EF-1a (1.2 kbp) promoters are strong ubiquitous promoters.
In a standard ChR viral vector containing ChR, monomeric FP,
WPRE, and SV40 poly(A) tail, the maximum promoter size is
~2.2 kbp. This is the main limiting factor when utilizing a cell-type
specific promoter with rAAV.
Another feature that is often included in the viral vector is
WPRE (0.6 kbp) that increases the stability of mRNA and
increases the expression level of the transgene by ~ 3-folds (19).
However, this feature may not be necessary if a strong promoter
is used and high viral titer is achieved. Alternatively, introns can
be introduced between the promoter and the transgene or between
the transgene and poly(A) tail to increase the expression level
(20). The commercially available pAAV vector from Stratagene
includes a b-globin intron between the CMV promoter and the
multiple-cloning site. To combine the use of rAAV and a Cre-
recombinase mouse strain, the FLEX (13) or DIO (21) strategies
that place the inverted transgene between two different sets of
lox sites allow for the transcription in the correct orientation in
Cre-recombinase expressing cells. Figure 3 shows some common
406 John Y. Lin
Fig. 3 Common AAV viral vector design for ChR expression. The top example shows the most frequently utilized
AAV vector design for direct ChR expression which contains a promoter, the transgene-encoding ChR-
fluorescent protein (FP) fusion protein, woodchuck hepatitis virus posttranscriptional regulatory element
(WPRE), and poly(A) tail between two AAV inverted terminal repeats (ITR). The examples below show alternative
designs including the omission of WPRE, utilization of intron to increase expression level, and utilization of a
2A-FP sequence for cytosolic FP expression. The bottom example shows the FLEX/DIO approach for targeted
ChR expression with a Cre-recombinase-expressing mouse strain where the ChR-FP transgene is inserted in
reverse (non-expressing) between two sets of lox sites between the promoter and WPRE. The presence of Cre-
recombinase would excise and invert the transgene between the lox sites, leading to expression of ChR-FP
and alternative viral vector designs for expressing ChR with rAAV.
The desired components can be assembled with standard molec-
ular cloning procedures into the AAV viral vectors containing the
AAV-ITR sites.
2 Materials
2.1 Production 1. Ad-helper plasmid (75 mg), AAV-helper plasmid (30 mg), and
of rAAV In Trans AAV-ChR plasmid (25.5 mg). Production of rAAV in trans
requires the transfection of three separate plasmids at 1:1:1
molar ratio. We recommend maxiprep-quality plasmid DNA.
AAV-helper plasmid contains the rep and cap genes and deter-
mines the rAAV serotype (e.g., XR8 is used to produce rAAV

serotype 8; XR1 is used to produce serotype 1) (see Note 2
regarding choice of serotype). Ad-helper plasmid (XX6-80)
contains adenoviral genome region E2a, E4, and VA. AAV-
helper and Ad-helper plasmids are available from National Gene
Vector Biorepository (https://www.ngvbcc.org/). For the
AAV-ChR plasmid, we recommend the AAV2-oChIEF-Citrine
or AAV-Flex-rev-oChIEF-tdTomato plasmids. AAV2-oChIEF-
Citrine contains mammalian codon-optimized ChIEF (oChIEF)
fused to Citrine driven by the human synapsin promoter inserted
between the AAV2 ITRs. This construct is suitable for direct
expression of oChIEF in neurons. This vector is available from
the Roger Tsien lab a University of California, San Diego
(http://www.tsienlab.ucsd.edu). The AAV-Flex-rev-oChIEF-
tdTomato plasmid can be used with a Cre-recombinase mouse
line where the expression of oChIEF-tdTomato is restricted to
the Cre-recombinase expressing cells. This plasmid is available as
plasmid 30541 from http://www.addgene.org.
2. 293A cell lines (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, California, USA).
3. Complete HEK293 cell culture medium (1 g/mL DMEM + 10%
fetal bovine serum + 1% Penicillin/streptomycin) (Life
Technologies or Cellgro).
4. Six 15 cm cell culture dishes.
5. CalPhos™ Mammalian Transfection Kit (Clontech, Mountain
View, California, USA).
6. Cell Scrapers (Fisher Scientific).
7. −80°C freezer.
8. 37°C water bath.
9. 23-gauge sterile needles.
10. 20 mL syringes.
11. Benzonase DNA nuclease (E1014, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis,
Missouri, USA).
12. Sorvall Centrifuge RC5-B (Thermo Scientific) or similar
centrifuge.
13. 50 mL conical centrifuge tube.
2.2 Purification and 1. L-80 or L-80 XP Ultracentrifuge (Beckman Coulter Inc.).

Concentration of rAAV 2. 70 Ti rotor (Beckman Coulter Inc., 337922).
3. Ultra-Clear Quick-Seal tube (Beckman Coulter Inc.).
4. Two Quick-Seal Tube Spacers (Beckman Coulter Inc.).
5. Tube Topper Sealer (Beckman Coulter Inc.).
6. 15 cm metal cannula needles (18–20 gauge) (Hamilton
Company or Popper Laboratory/Fisher Scientific).
408 John Y. Lin
Table 1
Composition of the 15, 25, 40, and 58% iodixanol gradient solution
Phenol red
Optiprep (mL) 10× GB (mL) 5 M NaCl (mL) ddH2O (mL) (5 mg/mL) (mL) Total (mL)
15% 10 4 8 18 0 40
25% 11.67 2.8 0 14 70 28.47
40% 16 2.4 0 5.6 0 24
58% 24.17 0.8325 0 0 60 25
7. 18-gauge sterile needles.

8. Syringes (3 mL and 10 mL).
9. Utility clamp and clamp stand.
10. 50 kDa MW Amicon centrifuge filter (Millipore).
11. Iodixanol/Optiprep (D1556, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis,
Missouri, USA).
12. 10× gradient buffer (GB): 100 mM Tris (pH 7.6), 1.5 M
NaCl, 100 mM MgCl2; filter-sterilize using 0.22 mm syringe or
vacuum filter. Store at 4°C.
13. 1× gradient buffer (GB): 5 mL 10× GB, 45 mL cell culture
grade sterile H2O.
14. 15, 25, 40, and 58% iodixanol gradient solutions (see Table 1
for composition).
2.3 Validation 1. Standard primary cultured neuron preparation (e.g., http://

of rAAV in Cultured www.invitrogen.com/site/us/en/home/References/protocols/
Neurons neurobiology/neurobiology-protocols/isolation-culture-and-
characterization-of-cortical-and-hippocampal-neurons.html).
2. Glass-bottomed culture dish for recording with an inverted
microscope (e.g., MatTek Corporation) or glass coverslips for
recording with an upright microscope.
3. Poly-D-lysine solution (100 mg/mL).
4. Complete Neurobasal medium: Neurobasal-A + 1 × B27 + 1 × G
lutaMax + 1% Penicillin/streptomycin (Life Technologies).
5. Standard whole-cell patch-clamp recording apparatus and solu-
tions (see Chapter 7 of this book).
6. Epi-fluorescence imaging system with electronic shutter sys-
tem accepting TTL inputs. This can be a standard xenon arc
lamp with a mechanical shutter (e.g., Uniblitz shutter, Vincent
Associates, Rochester, NY) or light-emitting diode (LED)-
based light source (e.g., Thorlabs, Newton, NJ).
Fig. 4 The responses of ChIEF to different wavelengths of light. (a) The representative
responses of ChIEF to 570, 530, 470, and 410 nm light of the same photon flux
under voltage-clamp. (b) The maximal and steady-state (measured at 950–
1,000 ms after initiation of illumination) response spectra of ChIEF normalized to
its maximal response across the spectra. The optimal excitation wavelength is
between 440 and 490 nm (Figure modified with permission from Lin et al. (8))
7. Appropriate filter set for visualizing the fluorescent protein

included in the viral vector. See Chroma Technology (www.
chroma.com) or Semrock (www.semrock.com) for the appro-
priate filter sets for the different fluorescent proteins.
8. Appropriate filter set for excitation of ChR with an arc lamp-
based system. See Fig. 4 for the spectral response of ChIEF
(see Note 3).
3 Methods
3.1 Production 1. Plate 293A cells in six 15 cm dishes with 15 mL of complete

of rAAV In Trans HEK293 cell culture medium in each dish (see Note 4 regard-
ing using alternative cell line).
2. Prepare the plasmid DNA mix when cells are 85–90% confluent.
For six 15 cm dishes, mix together 30 mg of total AAV-helper/
XR(x) plasmid (8 kbp), 75 mg of Ad-helper/XX6-80 plasmid
(18 kbp), and 25.5 mg of AAV-oChIEF-Citrine plasmid
(~6.4 kbp) which gives molar ratio of 1:1:1.
3. Prepare the calcium phosphate transfection reagent by mixing
1.172 mL of 2 M CaCl2 (from the CalPhos™ kit) and plasmid
DNA mix from step 2 in a 50 mL conical centrifuge tube and
make up the volume to 9.45 mL with sterile water (see Note 5
and Chapters 2, 4, and 5 regarding alternative transfection
methods).
410 John Y. Lin
4. Drip 9.45 mL of 2 × HEPES buffered saline (2 × HBS from the

CalPhos™ kit) dropwise slowly into the solution from step 3.
Tap the tube after each drop. Incubate the mixture for 15 min
at room temperature.
5. Add 3.15 mL of the calcium phosphate transfection mixture
dropwise into each of the 15 cm cell culture dish. Return the
culture dishes into the incubator (see Note 6).
6. One day after transfection, replace the cell culture medium
within the dish with fresh complete HEK293 cell culture
medium (15 mL/dish).
7. Three days after transfection, remove and discard the media,
being careful not to lose the cells in the dish.
8. Add 0.5 mL of 1× GB per plate and scrape the cells off the dish
with a cell scraper. Collect the cell suspension off the plates
into a 50 mL conical tube (should be ~5–7 mL total).
9. Freeze-thaw the cell suspension by transferring the sample
between a −80°C freezer and 37°C water bath (15 min each).
10. Triturate the thawed cell suspension through a 23-gauge nee-
dle to lyse the cells and release the virus. Triturate three to
four times.
11. Repeat step 9 three times and step 10 twice; lysed cells will
become difficult to pass through the needle as intracellular
DNA is released. 20- or 18-gauge needle can be used instead if
the process is too difficult.
12. Allow the cell lysate to return to 37°C and add Benzonase at
1 mL (250 U) per 5 mL of cell suspension. Mix and incubate
the suspension at 37°C for 45 min to 1 h in the 37°C water
bath. Gently shake the tube every 15 min.
13. Centrifuge the suspension at 3,000 × g for 15 min at 4°C to
pellet out the cell debris and DNA aggregates. Extract the
rAAV-containing supernatant into a fresh 50 mL tube. The
supernatant can be saved at −20°C (for ~1 month) or used
directly in the purification step.
3.2 Purification and 1. Build an iodixanol gradient in a Quick-Seal tube by adding 9.7 mL
Concentration of rAAV of 15% gradient solution to the bottom of the tube using a 10 mL
syringe syringe fitted with a long 18-guage metal cannula needle.
2. Add subsequent layers below the previous layer by extending
the syringe needle to the bottom of the tube and slowly inject-
ing the gradient solutions. The remaining compositions are
6.4 mL of 25% gradient solution, followed by 5.4 mL of 40%
gradient solution and then 5.4 mL of 58% gradient solution.
3. Add the virus-containing supernatant to the gradient by slowly
dripping the solution with an 18-guage needle fitted on a
syringe without the plunger onto the top layer of the gradient.
Minimize the disruption of the layers.
Fig. 5 Example of iodixanol gradients before and after centrifugation. (a) The iodixanol gradient preparation
showing the layers containing the 1× GB, virus solution, and 15, 25, 40, and 58% gradient solution before (A1)
and after (A2) centrifugation. (b) The placement of the needle for the extraction of virus solution after
centrifugation
4. Fill the remaining empty volume of the tube to the top using
1× GB as in step 3.
5. Weigh the tube and make a counter balance tube of identical
weight filled with the same layers (replacing the virus with
1 × GB); the differences should be <0.01 g.
6. Seal the tip of the tubes using a Tube Topper Sealer. Gently
squeeze the tube to ensure the tips are sealed and airtight. The
tube should appear as shown in Fig. 5.
7. Place the two tubes in the opposite spaces of a 70Ti Beckman
rotor. Lower the Quick-Seal Tube Spacer on top of the tube
prior to sealing the rotor lid. Centrifuge the tube in vacuum at
169,538 × g for 2 h 10 min at 18°C. The acceleration should
be set to “max” and deceleration to “9.”
8. Remove the tubes from the rotor and mount the tube contain-
ing the virus on a utility clamp (Fig. 5).
9. Insert an 18-gauge needle near the top of the tube as airflow
vent. Place a beaker directly underneath the tube to catch any
leakage (Fig. 5b).
10. Prepare a 3 mL syringe with an 18 gauge needle for extraction
of the virus. Insert the needle at the interface between the 40
and 58% gradient buffer layers with the bevel of the needle fac-
ing up (Fig. 5b). Slowly extract ~2 mL of solution, first with the
beveled needle opening facing upwards during the first half of
extraction and then facing downward for the rest (see Note 7).
11. Add the 1.5 mL of 1× GB to the 2 mL of virus solution and
load the solution into a 50 kDa MW Amicon centrifuge filter
cartridge. Spin at 1,500 × g for 15 min.
412 John Y. Lin
12. Check the volume remained in the cartridge and further

increase centrifuge time in 5-min increments until the desired
volume is reached or ~200 mL remains. Extract the concen-
trated volume in the cartridge.
13. The virus is now ready to be used in vivo or in vitro. Aliquot and
store the virus at −20°C for short-term storage and −80°C for
long-term storage. See Note 8 regarding titer measurement.
3.3 Validation 1. Pre-coat glass-bottom cultured dishes or glass coverslips with

of rAAV in Cultured poly-D-lysine overnight.
Neurons 2. Rinse the dish with sterile water three times to remove excess
poly-D-lysine.
3. For a glass-bottomed dish with 12–14 mm diameter circular
glass area, plate 150 × 103 primary cultured neurons in 2 mL
complete Neurobasal medium.
4. One day after plating, add 5 mL rAAV (109–1010 viral particles)
into each dish.
5. Maintain the neuronal culture for 2–3 weeks with standard
neuronal culture procedure.
6. On the day of the recording, place the neurons in the record-
ing chamber and visualize the ChR-FP-expressing cells using
the epi-fluorescence setting with the correct filter set for the
FP. If the FP is fused to ChR, membrane-localized fluorescence
should be visible (see Fig. 1).
7. After selecting the ChR-FP-expressing cell for recording,
switch the filter set to the one appropriate for activation of
ChR (e.g., 480 nm for excitation of ChIEF).
8. Establish whole-cell patch-clamp recording with the ChR-FP-
expressing cells using standard techniques.
9. Switch to current-clamp recording and maintain a stable mem-
brane potential with current injection if necessary; start the
recording.
10. Send a TTL pulse from the digital out port of the digitizer to
open the shutter of the excitation light. We typically use 500–
750 ms duration light pulse for prolonged activation and 20
pulses of 15 ms duration at 10 Hz for high-frequency pulsed
stimulation (see Note 9). The response of a ChR-expressing
neuron should be similar to the one shown in Fig. 1c.
4 Notes
1. It is important to follow the institutional safety guidelines when

producing and handling viruses. The procedures should be
conducted in approved facilities and the appropriate protective
gears should be used. The personnel should also receive safety

training to handle the virus. The instrumentation and reagents
coming into contact with the virus should be treated with 10%
bleach for 15 min for decontamination.
2. The common rAAV serotypes used for infecting neurons are
serotypes 1, 5, 8, 9, and 10. The different serotype has differ-
ent tropism towards different neuronal types and brain regions.
We recommend checking the literature before deciding on the
serotype. We have been able to achieve very efficient infections
of multiple brain regions with serotype 8.
3. All existing ChR variants (including the red-shifted C1V1-
based variants (12) and VChR1 (7)) can be efficiently activated
by 470–480 nm light. This can be light either from an arc lamp
filtered with a 480 nm interference filter or from a 470 nm
LED light source.
4. Although most HEK293 or HEK293t cell lines can be used to
produce rAAV, in our laboratory, the 293A cell line (Life
Technologies, Carlsbad, California, USA) consistently generates
high titer of rAAV over other cell lines tested. The flat appear-
ance of the cells at low density and strong adhesion of the cells
to the culture plate at high density are favorable for the transfec-
tion and subsequent harvesting of virus post-transfection.
5. Most cell transfection methods (cationic liposomes, poly-eth-
yleneimine, or electroporation) can be used; however, a high
level of transfection and low toxicity are crucial for the produc-
tion of high-titer rAAV. We have found that the calcium phos-
phate precipitation method provides a simple, consistent, and
cost-effective method of transfection that results in high virus
production when used with 293A cells. It is critical to transfect
at the right cell density, as low cell density during transfection
typically leads to high level of toxicity and low yield of virus.
6. It is possible to visualize the calcium phosphate precipitate
with a microscope equipped with phase contrast optics after
1 h. The precipitate will appear as irregular-shaped particles on
top of the cells.
7. It is common to have iodixanol contamination in the virus ali-
quot; this does not affect the use of the virus in vivo in the
rodents or in vitro.
8. The titer of rAAV is typically measured in genome copy/mil-
liliter, as one infectious rAAV particle can carry only one copy
of viral DNA, and viral particles that failed to incorporate the
viral genomic DNA will not lead to transgene expression.
There are several methods of measuring rAAV titer, the most
accurate being quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
with primers targeting part of viral genome or the transgene. It
is also possible to measure the DNA content of the virus with
414 John Y. Lin
a non-amplified fluorescence-based assay (e.g., with DNA dye

PicoGreen on a fluorescence plate reader). Both approaches
would require the lysis of 10–20 mL of viral aliquot to release
the viral DNA, followed by measurement of the viral DNA
concentration within the lysate against DNA preparations with
known concentrations. The number of viral genome copies can
be calculated from the DNA concentration if the viral genome
size (the DNA length between the AAV ITRs) is known.
9. The mechanical shutter of an arc lamp light is typically limited
to 20 Hz of maximal repetitive frequency, with a minimal
opening time ~10 ms. This is due to the mechanical speed
limitation of the shuttering blade and the underlying electronics.
A LED-based light source can achieve much greater temporal
resolution (ms scale) as the onset and off rate of light is depend-
ing on the speed and quality of the constant-current power
supply used to power the LED.
Acknowledgments
J.Y.L. was funded by Foundation of Research, Science and

Technology New Zealand and was also supported by National
Institutes of Health grants to Roger Y. Tsien (NS027177) and
Howard Hughes Medical Institute. I would like to acknowledge
Dr. Daniel Gibbs for technical advice regarding rAAV production
and Dr. Sharon B. Sann for editorial assistance.
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Chapter 32
Optical Control of Ligand-Gated Ion Channels

Stephanie Szobota, Catherine McKenzie, and Harald Janovjak
Abstract
In the vibrant field of optogenetics, optics and genetic targeting are combined to commandeer cellular
functions, such as the neuronal action potential, by optically stimulating light-sensitive ion channels
expressed in the cell membrane. One broadly applicable manifestation of this approach are covalently
attached photochromic tethered ligands (PTLs) that allow activating ligand-gated ion channels with out-
standing spatial and temporal resolution. Here, we describe all steps towards the successful development
and application of PTL-gated ion channels in cell lines and primary cells. The basis for these experiments
forms a combination of molecular modeling, genetic engineering, cell culture, and electrophysiology. The
light-gated glutamate receptor (LiGluR), which consists of the PTL-functionalized GluK2 receptor, serves
as a model.
Key words Optogenetics, Optochemical genetics, Optical switch, Photochromic tethered ligand,
Azobenzene, LiGluR, Glutamate receptor
1 Introduction
Biology occurs over a wide range of time and length scales. To

understand dynamic biological systems, we require tools for
both the spatiotemporal observation and perturbation of cellu-
lar and molecular events. While the past years have seen rapid
growth in optical (e.g., fluorescence-based) real-time reporters
of cellular signals (1), the development of means to activate cells
on short and small scales has lagged behind. With light being the
premier choice for both readout and activation of cellular events,
photosensitive molecules have recently enabled us to noninva-
sively control biological signals with high spatial and temporal
resolution. This is achieved in optogenetics and optochemical
genetics either by “repurposing” Nature’s light-sensing proteins
from bacteria, algae, or plants or by engineering synthetic light-
gated functionalities (2–4).
417
418 Stephanie Szobota et al.
Fig. 1 Synthetic strategies for manipulating ligand-gated ion channels with light. (a) In the example of the iono-
tropic glutamate receptor GluK2, glutamate binding in the extracellular ligand binding domain triggers domain
closure and gate opening. (b) Gating after ligand uncaging. (c) Gating after reversible conversion of a photo-
chromic ligand to a binding-competent conformation. (d) Reversible light control by a PTL. (e) Chemical struc-
ture of MAG1, the prototypical maleimide-azobenzene-glutamate PTL, and 4-MG. (f, g) Crystal structure of the
ligand binding domain of GluK2 in complex with 2S, 4R-4-methylglutamate (4-MG). 4-MG, residues surround-
ing the binding site suited for PTL attachment, and exit tunnel are highlighted as described in the text
Three synthetic strategies to light-control signals in cells or

in vivo are commonly used: “caged” ligands, photochromic
(“reversibly caged”) ligands, and photochromic tethered ligands
(PTLs) (Fig. 1) (3). “Caged” ligands and photochromic ligands
can be optically activated with subcellular resolution and within
milliseconds either by releasing the ligand from the cage or by trig-
gering a reversible conformational change in the photochrome.
After photoactivation, these molecules act as free ligands on their
specific protein targets (Fig. 1b, c). In contrast, PTLs are linear
molecules that consist of a ligand moiety, a photochrome in the
core of the molecule, and a reactive group that attaches to the pro-
tein (Fig. 1d, e). Site-directed attachment is achieved by genetically
introducing a cysteine residue near the ligand binding site. After
attachment, the agonist or antagonist located at the end of the
Remote Controlling Ion Channels 419
tether is presented to or retracted from the binding site by

photoisomerization of the PTL core (Fig. 1d). Tethered ligands
have the unique advantage that they specifically control a selected
protein since the cysteine substitution is required for attachment
and thus for light sensitivity. Receptors with substitutions can then
be genetically targeted to specific cell types or organs in living
organisms. PTLs have been developed to light-control several
classes of ion channels, including nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
(5, 6), glutamate receptors (7), and K+-channels (8), as well as vari-
ant channels with new functionalities derived from molecular stud-
ies (9) or evolutionary relationships (10, 11). In these experiments,
the tethered ligands were acetylcholine, glutamate, and tetraeth-
ylammonium, respectively.
This chapter describes how genetic engineering, cell culture,
and electrophysiology are combined to apply PTL-gated ion chan-
nels in cell lines and primary cells. In addition, we explain how
molecular modeling can be applied to test if a PTL is compatible
with a target receptor and how modeling can aid in the choice of
PTL attachment sites. In this way, this chapter includes all steps to
perform light control of an established as well as a new receptor
based on an existing PTL. While procedures for the HEK293 cell
line as well as primary neurons are described here, a single cellular
model is sufficient for basic functional experiments. To explain
these experiments, the light-gated glutamate receptor LiGluR,
consisting of the ionotropic glutamate receptor GluK2 (formerly
known as iGluR6) mutated at residue L439C and functionalized
with MAG1 (maleimide azobenzene glutamate; Fig. 1e), serves as
a model.
2 Materials
2.1 Molecular 1. Desktop computer running visual molecular dynamics (VMD)

Modeling (12).
2. Protein Data Bank (PBD) file of the ligand-gated ion channel
of interest in complex with ligand (here, PDB file 1SD3 con-
taining 2S, 4R-4-methylglutamate (4-MG) co-crystallized in
the ligand binding domain of GluK2 (13)).
2.2 Molecular 1. Bacterial cell culture shaker in a 37°C room or 37°C incubator
Biology with shaker (~225 rpm).
2. LB medium: 1% bactotryptone, 0.5% yeast extract, 1% NaCl,
pH 7.0, autoclaved.
3. Bacteriological agar.
4. Ampicillin stock solution (100 mg/mL in water), stored at
−20°C in 500 mL aliquots.
5. QuickChange II Site-Directed Mutagenesis Kit (Agilent,

Vienna).
6. QIAprep Spin MiniPrep DNA purification kit (Qiagen, Hilden,
Germany).
7. Gene coding for ion channel of choice in a vector suited for
mammalian expression (e.g., pcDNA3.1(−)) (see Note 1).
8. Gene coding for yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) in a vector
suited for mammalian expression.
9. Gene coding for YFP in a vector suited for neuron-selective
expression (see Note 2).
10. Mutagenesis oligonucleotide primers and sequencing oligo-
nucleotide primers ordered custom-made from any of the
many commercial vendors (see Note 3).
11. Sanger DNA sequencing provided by any of the many com-
mercial vendors.
2.3 Cell Culture 1. Cell culture facility equipped with laminar flow hood, water
and Transfection bath (37°C), incubator (5% CO2), and cell counting chamber;
of HEK293 Cells HEK293 cells (American Tissue Culture Collection, LGC
Standards, Teddington, UK) cultured according to the pro-
vider’s recommendation in 25 cm2 tissue culture flasks.
2. 500 mL Dulbecco’s modified essential medium (DMEM) sup-
plemented with 5% fetal bovine serum (FBS), sterile filtered,
and stored at 4°C. Supplement half of the medium with 1%
penicillin/streptomycin solution, and use the supplemented
DMEM unless noted otherwise.
3. Dulbecco’s phosphate buffered saline (DPBS): 8 g NaCl,
200 mg KCl, 200 mg KH2PO4, 2.16 g Na2HPO4⋅7H2O, water
added to 1 L and sterile filtered.
4. Borate buffer: 1.55 g boric acid, 2.375 g Na+ borate, water
added to 500 mL, pH 8.5, sterile filtered, and stored at 4°C.
5. Opti-MEM I reduced serum medium (LifeTech, Vienna).
6. 0.25% Trypsin-EDTA solution (LifeTech).
7. Lipofectamine 2000 transfection reagent (LifeTech).
8. Poly-L-lysine (PLL) HBr (molecular weight 70,000–150,000).
Open PLL container in the laminar flow hood and add water
to a concentration of 10 mg/mL. Aliquot in 1.5 mL Eppendorf
tubes and store at −20°C.
9. Round cover glasses (18 mm diameter, Carolina Biological,
Burlington, NC, USA) (see Note 4).
10. Polystyrene 25 cm2 cell culture flask with filter lid (0.2 mm pore
size, sterile).
11. Polystyrene 12-well plate (sterile).
2.4 Additional 1. Dissection microscope.

Reagents 2. Dissection tools: Large scissors, large forceps, small scissors,
for Cell Culture two sharpened forceps, curved spatula, and small scalpel.
and Transfection
3. High-glucose MEM: 12.75 g D-glucose in 50 mL modified
of Hippocampal
essential medium (MEM) sterile filtered, and stored at 4°C.
Neurons
4. Media: 181 mL MEM, 3 mL high-glucose MEM, 10 mL FBS,
and 0.2 mL MITO+ serum extender. Store at 4°C. Once a
week, add 1 mL B-27 Serum-Free Supplement (LifeTech) and
500 mL L-glutamine to 48.5 mL media to produce final
medium. Store at 4°C.
5. Saline: 1.19 g HEPES, 1.80 g D-glucose, Hank’s basic salt
solution (HBSS) added to 500 mL, sterile filtered, and stored
at 4°C.
6. HBSS washing solution: 7.89 g NaCl, 4.77 g HEPES, 0.30 g
KCl, 0.29 g CaCl2⋅2H2O, 0.20 g MgCl2⋅6H2O, 0.14 g
Na2HPO4, 0.18 g D-glucose, water added to 1 L, pH 7.3, ster-
ile filtered, and stored at 4°C.
7. BBS solution: 0.82 g NaCl, 0.53 g BES, 10.7 mg Na2HPO4,
water added to 50 mL, sterile filtered, and stored at 4°C.
8. CaCl2 solution: 18.38 g CaCl2⋅2H2O, water added to 50 mL,
sterile filtered, and stored at 4°C.
9. Cytosine-b-D-arabinofuranoside (AraC) solution (4 mM), ster-
ile filtered, and stored at −20°C.
10. Two sterile glass Pasteur pipettes: The first pipette is barely
flame-polished; the second pipette is flame polished to half its
original diameter.
11. Round cover glasses (12 mm diameter, Carolina Biological,
Burlington, NC, USA).
12. Polystyrene 6-well plate and 24-well plate (sterile).
13. Cell strainer (40 mm, BD Biosciences).
2.5 Microscopy 1. Inverted microscope equipped with fluorescence condenser,

and Light Activation rotating turret for moving filter holders (“filter cubes”) into
the light path and 20× fluorescence microscopy objective. The
microscope is placed on an air table and enclosed by a Faraday
cage.
2. Light source capable of producing bright monochromatic illu-
mination (>1 mW/mm2) that can be computer controlled
(i.e., Polychrome V, TILL Photonics, Gräfelfing, Germany)
(see Note 5).
3. Power meter with wavelength range from 300 to 800 nm and
power range up to 50 mW (PM120VA, Thorlabs, Munich,
Germany) (see Note 6). Power range can be extended with
neutral density filters (Thorlabs).
4. Standard filter set for visualization of YFP in a filter cube.

5. Total reflectance mirror sized to fit into a filter cube in the
diagonal position (e.g., NT43-875, Edmund Optics, Karlsruhe,
Germany).
6. Empty filter cube.
7. Standard laboratory spectrophotometer to perform absorbance
measurements at a wavelength of 360 nm.
8. MAG1 in solid form.
9. DTT stock solution (10 mM): 15.4 mg DTT in 10 mL extra-
cellular solution, distributed to 1 mL aliquots and stored at
−20°C.
10. Concanavalin A solution: 15 mg type VI concanavalin A
(Sigma) in 50 mL extracellular solution and stored at 4°C.
2.6 Whole-Cell Patch 1. Patch clamp amplifier with data acquisition electronics, elec-
Clamp Measurements trode holder, and software installed on a desktop computer
(e.g., AxoPatch200B, Digidata 1440A, HL-U, and pCLAMP
10, Biberach, Germany).
2. Micromanipulator on rotating base mounted to a tower (e.g.,
MP-285ROE, 285RBI, and MT-71-9, Sutter Instruments,
Science Products, Hofheim, Germany) (see Note 7).
3. Glass micropipette puller (e.g., P-97, Sutter Instruments).
4. Extracellular solution: 145 mM NaCl, 4 mM KCl, 1 mM
MgCl2, 2 mM CaCl2, 10 mM HEPES, pH 7.4 (see Note 8).
5. Intracellular solution: 135 mM K-gluconate, 10 mM NaCl, 2 mM
MgCl2, 2 mM MgATP, 1 mM EGTA, 10 mM HEPES, pH 7.4.
6. Salt bridge solution: 3 M KCl and 1% electrophoresis-grade
agarose in water.
7. Glass capillary tubes (1.5 mm outer diameter, 1.17 mm inner
diameter, 100 cm length, Warner Instruments, Hamden, CT).
8. Unplugged glass Pasteur pipettes (length >200 mm).
9. Glass bottom petri dish (glass surface: 25 mm diameter,
0.2 mm thickness, Bioptechs, Butler, PA, USA) (see Note 9).
3 Methods
3.1 Molecular 1. Molecular modeling is applied to test if a PTL is compatible

Modeling of PTL with a target receptor. In the case of MAG1 and GluK2 (Fig. 1),
Substitution Pattern modeling is based on a crystal structure of the ligand binding
and Attachment Sites domain of GluK2 with bound 4-MG (13). Note that MAG1
and 4-MG are both substituted at the 4¢ position (the Cg atom
of glutamate; Fig. 1e, highlighted with a star) with identical
stereochemistry, and 4-MG therefore is a valid model for
MAG1 with respect to the substitution pattern (14).

Furthermore, the closed conformation of the ligand binding
domain indicates that the receptor is in an activated conforma-
tion (Fig. 1a).
2. To visualize 4-MG in the ligand binding domain, open PDB
file 1SD3 in VMD (File/NewMolecule).
3. In the representations panel (Graphics/Representations),
reformat the structure by activating drawing method
“NewCartoon” and in the “selected atoms” field enter
“chain A.”
4. Orient the structure such that the ligand faces the front and
highlight the ligand by creating a new representation with the
drawing method “VDW” and in the “selected atoms” field
enter “chain A and resid 998.” The resulting view is shown in
Fig. 1f.
5. To verify that an extended 4¢ substituent of MAG1 will reach
to solvent exposed residues, change the drawing methods of
“chain A” to “VDW.” An exit tunnel becomes visible (Fig. 1g,
circle), confirming that the tail of MAG1 may reach the pro-
tein surface while still allowing the ligand binding domain to
close (7).
6. In the next step, use the molecular model to identify residues
that are surface exposed and surround the binding site (Fig. 1g,
highlighted residues). Select 4–8 residues and order oligonu-
cleotides to alter them into cysteines. In the case of MAG1,
attachment to L439, L482, G486, or E722 of GluK2 has
proven successful (15).
7. For every new application of a PTL to a receptor, perform
steps 1–5 with a suited crystal structure to verify that an exit
tunnel exists and to find sites for attachment.
3.2 Preparation 1. Solubilize 9 g agar in 600 mL LB medium and autoclave.

of Growth Plates 2. After autoclaving, let hot LB medium cool to 50°C, add
600 mL ampicillin stock solution and swirl to mix.
3. Pour solution into sterile petri dishes to a depth of ~3 mm.
4. Leave the plates at room temperature and unstacked for 24 h
before storing them at 4°C.
3.3 Polymerase 1. Dilute the vector containing the ion channel gene to a concen-
Chain Reaction tration of 20 ng/mL.
to Generate Cysteine 2. Resuspend lyophilized mutagenesis oligonucleotides (forward
Mutants and reverse) to a concentration of 300 mM by adding X*3.33 mL
water to the original tubes (X is the amount of nanomoles
delivered in the tube). Vortex for 10 s and spin briefly every
5 min for a total time of 15 min. Store at −20°C.
3. Dilute mutagenesis oligonucleotide primers to 10 mM by

adding 2 mL of each oligonucleotide primer to 56 mL water.
Vortex, spin briefly and store at −20°C.
4. The PCR is setup following the manufacturer’s instructions
with 20 ng template vector (1 mL of the dilution) and 10 pmol
of each oligonucleotide (1 mL of the mixture). Recommended
PCR parameters are 1 cycle at 95°C for 60 s; 18 cycles at 95°C
for 30 s, at 56°C for 30 s, and at 72°C for 600 s; 1 cycle at
95°C for 7 min; and 1 cycle at 4°C until the reaction is pro-
cessed further (see Note 10).
5. After PCR, add 1 mL dpn1 restriction enzyme, pump mix gen-
tly, spin briefly, and incubate at 37°C for not less than
90 min.
3.4 Amplification 1. Warm up LB agar plates (one for each PCR) at 37°C for 30 min
and Selection (see Note 11).
of Mutagenized 2. Transform PCR without further purification into competent
Receptors cells. Maintain cells on ice during the transformation and treat
cells gently without vortexing or excessive pipetting.
3. Spread bacteria evenly on plates with a sterile glass rod.
4. Place plates at 37°C upside down overnight.
5. On the following day, combine 3 mL LB medium with 3 mL
ampicillin solution in glass tubes (four for each PCR).
6. Using a pipette tip, pick four colonies of each plate by lightly
touching a single colony with the tip and dropping the pipette
tip into a glass tube.
7. Place glass tubes at 37°C with shaking (~225 rpm) overnight.
8. On the following day, extract vector from bacteria with
MiniPrep kit following the manufacturer’s instructions and
send for verification by sequencing.
3.5 MAG1 1. Prepare ~3 mg MAG1 in a 1.5 mL Eppendorf tube.

Reconstitution 2. Add 200 mL DMSO to the tube to yield the MAG1 stock solu-
tion (26 mM).
3. Vortex vigorously for 10 s and spin down briefly. Repeat until
all solid has dissolved.
4. Prepare 10 mL aliquots and store them at −20°C in the dark
(see Note 12).
3.6 Verification 1. Add 0.5 mL MAG1 stock solution to 1 mL DPBS, vortex, and
of MAG1 spin briefly.
Concentration 2. Prepare 5 tenfold serial dilutions: Add 100 mL of the first
(See Note 13) MAG1 dilution to 900 mL PBS to produce a second dilution.
Then add 100 mL of this second dilution to 900 mL PBS to

prepare a third dilution. Repeat two more times.
3. In the spectrophotometer, blank absorbance at a wavelength
of 360 nm with DPBS and measure absorbance for all serial
dilutions.
4. Using measurements in the linear absorbance regime (usually
between 0.1 and 1.0 A), determine the concentration of the
stock solution. This is achieved by plotting A360 against con-
centration and equating Beer–Lambert’s law with the extinc-
tion coefficient 0.025 A360/mM and the dilution factor.
3.7 Preparation 1. Cell culture should be performed under sterile conditions in a

of Cover Glasses laminar flow hood. Instruments and containers should be dis-
for HEK293 Cells infected by spraying them with 70% EtOH prior to placing
them in the hood.
2. Dilute PLL solution to a concentration of 0.05 mg/mL in
borate buffer.
3. Add 2 mL diluted solution to the wells of a 12-well plate.
4. Add a single 18 mm cover glass to each well and incubate cover
glasses for 2–8 h (see Note 14).
5. Transfer the desired number of cover glasses (typically 4–8) to
a new 12-well plate.
6. Wash cover glasses three times with water (add and aspirate
water) and allow to air dry.
3.8 Preparation 1. Warm trypsin solution, DPBS, and DMEM in water bath to
of HEK293 Cells 37°C. Warm 9 mL DMEM in a culture flask in the incubator
(see Note 15).
2. Add 1.5 mL DMEM to each cover glass prepared previously in
the 12-well plate.
3. Remove cells from incubator and aspirate media.
4. Add 10 mL DPBS, let stand for 10 s, and aspirate.
5. Add 3 mL trypsin solution and let stand for 3 min.
6. To detach cells from flask, tap flask against a vertical surface.
7. Add 7 mL media to the flask and pipet up and down with a
serological pipette (see Note 16).
8. Transfer 1 mL cell suspension to the culture flask that contains
9 mL pre-warmed media. Place flask in incubator to passage
the culture in the future.
9. Transfer the remaining 9 mL cell suspension to a 50 mL coni-
cal tube.
10. Centrifuge at 1,000 × g for 3 min and aspirate supernatant.
11. Resuspend cells in 2 mL media by carefully pipetting up and

down ten times with a serological pipette.
12. Count cells, transfer 80,000 cells to each cover glass, and allow
8–24 h for cells to settle before transfection.
3.9 Transfection 1. Warm DMEM with no antibiotics added in water bath to

of HEK293 Cells 37°C.
2. Remove 12-well plate from incubator and replace DMEM on
cells with pre-warmed DMEM.
3. For each cover glass to be transfected, combine 25 mL Opti-
MEM I, 0.2 mg ion channel vector, and 0.01 mg YFP vector in
a 1.5 mL Eppendorf tube (see Note 17).
4. For each cover glass to be transfected, combine 25 mL Opti-
MEM I and 1 mL Lipofectamine in a 1.5 mL Eppendorf tube.
5. Let stand for 5 min.
6. Add Lipofectamine solution to vector solution and tap tube
gently to mix.
7. Let stand for 20 min.
8. Add 50 mL transfection mix to each cover glass.
9. Allow 18–24 h for expression (see Note 18; refer to Chapters 2,
4, and 5 of this book for alternative transfection techniques).
3.10 Preparation 1. Add 2 mL 70% EtOH to all wells of a 24-well plate.

of Cover Glasses 2. Add a single 12 mm cover glass to each well and incubate for
for Hippocampal Cell 10 min.
Culture 3. Wash three times with water.
4. Treat the cover glasses with PLL as described above.
5. After treatment, wash cover glasses three times with water and
allow to soak in water for ~1 h. Wash one more time and let dry.
3.11 Dissection 1. Obtain P0–P4 Sprague Dawley rat pups (local ethical permis-
of Hippocampus sion and other appropriate approvals will be required)
2. Autoclave dissection tools prior to dissection.
3. Warm saline in water bath, warm media (refer to Subheading 2.4)
in incubator and bring trypsin solution to room temperature.
4. Fill two 60 mm petri dishes halfway with warm saline.
5. Humanely sacrifice the animal in accordance to the local ethi-
cal guidance. Sever neck at base of head with large scissors and
place under dissecting scope.
6. Remove skin from back to front with forceps.
7. Slice the skull from back to front with small scissors.
8. Peel back the skull to each side with large forceps, remove brain
with curved spatula, and slide it into petri dish containing the
saline. Repeat for additional animals and then transfer all brains
into a new dish.
9. Remove cerebellum and separate hemispheres with scalpel.
10. Remove meninges from the outer surface of the brain (see
Note 19).
11. Identify the hippocampus as a curved structure that is slightly
denser and therefore has a dark contrast to the rest of the tis-
sue. Gently cut away the hippocampus being very careful not
to damage the tissue.
12. Remove remaining meninges with minimal damage to the hip-
pocampus and clean away any excess tissue still attached to it
with small scalpel.
13. Carefully transfer hippocampus to 15 mL conical tube filled
with saline.
3.12 Preparation 1. Remove all but 4.5 mL saline from the tube containing hip-
of Hippocampal Cells pocampi, add 500 mL warm trypsin, and invert to mix.
2. Place at 37°C for 8 min.
3. Add 9 mL warm saline to dilute trypsin, invert to mix, and
remove solution using serological pipette. Repeat for a total of
four washes.
4. Add 1 mL media and triturate six times with large-diameter
Pasteur pipette. Remove media with suspended cells and strain
into a 50 mL conical tube.
5. Repeat previous step with small-diameter Pasteur pipette if
more cells are desired.
6. Count cells and dilute to a concentration of 200,000 cells/mL.
7. Add 500 mL cell suspension to each well and place in
incubator.
8. After 15 min, replace media to eliminate debris that has not
attached to cover glass.
9. After 4–7 days in culture, AraC is added to a final concentra-
tion of 4 mM to prevent growth of glia.
10. To maintain cultures, replace half of the media with fresh media
once per week.
3.13 Transfection 1. For each cover glass, warm 1 mL transfection media (985 mL
of Hippocampal Cells MEM supplemented with 15 mL high-glucose MEM), 500 mL
HBSS, and 500 mL growth media in the wells of a 6-well plate
placed in the incubator.
2. Bring CaCl2 solution, BBS, and expression vectors to room
temperature.
3. Remove cells from incubator and transfer media from cells to a

well of the 6-well plate.
4. Add 500 mL transfection media to cells and aspirate.
5. Add 500 mL transfection media to cells.
6. Mix, in this order, 1.15 mL CaCl2 solution, 1.2 mg ion channel
vector, and 0.1 mg YFP vector with neuron-specific promoter
and add water to a final volume of 33 mL.
7. To the mixture, add 33 mL BBS dropwise, mix, and transfer
30 mL to the center of each cover glass immediately.
8. Observe cells regularly during the next 6 h. After the shortest
amount of time that generates a fine layer of precipitate, aspi-
rate transfection media and incubate cells in HBSS.
9. After the shortest amount of time needed to dissolve precipi-
tate (typically 2–15 min in HBSS), wash cells with 500 mL
conditioned media (aspirated from the cells previously) and
add both conditioned and fresh media to cells (500 mL each).
Refer to Chapters 4 and 5 of this book for alternative methods
for neuronal transfection.
3.14 Preparation 1. Using the flame of a gas burner, bend the end of a Pasteur
of Whole-Cell Patch pipette into a “U” shape where the “sides” and the “bottom”
Clamp Measurements of the U are ~2 cm long (see Note 20).
2. Heat salt bridge solution in a microwave until homogenous.
Allow to cool to 50°C.
3. Aspirate solution in a 1 mL pipette tip and fill the U-shaped
glass to complete the salt bridge. Store the salt bridge in 3 M
KCl at 4°C.
4. Using glass capillary tubing and a multistage puller, prepare
micropipettes with taper length of ~4 mm, tip diameter of
~2 mm, and electrical resistance of 2–8 MW. Refer to Chapter
7 for further considerations regarding the patch pipette
manufacturing.
3.15 Preparation 1. Connect the light source to the data acquisition electronics
of Microscopy and configure the software such that the wavelength can be
computer controlled.
2. Connect the optical output of the light source to the back port
of the microscope.
3. To direct light of all wavelengths to the sample, fix a total
reflectance mirror with superglue in the spare filter holder at
the position reserved for the dichroic mirror. Place this filter
cube in the turret (see Note 21).
4. Place the unmodified filter cube for YFP imaging in the turret.
5. Measure the intensity of the light exiting the objective using
the power meter (see Note 6).
3.16 MAG1 Labeling 1. In the laminar flow hood, fill four wells of a 12-well plate with
of HEK293 Cells 1 mL extracellular solution and supplement one well with DTT
and Neurons to a final concentration of 1 mM. Fill one well with concanava-
(See Note 22) lin A solution.
2. To remove growth medium, transfer a cover glass with HEK293
cells or neurons from growth medium to extracellular
solution.
3. To activate surface cysteines by ensuring that they are reduced,
transfer the cover glass to extracellular solution with DTT and
incubate for 10 min.
4. To remove DTT, transfer cover glass to extracellular solution
and incubate for 2 min.
5. For concanavalin treatment, transfer cover glass to concanava-
lin A solution and incubate for 10 min (see Note 23).
6. In the meantime, thaw MAG1 stock solution and illuminate
with UV light for 1–15 min (see Note 24).
7. Dilute illuminated MAG1 in one of the wells to a final concen-
tration of 10–50 mM (see Note 25).
8. Transfer cover glass to this solution and incubate for 10–30 min.
Keep the well plate in the dark during this time.
9. Transfer cover glass to a well with extracellular solution and
keep in the dark until the experiment.
3.17 Patch Clamp 1. Add 500 mL extracellular solution to glass bottom petri dish
Measurements and and transfer the cover glass to the dish.
Photoswitching 2. Connect the glass bottom dish to a dish with the reference
electrode using the salt bridge.
3. Adjust the microscope for visualization of YFP by choosing the
appropriate filter cube and by switching the light source to
510 nm excitation light.
4. Using the eye pieces, identify a transfected cell (see Note 26).
5. Apply and clamp positive pressure to the micropipette while
lowering it into extracellular solution to prevent adsorption of
debris at the liquid–air interface.
6. Position the micropipette over the center of the cell
(see Note 27).
7. Slowly lower the micropipette until it presses down on the cell
surface, causing an indentation.
8. Rotate the modified filter cube that holds the total reflectance
mirror into the light path.
9. Adjust the holding potential to −70 mV.
10. Release the positive pressure from the micropipette, observe
GW seal formation, and use negative pressure to break through
Fig. 2 Optical control of HEK293 cell currents and hippocampal neuron action potentials with LiGluR. (a) Whole-
cell current in a voltage-clamped HEK293 cells expressing LiGluR (holding potential −60 mV). Current can be
photo-controlled with maximum activation at ~380 nm and inactivation at ~500 nm. As a positive control for
ion channel expression, glutamate as a free ligand can be added using gravity flow. (b) LiGluR activation depo-
larizes and triggers action potential firing in a current-clamped hippocampal neuron (top trace). After a brief
pulse, depolarization is stable in the dark (bottom trace) (Part a is reprinted by permission from Macmillan
Publishers Ltd: Nat Chem Biol (7), copyright 2006. Part b is reprinted from Neuron, ref. 17 with permission from
Elsevier Ltd)
the cell membrane. Allow 5 min to obtain a seal resistance

>100 MW. Refer to Chapter 7 of this book for more tips on
whole-cell recording.
11. Photoswitching can be accomplished by changing illumination
wavelengths while recording from the cell in voltage-clamp or
current-clamp mode (Fig. 2). Illumination at a wavelength of
380 nm coverts MAG1 into the cis-isomer that opens GluK2
and produces an inward (negative) current in voltage-clamp or
depolarization in current-clamp. Illumination at a wavelength
of 500 nm light coverts MAG1 into the trans-isomer, allowing
GluK2 to close.
4 Notes
1. In our experience, all mammalian expression vectors containing
the cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter performed well in
HEK293 cells and neurons with robust protein expression.
Increased expression of ion channels was achieved using the
hybrid CMV enhancer/chicken b-actin promoter or with
woodchuck hepatitis virus posttranscriptional regulatory ele-
ment (16). Most ion channel genes can be obtained in expres-
sion vectors from Addgene (http://www.addgene.org/).
2. Co-transfection of fluorescent proteins allows selecting trans-
fected cells in patch clamp experiments. Furthermore,
fluorescent proteins under the control of cell type-specific pro-
moters can be used to distinguish cell types. To target neuronal
cells in hippocampal cell cultures, a modified pcDNA3.1(−)
expression vector containing the neuron-specific human syn-
apsin 1 promoter is available from the authors.
3. Mutagenesis oligonucleotide primers can be reliably designed
using the PRIMERX website (http://www.bioinformatics.
org/primerx/) following the QuickChange parameters.
Sequencing oligonucleotide primers should be designed
according to the recommendations of the sequencing provider,
which also may offer universal oligonucleotide primers that
bind to many vectors.
4. In our experience, cover glasses from some other manufactur-
ers require additional cleaning in 70% EtOH solution followed
by washing in water.
5. In the past years, the polychrome has become a standard light
source for optogenetic experiments as it offers bright illumina-
tion with maximum wavelength flexibility. A good alternative
is filter-based light sources capable of producing high-intensity
illumination (>10 mW/mm2) with fast switching time between
filters (<2 ms) (e.g., DG4, Sutter Instruments, Science
Products, Hofheim, Germany).
6. For accurate optogenetic experiments, it is required to mea-
sure the light intensity produced in every individual setup. This
is commonly done at the very end of the light path by quanti-
fying the light exciting the objective. The total intensity is
measured using the power meter, while the illuminated area
can be estimated to be the field of view. Latter can be deter-
mined using a micrometer-sized grid. For a more elaborate
measurement, the illuminated area is controlled using an aper-
ture or pinhole. Most optogenetic applications work well with
intensities of >1 mW/mm2, and MAG1 can be reliably con-
verted with as little intensity as 0.1 mW/mm2 (11).
7. In the simplest patch clamp setup, the micromanipulator with

mounted patch clamp electrode is attached on the optical table
using a tower stand, while the cells are placed on the X-Y-table
of the inverted microscope. The major advantage of this setup
is that localizing fluorescent cells is facilitated as the cells are
moved relative to the objective. The major disadvantage is that
the field of view or focus cannot be changed after a cell has
been patched.
8. In a modified extracellular solution, Na+ ions can be replaced
by N-methyl-D-glucamine to reduce cell toxicity caused by
PTLs. PTLs may act as a very weak agonist during labeling and
generate Na+ currents.
9. Glass bottom dishes proved to be an easy and affordable alter-
native to imaging chambers typically used in patch clamp
experiments. They can be reused many times or disposed after
single use.
10. We have obtained good results when using 20 ng of template
vector and following the manufacturer’s protocol, especially
for the number of cycles. For the mutagenesis of genes in long
or problematic vectors, we recommend supplementing the
reaction with additional 40 ng template vector and 3 mL
DMSO; see also Chapter 20 of this book for further details of
the site-directed mutagenesis approach.
11. Place plates upside down with the base sitting on the ridge of
the lid on one side. In this way, condensation will not accumu-
late on the agar surface and humidity is reduced.
12. The maleimide group of a PTL is sensitive to hydrolysis and
precautions are necessary to avoid water contact until the label-
ing reaction. Store PTL solids in an Eppendorf tube that is
placed in a 50 mL conical tube containing ~1 cm of desiccant
at the bottom. Place the conical tube in the dark and at −20°C
or −80°C. Parafilm wrapping of the Eppendorf tube is neither
required nor desired. When resuspending PTLs, use DMSO
that was aliquoted from a new stock and stored in individual
tubes in a container with desiccant. PTL stock solutions in
DMSO are stored as described above for the solid and can be
stored for 1 year. Stock solutions should be sufficiently concen-
trated such that DMSO concentration during labeling does
not exceed 1% (at a PTL concentration of up to 200 mM).
While it has not shown to be problematic, the number of
freeze-thaw cycles should be kept to a minimum.
13. This procedure is important as it verifies the MAG1 concentra-
tion and validates the structural integrity of the azobenzene
photochrome. It can also be used to determine MAG1 concen-
tration if no scale with mg sensitivity is available or if uncertain
amounts of MAG1 were transferred to the Eppendorf tube.
14. While 2–8 h are recommended for treatment, cover glasses can
be left in PLL solution for several weeks, and PLL solution can
be reused at least six times if kept sterile.
15. Warming media in the incubator is preferred over warming it
in the water bath as equilibration with CO2 and consequently
proper pH are ensured.
16. Use of serological pipettes is recommended as narrow 1 mL
pipette tips can damage cells.
17. For transfection of most glutamate receptor vectors, the
amount of Lipofectamine and vector can be scaled down sub-
stantially (up to fivefold) compared to the recommendation in
the manufacturer’s protocol. It is critical to use miniscule
amounts of fluorescent protein vector compared to ion chan-
nel vector (typically 10–20 times less fluorescent protein vector
than the ion channel vector).
18. For whole-cell patch clamp measurements, HEK293 cells
should be sparse at the time of experiment to prevent gap junc-
tion formation between adjacent cells. For many other pur-
poses (e.g., imaging) a confluent layer works well and gives the
best transfection efficiency and cell health.
19. Meninges will cause microglial growth in the cell culture that
is harmful to neuronal growth. When removing meninges, dis-
card damaged hippocampal tissue.
20. In the first step, hold the pipette horizontally and heat it 2 cm
from the end until the terminal piece drops by gravity to pro-
duce a right angle. Repeat to complete the U shape. Using a
glass cutter and appropriate safety equipment, separate the U
shape from the rest of the Pasteur pipette.
21. It is not safe to look into the eye pieces when using this modified
filter cube as unfiltered stray light may reach to the eye piece.
It is at no time safe to expose eyes to unfiltered light from the
light source, to light in the UV range, or to bright light of any
wavelength: Consider local safety regulations.
22. While this procedure describes MAG1 labeling of cells express-
ing LiGluR, it is generally applicable to other PTLs and ion
channels. Labeling and wash steps can be executed either at
room temperature or at 37°C. DTT treatment and UV preil-
lumination are optional steps that yield the greatest efficiency
of MAG1 labeling and thus photoswitching.
23. Concanavalin A blocks desensitization of GluK2 and is required
for experiments in HEK293 cells but not neurons.
24. Efficiency of MAG1 labeling is increased if MAG1 is converted
to the cis-isoform in UV light before the labeling. This can be
achieved with any handheld UV source, e.g., a UV LED
pointer, and at any light intensity. Indicative values: at an
intensity of 0.04 mW/mm2 (λmax 365 nm) allow 15 min; at

an intensity of 5.5 mW/mm2 (λmax 374 nm) allow 30 s.
25. It is essential to pump mix the solution to fully dissolve MAG1
as DMSO solutions tend to “sink” to the bottom of the well.
Prepare the MAG1 dilution fresh for every cover glass to be
labeled.
26. Cells with medium bright fluorescence often allow the forma-
tion of high-quality whole-cell seals compared to very bright
cells.
27. Micropipette positioning can be achieved in the following
steps: After focusing on the cell, move the focal plane above
the cell by turning the focus wheel on the side of the micro-
scope by ~two turns. In the next step, lower the micropipette
until it is in this new focal plane and move it to be centered on
the field of view. In the final step, refocus on the cell and then
lower the pipette slowly.
Acknowledgments
Our research is supported by grants of the European Union Seventh

Framework Programme (to H.J.) and the Human Frontier Science
Program (to H.J.). We thank D. Fortin for advice on primary cell
preparation, transfection, and PTL conjugation, and K. Greenberg
for recommendations on promoters and expression elements.
References
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INDEX
A Chromatography
affinity ......................................................12, 37–38, 281
Action potential (AP) ..................................4, 159, 166, 175, FPLC .......................................................................... 39
185, 201, 277, 392, 403, 430 size exclusion ................................................... 46, 48, 53
Adeno-associated virus ............................................ 401–414 ClC-2 ............................... 321, 328–329, 331–332, 335, 336
Adenovirus .......................................................23, 24, 28–32 Cloning
Affinity purification...................................... 39, 66, 251, 254 differential ................................................................. 5–9
Agarose gel electrophoresis...............................260, 262, 263 expression .......................................................... 8–10, 12
Amiloride ................................. 324, 331, 334, 388, 393–395 functional ............................................................. 5, 8–14
Amphotericin B...............................................150, 151, 153, subtractive.................................................................. 5–7
154, 156, 313 Confocal microscopy ............................................... 202, 210
Angiotensin II AT1 receptors .................................. 214, 215 Cortical collecting duct ....................................345, 347, 351
Antibodies Cover-slip preparation ....................................... 61, 234–235
blocking antibodies .....................................246, 247, 254 Cre–lox system .................................................................... 4
protein detection........................................................ 220 Crystallization .................................... 49, 278, 279, 282–283
AP. See Action potential (AP) Current clamp ......................................... 106, 162, 167, 175,
Automated patch clamp recording .......................... 181, 182 180, 185, 350, 388, 412, 430
Azobenzene ............................................................. 402, 432 Cysteine-based cross-linking approach ................... 267–275
B D
Bilayer recording ............................................................... 92 Dorsal root ganglion (DRG)
Biolistic particle delivery. See Transfection neuron culture .......................................56, 160–162, 312
Biotinylation ........................................................................ 7 slice preparation ................................................. 312, 319
BK channels .............................................134–144, 146, 277 transfection of ................................... 9, 11, 56, 60, 61, 64
Black lipid membranes .................................................... 114 Drosophila melanogaster
Bradykinin receptors........................................................ 378 embryos ............................................................. 386–387
Brain slice patch-clamping sensory neurons from ............... 385–396
preparation................................................................. 304 Drug screening .................................................................. 91
recording............................................................ 104, 192
E
C
Electrophysiology
Calcium-activated K+ channels ................. 248, 277, 334, 367 patch clamp ........................................ 137, 149, 189, 269
Calcium channels ....................................... 14, 183, 191, 197 single channel recording ............................................ 137
Calmodulin voltage clamp ............................................................. 110
dansyl-calmodulin (D-CaM)............................. 217–230 Electroporation.................................................. 24, 403, 413
interaction with ion channels............................. 217–230 Epithelial Na+ channel ............................................. 267, 342
Carboxy-terminal epitope tagging ............................... 34, 39 Erythrocyte
Cardiomyocyte .................................................192, 193, 196 ATP release from ....................................................... 336
Channelrhodopsin ................................................... 401–414 electrophysiology ....................................................... 173
Chemiluminescence.................................. 234, 236, 239, 240 ion channels ....................................................... 321–337
Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells........................9, 11, 24, isosmotic haemolysis.......................................... 327, 328
25, 151, 152, 155, 173, 212, 214, 215 tracer flux ................................................... 332–333, 337
DOI 10.1007/978-1-62703-351-0, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2013
437
438 Index
Excitability ..................................................... 166, 201, 304, Human embryonic kidney

311, 312, 386, 402 (HEK293) cells ................................... 23–25, 29, 92,
Expression systems ............................................. 8, 9, 21–32, 93, 100, 101, 103, 112, 116, 135–137, 173, 202,
34, 80, 120, 144, 174, 262, 405 204–206, 234, 269, 271, 273, 274, 276, 409, 410,
Extracellular epitope ................................................ 234, 246 413, 419, 420, 425–426, 429–431, 433
F I
Fluorescence Immunochemistry ................................................... 189, 234
microscopy ............................................ 25, 70, 201–207, Immunofluorescence ....................................... 253, 375–376
209, 356, 421 Inflammatory mediator .................................................... 64
spectroscopy ....................................................... 217, 219 Integral membrane protein ....................................... 91, 133,
Fluorescent dye 203, 257, 385
Fluo3/4 ..............................................................329, 335 Intracellular perfusion.............................................. 119, 380
Fura2 .........................................................................378 Ionomycin....................................................... 324, 326, 327,
Lucifer yellow ............................................................317 329, 331, 334, 378
Fluorescent protein (FP) .................................. 22, 136, 202, Isolated renal tubules ............................................... 346, 373
203, 206, 211, 404–406, 409, 412, 431, 433 Isosmotic haemolysis ....................................... 327, 328, 331
Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) ....................356
Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET) K
efficiency.................................................... 210–212, 214
FRET pair .................................................................210 KATP channels...........................................................233–241
principles ........................................................... 209, 210 K+ channel
quantification.....................................................214–216 endogenous ................................................................247
FPLC. See Chromatography, FPLC heterologous expression of .........................................151
FRET. See Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET) patch clamp recording of ...........................................312
FSGS. See Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) KCNQ channels. See Kv7 channels
Kv7 channels
G interaction with calmodulin ............................... 218, 219
recording from DRG slices ........................................312
GABA
two-electrode voltage clamp recording of ................... 81
currents ......................................................................270
receptors ....................................................................267 L
Gardos channels ...............................326, 327, 331, 334, 336
Gel electrophoresis ............................................ 44, 260–263 Laminin coating ........................................ 61, 103, 194, 195
Gene delivery. See Transfection Lentivirus ................................................ 67, 71, 73, 74, 405
GFP. See Green fluorescent protein (GFP) Ligand-gated ion channels ................................. 79, 99, 102,
Giant axon ................................................................... 79, 80 173, 179, 417–434
Giant patch. See Macropatch Lipid bilayer ............................................... 52, 92, 109–118,
Glutamate receptors 201, 385
glutamate binding ......................................................418 Lipofectamine ...................................................... 24–27, 31,
use for optogenetics ...................................................418 135, 139, 145, 202, 204, 269, 272,
G protein coupled receptor ........................................ 56, 378 274, 420, 426, 433
Gramicidin ......................................................................150 Liposomes ......................................................... 31, 110, 118
Green fluorescent protein (GFP) ......................... 29, 31, 61, Live-cell imaging ............................................. 190, 209–216
152, 182, 205, 207, 211, 269, 272–274, 387–389, L-type calcium channels ..................................................191
391, 394, 404 Lucifer yellow. See Fluorescent dye
H M
HEK293 cells. See Human embryonic kidney Macropatch ....................................... 92, 106, 119, 126, 127
(HEK293) cells Mammalian expression systems ............................... 9, 21–32
HERG potassium channels .............................................174 M channels. See Kv7 channels
Heterologous expression system ........................ 34, 174, 262 M current ................................................................311–319
Hippocampal neurons Mechanosensitive ion channel .......................................... 62
culture ........................................................................421 Membrane protein purification ...................................33–53
dendritic recordings ...................................................303 Microinjection .................................................................. 82
pyramidal neurons .............................................306–308 MthK channel ......................................................... 277, 278
Index 439
N Photochromic tethered ligand ................................ 418, 419,

422–423, 432, 434
Na+ channels .....................................246, 267, 322, 342, 393 PIP2 ......................................................... 114, 115, 117, 127
Na+ current ...................................................... 393–395, 432 Planar lipid bilayer....................................... 52, 92, 109–118
Nephron Planar patch clamp. See Automated patch
derived cultures ..........................................................372 clamp recording
distal .......................................................... 342, 371–383 Podocytes.................................................................355–368
segments .................................................... 343, 367, 370 Poly-D-lysine coating......................................... 57, 61, 103,
Nerve growth factor (NGF) ........................ 11, 64, 160, 163 349, 351, 362
Neuronal culture ............................................. 55, 56, 60, 69, Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) ............................. 6, 7, 15,
70, 160, 386, 391, 412 72, 203, 258–263, 413, 423–424
Neurons Potassium channels. See K+ channel
cortical ......................................................... 70, 303–309 Protein
dendrites ....................................................................192 detection of (see Western blotting)
DRG........................................................... 6, 11, 56–63, expression of ................................................... 40–43, 48,
160–168, 312, 317 50, 206, 221, 222, 280, 291–293,
drosophila sensory .............................................385–396 295–297, 299, 431
hippocampal ...................................... 307, 421, 430, 431 labeling of .................................................. 299, 393, 394
primary–transfection of ......................................... 61, 70 protein interaction ...................................... 12, 192, 201,
pyramidal ...................................................................307 202, 217, 218, 223
sensory ...................................................... 4–7, 9, 56, 61, purification of ............................................... 33–53, 111,
64, 159–169, 311, 312, 385–396 118, 220–222, 293–294, 297–298
slice preparation .........................................................312 recycling of ................................................................233
trigeminal ganglion ................................................ 56, 62 trafficking of .............................................. 210, 233, 403
NMR spectroscopy ..................................................289–299 Pyramidal neurons. See Neurons
Non-ionic detergent .................................................... 33, 49
Nucleofection. See Transfection R
Nystatin ...........................................................................150
rAAV. See Recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV)
O RCK domain
Ca2+-binding sites of ..........................................277–286
Oligohistidine tag ............................................................. 39 crystal structure of ............................................. 279, 282
Oligonucleotide primer ................................... 420, 424, 431 Recombinant adeno-associated
Oocytes. See Xenopus oocytes virus (rAAV) ................................................401–414
Optical switch ......................................................... 429, 431 Reconstitution. See Planar lipid bilayer
Optochemical genetics ....................................................417
Optogenetics ..................................................... 66, 417, 431 S
Organic osmolyte and anion
Scanning ion conductance microscopy
channels ....................... 322, 327–328, 331, 334–336
(SICM) ........................................................189–195
SDS-PAGE. See Gel electrophoresis
P
Sensory neuron. See Neurons
PAGE. See Gel electrophoresis Shear stress ...................................... 164, 245, 373, 379–380
Patch clamp SICM. See Scanning ion conductance
cell-attached configuration .............. 92, 96–99, 346, 358 microscopy (SICM)
excised patch ............................................................. 136 Single-channel recording ........................................ 102–105,
inside-out configuration ............................. 92, 125, 127 135, 138, 140–142, 144–146, 189–197, 362, 372
perforated patch recording........................................ 317 analysis............................................... 134, 137, 362–364
planar patch clamp (see Automated patch Single molecule detection ................................................202
clamp recording) Site-directed mutagenesis ....................................... 257–265,
“smart patch clamp,” 189–197 269, 271, 420
whole-cell recording ............................ 92, 160, 177, 326 Sodium channels. See Na+ channels
PCR. See Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) Sucrose density gradient ............................................. 68, 74
Phosphoinositides.................................................... 112, 117 Synaptic input ................................................................ 303
440 Index
T TRPV1 ......................................................... 6, 8–10, 15,

121, 247, 248, 317
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) .............................. 6, 15, 388, 392, 393 TRPV6 ..............................................................121, 126
Total internal reflection fluorescent TTX. See Tetrodotoxin (TTX)
microscopy (TIRF) Two-electrode voltage clamp ....................... 79–89, 129, 130
principles ...................................................................202
TIRF-FRET .....................................................210–213 U
using TIRF for study ion channel
UV detection ................................................... 281, 283, 299
trafficking ....................................................201–207
UV illumination ...................................................... 429, 433
Transduction.............................................. 4, 55, 69, 70, 385
Transfection V
biolistic ....................................................................... 56
using lipophilic reagents ............................................. 27 Voltage clamp. See Two-electrode voltage clamp
using nucleofection ................................................ 56, 61 Voltage-gated channels
stable.......................................................... 21–24, 27–28 Ca2+ channels ............................... 14, 183, 197, 246, 247
transient ............................................. 21–23, 25–27, 272 K+ channels ..................................................... 14, 81, 86,
viral (see Transduction) 151, 246, 248, 257, 267
Transformation of bacteria with Na+ channels ........................................... 6, 7, 11, 14, 15,
plasmid DNA ......................................................295 151, 156, 247, 392, 393
Trigeminal ganglion neurons. See Neurons W
TRP channels
TRPC1 ..............................................................247, 248 Western blotting ......... 39, 41, 42, 44–47, 253, 254, 270, 367
TRPC6 .............................................. 322, 355, 356, 372 Whole-cell patch clamp. See Patch clamp
TRPM2 ..................................................... 247, 264, 265
X
TRPM3 .............................................................247, 248
TRPM8 .................................................... 8–10, 15, 111, Xenopus oocytes ................ 8, 9, 80, 83–85, 92, 119–130, 144
112, 114–116, 118, 121, 127 X-ray crystallography............................... 257, 277–286, 289

Ion Channels: Methods and Protocols

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Ion Channels: Methods and Protocols

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Methods in

Molecular Biology 998

Nikita Gamper Editor

For further volumes:

Methods and Protocols

ISSN 1064-3745 ISSN 1940-6029 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013933365

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2013

Cover illustration: Taken from Figure 1 of Chapter 16

Printed on acid-free paper

Humana Press is a brand of Springer

Leeds, UK Nikita Gamper

PART I CLONING AND HETEROLOGOUS EXPRESSION OF ION CHANNEL GENES

1 Approaches to Cloning of Pain-Related Ion Channel Genes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

PART II ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS TO STUDY ION

6 Two-Electrode Voltage Clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

13 Automated Planar Patch-Clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

PART III IMAGING AND FLUORESCENCE METHODS TO STUDY ION CHANNELS

15 Using Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy

PART IV BIOCHEMICAL AND STRUCTURE-FUNCTIONAL APPROACHES

19 Generation of Antibodies That Are Externally Acting

PART V STUDYING ION CHANNELS IN NATIVE TISSUES

25 M-Current Recording from Acute DRG Slices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

PART VI ION CHANNELS AS RESEARCH TOOLS

KARIN ABARCA-HEIDEMANN • Department of Biochemistry, Temple University School of

NIKITA GAMPER • Faculty of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences,

MYKOLA MAMENKO • Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology,

MARK S. SHAPIRO • Department of Physiology, University of Texas Health Science

Cloning and Heterologous Expression of Ion Channel Genes

Approaches to Cloning of Pain-Related Ion Channel Genes

Substantial advances in our understanding of pain mechanisms

action potentials along the nociceptive pathways (5–13).

Cre-recombinase only in subsets of sensory neurons were

2 Subtractive and Differential Cloning

There are many variations of the subtractive and differential cloning

of proteins: TTX-resistant voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.8

Fig. 1 Schematic representation of subtractive cloning and differential screening

amplification in the following steps. The DRG cDNA was hybrid-

oligonucleotide on chips are known. Second, differential screenings

Functional cloning could be divided into three separate approaches:

fruitful. Thus, mechano-gated channels Piezo1 and Piezo2 are

including inherited erythromelalgia (IEM) and paroxysmal

There are several cloning strategies to isolate adapter proteins,

Fig. 3 Schematic representation of two-hybrid cloning of interacting proteins.

particular purified proteins. Thus, the first step of this approach is to

oligonucleotides that will encode a determined protein sequence.

Homology cloning is an extremely productive approach for clon-

bases are screened for homology to particular sequences using spe-

It is well accepted that molecular biology revolutionized many

I would like to thank to members of my lab Dr. Belugin, Mr. Patil,

Brooks, Dube, Nikita Ruparel, Shivani Ruparel, and Patwardhan

Mammalian Expression Systems and Transfection

transfection and transient expression by adenoviral delivery. Three

2. Incubate mix A and B at room temperature for 5 min.

Lipofectamine + plasmid Efficiency of transfection (%)

The efficiencies of transfection for the 11 and 4.7 kb plasmid

3.2 Stable 1. After transfection of Neuro2A cells with Lipofectamine 2000

Fig. 1 Dilution of transfected cells to isolate single clones. Perform dilutions in a

8. Transfer single clones to a single well in a 24-well plate and