RF Basics

RF Basics, RF for Non-RF Engineers
Dag Grini Program Manager, Low Power Wireless Texas2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 1 Instruments
Agenda
Basics Basic Building Blocks of an RF System RF Parameters and RF Measurement Equipment Support / getting started
2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 2
Definitions
dBm relative to 1 mW dBc relative to carrier 10mW = 10dBm, 0dBm = 1mW -110dBm = 1E-11mW = 0.00001nW For a 50 ohm load : -110dBm is 0.7uV, i.e. not much!
Rule of thumb:
Double the power = 3 dB increase Half the power = 3 dB decrease
dBm to Watt
About dBm and W
Voltage Ratio Power Ratio Voltage Level Power Level aV = 20 log (P2/P1) aP = 10 log (P2/P1) V = 20 log (V/1V) P = 10 log (P/1mW) [aV] = dB [aP] = dB [V] = dBV [P] = dBm
e.g. 25mW max. allowed radiated power in the EU SRD band >> P = 10 log (25mW/1mW) = 10 * 1,39794 dBm >> 14 dBm
Electromagnetic Spectrum
SOUND RADIO LIGHT HARMFUL RADIATION
VHF = VERY HIGH FREQUENCY UHF = ULTRA HIGH FREQUENCY SHF = SUPER HIGH FREQUENCY EHF = EXTREMELY HIGH FREQUENCY
2.4 GHz ISM band ISM bands 315-915 MHz UWB 3.1-10.6 GHz
4G CELLULAR 56-100 GHz
ISM = Industrial, Scientific and Medical UWB = Ultra Wide Band
Source: JSC.MIL
Frequency Spectrum Allocation

Unlicensed ISM/SRD bands:
USA/Canada:
260 470 MHz 902 928 MHz 2400 2483.5 MHz (FCC Part 15.231; 15.205) (FCC Part 15.247; 15.249) (FCC Part 15.247; 15.249)
Europe:
433.050 434.790 MHz 863.0 870.0 MHz 2400 2483.5 MHz (ETSI EN 300 220) (ETSI EN 300 220) (ETSI EN 300 440 or ETSI EN 300 328)
Japan:
315 MHz 426-430, 449, 469 MHz 2400 2483.5 MHz 2471 2497 MHz (Ultra low power applications) (ARIB STD-T67) (ARIB STD-T66) (ARIB RCR STD-33)
ISM = Industrial, Scientific and Medical SRD = Short Range Devices
ISM/SRD License-Free Frequency Bands
RF Communication Systems
Simplex RF System
A radio technology that allows only one-way communication from a transmitter to a receiver Examples: FM radio, Pagers, TV, One-way AMR systems
TX TX RX RX TRX TX TX
TX
Half-duplex RF Systems
Operation mode of a radio communication system in which each end can transmit and receive, but not simultaneously. Note: The communication is bidirectional over the same frequency, but unidirectional for the duration of a message. The devices need to be transceivers. Applies to most TDD and TDMA systems. Examples: Walkie-talkie, wireless keyboard mouse
Full-duplex RF Systems
Radio systems in which each end can transmit and receive simultaneously Typically two frequencies are used to set up the communication channel. Each frequency is used solely for either transmitting or receiving. Applies to Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) systems. Example: Cellular phones, satellite communication
Agenda
Wireless Communication Systems

Transmitter
Low Frequency Information Signal (Intelligence) Modulator High Frequency Carrier Amplifier
Communication Channel
Receiver
Amplifier
Demodulator (detector)
Amplifier
Output transducer
Modulation and Demodulation

analog baseband signal
digital data 101101001
digital modulation
analog modulation
Radio Transmitter
radio carrier
analog demodulation radio carrier
analog baseband signal
synchronization decision
digital data 101101001 Radio Receiver
Source: Lili Qiu

Modulation Methods
Starting point: we have a low frequency signal and want to send it at a high frequency Modulation: The process of superimposing a low frequency signal onto a high frequency signal Three modulation schemes available:
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM): the amplitude of the carrier varies in accordance to the information signal 2. Frequency Modulation (FM): the frequency of the carrier varies in accordance to the information signal 3. Phase Modulation (PM): the phase of the carrier varies in accordance to the information signal
Digital Modulation
Modulation of digital signals is known as Shift Keying Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
Pros: simple Cons: susceptible to noise Example: Many legacy wireless systems, e.g. AMR
Source: Lili Qiu

Digital Modulation
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
Pros: less susceptible to noise Cons: theoretically requires larger bandwidth/bit than ASK Popular in modern systems Gaussian FSK (GFSK), e.g. used in Bluetooth, has better spectral density than 2-FSK modulation, i.e. more bandwidth efficient
1
Source: Lili Qiu
Digital Modulation
Phase Shift Keying (PSK):
Pros: Less susceptible to noise Bandwidth efficient Cons: Require synchronization in frequency and phase receivers and transmitter Example: IEEE 802.15.4 / ZigBee
complicates
t
Source: Lili Qiu
Basic Building Blocks of an RF System

RF-IC
Transmitter Receiver Transceiver System-on-Chip (SoC); typically transceiver with integrated microcontroller
Balun
Balanced to unbalanced Converts a differential signal to a single-ended signal or vice versa
Matching Filter
Used if needed to pass regulatory requirements / improve selectivity
Crystal
Reference frequency for the LO and the carrier frequency
Antenna
Transmitter
Modern transmitters typically use fractional-N synthesizers For angle modulation like FSK, MSK, O-QPSK, the synthesizer frequency is adjusted For amplitude modulation like OOK and ASK, the amplifier level is adjusted
Frequency deviation Frequency separation = 2 x df
Fc-df
fc Fc+df
Frequency
DIO=low
DIO=high
FSK modulation
Receiver Architecture
Super heterodyne receiver e.g. CC1000
Converts the incoming signal to an Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal and performs: 1. Carrier frequency tuning selects desired signal 2. Filtering separates signal from other modulated signals picked up 3. Amplification compensates for transmission losses in the signal path
Receiver Architecture
Image rejection receiver e.g. CC1020
The image frequency is an undesired input frequency that is capable of producing the same intermediate frequency (IF) as the desired input frequency produces
Crystals
Provides reference frequency for Local Oscillator (LO) and the carrier frequency Various types:
Low Power crystals (32.768 kHz) Used with sleep modes on e.g. System-on-Chips Crystals Thru hole Tuning fork SMD Temperature Controlled Crystal Oscillators (TCXO) Temperature stability some narrowband applications Voltage Controlled Crystal Oscillators (VCXO) Oven Controlled Crystal Oscillators (OCXO) Extremely stable 2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 22
Balun & Matching

DGUARD 18
Differential signal out of the chip
Digital Inteface
RBIAS 17 9 AVDD
Single ended signal
Balun and matching towards antenna
10 XOSC_Q2
8 XOSC_Q1
6 GDO0
7 CSn
GND 16
SI 20
GND 19
Antennas
Commonly used antennas: PCB antennas
Little extra cost (PCB) Size demanding at low frequencies Good performance possible Complicated to make good designs
Whip antennas
Expensive (unless piece of wire) Good performance Hard to fit in may applications
Chip antennas
Expensive OK performance
Antennas
The antenna is VERY important if long range is important A quarter wave antenna is an easy and good solution, but it is not small (433 MHz: 16.4 cm, 868 MHz: 8.2 cm)
You can curl up such an antenna and make a helical antenna. This is often a good solution since it utilizes unused volume for a product.
If you need long range and have limited space, then talk to an antenna expert !
Extending the Range of an RF System

1. Increase the Output power
Add an external Power Amplifier (PA)
3. Increase both output power and sensitivity

Add PA and LNA
2. Increase the sensitivity

Add an external Low Noise Amplifier (LNA)
4. Use high gain antennas

Regulatory requirements need to be followed
Adding an External PA
CC2420EM PA DESIGN
Signal from TXRX_Switch pin level shifted and buffered
Level in TX: 1.8 V, level for RX and all other modes: 0V
CMOS and GaAs FET switches assures low RX current consumption Simpler control without external LNA
No extra signal is needed from MCU to turn off LNA in low power modes
CC2420
TX path
ANT
CC2420EM
RF_P RF_N TXRX_SWITCH
BALUN
RX path
PA TX/RX Switch
LP filter
CC2420EM w/PA 30.8 mA 19.7 mA 9.5 dBm -93.1 dBm 580 meter
TX/RX Switch
TX current RX current Output power Sensitivity
17.4 mA 19.7 mA 0 dBm -94 dBm 230 meter
Control logic and bias network
Line of Sight Range
Radio Range Free Space Propagation

How much loss can we have between TX and RX? Friis transmission equation for free space propagation:
Pr
Pt
Gt
Gr
20 log
20 log d or Pr
Pt Gt Gr 2 (4 ) 2 d 2
Pt is the transmitted power, Pr is the received power Gt is the transmitter, Gr is the receiver antenna gain Lambda is the wavelength D is the distance between transmitter and receiver, or the range
Radio Range real life

How much loss can we really have TX to RX? 120 dB link budget at 433 MHz gives approximately 2000 meters (Chipcon rule of thumb) Based on the emperical results above and Friis equation estimates on real range can be made: Rule of Thumb:
6 dB improvement ~ twice the distance Double the frequency ~ half the range 433 MHz longer range than 868 MHz
Radio Range Important Factors

Factors
Antenna (gain, sensitivity to body effects etc.) Sensitivity Output power Radio pollution (selectivity, blocking, IP3) Environment (Line of sight, obstructions, reflections, multipath fading)
Agenda
Phase Noise
Ideal oscillator Actual oscillator with phase noise
Down Conversion (receivers): LO signal (no phase noise) Interferer Interferer
Wanted signal
IF
Wanted signal
LO signal (with phase noise) Interferer
Down-converted bands consist of two overlapping spectra, with the wanted signal suffering from significant noise due to the tail of the interferer
Wanted signal
IF
Interferer end up within the IF bandwidth and cannot be filtered out
Phase Noise
Transmitters: Transmitters
Nearby transmitter Difficult to detect weak signal at
2.
The wanted signal is corrupted by the phase noise tail of the transmitter
1 2
Ideal oscillator
Phase noise is a key parameter for transceivers CC1020: -90 dBc/Hz @ 12.5 kHz (narrowband)
Narrowband Transmitter
How good is the transmitter at making efficient use of the RF spectrum? OBW = Occupied Band Width
Defined as BW with 99.5% of the total average power (ARIB) For 12.5 kHz channel spacing OBW < 8.5 kHz (ARIB) Measured using built-in function of spectrum analyzer
Frequency Bad Good

Narrowband Transmitter
ACP = Adjacent Channel Power
25 kHz channel spacing, 17 kHz BW 12.5 kHz channel spacing, 8.5 kHz BW Measured using built-in function of spectrum analyzer
Adjacent channel BW Signal channel BW Adjacent channel BW
Narrowband characteristics: Bandwidth efficient modulation (e.g. GFSK) Low data rate Low deviation
CC1020: ACP = -51 dBc
Low phase noise
key parameter for low ACP
Frequency
ETSI: Absolute ACP requirement (dBm), ARIB: Relative (dBc)

Receiver, Co-channel Rejection

How good is the receiver at handling interferers at same frequency? Co-channel rejection, CC1020/CC1021 : -11dB Test method: Modulated interferer
Wanted signal 3 dB above sensitivity limit
Co-channel rejection in dB
Frequency
Receiver Selectivity
ACR = Adjacent Channel Rejection or ACS = Adjacent Channel Selectivity
Adjacent channel
ACR Desired channel
CC1020: 32dB @ 12.5 kHz Test method

Wanted 3dB above sensitivity level Interferer injected in the adjacent channel
Frequency Channel separation
Selectivity, measured for channels further out (alternate channel selectivity) Same test method as ACR/ACS
Interferer
Selectivity Desired channel
Frequency n*Channel separation, n=2,3,4...
Low phase noise and narrow IF bandwith good ACR/ACS

Selectivity Requirement for different RF standards
Standard, Ch. Spacing Adjacent Channel Rejection Selectivity, other channels ARIB, 12.5 kHz 30 dB ( 12.5kHz) 40 dB for all other channel ARIB, 25 kHz 40 dB ( 25kHz) 40 dB for all other channel ETSI class 1, 25 kHz 60 dB ( 25 kHz) 84 dB ( 1 MHz) Bluetooth, 1 MHz 0 dB ( 1 MHz) 30 dB ( 2 MHz) 40 dB ( 3 MHz) CC2400, 1 MHz (250kbit/s12 dB ( 1 MHz) 48 dB ( 2 MHz) 50 dB ( 3 MHz) CC2400, 1 MHz (1Mbit/s) 0 dB ( 1 MHz) 20 dB ( 2 MHz) 41dB ( 3 MHz) Zigbee (802.15.4), 5 MHz 0 dB ( 5 MHz) 30 dB for all other channels CC2420, 5MHz 39/46 (+ - 5 MHz) 53/57 (+ - 10 MHz)
CC1020 is ARIB compliant (12.5 and 25 kHz channels)
Receiver, Blocking/desensitization
Blocking/desensitization is a measure of how good a receiver is to reject an interferer far away (out of band) from the wanted signal Measured the same way as selectivity, but the interfering signal is usually not modulated CC1020 performance:
1 MHz 60 dB 2 MHz 70 dB 10 MHZ 78 dB
Blocking can be further improved with a SAW filter
Image Rejection
Image Rejection
IF-frequency
Image frequency
LO
Desired frequency
CC1000 No image rejection CC1020 Image rejection
IF
IF
Receiver Sensitivity
How to achieve good RF sensitivity? Introduce high gain in front of the receiver
External LNA needed Poor linearity (IP3) Poor blocking/selectivity Removes the losses in the SAW filter
Radio Transceiver Balun

RF_N
Antenna BPF LNA
LC
RF_P
Lower noise bandwidth (narrowband)

Blocking/linearity not changed Good selectivity Good frequency control needed
Radio Transceiver LPF T/R Switch

RF_OUT
Antenna
RF_IN
RF Measurement Equipment
Vector Network Analyzers
Component Characterisation insertion loss S-parameters - matching
Spectrum Analyzers
Output Power, harmonics, spurious emission Phase Noise ACP OBW Modulation - deviation
Signal Generators
Sensitivity (BER option needed) Selectivity/blocking Two-tone measurements IP3
Power Meters
Output Power calibration
Oscilloscopes
Digital signal analysis
Function and Arbitrary Waveform Generators

2.4 GHz ISM-band devices

Due to the world-wide availability of the 2.4GHz ISM band it is getting more crowded day by day Devices such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, cordless phones, microwave ovens, wireless game pads, toys, PC peripherals, wireless audio devices and many more occupy the 2.4 GHz frequency band
Power
802.11b/g
Microwave oven
Cordless
Frequency
Source: Eliezer & Michael, TI
Spread Spectrum Systems

Data sent using spread spectrum is intentionally spread over a wide frequency range Appears as noise, so it is difficult to detect and jam Resistant to noise and interference thus increasing the probability that the signal will be received correctly Unlikely to interfere with other signals even if they are transmitted on the same frequency 2 types of Spread Spectrum common in ISM bands:
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
General Model of a Spread Spectrum System
Input Data Channel Encoder Modulator Spreading Code Pseudorandom Noise Communication Channel Demodulator Spreading Code Pseudorandom Noise Channel Decoder
Output Data
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

Each bit represented by multiple bits using spreading code Spreading code spreads signal across wider frequency band Good resistance against interferers
RBW Ref Lvl 0 dBm
0 A -10
100 kHz 100 kHz 5 ms
RF Att Unit
30 dB dBm
VBW SWT
-20
-30 1AVG -40 1SA
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
Center 2.45 GHz Date: 23.OCT.2003 21:34:19
1 MHz/
Span 10 MHz
DSSS BPSK Example
Source: William Stalling

DSSS Spreading Mechanism

IEEE 802.15.4 (CC2420): 2 Mchips/s -> 250 kbps data rate 4 bits (nibble) are coded into 32 chips using a look-up table
RX correlation example:
Correct chip sequence for nibble = 5: 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 Incoming chip sequence (value is 5, but with 8 faulty chips): 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 Nibble value 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Comparison (XOR) with all possible chip sequences 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Correlation value 18 16 14 12 14 24 16 14 14 16 14 20 14 12 20 18
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
DSSS Co-existence Performance

CC2420 - In-band interference Power of interferer only 1 dB lower than CC2420 transmitter, NO packet errors Narrowband interferer shown as peak in the centre on top of the CC2420 spread spectrum A typical FSK receiver requires the desired signal to be 11 dB above interferer
Signal broadcast over a seemingly random series of frequencies Receiver hops between frequencies in sync with transmitter Jamming on one frequency affects only a few bits
Power
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
Frequency
2.4 GHz Devices Static Frequency Hopping

Utilise a predetermined set of frequencies with either a repeating hop pattern or a pseudorandom hop pattern, e.g. Bluetooth (versions 1.0 and 1.1)
Power
802.11b/g
Microwave oven
Cordless
Frequency
2.4 GHz Adaptive Frequency Hopping

Scan the entire frequency band at start-up and restrict usage to frequencies with the lowest energy content. RadioDesk and Bluetooth 1.2 and 2.0 are using AFH. Substitute frequencies experiencing interference on the fly.
Power
802.11b/g
microwave cordless oven
Frequency
Frequency Agility
Frequency agility can be considered an extremely slow hopping frequency hopping system In a frequency agile system the frequency is first changed when the link performance is degraded, i.e. when the Packet Error Rate (PER) exceeds a predetermined threshold
Power
1 2
Frequency
Agenda
Getting Started
Define and specify the product
Following a standard or going proprietary? Power consumption Range and regulatory requirements frequency of operation Data rate RF protocol SW content Analyse test tool and instrumentation needs Cost
Compare different vendors choose RF-IC & tools

Purchase and evaluate EVMs and required tools What SW examples, application notes and documentation are available?
Develop, co-operate or outsource?

Sufficient resources available? Do you have the necessary competence in-house? Compliance testing?
Support
Search for the relevant information
Documentation e.g. data sheets, user guides and application notes Knowledge bases SW examples
Contact your local distributor or TI directly:

Internet: TI Low Power Wireless home page: http://www.ti.com/lpw TI MSP430 home page: http://www.ti.com/msp430 TI Semiconductor Product Information Center Home Page: http://support.ti.com TI Semiconductor KnowledgeBase Home Page: http://support.ti.com/sc/knowledgebase
Summary
RF Basics
Available frequency bands RF communication systems Modulation and demodulation Basic building blocks of an RF system components Extending range Key RF parameters RF measurement equipment Spread spectrum systems DSSS / FHSS / Frequency Agility Getting started Support
Thank you for your attention! Questions?
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RF Basics, RF for Non-RF Engineers

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 2

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 3

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 4

4G CELLULAR 56-100 GHz

ISM = Industrial, Scientific and Medical UWB = Ultra Wide Band

Frequency Spectrum Allocation

ISM = Industrial, Scientific and Medical SRD = Short Range Devices

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 6

ISM/SRD License-Free Frequency Bands

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 7

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 9

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 10

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 11

Wireless Communication Systems

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 12

Modulation and Demodulation

digital data 101101001

analog demodulation radio carrier

analog baseband signal

digital data 101101001 Radio Receiver

Source: Lili Qiu

Source: Lili Qiu

Basic Building Blocks of an RF System

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 18

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 20

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 21

Balun & Matching

Differential signal out of the chip

Single ended signal

Balun and matching towards antenna

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 23

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 25

Extending the Range of an RF System

3. Increase both output power and sensitivity

2. Increase the sensitivity

4. Use high gain antennas

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 26

TX current RX current Output power Sensitivity

17.4 mA 19.7 mA 0 dBm -94 dBm 230 meter

Control logic and bias network

Line of Sight Range

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 27

Radio Range Free Space Propagation

Radio Range real life

Radio Range Important Factors

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 30

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 31

Down Conversion (receivers): LO signal (no phase noise) Interferer Interferer

LO signal (with phase noise) Interferer

Interferer end up within the IF bandwidth and cannot be filtered out

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 32

2006 Texas Instruments Inc, Slide 33

Frequency Bad Good

CC1020: ACP = -51 dBc

Low phase noise

key parameter for low ACP

ETSI: Absolute ACP requirement (dBm), ARIB: Relative (dBc)

Receiver, Co-channel Rejection

ACR Desired channel