Reading and writing

-Gerunds as subjects or objects

When do we use the verb +ing?
-When it acts as a noun, as subject or object.
-After prepositions.
-When we use 2 verbs together in a sentence, the second verd is a gerundif it
follows certain verbs: admit, avoid, can’t help, can’t imagine, can’t stand ,complete,
consider,discuss, dislike, don’t mind, enjoy,finish, give up, imagine, keep, mind,miss, practice,
recommend, report,resist, risk, suggest.
-After go when we talk about activities.

-Infinitives
When do we use the infinitive?
-To express purpose or reason for doing something.
-After an adjective/adverb + enough; or after too + adjective/adverb.
-After adjectives
-When we use 2 verbs together in a sentence, the second verd is a to- infinitive if it follows certain
verbs: afford, agree, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, beg, choose, dare,decide, demand, deserve,
expect, fail, hesitate, hope, intend, learn, manage, mean, need, offer, prepare, pretend, promise,
refuse, seem, threaten, wait, want, wish, would like…

Gerunds vs infinitives
Sometimes, we can use both the infinitive and the gerund after a verb, without changing the
meaning of the sentence. Some of those verbs are begin, hate, like, love, prefer, start.
However, sometimes the meaning of the sentence changes depending on the use of the gerund
or the infinitive after certain verbs. Those verbs are:
-Narrative tenses

-We use the past continuous fon an action in progress interruptes by other action.
-We use the past simple for one of the main actions in a story.
-We use the past perfect for an action or state that happened at an earlier time in the past
than the main events of the story.
-We use the past perfect continuous for an event that was in progress at an earlier time in
the past than the main events of the story.

-Adjectives with -ing and -ed

-Adjectives ending in -ed describe peoples feelings.

-Adjectives ending in -ing describe the effect something has on people’s feelings.

-Modals of deduction in the past and the present

MODALS OF DEDUCTION: PRESENT

1. MUST + base form of the verb → certainty: congratulations on passing your test! You must
be thrilled!
2. CAN’T + base form of the verb → impossibility: That girl looks like Tina, but it can’t be her.
She’s away for the weekend.
3. COULD/MAY(NOT)/MIGHT(NOT) + base form of the verb: possibility: Liam might be in the
library, he said he had to search for a book.

* We never use a contracted form of MAY/MIGHT NOT.

* We never use COULDN’T for deductions about the present.
* We use COULD/MAY(NOT)/MIGHT(NOT)/MUST/CAN’T + be + gerund to make deductions about
things that are happening right now: Ty must be sleeping now.

MODALS OF DEDUCTION: PAST

4. CAN’T/COULDN’T HAVE + past participle of the verb → impossibility in the past: It couldn’t
have been a wolf! There aren’t any here.
5. MUST HAVE + past participle of the verb → certainty about the past: Chloe must have
baked the cake, she was the only person using the kitchen yesterday.
MAY(NOT) HAVE/MIGHT(NOT) HAVE/COULD HAVE + past participle of the verb: possibility in the
past: I may not have filled the form properly, it was so confusing.

-Present perfect and present perfect continuous

We use the present perfect:

-To emphasise the result of a finished action, and when we specify a number, quantity or
frequency.

-With stative verbs.

-To talk about more permanent situations.

We use the present perfect continuous:

-To emphasise the length of an action that is

continuing.

-To talk about more temporary situations, or to describe changes or developments which are not
finished.

-The articles and the zero article

1) THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE: A/AN.

- With singular uncountable nouns.

- To mean “per” or “each” for frequency: we always meet twice a week. - To
mention something for the first time in a conversation.
- To show job, status…: he is a journalist.

*We use A before a consonant sound. A fisherman/A uniform.

 *We use AN before a vowel sound. An hour/An octopus.

2) THE DEFINITE ARTICLE: THE.

- With singular and plural nouns to talk about something specific when the noun is
mentioned for a second time. There’s a fisherman on a boat. The boat looks old.
- Before:
- Unique nouns: the sun is yellow.
- Names of cinemas, theatres, ships, hotels, etc.
- Names of rivers, deserts, mountain ranges…
- Names or nouns with of.
- Countries whose names are plural.
- Nationalities
- Musical instruments.
- Adjectives used as nouns: The poor should get help from the
government.
- Superlatives.
- The words: beach, countryside, station, jungle, morning, afternoon, evening.

3) THE ZERO ARTICLE:

- Articles aren’t used before:

- Generalisations.
- Proper nouns.
- Names of sports, games, colours, days, months, drinks, holidays and languages.
- School subjects.
- Names of countries, cities, streets, squares, bridges, parks, stations, individual
mountains, islands, lakes and continents,
- The words bed, church, school, hospital, prison, university, college or court
when we talk about the main purpose of the place: Fran is in
hospital (she’s a patient) vs. Angela has gone to the hospital to visit
Fran.
- The word work.
- Means of transport in expressions like by car, etc.

-Suffixes for adjectives

-al -able -ic -y -ous

 Regional Knodledgeable Acidic Hilly Mountainous
Enviromental Drinkable Volcanic Stony Poisonous
Coastal Changeable Metallic Muddy Adventurous
Global Questionable Historic Rainy Dangerous
Seasonal Believeable Photographic Sandy Mysteryous

-Writers and writing

- Novelist: novelista
- Poet: poeta
- Journalist: periodista
- Playwright: dramaturgo
- Screenwriter: guionista
- Historian: historiador
- Comedian: comediante
- Biographer: biógrafo
- Work: obra
- Series: saga
- Critics: críticos
- Critiques: críticas
- Plot: trama
- Synopsis: sinopsis, resumen
- Setting: ambientación
- Character: personaje
- Final: final (de una serie, saga...)
- Ending: final (de un capítulo, libro...)
- Passages: fragmento
- Reviews: reseñas
- Library: biblioteca
- Bookshop: librería
- Script: guión
- Detective story: historia de detectives
- Cookery book: libro de cocina
- Fantasy: fantasía
- Fiction: ficción
- Non-fiction: no ficción
- Ghost story: historia de fantasmas
- Verse: verso

PHRASAL VERBS WITH UP

- Give up: darse por vencido, dejar de
- Come up with: inventarse
- End up: acabar en
- Turn up: aparecer
- Put up with: tolerar, aguantar
- Speak up: hablar más fuerte
- Back up: respaldar, apoyar a
- Blow up: estallar
- Bring up: sacar el tema, mencionar
- Clear up: aclarar, explicar
- Mix up: confundir

COLLOCATIONS WITH SAY, SPEAK, TALK AND TELL

- Say sorry: pedir perdón
- Speak highly of: hablar muy bien de
- Speak your mind: ser sincero, decir lo que uno piensa
- Speak for yourself: hablar por ti
- Talk nonsense: decir tonterías
- Talk back to someone: replicar
- Talk someone into: convencer a alguien
- Tell the difference: diferenciar
-Enviromental words

- Demand: demanda
- Environmentally friendly: respetuoso con el medio ambiente
- Campaign (V): hacer campaña
- Self-sufficient: autosuficiente
- Solar-powered: que funciona con energía solar
- Overfishing: sobrepesca
- Biodiesel: biodiésel
- Climate change: cambio climático
- Organic: orgánico
- Recycled: reciclado
- Deforestation: deforestación
- Carbon dioxide: dióxido de carbono
- Carbon footprint: huella de carbono
- Carbon emissions: emisiones de carbono
- Flooding: inundaciones
- Global warming: calentamiento global
- Shortage: falta de algo, pocas cantidades, escasez
- Resource: recurso
- Harm (V): dañar
- Drought: sequía
- Waste (n): desperdicio
- Waste (v): desperdiciar
- Bottle bank: contenedor de vidrio
- Gas (US) / Petrol (UK): gasolina
- Pollution: contaminación
- Litter: basura de la calle
- Litter (v): tirar cosas al suelo

PHRASAL VERBS: THE ENVIRONMENT

- Take part in: formar parte de
- Carry out: completar, llevar a cabo
- Cut back (on): reducir, recortar
- Die out: extinguirse
- Lead to: llevar a, causar...
- Use up: usar hasta acabar con algo
- Run on: funcionar con
- Wipe out: destruir por completo,extinguir
- Chop down: talar
- Throw away: tirar

TALKING ABOUT THE NATURAL WORLD:

- Frontiers: fronteras
- Lush: frondoso
- Temperate: templado
- Arid: muy seco, árido
- Climate zones: zonas climáticas
- (Mountain) ranges: cordillera
- Hemisphere: hemisferio
- Stretch (v): estirarse
- Equator: ecuador
- Unexplored: inexplorado
- Crops: cultivos