FOOD AND NUUTRITION I (HED 205)

CONCEPTS

What is Nutrition?

Nutrition is the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and other substances
in food in relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and diseases of an
organism. Hence it involves food intake, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis,
catabolism and excretion. Nutrition is the study of nutrients in food, how the body uses
nutrients, and the relationship between diet, health and disease. Major food
manufacturers employ nutritionists and food scientists. Nutritionists may also work in
journalism, education and research. Many nutritionists work in the field of food science
and technology.

Difference between Nutrition and Dietetics

Dietetics is the interpretation and communication of the science of nutrition so that

people can make informed and practical choices about food and lifestyle, in both health
and disease. Part of a dietician's course includes both hospital and community settings.
The majority of dietitians work in health care, education and research, while a much
smaller proportion also work in the food industry.

One could very loosely generalize and say that a nutritionist focuses firstly on a food,
and then looks at its effects on people, while a dietician looks at the human, and then
how that human's health is influenced by food. For example, If I discovered a new fruit
and wanted to find out what it consisted of I would go to a nutritionist. If I found out I
had a long-term disease and wanted to know whether I needed to adjust my food intake
because of the disease, I would go to a dietician.

Importance of Nutrition

1. Nutrition focuses on the steps of biochemical sequences through which food

substances inside us and other living organisms are transformed from one form
to another - metabolism and metabolic pathways.

2. Nutrition also focuses on how diseases, conditions and problems can be

prevented or lessened with a healthy diet.

3. In addition, nutrition involves identifying how certain diseases, conditions or

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 problems may be caused by dietary factors, such as poor diet
(malnutrition), food allergies, metabolic diseases, etc.

4. Nutrition is present in all processes of life. Right from the very moment the
sperm fertilizes an egg, through fetal development in the uterus, to the birth,
human growth, maturity, old age, and eventual death. Even after death the human
body serves as nutrition for other organisms. Anything that involves life and
chemical or biochemical movement has nutrition at its core.

5. Anything that lives is dependent on energy, which results from the combustion of
food.

What is a Nutrient?

A nutrient is a chemical substance that provides nourishment for the maintenance of

life and for growth. A nutrient is a source of nourishment, an ingredient in a food, e.g.
protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamin, mineral, fiber and water.
Macronutrients are nutrients we need in relatively large quantities. They provide the bulk
of the energy an organism’s metabolic system needs to function.
Micronutrients are nutrients we need in relatively small quantities. They provide
necessary cofactors for metabolism to be carried out.
HUNGER: an unpleasant sensation that compels a person to seek food and eat it. It is a
physiological condition which is associated with the contraction of the stomach.
APPETITE: is a pleasant sensation that causes a person to desire and anticipate

CLASSES OF FOOD

Energy macronutrients

Energy macronutrients provide energy, which is measured either in kilocalories (kcal) or

Joules. 1 kcal = 4185.8 joules.

1. Carbohydrates - 4 kcal per gram

Carbohydrate molecules consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms and can be
represented by the formula Cx(HxO)y, where x and y may have values ranging from three
to thousands. Carbohydrates include monosaccharide (glucose, fructose, galactose),
disaccharides, and polysaccharides (starch).

Nutritionally, polysaccharides are more favored for humans because they are more

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complex molecular sugar chains and take longer to break down - the more complex a
sugar molecule is, the longer it takes to break down and absorb into the bloodstream,
and the less it spikes blood sugar levels. (Spikes in blood sugar levels are linked to heart
and vascular diseases).

Carbohydrates may be classified according to complexity and are divided into 2

categories:

Simple Carbohydrates: the basic unit of all carbohydrates is the sugar called glucose.
Glucose is often called ‘blood sugar’. The atoms of glucose may be re arranged to form
fructose found in fruits, berries, honey or galactose. Glucose, fructose and galactose are
monosaccharides or simply sugars

Two monosaccharides combine to form disaccharides or double sugars. When fructose

and glucose combine you have sucrose (table sugar) which is found naturally in sugar
cane. Glucose and galactose form lactose, glucose and glucose form maltose.

Explain empty calories: sugars are called empty calories because they are just ready
sources of calories but devoid of other important nutrients like vitamins, minerals or
protein

Complex carbohydrates: consists of three or more saccharide units and are often long
chains. The most common forms of complex carbohydrates are starch, glycogen and
cellulose.

Plants store energy in form of starch while animals store excess glucose as glycogen in
the liver. Excess of it beyond which the body can store as glycogen is stored as fat

Cellulose is the polymeric form of glucose units linked together by glycoside linkages. It
is the most abundant organic molecule and the major structural unit of plants. (Cotton

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and paper are some forms of pure cellulose) complex carbohydrates which cannot be
broken down by body enzymes.

Functions of carbohydrates

 Source of energy (to the body, for the muscles, for the nervous system, for heart
muscle)

 Protein sparing action (carbohydrates serving as an energy source and

preventing protein from being oxidized is called protein sparing action)

 Conversion to fat

 Promotes growth of some desirable bacteria

Fiber
Fiber consists mostly of carbohydrates. It is found in the cell walls of plants. It functions
as a skeleton for plants to help maintain shape and structure. Human enzymes cannot
digest fiber. Fibers can be classified as:

Soluble fibers (e.g. found in oats, citrus fruits, apples, flaxseeds)

Functions

 They dissolve in water, soften stools, making them easier to eliminate from the
body.

 Diets high in soluble fiber have been shown to reduce cholesterol (because they
bind to bile acids that contain cholesterol.

Insoluble fibers (are found in whole grains, nuts wheat bran and vegetables).

Functions

 They provide bulk to keep material moving in the digestive tract.

 They absorb water, swell up and help eliminate intestinal wastes thus reducing
incidence of constipation, colon cancers and other colon disorders.

 They may also decrease risk of diabetes.

Fibers can also be classified as dietary fiber (natural component of the food we eat) or

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functional fiber (Isolated, extracted or manufactured)

Sources: carbohydrates are found in rice, yam, wheat, potato, banana, etc

2. Proteins - 4 kcal per gram

Protein molecules contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Simple proteins,
called monomers (amino acids), are used to create complicated proteins, called
polymers (polypeptides), which build and repair tissue. When used as a fuel the protein
needs to break down, as it breaks down it gets rid of nitrogen, which has to be
eliminated by the kidneys.

All proteins are formed from varying combinations of specific nitrogen-containing

chemicals called amino-acids. These amino acids are often referred to as the building
blocks of protein. Non-essential amino acids are the ones the body can make by itself
while the essential amino acids are the ones that must be obtained from food. Those
proteins with all the essential amino acids are called complete proteins and are found
in animal sources (lamp, milk, fish, eggs, cheese). Protein from plant sources are
usually low in or lack one or more of the essential amino acids and are called
incomplete proteins. Nitrogen gives protein the important function of growth,
maintenance and regulation of body tissues and processes. Protein is the second major
constituent of the body after water.

Essential amino acids are; histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,

phenylalanine, threonine, valine and tryptophan

Non-essential amino acids are; alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine,
glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine and tyrosine

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Amino acid has a central carbon atom bonded to four covalent partners, namely:

 Amino group (NH2)

 Carboxyl group (COOH)

 R- group (side chain/variant): each amino acid has its unique R-group e.g. when
R= H, the amino acid is Glycine, when R = CH3, the amino acid is Alanine

Functions

 Protein is important for tissue building particularly during pregnancy, infancy and
breastfeeding

 Repair of body tissues (protein forms clots that help to close wounds, mend
damaged tissues and reinforce tendons, ligaments and blood vessel walls

 Maintenance of body tissues

 Catalyze chemical reactions in the body

 Involved in transportation of materials across the cell

 Can be used as a source of energy if diet does not contain enough carbohydrates
(explain that protein is an expensive and inefficient source of calories, when it is

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 broken down the nitrogen is not needed and therefore excreted by the kidneys)

Fats - 9 kcal per gram

Fats are a group of chemical compounds that, like carbohydrate, are composed of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms linked together in specific ways. Animal fats are
found in meat, cheese, butter, egg yolk while plant fats occur as oils and are found in
fruits (palm oil) and seeds (sunflower seeds). Fat is the second major source of energy
for the body.

The three major types of fats in the body are triglycerides, phospholipids and sterols.
Triglycerides constitute 95% of fats in dietary sources. It is composed of clusters of
atoms of fatty acids and glycerol. each triglyceride is made up of 3 fatty acids attached
to glycerol.

Fats consist of a chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms with a few oxygen atoms on the
side. If all the carbon atoms are linked together with single bonds, it allows the
maximum number of hydrogen atoms to bond to the molecule, said to be saturated with
hydrogen.

Some fatty acid molecules have one double bond between the carbon atoms, it is said
to be monounsaturated.

If two or more double bonds exist, it is said to be polyunsaturated.

Functions

 Play an important role in many body functions.

 It is a major constituent of cell membranes and the covering that protects nerve
fibres

 It aids in the formation of vitamin D and the sex hormones, androgen, estrogen

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 and progesterone

 Also used in by the body to produce bile acids, which in turn aid in digesting fats

 Richer source of energy than carbohydrates. When oxidized in respiration, they

yield more than twice the number of calories per gram than carbohydrates

 Body’s chief way of storing energy

 Stored fat provides insulation for the body against cold temperatures and provide
padding

 They carry fat-soluble vitamins

 Moves slowly through the stomach, so they reduce hunger making us feel full

 Makes food more flavorful and tender

Macromolecule Monomer Polymer

Proteins Amino acids Polypeptide

Lipid Glycerol & fatty acid Glycerides

Carbohydrates Monosaccharaides Polysaccharides, starch

Other macronutrients

These do not provide energy.

Water
Water, next to oxygen is the most important constituent of life. About 70% of the non-
fat mass of the human body is water. Nobody is completely sure how much water the
human body needs - claims vary from between one to seven liters per day to
avoid dehydration. We do know that water requirements are very closely linked to body
size, age, environmental temperatures, physical activity, different states of health, and
dietary habits.

Somebody who consumes a lot of salt will require more water than another person of
the same height, age and weight, exposed to the same levels of outside temperatures,
and similar levels of physical exertion who consumes less salt. Most blanket claims
that 'the more water you drink the healthier you are' are not backed with scientific
evidence. The variables that influence water requirements are so vast that accurate
advice on water intake would only be valid after evaluating each person individually.

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Micronutrients

Micronutrients are required in small quantities throughout a person's life. They include
vitamins and minerals.

Minerals
THE MACROMINERALS; CALCIUM, PHOSPHORUS, MAGNESIUM, POTASSIUM,
CHLORIDE

Mineral nutrients can be defined as inorganic compounds (usually salts and oxides), as
distinguished from the huge class of organic (carbon containing) nutrients which
includes the proteins, carbohydrates, fats and vitamins. People who eat a well-balanced
diet will in most cases obtain all their minerals from what they eat.

Minerals are often artificially added to some foods to make up for potential dietary
shortages and subsequent health problems. The best example of this is iodized salt -
iodine is added to prevent iodine deficiency, which even today affects about two billion
people and causes mental retardation and thyroid gland problems. Iodine deficiency
remains a serious public health problem in over half the planet.

About 16 minerals are considered essential for human biochemical processes by

serving structural and functional roles. Of these, 6 are needed in amounts of 100mg or
more daily and are called major or macrominerals. These 6 are calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride.

Sulfur is an essential macromineral not included in the list. It is a component of the

essential amino acid, methionine. Thus it is automatically obtained by eating adequate
protein and is of no separate or practical importance.

MACROMINERALS

CALCIUM

It is major component of the bones and teeth and the most plentiful mineral in the
human body. 99 percent of calcium found in the body is in the skeletal bones.

Functions

 It assists in the synthesis and function of blood cells

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  For maintenance of cell membranes and structural supports (cements) within the
cells

 Together with activated vitamin D, calcium is essential for proper growth and
maintenance of the bones

 important for muscle, heart and digestive health.

Deficiency - hypocalcaemia (muscle cramps, abdominal cramps, spasms, and

hyperactive deep tendon reflexes)

Excess - hypercalcaemia (muscle weakness, constipation, undermined conduction of

electrical impulses in the heart, calcium stones in urinary tract, impaired kidney
function, and impaired absorption of iron leading to iron deficiency).

PHOSPHORUS

Phosphorus is needed in amounts similar to calcium. It is present in nearly all foods

hence dietary deficiency is extremely unlikely to occur in humans.

Functions

 It teams up with calcium to participate in the complex mineral matrix that

provides bone growth, strength and maintenance.

Deficiency - hypophosphatemia, an example is rickets.

Excess - hyperphosphatemia, often a result of kidney failure.

MAGNESIUM

Magnesium can be found in water but when water is softened, calcium and
magnesium are often removed. The blood level of magnesium is controlled precisely
by the human kidney.

functions

 Like calcium, magnesium salts form part of the bone matrix

 It is needed for transmission of nerve impulses to muscle by providing proper

electrical potential

 It is essential for normal utilization (metabolism) of potassium and calcium

 It acts as a coenzyme in enzyme systems required for the utilization, storage

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 and release of the energy in carbohydrates.

 Also a coenzyme in the syntheses of body protein and for DNA, the genetic
controller of all cell reproduction, replacement and repair

Deficiency - hypomagnesemia (irritability of the nervous system with spasms of the

hands and feet, muscular twitching and cramps, and larynx spasms).
Excess - hypermagnesemia (nausea, vomiting, impaired breathing, low blood
pressure). Very rare, and may occur if patient has renal problems.

SODIUM, POTASSIUM AND CHLORIDE

All three minerals are plentiful in foodstuffs. Scientists call these minerals electrolytes
because in water they completely dissociate into component ions that conduct
electrical currents. Sodium and potassium ions carry positive charges while chloride
ions are negatively charged.

Sodium chloride, common table salt is a neutral inorganic salt composed of 40%
sodium and 60% chloride. In water the charges on the chloride ions neutralize and
balance the charges on the sodium ions.

functions

 Sodium ions outside of the cell walls, together with potassium ions inside of the
cells, are essential for maintaining the balance between tissues fluids inside and
outside of the cells.

 Chloride forms hydrochloric acid which is required to activate the enzyme pepsin
which performs preliminary protein digestion in the stomach. It is also important
for cellular pump functions.

Deficiency of potassium - hypokalemia (can profoundly affect the nervous system and
heart).
Excess of potassium - hyperkalemia (can also profoundly affect the nervous system
and heart).

Deficiency of chloride- hypochleremia (low salt levels, which if severe can be very
dangerous for health).
Excess of chloride - hyperchloremia (usually no symptoms, linked to excessive fluid
loss).
Deficiency of sodium - hyponatremia (cause cells to malfunction; extremely low sodium
can be fatal).
Excess of sodium- hypernatremia (can also cause cells to malfunction, extremely high

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levels can be fatal).

MICRO-MINERALS
 Zinc
Function - required by several enzymes.
Deficiency - short stature, anemia, increased pigmentation of skin, enlarged liver and
spleen, impaired gonadal function, impaired wound healing, and immune deficiency.
Excess - suppresses copper and iron absorption.
 Iron

Function - required for proteins and enzymes, especially hemoglobin.

Deficiency - anemia.
Excess - iron overload disorder; iron deposits can form in organs, particularly the
heart.
 Manganese
Function - a cofactor in enzyme functions.
Deficiency - wobbliness, fainting, hearing loss, weak tendons and ligaments. Less
commonly, can be cause of diabetes.
Excess - interferes with the absorption of dietary iron.
 Copper
Function - component of many redox (reduction and oxidation) enzymes.
Deficiency - anemia or pancytopenia (reduction in the number of red and white blood
cells, as well as platelets) and a neurodegeneration.
Excess - can interfere with body's formation of blood cellular components; in severe
cases convulsions, palsy, and insensibility and eventually death (similar to arsenic
poisoning).
 Iodine

Function - required for the biosynthesis of thyroxine (a form of thyroid hormone).

Deficiency - developmental delays, among other problems.
Excess - can affect functioning of thyroid gland.
 Selenium
Function - cofactor essential to activity of antioxidant enzymes.
Deficiency - Keshan disease (myocardial necrosis leading to weakening of the heart),
Kashing-Beck disease (atrophy degeneration and necrosis of cartilage tissue).
Excess - garlic-smelling breath, gastrointestinal disorders, hair loss, sloughing of
nails, fatigue, irritability, and neurological damage.

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 Molybdenum

Function - vital part of three important enzyme systems, xanthine oxidase, aldehyde
oxidase, and sulfite oxidase. It has a vital role in uric acid formation and iron
utilization, in carbohydrate metabolism, and sulfite detoxification.

Deficiency - may affect metabolism and blood counts, but as this deficiency is often
alongside other mineral deficiencies, such as copper, it is hard to say which one was
the cause of the health problem.
Excess - there is very little data on toxicity, therefore excess is probably not an issue.

VITAMINS
Vitamins, on the other hand, are a group of substances quite unrelated to each other in
their chemical structure. They are organic chemical compounds that are essential for
the body’s normal growth, development and metabolism. They however share some
common features:

a) They are not digested or broken down for energy

b) Mostly, they are not built into the body structure

c) They are essential in very small quantities for normal health

d) They are needed for chemical reactions in the cells, working in association
with enzymes.

These are organic compounds we require in tiny amounts. An organic compound is any
molecule that contains carbon. It is called a vitamin when our bodies cannot synthesize
(produce) enough or any of it. So we have to obtain it from our food. Vitamins are
classified by what they do biologically - their biological and chemical activity - and not
their structure.

Vitamins are classified as water soluble (they can dissolve in water) or fat soluble (they
can dissolve in fat). For humans there are 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and 9 water-
soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C) vitamins - a total of 13.

Water soluble vitamins need to be consumed more regularly because they are
eliminated faster and are not readily stored. Urinary output is a good predictor of water
soluble vitamin consumption. Several water-soluble vitamins are manufactured by
bacteria.

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 Fat soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestines with the help of fats (lipids).
They are more likely to accumulate in the body because they are harder to eliminate
quickly. Excess levels of fat soluble vitamins are more likely than with water-soluble
vitamins - this condition is called hypervitaminosis. Patients with cystic fibrosis need to
have their levels of fat-soluble vitamins closely monitored.

We know that most vitamins have many different reactions, which means they have
several different functions. Below is a list of vitamins, and some details we know about
them:

SN Vitamin Chemical Solubility Functions Deficiency Overdose

name disease

1 Vitamin A retinol, retinoids Fat Good skin, beautiful Night blindness, Vitamin A toxicity
and carotenoids hair, sharp vision, xerophthalmia,
strong bones, keratomalcia
immunity, health nails

Sources: carrots,
spinach, cheese, eggs,
fish, liver, milk
(RDA:1mg)

2. Vitamin Thiamine Water Efficient brain, good beriberi, rare hypersensitive

B1 digestion, healthy Wernicke- reactions
muscles and heart and Korsakoff resembling anaphyl
quality sleep syndrome actic shock when
overdose is due to
sources: nuts, oats,
injection.
yeast, grass, legumes
Drowsiness

(RDA:2mg per day)

3 Vitamin Riboflavin Water Regenerating cells, Ariboflavinosis None known,

B2 sharp vision and (mouth lesions, Excess is excreted
healthy muscles vascularization in urine
of the cornea,
Sources: milk,
seborrhea)

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 almonds, eggs,
mushrooms, cheese,
yeast, meat (RDA:
3mg)

liver damage, skin

4 Vitamin Niacin Water Pellagra
problems, and GIT
B3
complaints

5. Vitamin Pantothenic acid Water Good memory, Paresthesia None reported

B5 cheerful mood, healthy (tingling,
heart and vessels pricking or
numbness of
Sources: chicken, egg
the skin with no
yolk, dairy products,
apparent long-
rice, oats, yeast,
term physical
legumes (RDA: 5mg)
effect)

6. Vitamin Pyridoxamine, Water Strong NS and healthy anemia, nerve damage,

B6 pyridoxal blood vessels peripheral neuro proprioception is
pathy. impaired (ability to
Sources: cereals,
sense stimuli within
green salad, bananas,
your own body is
salmon, meat (RDA:
undermined)
2mg)

7 Vitamin Biotin water dermatitis, None reported

B7 enteritis

8 Vitamin Folinic acid, Folic water birth defects seizure threshold

B9 acid during possibly
pregnancy, such diminished.
as neural tube.

9 Vitamin Cyanocobalamin, Water Normal weight, good Megaloblastic None reported

B12 hydroxycobalamin, immunity, sound anemia
methylcobalamin memory, healthy GIT

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 Sources: spinach,
cheese, egg yolk,
oyster, fish, soybeans
(RDA: 2-5mg)

diarrhea, nausea,
10 Vitamin C Ascorbic acid Water Smooth skin, scurvy
skin irritation,
immunity, healthy hair
burning upon
and nails, cheerful urination, depletion
mood of the mineral
copper, and higher
Sources: citrus, beans,
risk of kidney
cauliflower, peas, stones.
radish, kiwi (RDA:
70mg)

Hypervitaminosis D
11 Vitamin D Ergocalciferol, Fat Healthy bones, good Rickets,
(headache,
cholecalciferol blood circulation, osteomalcia,
weakness,
immunity to colds, higher risks of disturbed digestion,
elimination of toxins some cancers increased blood
pressure, and
Sources: cheese,
tissue
butter, eggs, seafood, calcification).
potatoes, vegetables,
butter (RDA: 2-5mg)

Higher risk of
12 Vitamin E Tocotrienols, Fat Normal operation of Very rare, may
congestive heart
tocopherol the reproductive include
failure
system, promotes a hemolytic
rejuvenated body anemia in
newborn babies
Sources: corn,
pumpkin seed nuts,
meat, dairy products
(RDA: 30-50mg)

Very rare
13 Vitamin K phylloquinone, Fat Fast healing, normal Greater
menaquinones. blood coagulation tendency to

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 bleed
Sources: spinach,
nettles, cauliflower,
green tea, carrrots
(RDA: 1-2mg)

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18
DIGESTION

This is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food
molecules so that they can be more easily absorbed and assimilated by the body. It can
also be said to be the preparation of ingested food for absorption and diffusion into
body tissues so that the nutritional needs of all body cells can be met. Starches need to
break down to simple sugars, proteins to amino acids and fats to fatty acids and
glycerol.

The Digestive system

The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert ingested food
into energy and basic nutrients to feed the entire body, through its mechanical and
chemical functions. Food passes through a long tube inside the body known as the
alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). The alimentary canal is made up
of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, and large intestines. In
addition to the alimentary canal, there are several important accessory organs that help
your body to digest food.

Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how
food is broken down:

Mechanical and chemical digestion

Mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into
smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes.

In chemical digestion, enzymes breakdown food into the small molecules the body can
use

Process in the digestive system:

Ingestion (eating) → digestion (breaking down) → Absorption→ Egestion

DETERRENTS TO DIGESTION

Digestion is affected by:

 Emotional state of individual

 Amount of physical activity during digestive process

 Digestion is enhanced when one eats in a reasonably relaxed physical and

emotional state. The digestive system has tremendous capacity for adjustment to
abuse, but common sense applied to quantity and quality of foods ingested will

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contribute considerably to comfortable digestion.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into energy
and basic nutrients to feed the entire body. Food passes through a long tube inside the
body known as the alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). The
alimentary canal is made up of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestines, and large intestines.

THE MOUTH

The mouth is also called the buccal cavity or oral cavity. It is bounded by the lips,
cheeks, palate (roof of the mouth) and tongue. It also contains the teeth. Ducts connect
the mouth with three major pairs of salivary glands (parotid, submandibular and
sublingual glands), which secrete saliva to moisten food during chewing. The mouth
initiates mechanical breakdown of food.

THE PHARYNX

It extends from the base of the skull to the esophagus. It aids swallowing by grasping
the food and propelling it towards the esophagus

ESOPHAGUS

It is a muscular tube that extends from the pharynx to the stomach. The esophagus is
involved in the processes of swallowing and peristalsis to move substances from the
mouth to the stomach. (Peristalsis is a series of involuntary wave-like muscle
contractions which move food along the digestive tract). The swallowing of food begins
in the mouth and continues with the contraction of skeletal muscles in the pharynx and
esophagus. The upper esophageal sphincter dilates to permit the swallowed substance
to enter the esophagus. From this point, waves of muscle contraction called peristalsis
move food toward the stomach. In peristalsis, regions of the esophagus closer to the
stomach open to permit food to pass through while the region just above the food
contracts to push the food onward. Peristalsis works so well that food can be
swallowed even while the body is lying down, upside down, or even in zero-gravity.

A final function of the esophagus is its participation in the vomiting reflex to void the
contents of the stomach. Peristalsis is reversed in the esophagus during vomiting to
forcefully remove toxic or pathogen-laden food from the body.

THE STOMACH

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 The stomach is the main food storage tank of the body. If it were not for the stomach’s
storage capacity, we would have to eat constantly instead of just a few times each day.
The stomach also secretes a mixture of acid, mucus, and digestive enzymes that helps
to digest and sanitize our food while it is being stored. It is a collapsible, pouch like
structure situated in the left upper part of the abdominal cavity, just below the
diaphragm. It is located between the esophagus and the duodenum. The inner layer of
the stomach is full of wrinkles known as rugae (or gastric folds). Rugae allow the
stomach to stretch in order to accommodate large meals and help to grip and move
food during digestion. It has four main regions:

1. The cardia which lies near the junction of the stomach and esophagus. It
represents the point of entry of the esophageal contents into the stomach.

2. The fundus is the enlarged portion above and to the left of the esophageal
opening into the stomach

3. The body is the middle portion of the stomach

4. The pylorus is the lower portion lying near the junction of the stomach and the
duodenum

Digestion in the stomach can be divided into 2 classes: mechanical digestion and
chemical digestion. Mechanical digestion is the physical division of a mass of food into
smaller masses while chemical digestion is the chemical conversion of larger
molecules into smaller molecules.

 The mixing action of the stomach walls allows mechanical digestion to occur in the
stomach. The smooth muscles of the stomach produce contractions known as mixing
waves that mix the boluses of food with gastric juice. This mixing leads to the
production of the thick liquid known as chyme.

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 While food is being physically mixed with gastric juice to produce chyme, the enzymes
present in the gastric juice chemically digest large molecules into their smaller subunits.
Gastric lipase splits triglyceride fats into fatty acids and diglycerides. Pepsin breaks
proteins into smaller amino acids. The chemical digestion begun in the stomach will not
be completed until chyme reaches the intestines, but the stomach prepares hard-to-
digest proteins and fats for further digestion.

THE SMALL INTESTINE

The small intestine is a long tube in the digestive system that absorbs about 90% of the
nutrients from the food we eat. It is given the name “small intestine” because it is only 1
inch in diameter, making it less than half the diameter of the large intestine. The small
intestine is, however, about twice the length of the large intestine and usually measures
about 10 feet in length. The small intestine winds throughout the abdominal cavity
inferior to the stomach. Its many folds help it to pack all 10 feet of its length into such a
small body cavity.

The interior walls of the small intestine are tightly wrinkled into projections called
circular folds that greatly increase their surface area. Microscopic examination of the
mucosa reveals that the mucosal cells are organized into finger-like projections known
as villi, which further increase the surface area. All of these wrinkles and projections
help to greatly increase the amount of contact between the cells of the mucosa and
chyme to maximize the absorption of vital nutrients.
The small intestine processes around 2 gallons of food, liquids, and digestive secretions
every day. To ensure that the body receives enough nutrients from its food, the small
intestine mixes the chyme using smooth muscle contractions called segmentations.
Segmentation involves the mixing of chyme about 7 to 12 times per minute within a
short segment of the small intestine so that chyme in the middle of the intestine is
moved outward to the intestinal wall and contacts the mucosa. In the duodenum,
segmentations help to mix chyme with bile and pancreatic juice to complete the
chemical digestion of the chyme into its component nutrients. Villi and microvilli
throughout the intestines sway back and forth during the segmentations to increase
their contact with chyme and efficiently absorb nutrients.

The small intestine can be divided into 3 major regions:

1. The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. Its primary function is in the
absorption of digested products. Its surface area is greatly enhanced by villi visible only
at microscopic level. It is the shortest region of the small intestine, measuring only
about 10 inches in length. Partially digested food, or chyme, from the stomach is mixed
with bile from the liver and pancreatic juice from the pancreas to complete its digestion
in the duodenum.

2. The jejunum is the middle section of the small intestine that serves as the primary site
of nutrient absorption. It measures around 3 feet in length.
3. The ileum is the final section of the small intestine that empties into the large intestine
via the ileocecal sphincter. The ileum is about 6 feet long and completes the absorption

22
of nutrients that were missed in the jejunum.

LARGE INTESTINE
The large intestine is the final section of the gastrointestinal tract that performs the vital
task of absorbing water and vitamins while converting digested food into feces. It
extends from the ileum of the small intestine to the anus. No digestive juice is formed
here because all the food has already been digested. Although shorter than the small
intestine in length, the large intestine is considerably thicker in diameter, thus giving it
its name. The large intestine is about 5 feet (1.5 m) in length and 2.5 inches (6-7 cm) in
diameter in the living body, but becomes much larger postmortem as the smooth
muscle tissue of the intestinal wall relaxes.

While chyme moves through the large intestine, bacteria digest substances in the
chyme that are not digestible by the human digestive system. Bacterial fermentation
converts the chyme into feces and releases vitamins including vitamins K, B1, B2, B6,
B12, and biotin. Vitamin K is almost exclusively produced by the gut bacteria and is
essential in the proper clotting of blood. Gases such as carbon dioxide and methane are
also produced as a byproduct of bacterial fermentation and lead to flatulence, or gas
passed through the anus.
The absorption of water by the large intestine not only helps to condense and solidify
feces, but also allows the body to retain water to be used in other metabolic processes.
Ions and nutrients released by gut bacteria and dissolved in water are also absorbed in
the large intestine and used by the body for metabolism. The dried, condensed fecal
matter is finally stored in the rectum and sigmoid colon until it can be eliminated from
the body through the process of defecation.

 The caecum is a saclike structure that makes up the first few inches of the large
intestine. It provides a space for the mixing of bacteria with partially digested
food from the small intestine to form feces. The cecum plays an important role in
the digestive system by assisting in the formation of feces.

 The colon is the main portion of the large intestine and is divided into four
regions: the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon....

1. The ascending colon carries feces from the cecum to the transverse colon. In the
ascending colon, bacteria digest the transitory fecal matter in order to release
vitamins. The intestinal wall absorbs water, nutrients, and vitamins from the
feces and deposits these materials into our bloodstream.

2. The transverse colon is situated above the small intestine, passing horizontally
across the abdomen and under the liver, stomach and spleen. The transverse
colon is the longest region of the colon and is located between the ascending
colon and descending colon. Much of the absorption and feces formation of the
colon takes place in the transverse colon, making it a very important region of the

23
 digestive system.

3. Feces passing through the descending colon are stored until they are ready to be
eliminated from the body. The walls of the descending colon absorb water as
well as remaining nutrients and vitamins from the feces, depositing these
valuable substances into our bloodstream.

4. The sigmoid colon is a curved, S-shaped region of the large intestine and is the
final segment of the colon. It transports fecal matter from the descending colon
to the rectum and anus. Feces are stored in the sigmoid colon until they are
ready to be eliminated from the body through the anal canal. The intestinal wall
of the sigmoid colon also plays a small role in the absorption of water, nutrients
and vitamins from feces.

 The rectum, the last few inches of the large intestine, terminates at the anus. The
rectum is the final segment of the large intestine that connects the colon to the
anus. It stores fecal matter produced in the colon until the body is ready to
eliminate the waste through the process of defecation.

 FUNCTIONS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE

 Secretion of mucus for protection of the mucus membrane from hard stool.

 Absorption of about 80% water, also some glucose and salts are absorbed.

 Excretion of some heavy metals e.g. arsenic, lead, etc.

 Presence of large number of bacterial in normal stool essential for production of

some vitamins e.g. vitamin K

 Eliminates digestive wastes.

THE ANUS

 The anus, or anal canal, is the final segment of the gastrointestinal tract. It acts
as the orifice that feces pass through during defecation.

FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system is responsible for taking whole foods and turning them into
energy and nutrients to allow the body to function, grow, and repair itself. The six
primary processes of the digestive system include:

24
1. Ingestion of food
2. Secretion of fluids and digestive enzymes
3. Mixing and movement of food and wastes through the body
4. Digestion of food into smaller pieces
5. Absorption of nutrients
6. Excretion of wastes

Ingestion
The first function of the digestive system is ingestion, or the intake of food. The mouth
is responsible for this function, as it is the orifice through which all food enters the body.
The mouth and stomach are also responsible for the storage of food as it is waiting to
be digested. This storage capacity allows the body to eat only a few times each day and
to ingest more food than it can process at one time
Secretion
In the course of a day, the digestive system secretes around 7 liters of fluids. These
fluids include saliva, mucus, hydrochloric acid, enzymes, and bile. Saliva moistens dry
food and contains salivary amylase, a digestive enzyme that begins the digestion of
carbohydrates. Mucus serves as a protective barrier and lubricant inside of the GI tract.
Hydrochloric acid helps to digest food chemically and protects the body by killing
bacteria present in our food. Enzymes are like tiny biochemical machines that
disassemble large macromolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids into their
smaller components. Finally, bile is used to emulsify large masses of lipids into tiny
globules for easy digestion.

Mixing and Movement

The digestive system uses 3 main processes to move and mix food:
 Swallowing. Swallowing is the process of using smooth and skeletal muscles in the
mouth, tongue, and pharynx to push food out of the mouth, through the pharynx, and
into the esophagus.

 Peristalsis. Peristalsis is a muscular wave that travels the length of the GI tract, moving
partially digested food a short distance down the tract. It takes many waves of
peristalsis for food to travel from the esophagus, through the stomach and intestines,
and reach the end of the GI tract.

 Segmentation. Segmentation occurs only in the small intestine as short segments of

intestine contract like hands squeezing a toothpaste tube. Segmentation helps to
increase the absorption of nutrients by mixing food and increasing its contact with the
walls of the intestine.
Digestion
Digestion is the process of turning large pieces of food into its component chemicals.
Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller
pieces. This mode of digestion begins with the chewing of food by the teeth and is
continued through the muscular mixing of food by the stomach and intestines. Bile
produced by the liver is also used to mechanically break fats into smaller globules.
While food is being mechanically digested it is also being chemically digested as larger

25
and more complex molecules are being broken down into smaller molecules that are
easier to absorb. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase in saliva
splitting complex carbohydrates into simple carbohydrates. The enzymes and acid in
the stomach continue chemical digestion, but the bulk of chemical digestion takes
place in the small intestine thanks to the action of the pancreas. The pancreas secretes
an incredibly strong digestive cocktail known as pancreatic juice, which is capable of
digesting lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids. By the time food has left
the duodenum, it has been reduced to its chemical building blocks—fatty acids, amino
acids, monosaccharides, and nucleotides.

Absorption
Once food has been reduced to its building blocks, it is ready for the body to absorb.
Absorption begins in the stomach with simple molecules like water and alcohol being
absorbed directly into the bloodstream. Most absorption takes place in the walls of the
small intestine, which are densely folded to maximize the surface area in contact with
digested food. Small blood and lymphatic vessels in the intestinal wall pick up the
molecules and carry them to the rest of the body. The large intestine is also involved in
the absorption of water and vitamins B and K before feces leave the body.

Excretion
The final function of the digestive system is the excretion of waste in a process known
as defecation. Defecation removes indigestible substances from the body so that they
do not accumulate inside the gut. The timing of defecation is controlled voluntarily by
the conscious part of the brain, but must be accomplished on a regular basis to prevent
a backup of indigestible materials.

ACCESSORY ORGANS OF DIGESTION

Accessory digestive organ: An organ that helps with digestion but is not part of
the digestive tract. The accessory digestive organs are the tongue, salivary
glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.

ACCESSORY ORGANS OF DIGESTION

THE SALIVARY GLANDS

Surrounding the mouth are 3 sets of salivary glands. The salivary glands are accessory
organs that produce a watery secretion known as saliva. Saliva helps to moisten food
and begins the digestion of carbohydrates. The body also uses saliva to lubricate food
as it passes through the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus.
The parotid gland is the largest of the three glands and its secretion is completely
serous. The submandibular secretion is completely mucus while the sublingual
secretion is made up of 50% serous and 50% mucus. Mucus secretion means secretion

26
 of thick saliva while serous secretion means watery secretion containing the enzyme
ptyalin.

TEETH

 The teeth are embedded in the gum. The teeth are 32 small, hard organs found along
the anterior and lateral edges of the mouth. Each tooth is made of a bone-like
substance called dentin and covered in a layer of enamel—the hardest substance in the
body. Teeth are living organs and contain blood vessels and nerves under the dentin in a
soft region known as the pulp. The teeth are designed for cutting and grinding food into
smaller pieces.

Functions

The incisor and canine teeth are the cutting teeth and are used for biting off pieces of
food, whereas the premolar and molar teeth, with broad flat surfaces are used for
chewing or grinding food.

THE TONGUE The tongue is located on the inferior portion of the mouth just posterior
and medial to the teeth. It is a small organ made up of several pairs of muscles covered
in a thin, bumpy, skin-like layer. The outside of the tongue contains many rough papillae
for gripping food as it is moved by the tongue’s muscles. The taste buds on the surface
of the tongue detect taste molecules in food and connect to nerves in the tongue to
send taste information to the brain. The tongue also helps to push food toward the
posterior part of the mouth for swallowing. The tongue is heavily supplied with nerves,
so it can manipulate food in the mouth and places it between the teeth for chewing-
without being bitten in the process and coordinates its movements to aid in swallowing.

LIVER

It is the body’s largest organ, enclosed in a fibrous capsule in the right upper quadrant
of the abdomen

FUNCTIONS

 The liver has many different functions in the body, but the main function of the
liver in digestion is the production of bile and its secretion into the small intestine.

 Storage of blood

 Storage of glycogen (carbohydrate)

 Storage of iron, calcium, vitamin A and D

 Syntheses of protein e.g. albumin, globulin, fibrinogen and prothrombin and also
heparin which is intravascular anticoagulant.

 Metabolism of:

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 a) Carbohydrates:

i. Glycogenesis i.e. the formation of glycogen from glucose. Storing

them in the muscle and liver

ii. Glycogenolysis i.e. breakdown of glycogen into glucose from the liver
so as to supply more energy than necessary.

iii. Neoglucogenesis i.e. formation of glucose from amino acids of protein

and glycerol of fat i.e. other than carbohydrates.

b) Proteins: amino acids formed after digestion of proteins are diminished in the
liver and the NH2 part is converted into waste product and excreted in the
urine. The other part is converted into glucose.

c) Fats: in the liver fat is oxidized by beta oxidation and converted ketone bodies

 Detoxification or protective function: this is done by the following methods;

a) By direct destruction by the liver cells

b) By macrophage cells

c) Fixation and gradual excretion of heavy metals e.g. lead, arsenic. They are
temporarily fixed or stored in the liver and then gradually excreted in the urine.

d) Conjugation; benzoic acid (toxic) + glycine → hippuric acid (non- toxic). Other
toxic substances will combine with glyconic acid to form non-toxic
substances

e) By oxidation and reduction processes

GALL BLADDER (about 3 inches in length and 1.5 inches in width at the widest point)

The gallbladder is a small storage organ which lies adherent to the undersurface of the
liver. Though small in size, the gallbladder plays an important role in digestion of food.
The gallbladder holds bile produced in the liver until it is needed for digesting fatty
foods in the duodenum of the small intestine. Bile in the gallbladder may crystallize and
form gallstones, which can become painful and potentially life threatening.

It lies adherent to the undersurface of the liver. It comprises of a fundus, body and a
neck which opens into the cystic duct.

Functions

It stores and concentrates bile produced in the liver. The gallbladder also recycles
excess bile from the small intestine so that it can be reused for the digestion of

28
subsequent meals.

THE PANCREAS A somewhat flat organ that lies behind the stomach. The pancreas is a
glandular organ in the upper abdomen, but really it serves as two glands in one: a
digestive exocrine gland and a hormone-producing endocrine gland. Functioning as an
exocrine gland, the pancreas excretes enzymes to break down the proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids in food. Functioning as an endocrine gland, the
pancreas secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon to control blood sugar levels
throughout the day. Both of these diverse functions are vital to the body’s survival. The
pancreatic duct joins the bile duct before entering the duodenum.

Functions

The pancreas secretes the following enzymes:

 Trypsin which acts on protein

Proteins

↓trypsin

Primary proteose

Secondary proteose

Polypeptides

Amino acids

 Lipases for fats

Fats…….lipase→ fatty acid and Glycerol

 Amylase and maltase for carbohydrates

Starch……..amylase→ Glucose

DIGESTION PROCESSES

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 A) CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION

The digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth with the enzymatic splitting
of starch into smaller fragments (oligosaccharides, disaccharides) by ᾳ-amylase
(ptyalin) contained in the saliva. In the small intestine, the digestion of
carbohydrates continues in the prescence of another ᾳ-amylase (pancreatic
amylase) as well as numerous other sugar-splitting enzymes like glycosidases,
disaccharidases e.g. maltase, lactase, saccharidase, the end products of
carbohydrate digestion, the monosaccharides (glucose, galactose, fructose) are
eventually absorbed in small intestine through active and passive transport
mechanisms into the bloodstream and the liver

B) FAT DIGESTION

Due to the fact that fats are poorly soluble in water, the digestion and absorption
of nutrients of fats (lipids) presents some unique features. Over 90% of the fats
ingested as food consists of neutral fats (triglycerides), while the remainder
consists of cholesterol esters, phospholipids, and fat soluble vitamins. Before
the triglycerides can be absorbed in the small intestine, they must be split into
free fatty acids and monoglycerides by fat splitting enzymes called lipases. For
the fat-splitting enzymes to be presented with a large surface to attack, a
prerequisite is emulsification of the fats (large fat droplets are converted into
large number of small droplets by bile acids). After enzymatic splitting of
triglycerides, the split products (fatty acids, monglycerides, phospholipids,
cholesterol) form tiny globules which reach the epithelial cells of the small
intestine by passive diffusion. The long-chain fatty acids are partly transformed
into chylomicrons which reach the blood stream through the lymph channels
from where they reach the tissues (muscles and adipose tissues). The short
chain fatty acids pass through the portal vein and reach the liver directly to be
metabolized there.

C) PROTEIN DIGESTION

The digestion of protein does not begin until the food reaches the stomach. The
strongly acid gastric juices denature proteins, making them more suitable for
processing by the protein-splitting gastric enzymes (pepsinogen). The pepsinogens are
transformed into active pepsin by hydrochloric acid. Pepsins breakdown large protein
molecules into smaller fragments e.g. polypeptides, peptides. When the fragments
reach the neutral environment of the duodenum, they are further broken down by

30
 certain pancreatic enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin). These enzymes attack polypeptide
chains breaking them into small protein fragments (tripeptides and dipeptides) with 2
or 3 amino acids. However, before they can be absorbed in the intestine, other
enzymes (carboxypeptides, aminopeptides) from the pancreas and the intestinal
mucosa must split the tripeptides and dipeptides into their respective amino acids
from where they are actively absorbed into the bloodstream. About 10% of the ingested
protein arrive the large intestine undigested, where they are broken down by bacteria.

TRANSPORT SYSTEM

Active and passive transport processes are two ways molecules and other materials
move in and out of cells and cross intracellular membranes.

Active transport is the movement of molecules across a cell membrane in the direction
against their concentration gradient, i.e. moving from an area of lower concentration to
an area of higher concentration with use of energy. This energy is supplied through
respiration using ATP. Mitochondria (cell organelles in the cytoplasm) control energy
release. Active transport is a good example of a process for which cells require energy.
Examples of active transport include the uptake of glucose in the intestines in humans
and the uptake of mineral ions into root hair cells of plants.
TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT

1. Exocytosis: Exocytosis is the opposite of endocytosis. In exocytosis, the cell creates

a vesicle to enclose something that is inside itself, for the purpose of moving it
outside. This most commonly occurs when a cell wants to “export” an important
product, such as cells which make enzymes, hormones, and antibodies that are
needed throughout the body. In eukaryotic cells, protein products are made in
the endoplasmic reticulum. They are often packaged by the endoplasmic reticulum
into vesicles, and sent to the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus can be thought of
like a cellular “post office.” It receives packages from the endoplasmic reticulum,
processes them, and “addresses” them by adding molecules that will be recognized
by receptors on the membrane of the cell intended to receive the product. The Golgi
apparatus then packages the finished “addressed” products into vesicles of its own,
which move towards the cell membrane where they dock and fuse with it. In the
fusion process, the vesicle membrane becomes part of the cell membrane, and the
vesicle’s contents are spilled into extracellular space.

2. Antiport Pumps: Anti-port pumps are pumps that transport one substance in one
direction, while transporting another substance the other way. These pumps are
extremely efficient because many of them can use one ATP molecule to do these
two different tasks. One important type of antiport pump is the sodium-potassium

31
 pump.

3. Symport Pumps: Symport pumps take advantage of diffusion gradients –

differences in concentration that cause substances to naturally move from areas of
high to low concentration – to move substances. In the case of a symport pump, a
substance that “wants” to move from an area of high concentration to low
concentration is used to “carry” another substance against its concentration
gradient. One example of a symport pump is the sodium-glucose transport protein

4. Endocytosis: refers to a biological process whereby cells absorb materials outside their
cell membranes. large particles are engulfed by a portion of the membrane. The
membrane then breaks off and travels into the cell, carrying the large particle with it:

 Phagocytosis (cell eating): In cell biology, phagocytosis is the process by which a

cell—often a phagocyte or a protist—engulfs a solid particle to form an internal
compartment known as a phagosome.

 Pinocytosis (cell drinking): the invagination of the cell to form a pocket filled with
extracellular fluid. The pocket then pinches off to form a vesicle, which then
ruptures to release its contents into the cytosol

 Receptor mediated endocytosis: it is similar to pinocytosis, except it is prompted

by the binding of a large extracellular molecule- such as a protein-to a receptor
on the cell membrane

PASSIVE TRANSPORT

Passive transport is a movement of biochemical and other atomic or molecular

substances across cell membranes. Unlike active transport, it does not require an input
of chemical energy, it is rather being driven by the growth of entropy of the system.
32
 (entropy is commonly understood as a measure of molecular disorder within a
macroscopic system, “the second law of thermodynamics says that entropy always
increases with time").
The rate of passive transport depends on the permeability of the cell membrane, which,
in turn, depends on the organization and characteristics of the
membrane lipids and proteins. The four main kinds of passive transport are Simple
diffusion, facilitated diffusion, filtration and osmosis.
1. Simple Diffusion - Solutes move from a region of higher concentration to lower
concentration. Water, lipid and lipid soluble substances pass through the plasma
membrane through the process of simple diffusion

2. Facilitated diffusion (also known as facilitated transport or passive-mediated

transport) is the process of spontaneous passive transport (as opposed to active
transport) of molecules or ions across a biological membrane via specific
transmembrane integral proteins. The solutes move down the concentration gradient
and do not use extra cellular energy to move. Sugar, amino acids and ions enter the
cells through facilitated diffusion.

3. Filtration: Filtration is movement of solute and solvent molecules and ions across the
cell membrane due to hydrostatic pressure generated by the cardiovascular system.
Only molecules small enough to pass through the filter will pass through.

4. Osmosis is the process where solvent molecules move through a semipermeable

membrane from a dilute solution into a more concentrated solution (which becomes
more dilute). Solvent molecules move from lower to higher solute concentration across
a semipermeable membrane. Note this makes the solute molecules more dilute.

Note: Simple diffusion and osmosis are similar, except in simple diffusion, it is the
solute particles that move. In osmosis, the solvent (usually water) moves across a
membrane to dilute the solute particles.

33
DIAGRAMMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF THE TRANSPORT SYSTEM

ENERGY METABOLISM
All living organisms need energy to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures and
respond to their environments.
Metabolism is the set of life-sustaining chemical processes that enables organisms
transform the chemical energy stored in molecules into energy that can be used for
cellular processes (grow and reproduce, maintain their structures and respond to their
environments). The word metabolism can also refer to all chemical reactions that occur
in living organisms, including digestion and the transport of substances into and

34
between different cells, in which case the set of reactions within the cells is called
intermediary metabolism or intermediate metabolism.
Energy Metabolism is the process of generating energy (ATP) from nutrients.
Metabolism comprises a series of interconnected pathways that can function in the
presence or absence of oxygen.
Metabolism is usually divided into two categories: catabolism, the breaking down of
organic matter by way of cellular respiration, and anabolism, the building up of
components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids. Usually, breaking down
releases energy and building up consumes energy.

– Aerobic cellular respiration → Results in complete breakdown of glucose

to carbon dioxide, water and a lot of ATP

– Anaerobic respiration & Fermentation → Only partially breaks down

glucose, into pyruvic acid and organic waste products and a little ATP. The
ATP is produced during glycolysis. The additional steps of fermentation
do not produce any additional ATP.

35
Gluconeogenesis (abbreviated GNG) is a metabolic pathway that results in the
generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as lactate,
glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids.

Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen (n) to glucose-6-phosphate and glycogen

(n-1). Glycogen branches are catabolized by the sequential removal of glucose
monomers via phosphorolysis, by the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase

Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen from glucose. Glycogen is synthesized

depending on the demand for glucose and ATP (energy). If both are present in relatively
high amounts, then the excess of insulin promotes the glucose conversion into
glycogen for storage in liver and muscle cells.

Lipogenesis is the process by which acetyl-CoA is converted to fatty acids. The former
is an intermediate stage in metabolism of simple sugars, such as glucose, a source of
energy of living organisms

Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C₆H₁₂O₆, into pyruvate.

36
Basal metabolic rate (BMR), and the closely related resting metabolic rate (RMR), is the
rate of energy expenditure by humans and other birds and mammals (endotherms) at
rest, and is often reported in units of kJ per hour per kg body mass. Rest is defined as
physically and psychologically undisturbed,
The release, and using, of energy in this state is sufficient only for the basic functioning
of the vital organs, including the heart, lungs, nervous
system, kidneys, liver, intestine, sex organs, muscles, brain, and skin.

Factors affecting BMR

• Body Size & Composition

– Lean tissue BMR

– Body weight wt lean tissue (but also fat)

• 2) Age:

– age Lean tissue

• 3) Sex: Men lean

• 4) Activity

• Growth BMR

• Children, pregnancy

• 6) Fasting/starvation: BMR

• 7) Fever/stress BMR

• 8) Smoking/caffeine: BMR

37
– Enzymes and coenzymes are helpers in reactions.

– Enzymes are protein catalysts that cause chemical reactions.

– Coenzymes are organic molecules that function as enzyme helpers.

– Cofactors are organic or inorganic substances that facilitate enzyme

action.

– Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + -lysis degradation) is

the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate,

– Glycogenolysis is the biochemical breakdown of glycogen to glucose whereas

glycogenesis is the opposite, the formation of glycogen from
glucose. Glycogenolysis takes place in the cells of muscle and liver tissues in
response to hormonal and neural signals.
– Gluconeogenesis is the metabolic process by which organisms produce sugars
(namely glucose) for catabolic reactions from non-carbohydrate precursors.
Glucose is the only energy source used by the brain (with the exception of ketone
bodies during times of fasting),
– Lipogenesis is the process by which acetyl-CoA is converted to fatty acids. The
former is an intermediate stage in metabolism of simple sugars, such as glucose,
a source of energy of living organisms. Through lipogenesis and subsequent
triglyceride synthesis, the energy can be efficiently stored in the form of fats.

– Plants use the sun’s energy to make carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water.

– This is called photosynthesis.

– Humans and animals eat the plants and use the carbohydrate as fuel for their
bodies.

– During digestion, the energy-yielding nutrients are broken down to

38
 monosaccharides, fatty acids, glycerol, and amino acids.

– After absorption, enzymes and coenzymes can build more complex compounds.

In metabolism they are broken down further into energy (ATP), water and carbon dioxide.

• Metabolic reactions take place inside of cells, especially liver cells.

• Anabolism is the building up of body compounds and requires energy.

• Catabolism is the breakdown of body compounds and releases energy.

• The breakdown of glucose to energy starts with glycolysis to pyruvate.

• Pyruvate may be converted to lactic acid anaerobically (without oxygen) and

acetyl CoA aerobically (with oxygen).

• Eventually, all energy-yielding nutrients enter the TCA cycle or tricarboxylic acid
cycle (or Kreb’s cycle) and the electron transport chain.

39
– Enzymes and coenzymes are helpers in reactions.

– Enzymes are protein catalysts that cause chemical reactions.

– Coenzymes are organic molecules that function as enzyme helpers.

– Cofactors are organic or inorganic substances that facilitate enzyme

action.

– Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + -lysis degradation) is

the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate,

40
 – Glycogenolysis is the biochemical breakdown of glycogen to glucose whereas
glycogenesis is the opposite, the formation of glycogen from
glucose. Glycogenolysis takes place in the cells of muscle and liver tissues in
response to hormonal and neural signals.
– Gluconeogenesis is the metabolic process by which organisms produce sugars
(namely glucose) for catabolic reactions from non-carbohydrate precursors.
Glucose is the only energy source used by the brain (with the exception of ketone
bodies during times of fasting),
– Lipogenesis is the process by which acetyl-CoA is converted to fatty acids. The
former is an intermediate stage in metabolism of simple sugars, such as glucose,
a source of energy of living organisms. Through lipogenesis and subsequent
triglyceride synthesis, the energy can be efficiently stored in the form of fats.

– Plants use the sun’s energy to make carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water.

– This is called photosynthesis.

– Humans and animals eat the plants and use the carbohydrate as fuel for their
bodies.

– During digestion, the energy-yielding nutrients are broken down to

monosaccharides, fatty acids, glycerol, and amino acids.

– After absorption, enzymes and coenzymes can build more complex compounds.

In metabolism they are broken down further into energy (ATP), water and carbon dioxide.

• Metabolic reactions take place inside of cells, especially liver cells.

• Anabolism is the building up of body compounds and requires energy.

• Catabolism is the breakdown of body compounds and releases energy.

• The breakdown of glucose to energy starts with glycolysis to pyruvate.

• Pyruvate may be converted to lactic acid anaerobically (without oxygen) and

acetyl CoA aerobically (with oxygen).

• Eventually, all energy-yielding nutrients enter the TCA cycle or tricarboxylic acid
cycle (or Kreb’s cycle) and the electron transport chain.

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