Lecture0 Physical and Datalink

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Lecture 7 :Physical Layer and Data

Link Layer
IoT Networks and Data Communications

Dr. Thanavit Anuwongpinit


IoT & Information Engineering, KMITL
IoT Networks and Data Communications
<<Final Series>>
• Dr. Thanavit Anuwongpinit

• Physical Layer & Data Link Layer (Multiple Access) • Sec 25, 26, 27, 28
1

2 • Network Layer & IPv4

3 • IPv6 & VLAN

4 • Transport Layer

5 • Application Layer & Protocols

6 • IoT Networks : PAN, LAN • Final 30%

• Quiz 10%
7 • IoT Networks : WAN
• Assignment© 2019
& Cisco
Homework 10%
and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 2
Reference Model

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Reference Model

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 4
Today’s Topics
• Physical Layer Overview
• Data Link Layer Overview
• Data Link Topologies
• Multiple Access Techniques

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 5
Physical Layer
Purpose of the Physical Layer
The Physical Connection
• Before any network communications can occur, a physical connection to a local
network must be established.
• This connection could be wired or wireless, depending on the setup of the network.
• This generally applies whether you are considering a corporate office or a home.
• A Network Interface Card (NIC) connects a device to the network.
• Some devices may have just one NIC, while others may have multiple NICs (Wired
and/or Wireless, for example).
• Not all physical connections offer the same level of performance.

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 7
Purpose of the Physical Layer
The Physical Layer
• Transports bits across the
network media
• Accepts a complete frame from
the Data Link Layer and
encodes it as a series of
signals that are transmitted to
the local media
• This is the last step in the
encapsulation process.
• The next device in the path to
the destination receives the bits
and re-encapsulates the frame,
then decides what to do with it.

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 8
Physical Layer Characteristics
Physical Layer Standards

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Physical Layer Characteristics
Physical Components

Physical Layer Standards address three functional areas:


• Physical Components
• Encoding
• Signaling

The Physical Components are the hardware devices,


media, and other connectors that transmit the signals that
represent the bits.
• Hardware components like NICs, interfaces and connectors, cable materials, and
cable designs are all specified in standards associated with the physical layer.

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 10
Physical Layer Characteristics
Encoding

• Encoding converts the stream of


bits into a format recognizable by
the next device in the network
path.
• This ‘coding’ provides predictable
patterns that can be recognized by
the next device.
• Examples of encoding methods
include Manchester (shown in the
figure), 4B/5B, and 8B/10B.

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 11
Physical Layer Characteristics
Signaling

• The signaling method is how the bit Light Pulses Over Fiber-Optic Cable
values, “1” and “0” are represented on
the physical medium.
• The method of signaling will vary based
on the type of medium being used.

Electrical Signals Over Copper Cable

Microwave Signals Over Wireless


© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 12
Physical Layer Characteristics
Bandwidth
• Bandwidth is the capacity at which a medium can carry data.
• Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to
another in a given amount of time; how many bits can be transmitted in a second.
• Physical media properties, current technologies, and the laws of physics play a role
in determining available bandwidth.

Unit of Bandwidth Abbreviation Equivalence

Bits per second bps 1 bps = fundamental unit of bandwidth

Kilobits per second Kbps 1 Kbps = 1,000 bps = 103 bps

Megabits per second Mbps 1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bps = 106 bps

Gigabits per second Gbps 1 Gbps – 1,000,000,000 bps = 109 bps

Terabits per second Tbps 1 Tbps = 1,000,000,000,000 bps = 1012 bps

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Copper Cabling
Types of Copper Cabling

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UTP Cabling
Properties of UTP Cabling

UTP has four pairs of color-coded copper wires


twisted together and encased in a flexible plastic
sheath. No shielding is used. UTP relies on the
following properties to limit crosstalk:
• Cancellation - Each wire in a pair of wires uses
opposite polarity. One wire is negative, the other
wire is positive. They are twisted together and the
magnetic fields effectively cancel each other and
outside EMI/RFI.
• Variation in twists per foot in each wire - Each wire
is twisted a different amount, which helps prevent
crosstalk amongst the wires in the cable.

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 15
UTP Cabling
UTP Cabling Standards and Connectors (Cont.)

RJ-45 Connector Poorly terminated UTP cable

Properly terminated UTP cable


RJ-45 Socket
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UTP Cabling
Straight-through and Crossover UTP Cables

Cable Type Standard Application

Ethernet Straight-through Both ends T568A or T568B Host to Network Device

Ethernet Crossover * One end T568A, other end Host-to-Host, Switch-to-Switch,


T568B Router-to-Router
* Considered Legacy due to most NICs using Auto-MDIX to sense cable type and complete connection
Rollover Cisco Proprietary Host serial port to Router or Switch
Console Port, using an adapter
© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 17
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Properties of Fiber-Optic Cabling
• Transmits data over longer distances at higher bandwidth than any other
networking media
• Less susceptible to attenuation, and completely immune to EMI/RFI
• Made of flexible, extremely thin strands of very pure glass
• Uses a laser or LED to encode bits as pulses of light
• The fiber-optic cable acts as a wave guide to transmit light between the two
ends with minimal signal loss

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 18
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber-Optic Cabling Usage

Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of industry:

1. Enterprise Networks - Used for backbone cabling applications and interconnecting


infrastructure devices
2. Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) - Used to provide always-on broadband services to
homes and small businesses
3. Long-Haul Networks - Used by service providers to connect countries and cities
4. Submarine Cable Networks - Used to provide reliable high-speed, high-capacity
solutions capable of surviving in harsh undersea environments at up to transoceanic
distances.

Our focus in this course is the use of fiber within the enterprise.

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 19
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber-Optic Connectors

Lucent Connector (LC) Simplex Connectors


Straight-Tip (ST) Connectors

Subscriber Connector (SC) Connectors Duplex Multimode LC Connectors


© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 20
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber versus Copper
Optical fiber is primarily used as backbone cabling for high-traffic, point-to-point
connections between data distribution facilities and for the interconnection of buildings
in multi-building campuses.
Implementation Issues UTP Cabling Fiber-Optic Cabling

Bandwidth supported 10 Mb/s - 10 Gb/s 10 Mb/s - 100 Gb/s

Distance Relatively short (1 - 100 meters) Relatively long ( 1 - 100,000 meters)

Immunity to EMI and RFI Low High (Completely immune)

Immunity to electrical hazards Low High (Completely immune)

Media and connector costs Lowest Highest

Installation skills required Lowest Highest

Safety precautions Lowest Highest


© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 21
Wireless Media
Properties of Wireless Media
It carries electromagnetic signals representing binary digits using radio or
microwave frequencies. This provides the greatest mobility option. Wireless
connection numbers continue to increase.

Some of the limitations of wireless:


• Coverage area - Effective coverage can be significantly impacted by the physical
characteristics of the deployment location.
• Interference - Wireless is susceptible to interference and can be disrupted by many
common devices.
• Security - Wireless communication coverage requires no access to a physical strand
of media, so anyone can gain access to the transmission.
• Shared medium - WLANs operate in half-duplex, which means only one device can
send or receive at a time. Many users accessing the WLAN simultaneously results in
reduced bandwidth for each user.
© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 22
Data Link Layer
Purpose of the Data Link Layer
The Data Link Layer
• The Data Link layer is responsible
for communications between end-
device network interface cards.
• It allows upper layer protocols to
access the physical layer media
and encapsulates Layer 3 packets
(IPv4 and IPv6) into Layer 2
Frames.
• It also performs error detection and
rejects corrupts frames.

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 24
Purpose of the Data Link Layer
IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Data Link Sublayers
IEEE 802 LAN/MAN standards are specific to
the type of network (Ethernet, WLAN, WPAN,
etc).

The Data Link Layer consists of two


sublayers. Logical Link Control (LLC) and
Media Access Control (MAC).
• The LLC sublayer communicates
between the networking software at the
upper layers and the device hardware at
the lower layers.
• The MAC sublayer is responsible for
data encapsulation and media access
control.

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 25
Purpose of the Data Link Layer
Providing Access to Media
Packets exchanged between nodes may experience numerous data
link layers and media transitions.

At each hop along the path, a router performs four basic Layer 2
functions:
• Accepts a frame from the network medium.
• De-encapsulates the frame to expose the encapsulated packet.
• Re-encapsulates the packet into a new frame.
• Forwards the new frame on the medium of the next network segment.

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 26
Purpose of the Data Link Layer
Data Link Layer Standards
Data link layer protocols are
defined by engineering
organizations:
• Institute for Electrical and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE).
• International Telecommunications
Union (ITU).
• International Organizations for
Standardization (ISO).
• American National Standards
Institute (ANSI).

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 27
Topologies

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Topologies
Physical and Logical Topologies
The topology of a network is the arrangement and relationship of the network
devices and the interconnections between them.

There are two types of topologies used when describing networks:


• Physical topology – shows physical connections and how devices are
interconnected.
• Logical topology – identifies the virtual connections between devices
using device interfaces and IP addressing schemes.

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 29
Topologies
WAN Topologies

There are three common physical WAN topologies:


• Point-to-point – the simplest and most common WAN topology. Consists of
a permanent link between two endpoints.
• Hub and spoke – similar to a star topology where a central site
interconnects branch sites through point-to-point links.
• Mesh – provides high availability but requires every end system to be
connected to every other end system.

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 30
Topologies
Point-to-Point WAN Topology

• Physical point-to-point topologies directly connect two nodes.


• The nodes may not share the media with other hosts.
• Because all frames on the media can only travel to or from the two
nodes, Point-to-Point WAN protocols can be very simple.

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 31
Topologies
LAN Topologies
End devices on LANs are typically
interconnected using a star or extended
star topology. Star and extended star
topologies are easy to install, very scalable
and easy to troubleshoot.

Early Ethernet and Legacy Token Ring


technologies provide two additional
topologies:
• Bus – All end systems chained
together and terminated on each end.
• Ring – Each end system is connected
to its respective neighbors to form a
ring.

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 32
Topologies
Half and Full Duplex Communication

Half-duplex communication
• Only allows one device to send or receive at a time on a shared medium.
• Used on WLANs and legacy bus topologies with Ethernet hubs.

Full-duplex communication
• Allows both devices to simultaneously transmit and receive on a shared medium.
• Ethernet switches operate in full-duplex mode.

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Multiple Access

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Multiple Access
• Multiple Access คือข้อกำหนดในกำร ควบคุมกำรเชื่อมต่อ ระหว่ำงอุปกรณ์กำรสื่อสำรหลำยชุด ซึ่ง
ใช้ตัวกลำงร่วมกัน (Common Link) เพื่อบริหำรจัดกำร และจัดสรรช่องสัญญำณมีจุดประสงค์หลักคือ
• 1) ป้องกันกำรแทรกสอดจำกอุปกรณ์ที่ไม่เกี่ยวข้อง
• 2) ป้องกันกำรยึดครองตัวกลำงแต่เพียงผู้เดียว

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 35
Multiple Access
Random Access Protocols
• วิธีการเข้าใช้แบบ RA จะกาหนดสิทธิ์ให้กับอุปกรณ์การสื่อสารทุกตัวสามารถเข้าใช้ตัวกลาง
(Access) ได้อย่าง อิสระ ไม่ถูกควบคุมด้วยอุปกรณ์อื่นใด
• ด้วยเหตุนี้จึงมักจะเกิดความขัดแย้งในการเข้าใช้ตัวกลาง (Access Conflict) หรือ การชนกัน
ของข้อมูลข่าวสารในตัวกลาง (Collision) ซึ่งสามารถแก้ไขได้ด้วยกระบวนการ ซึ่งตอบคาถาม
ต่อไปนี้

• When เมื่อใดถึงจะสำมำรถเข้ำใช้ตัวกลำงได้
• What อุปกรณ์สื่อสำรต้องทำเช่นไร เมื่อตัวกลำงขณะนั้นไม่ว่ำง (Busy)
• How อุปกรณ์กำรสื่อสำรสำมำรถประเมินผลสัมฤทธิ์ หรือควำมล้มเหลวของกำรส่งผ่ำนข้อมูลได้อย่ำงไร
• What อุปกรณ์สื่อสำรต้องทำเช่นไร เมื่อเกิดภำวะควำมขัดแย้งในกำรเข้ำใช้ตัวกลำง หรือ Access Conflict

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 36
Multiple Access
Random Access Protocols
Communication
Every source stations must send every information to base station (Upload freq. 407MHz)
Base station then pass the information to destination station (Download freq. 413 MHz)

MA ทุกสถำนีสำมำรถรับ/ส่ง
ข้อมูล (Multiple Access) ได้
เท่ำเทียมกัน

ACK เมื่อสถำนีใดส่งข้อมูลไป
แล้วจะจับเวลำรอ ACK ถ้ำหำก
ไม่ได้รับภำยในเวลำที่กำหนด (2
เท่ำของเวลำในกำรเดินทำงของ
สัญญำณ) จะต้องส่งใหม่
© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 37
ALOHA network
Multiple Access
Random Access Protocols
Frames in a pure ALOHA network

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© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 39
Multiple Access
Random Access Protocols
Frames in a slotted ALOHA network

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 40
Multiple Access
Random Access Protocols
Compare of Pure and slot ALOHA

Frame Pure Slot

1000 13.5 36.8

500 18.4 30.3

250 15.2 19.5


© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 41
Multiple Access
Carrier Sense Multiple Access
CSMA คือกระบวนกำร เพื่อลดแนวโน้มในกำรชนกันของข่ำวสำร (เพื่อเพิ่มประสิทธิภำพในกำรสื่อสำร)
•ฟัง สถำนีที่ต้องกำรส่งจะต้องตรวจสอบ (Sense) ก่อนว่ำตัวกลำงว่ำงหรือไม่
•พูด ถ้ำว่ำงจึงจะสำมำรถทำกำรส่งได้
“Sense before transmit” or “Listen before Talk”

ถึงแม้ CSMA จะลด แนวโน้มในกำรชนกันของข่ำวสำร แต่ ไม่สำมำรถหลีกเลี่ยงกำรชนกันได้อย่ำงสิ้นเชิง


ทั้งนี้เนื่องมำจำก Propagation Delay

ตัวอย่ำงเช่น หำกสถำนี ตรวจสอบแล้วพบว่ำขณะนั้น ตัวกลำงว่ำงอยู่จึงได้ทำกำรส่ง Data ออกไป แต่


สถำนะว่ำงของตัวกลำงนั้น อำจเป็นไปได้ว่ำ เนื่องมำจำก Data ที่ส่งมำจำกสถำนีอื่น ยังมำไม่ถึงจุดที่
สถำนีนั้น จึงตรวจสอบไม่พบ
© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 42
Multiple Access
Carrier Sense Multiple Access

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 43
Multiple Access
Carrier Sense Multiple Access

หำกสถำนีพบว่ำตัวกลำงไม่ว่ำง (Busy) อำจดำเนินกำรอย่ำงใดอย่ำงใดอย่ำงหนึ่ง


•Non-persistent ถ้ำ ไม่ว่ำง สถำนีจะหยุดรอระยะหนึ่ง (ค่ำสุ่ม) แล้วจึงส่งใหม่
•Persistent ถ้ำ ว่ำง สถำนีจะส่ง Data ด้วยควำมน่ำจะเป็นเท่ำกับ p ≤1

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 44
Multiple Access
Carrier Sense Multiple Access
CSMA/CD
• CSMA ไม่ดำเนินกำรใดๆ หำกเกิดกำรชน (จึงไม่มีกำรใช้งำนจริงในทำงปฎิบัติ)
• ดังนั้นได้มีกำรพัฒนำ CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) ขึ้นโดยเพิ่มกระบวนกำร
ตรวจสอบกำรชนกันของข่ำวสำร

• Collision Detection หลังจำกที่สถำนีส่งข้อมูลออกไปในตัวกลำงแล้วจะต้องประเมินว่ำกำรส่ง


ข้อมูลนั้นสมบูรณ์หรือไม่ (ดูจำก ACK)
• ถ้ำไม่ แสดงว่ำเกิดกำรชนกันของข่ำวสำรขึ้น ซึ่งต้องทำกำรส่ง Data Frame เดิมนั้นใหม่
• ทั้งนี้เพื่อลดควำมน่ำจะเป็นในกำรชนซ้ำ CSMA/CD จะใช้หลักกำร Back-off (รอตั้งหลัก)
• Back-off เพื่อประสิทธิภำพสูงสุด ระยะเวลำในกำรรอตั้งหลักจะ สุ่มค่ำ อยู่ในช่วงเวลำ 0 ถึง 2N เท่ำ
ของ Propagation Delay ในตัวกลำง เมื่อ N คือจำนวนครั้งที่ Back-off
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Multiple Access
Carrier Sense Multiple Access
CSMA/CD
• Collision Detection หลังจำกที่สถำนีส่งข้อมูล
ออกไปในตัวกลำงแล้วจะต้องประเมินว่ำกำรส่ง
ข้อมูลนั้นสมบูรณ์หรือไม่ (ดูจำก ACK)
• ถ้ำไม่ แสดงว่ำเกิดกำรชนกันของข่ำวสำรขึ้น ซึ่ง
ต้องทำกำรส่ง Data Frame เดิมนั้นใหม่
• ทั้งนี้เพื่อลดควำมน่ำจะเป็นในกำรชนซ้ำ
CSMA/CD จะใช้หลักกำร Back-off (รอตั้งหลัก)
• Back-off เพื่อประสิทธิภำพสูงสุด ระยะเวลำใน
กำรรอตั้งหลักจะ สุ่มค่ำ อยู่ในช่วงเวลำ 0 ถึง 2^N
เท่ำของ Propagation Delay ในตัวกลำง เมื่อ N
คือจำนวนครั้งที่ Back-off

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 46
Multiple Access
Carrier Sense Multiple Access

CSMA/CA
• มักพบใช้งำนใน Wireless LAN
• CSMA/CA จะไม่มีกำรชนกันเกิดขึ้นเนื่องจำก
พยำยำมหลีกเลี่ยง
• CSMA/CA ใช้แผน Persistent ในกำรส่ง Data
Frame โดยจะเว้นช่วงเวลำรอก่อนส่งข้อมูล = IFS
(Interframe Space) และรอต่อไปอีกช่วงหนึ่ง
(สุ่ม)
• เมื่อสถำนีส่ง Data Frame ไปแล้วจะจับเวลำเพื่อ
รอ ACK
• ถ้ำหำกผิดพลำด (อำจเนื่องมำจำก Frame หรือ
ACK สูญหำย) สถำนีจะใช้แผนตั้งหลักเหมือนกับ
CSMA/CD
© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 47
Topologies
Contention-Based Access – CSMA/CD

CSMA/CD
• Used by legacy Ethernet LANs.
• Operates in half-duplex mode where only one device sends or receives at a time.
• Uses a collision detection process to govern when a device can send and what
happens if multiple devices send at the same time.

CSMA/CD collision detection process:


• Devices transmitting simultaneously will result in a signal collision on the shared
media.
• Devices detect the collision.
• Devices wait a random period of time and retransmit data.

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 48
Topologies
Contention-Based Access – CSMA/CA

CSMA/CA
• Used by IEEE 802.11 WLANs.
• Operates in half-duplex mode where only one device sends or receives at a time.
• Uses a collision avoidance process to govern when a device can send and what
happens if multiple devices send at the same time.

CSMA/CA collision avoidance process:


• When transmitting, devices also include the time duration needed for the
transmission.
• Other devices on the shared medium receive the time duration information and know
how long the medium will be unavailable.

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 49
Channelization
Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the available
bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency, or through code, between
different stations. In this section, we discuss three channelization protocols.
• Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
• Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 50
Channelization
TDMA Figure 12.22 Time-division multiple access (TDMA)

In TDMA, the bandwidth is just one channel that is


timeshared between different stations.
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Channelization
FDMA Figure 12.21 Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)

In FDMA, the available bandwidth


of the common channel is divided into
bands that are separated by guard bands.
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Channelization
CDMA
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) คือวิธีกำร Multiple Access ซึ่งแตกต่ำงจำก FDMA ตรงที่ใช้เพียงแถบควำมถี่เดียว และต่ำง
จำก TDMA ตรงที่ ทุกๆ สถำนีสำมำรถส่งข้อมูลได้พร้อมๆ กัน

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Channelization
CDMA
CDMA พัฒนำบนพื้นฐำนของทฤษฎีกำรเข้ำรหัส โดยที่แต่ละสถำนีจะได้รับกำรมอบหมำย (Assign) รหัส เฉพำะในรูปของอนุกรมตัวเลข
เรียกว่ำ Chips ดังตัวอย่ำง

Figure 12.23 Simple idea of communication with code

In CDMA, one channel carries all


transmissions simultaneously.
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Figure 12.26 Sharing channel in CDMA

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Channelization
CDMA
MUX จะคูณค่ำ Data ที่ส่งมำด้วย Chip ของแต่ละสถำนี แล้วนำผลคูณที่ได้จำกทุกสถำนีมำ บวกกัน ได้เป็น sequence ใหม่ ดังรูป

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Channelization
CDMA
DeMUX จะคูณค่ำ sequence ที่รับมำได้ด้วย Chip ของแต่ละสถำนี แล้วบวกค่ำใน Chip ของแต่ละสถำนีเข้ำด้วยกัน ซึ่งผลลัพธ์มีค่ำ 0, N หรือ –N (N:
จำนวนสถำนี)

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12.58
Figure 12.28 Decoding of the composite signal for one in CDMA

© 2019 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 58
Figure 12.29 General rule and examples of creating Walsh tables

กำรสร้ำง Chip Sequence ใช้


Recursion ของ Walsh Table

Walsh Table คือ Matrix จัตุรัส


ซึ่งมีขนำดเท่ำกับจำนวนสถำนี N

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Homework
Channelization อีกชนิดหนึ่ง : OFDMA คืออะไร ? มีหลักกำรทำงำนอย่ำงไร ? ประยุกต์ใช้กับกำรสื่อสำร
แบบใดในปัจจุบัน ?

เขียนด้วยลำยมือ (กระดำษ/iPad) สรุปใส่กระดำษ A4 1 แผ่น ส่งใน Microsoft Teams Assignment


ส่งก่อนเรียนครั้งต่อไป

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END

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