gels

Review
Hydrogels in Cutaneous Wound Healing: Insights
into Characterization, Properties, Formulation and
Therapeutic Potential
Mariana Ribeiro 1,2,3 , Marco Simões 2,4 , Carla Vitorino 1,3,4, * and Filipa Mascarenhas-Melo 5,6, *

1 Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Pólo das Ciências da Saúde, Azinhaga de Santa Comba,
3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; [email protected]
2 CISUC—Center for Informatics and Systems, University of Coimbra, Pinhal de Marrocos,
3030-290 Coimbra, Portugal; [email protected]
3 Coimbra Chemistry Centre, Institute of Molecular Sciences—IMS, Department of Chemistry,
University of Coimbra, 3000-535 Coimbra, Portugal
4 CIBIT—Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, University of Coimbra,
Pólo das Ciências da Saúde, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
5 Higher School of Health, Polytechnic Institute of Guarda, Rua da Cadeia, 6300-307 Guarda, Portugal
6 REQUIMTE/LAQV, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra,
Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
* Correspondence: [email protected] (C.V.); [email protected] (F.M.-M.);
Tel.: +351-239-488-400 (C.V.); +351-271-205-220 (F.M.-M.)

Abstract: Hydrogels are polymeric materials that possess a set of characteristics meeting various
requirements of an ideal wound dressing, making them promising for wound care. These features
include, among others, the ability to absorb and retain large amounts of water and the capacity to
closely mimic native structures, such as the extracellular matrix, facilitating various cellular processes
like proliferation and differentiation. The polymers used in hydrogel formulations exhibit a broad
spectrum of properties, allowing them to be classified into two main categories: natural polymers like
collagen and chitosan, and synthetic polymers such as polyurethane and polyethylene glycol. This
review offers a comprehensive overview and critical analysis of the key polymers that can constitute
Citation: Ribeiro, M.; Simões, M.;
hydrogels, beginning with a brief contextualization of the polymers. It delves into their function,
Vitorino, C.; Mascarenhas-Melo, F.
Hydrogels in Cutaneous Wound
origin, and chemical structure, highlighting key sources of extraction and obtaining. Additionally,
Healing: Insights into this review encompasses the main intrinsic properties of these polymers and their roles in the wound
Characterization, Properties, healing process, accompanied, whenever available, by explanations of the underlying mechanisms
Formulation and Therapeutic of action. It also addresses limitations and describes some studies on the effectiveness of isolated
Potential. Gels 2024, 10, 188. https:// polymers in promoting skin regeneration and wound healing. Subsequently, we briefly discuss
doi.org/10.3390/gels10030188 some application strategies of hydrogels derived from their intrinsic potential to promote the wound
Academic Editors: Ana Paula Serro,
healing process. This can be achieved due to their role in the stimulation of angiogenesis, for example,
Ana Isabel Fernandes and Diana Silva or through the incorporation of substances like growth factors or drugs, such as antimicrobials,
imparting new properties to the hydrogels. In addition to substance incorporation, the potential
Received: 1 February 2024
of hydrogels is also related to their ability to serve as a three-dimensional matrix for cell culture,
Revised: 26 February 2024
whether it involves loading cells into the hydrogel or recruiting cells to the wound site, where they
Accepted: 5 March 2024
proliferate on the scaffold to form new tissue. The latter strategy presupposes the incorporation of
Published: 8 March 2024
biosensors into the hydrogel for real-time monitoring of wound conditions, such as temperature
and pH. Future prospects are then ultimately addressed. As far as we are aware, this manuscript
represents the first comprehensive approach that brings together and critically analyzes fundamental
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. aspects of both natural and synthetic polymers constituting hydrogels in the context of cutaneous
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. wound healing. It will serve as a foundational point for future studies, aiming to contribute to the
This article is an open access article
development of an effective and environmentally friendly dressing for wounds.
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Keywords: hydrogels; wound healing; natural polymers; synthetic polymers; critical attributes;
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
critical analysis
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Gels 2024, 10, 188. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels10030188 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/gels

Gels 2024, 10, 188 2 of 46

1. Introduction
The skin is the largest organ of the human body, accounting for almost 10% of the
total body mass [1,2]. It serves as a fundamental anatomical barrier against pathogens
and protects the external environment. The skin performs several important functions for
maintaining the balance between the biological system and the surrounding environment,
such as controlling the thermoregulation process. Furthermore, it is the human organ most
frequently injured [1–3].
Thousands of years ago, ancient civilizations like the Greeks and Egyptians used tree
bark, turmeric, aloe vera, and honey to treat wounds. The increased perception that injured
skin is susceptible to contamination and dehydration boosted the development of both
synthetic and natural dressings [4].
Since the 1960s, wound dressings have been considered favorable for wound healing
because they create an environment conducive to skin regeneration [2]. The application of
wound dressings aims to cover the wound, promote re-epithelialization, prevent mechani-
cal trauma, and protect it from infections [5].
The ideal dressing should ensure a moist environment and have the capacity to absorb
tissue exudate while allowing gaseous exchange, which is related to its porosity. It must
protect the wound against microorganisms and stimulate tissue regeneration. Additionally,
it should be rigid enough to allow for fixation on the wound, while remaining flexible and
elastic to adapt to body movements. Moreover, it must be biocompatible and biodegradable,
ensuring that its by-products are safe. The dressing should provide mechanical stability,
and be widely available and cost-effective [1,2,4–9].
Due to their intrinsic properties, hydrogels fulfill various requirements for an ideal
wound dressing [10]. They offer protection against microorganisms and new lesions [3].
Additionally, they can absorb large amounts of water, up to thousands of times their dry
weight [5,11]. Therefore, the highly hydrated three-dimensional (3D) polymeric network
allows for the maintenance of a high level of moisture in the wound bed [11]. Moreover,
they adhere to the wound but are also easily removable. Their transparency facilitates
visual inspection of the wound, and they are customizable and easily adapt to the contours
of the wound, promoting autolytic debridement (removal of debris and necrotic tissues),
and intrinsically stimulating healing through various mechanisms [5]. These mechanisms
include promoting angiogenesis (formation and growth of blood vessels) in wounds with
poor perfusion, modulating the immune cells within the wound, or enhancing the migration
of keratinocytes and fibroblasts in wound healing [12–15]. Hydrogels overcome some
limitations of traditional treatments, such as prolonged healing, limited body movement,
traumatic removal, and poor regeneration of skin attachments [6].
Depending on the type of polymer that constitutes the hydrogel, it can be classified
as natural or synthetic. Natural polymers offer better biocompatibility, while synthetic
polymers exhibit improved mechanical strength and adjusted properties [3,9]. Regenerative
medicine takes advantage of natural polymers, especially as dressings for wound treatment,
due to their intrinsic characteristics of biocompatibility and biodegradability. They easily
induce tissue repair and skin regeneration because of their interconnected 3D networks
embedded in water or biological fluids, as well as their similarity to the extracellular
matrix (ECM) [16].
This review provides a comprehensive overview of dressings developed exclusively
from hydrogels, which also identifies the critical attributes of an ideal dressing for wound
healing. A detailed and in-depth description of various polymers, both natural and syn-
thetic, is also presented, outlining their origins, and alluding to their structure and intrinsic
properties. In addition, a critical analysis is provided, which brings together all the critical
attributes identified for polymers when used for wound healing. In addition, experimental
studies related to wound healing that have used hydrogels in different approaches will be
presented, taking advantage of the potential that hydrogels can offer in this context and for
different types of applications. This manuscript is a distinctive review that, in addition to
presenting detailed information on polymers and hydrogels, also provides a distinct and
Gels 2024, 10, 188 3 of 46

high-quality discussion about their critical attributes that are key tools for the successful
development of wound-healing dressings.

2. Wound Healing Process

Wound healing comprises four overlapping phases: hemostasis (blood clotting, stop-
ping bleeding), inflammation (inhibition of microbial growth and wound bed preparation),
cellular proliferation (stimulation of fibroblast proliferation and migration to cover the
wound surface), and matrix remodeling (strengthening of the tissue and collagen synthesis).
These phases cooperate to restore and recover the injured tissue [2,9,17].
A high level of angiogenesis is a critical factor for tissue repair and normal wound
healing, as an adequate blood supply ensures the transport of oxygen and nutrients to
the wound site [18,19]. Simultaneously, the survival of the new tissue and its integration
into the surrounding tissue depends on proper vascularization [20]. It has been observed
that fibroblasts cultivated in poly (vinyl alcohol) hydrogels with incorporated arginine, a
precursor of nitric oxide, which, in turn, is a key signaling molecule in the regulation of
angiogenesis and vasodilation, exhibit increased ECM production compared to fibroblasts
cultivated in hydrogels without arginine [4].
The focus of most studies is on the development of absorbent dressings for the treat-
ment of wet or exudative wounds. However, not all wounds require the same care. For
instance, burns require continuous hydration and not total moisture absorption [6]. Con-
ventional beliefs advocated for keeping wounds in a dry environment. However, George
Winter introduced the concept of moist healing [21]. The wet process accelerates wound
healing 3 to 5 times because dehydration (dry process) disrupts the ideal conditions neces-
sary to trigger the wound healing process [1]. The “wet wound healing theory” suggests
that a moist healing environment increases the activities of cells and enzymes, facilitates
skin cell division, and is advantageous for the formation of granulation tissue, thereby pro-
moting the healing process [21,22]. Therefore, it is crucial to keep the wound environment
moist [1,22]. This theory has revolutionized the area of wound management, redirecting re-
search focus from traditional passive drying materials to active moisturizing products [21].
Wound healing can be facilitated by cells, namely fibroblasts, which aid in the forma-
tion of the granulation layer, while keratinocytes are involved in re-epithelialization [23,24].
It is well established that fibroblasts and keratinocytes interact synergistically. Previous
studies have proven that treatment is more advantageous when applying both types of cells
and not just one type. Paracrine signaling provides mechanical, biochemical, and struc-
tural properties superior to those of isolated cells. Fibroblasts secrete growth factors that
stimulate the growth and differentiation of keratinocytes. Keratinocytes, in turn, secrete
molecules that promote the proliferation of fibroblasts [8].
Several growth factors regulate the wound healing process, namely the fibroblast
growth factor (FGF), which promotes cell migration and proliferation, as well as angio-
genesis; epidermal growth factor (EGF), which improves migration and proliferation of
fibroblasts, stimulates epithelization, angiogenesis, and induces the secretion of growth
factors by fibroblasts; vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), the main growth factor re-
sponsible for stimulating angiogenesis; and transforming growth factor (TGF-β), which, in
addition to promoting angiogenesis, proliferation, and cell migration, induces the secretion
of ECM proteins [25].

3. Hydrogel Wound Dressings

The ideal dressing must meet certain requirements to create a conducive environment
for wound healing. It should prevent infections, promote the body’s self-healing process,
adhere to the wound site without causing damage during dressing changes, and adapt to
the body’s movements, among other characteristics. The key properties, which we will
refer to as critical quality attributes that an ideal wound dressing should possess, have been
outlined in Table 1 [1,2,4–9,11].
Gels 2024, 10, 188 4 of 46

Table 1. Critical attributes of an ideal wound dressing.

Critical Attributes Justification

Ensuring a balanced and moist environment to promote cell migration and proliferation. It is
Moisture considered as key factor for wound healing.
(supplying moisture to the dry wounds and absorbing moisture and exudates from wet wounds)
Controlling the level of wound exudate and preventing tissue maceration by effectively
Absorption
absorbing excess fluid
Facilitating gaseous exchange (water vapor, O2 , CO2 ) to the wound bed to accelerate
Permeability
cellular activity
Preventing microbial infections that could impede the wound healing process and prolong
Protection
its duration
Transparency Enabling clinicians to visualize the wound and monitor the healing process
Mechanical robustness Mimicking the structure of native skin while being rigid enough to allow fixation on the wound
Adapting to body movements and minimizing patient discomfort and pain during application
Flexibility and elasticity
and dressing replacement
Providing good adhesion to healthy skin without sticking to the wound itself, facilitating easy
Adhesiveness
removal after re-epithelialization, and preventing secondary injuries in the newly formed tissue
Biocompatibility Minimizing the risk of immune reactions or side effects
Ensuring the absence of toxic substances that could cause damage or result in dire consequences;
Safety ensuring that products resulting from degradation are safe and follow the normal
metabolic pathway
Cost-effectiveness Supplying a cost-effective wound dressing solution
Availability Widely available to all patients and healthcare centers

Hydrogels can play various roles in the field of tissue engineering, such as filling spaces,
functioning as wound dressings, or serving as drug delivery systems [8]. Interestingly, the
first hydrogel was developed in 1960 by Wichterle and Lim to be used as contact lenses [3].
Hydrogels are promising materials for clinical applications, particularly in the treat-
ment of wounds, due to their intrinsic characteristics that align with the essential aspects
an ideal dressing should possess. The primary goal is to stimulate and accelerate healing
while enhancing the quality of life for patients [2].
As the prefix “hydro” (water) suggests, hydrogels contain water in their composition,
up to 96%. However, the hydrogel sheet itself is not wet. Its hydrophilicity creates a
microenvironment in the area of the lesion with an adequate moisture content, which is a
critical factor for the rapid healing of the wound. Moreover, moisture is essential to ensure
cell viability and proper physiological functioning [2–4,8].
The presence of hydrophilic groups (–OH, –SO3 H, –NH2 , –COOH, –CONH2 ) is what
enables hydrogels to bind to water molecules [3]. The high water content facilitates the
transmission of water vapor and oxygen [10,26]. The water vapor transmission rate allows
for evaluating the ability of dressings to ensure an adequate level of moisture in the wound.
In the case of commercial dressings, it should be between 426 and 2047 g/m2 /day [27].
In addition to moisturizing tissues, the 3D structure of hydrogels enables them to
absorb and retain excess exudate from the wound surface, as well as remove toxins and
water-soluble waste from the wound [2,3,10].
The swelling capacity of hydrogels is intriguing because this behavior increases the
pore size, facilitating the adhesion and proliferation of cells within the 3D structure. How-
ever, this property is only favorable to a certain extent, as it can negatively affect the
mechanical properties and integrity of the surrounding tissues [4].
Their dense network per se and their ability to adhere firmly and evenly to the wound
surface prevent bacteria from reaching and invading the wound. Hydrogels are very pliable
and soft, and their degradation occurs through hydrolysis. They are available in various
Gels 2024, 10, 188 5 of 46

shapes and sizes, and their flexibility and elasticity allow them to adapt to different parts of
the body, making them atraumatic [2,3,10]. In the clinical context, the mechanical stiffness
of wound dressings should fall within the range of normal healthy skin, where Young’s
modulus varies between 0.42 and 0.85 MPa, allowing for painless movement. If the stiffness
falls outside this range, it may compromise the fixation of the dressing to the wound or
cause discomfort [6].
Also, the role of the hydrogel depends on the healing phase. For example, during
the inflammatory phase, they can intrinsically stimulate the cleaning of the wound bed
through the induction of autolytic debridement of the necrotic eschar tissue [2,3,8,10].
Despite the valuable properties of hydrogels and the fact that the polymer network
hinders the entry of pathogens, they do not have inherent antimicrobial properties. One
of the simplest alternatives is the direct incorporation of an antimicrobial agent, such as
minocycline, gentamicin, colistin, or 1% sulfadiazine, either onto the surface or within the
hydrogel structure itself (acting as a vector). One problem with these dressings is the rapid
release of the drug [3]. In addition to antibacterial drugs, they can effectively transport
other bioactive molecules to the wound site. However, the water content decreases as active
substances are added [2,3].
Additionally, their structure allows for the deposition and organization of cells, which
will differentiate according to specific stimuli and form specific tissue [8]. Moreover, they
can release growth factors to promote cell proliferation and stimulate vascular regeneration,
aiding in the proliferative phase [5]. Hydrogels also promote the process of keratinization,
and their hypoxic and slightly acidic environment promotes angiogenesis at the wound
site, inhibits bacterial growth, and attracts cells involved in the wound repair process,
such as fibroblasts [2,3]. In addition to participating in the formation of granulation tissue
during the healing process, human fibroblasts secrete growth factors, soluble cytokines, and
components of the ECM, such as fibronectin, collagen, and hyaluronic acid, that stimulate
the proliferation of epithelial cells [8,22].
A study on hydrogels incorporating arginine, a precursor of nitric oxide, which is
an important signaling molecule in the regulation of angiogenesis and vasodilation, also
demonstrated an increase in ECM production [4,28]. Hydrogels can also be loaded with
growth factors. Xiong et al. [29] studied the influence of FGF2 on fibroblast proliferation and
found a 40 to 75% increase in the proliferation rate when 100 ng/mL of FGF2 was added.
FGF, one of the main promoters of cell proliferation with chemotactic activity, plays an im-
portant role in skin healing [4]. Several studies on the incorporation of VEGF into hydrogels
have shown improvements in cell proliferation and wound tissue remodeling [30].
Some hydrogel polymers contain RGD (arginine–glycine–aspartic acid) peptide se-
quences, responsible for interacting with fibronectin and integrin, acting as anchors [6,31].
These sequences are involved in the mechanism of cell adhesion to the ECM and improve
cell survival [32], promote migration and proliferation of cells such as keratinocytes and
fibroblasts [33], and induce the secretion of growth factors and angiogenic cytokines crucial
for ECM remodeling [19]. The type of cell adhesion ligand, particularly RGD peptides,
their spatial arrangement within the hydrogel, the combination of several ligands, or the
association of ligands and soluble factors can regulate the phenotype and cellular function
of the formed tissues [34]. In addition to the described effects, in vitro and in vivo models
have demonstrated that RGD peptide enhances the formation of the keratinocyte layer, pro-
duction of granulation tissue, and strengthening of the wound matrix, thereby improving
wound healing [35].
Moreover, their transparency allows for the assessment of even small changes, visual
inspection of the wound, and monitoring of the healing process without removing the
dressing [2,3,36]. Additionally, removing the dressing negatively interferes with the healing
process and should be discouraged [36].
The properties of hydrogel dressings can be enhanced. For instance, the addition of
NaCl to the solution during the preparation of type I collagen hydrogels can improve their
 Moreover, their transparency allows for the assessment of even small changes, visual
inspection of the wound, and monitoring of the healing process without removing the
dressing [2,3,36]. Additionally, removing the dressing negatively interferes with the heal-
ing process and should be discouraged [36].
Gels 2024, 10, 188 6 of 46
The properties of hydrogel dressings can be enhanced. For instance, the addition of
NaCl to the solution during the preparation of type I collagen hydrogels can improve their
mechanical properties and optical performance. Similarly, increasing the pH (near the iso-
mechanical
electric properties
point) andtheir
can enhance optical performance.
transparency and Similarly, increasing
linear viscoelastic the pH [37].
properties (near the
isoelectric point) can enhance their transparency and linear viscoelastic properties [37].
Because hydrogels are designed to come into direct contact with the wound, they
Because hydrogels are designed to come into direct contact with the wound, they
should be immunologically neutral [2,3,38]. Hydrogels have shown low rates of adverse
should be immunologically neutral [2,3,38]. Hydrogels have shown low rates of adverse
effects and low irritation rates [3].
effects and low irritation rates [3].
4.
4. Polymers
Polymers
Natural polymers(Figure
Natural polymers (Figure1)1)are
are biocompatible
biocompatible andand often
often equivalent
equivalent to macromole-
to macromolecules
cules recognized by the human body [11,17,20]. However, they have relatively
recognized by the human body [11,17,20]. However, they have relatively low mechanical low me-
chanical strength compared to synthetic polymers [11,16,20]. Additionally, they
strength compared to synthetic polymers [11,16,20]. Additionally, they are susceptible are sus-
ceptible to batch-to-batch variations, which may result in slight differences in
to batch-to-batch variations, which may result in slight differences in physicochemical physico-
chemical characteristics
characteristics [11]. [11].

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Representation
Representation of
of the
the chemical
chemical structures
structures of
of some
some natural
natural polymers
polymers classified
classified into
into proteins
proteins
(collagen, gelatin, and silk fibroin) and polysaccharides (alginate, hyaluronic acid, cellulose, dex-
(collagen, gelatin, and silk fibroin) and polysaccharides (alginate, hyaluronic acid, cellulose, dextran,
tran, and chitosan).
and chitosan).

Synthetic polymers(Figure
Synthetic polymers (Figure2)2)are
are chemically
chemically synthesized
synthesized andand exhibit
exhibit controllable
controllable and
and predictable
predictable properties.
properties. They maintain
They maintain constantconstant and homogeneous
and homogeneous physicochemical
physicochemical properties,
often displaying excellent mechanical properties and controlled degradation [5,11,17,39,40].
Some synthetic polymers, such as polyesters, are biodegradable and generally more cost-
effective compared to natural polymers [40] and have more abundant sources of raw
materials [5]. However, unlike natural polymers, which are biologically inert, synthetic
polymers carry the associated toxicity risk and may present biocompatibility issues [17,39,40].
Moreover, these materials often require surface treatment or combination with natural
polymers to improve cytocompatibility, as they exhibit weak cellular interactions. Surface
treatments aim to reduce hydrophobicity through chemical alterations or enhance cell
adhesion by adding adhesion peptides, for example [40]. The most commonly used strategy
involves combining synthetic and natural polymers [5,9,40,41], as the latter contribute to
their natural biological activity due to their similarity to tissues and the native ECM [20,40].
They mimic the natural microenvironment of cells in the human body, facilitating processes
such as cell adhesion, proliferation, migration, and differentiation [20]. Blending polymers
 properties, often displaying excellent mechanical properties and controlled degradation
[5,11,17,39,40]. Some synthetic polymers, such as polyesters, are biodegradable and gen-
Gels 2024, 10, 188 7 of 46
erally more cost-effective compared to natural polymers [40] and have more abundant
sources of raw materials [5]. However, unlike natural polymers, which are biologically
inert, synthetic polymers carry the associated toxicity risk and may present biocompati-
improves the mechanical properties of natural polymers. However, their biocompatibility
bility issues [17,39,40].
may be somewhat affected [16].

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Synthetic
Synthetic polymers
polymers and
and their
their respective
respective chemical
chemical structures.
structures.

Moreover,
The selectionthese materials
of the polymericoftencomposition
require surface treatment or
of hydrogels combination
should considerwith natu-
the most
ral polymers
suitable to improveaccording
characteristics cytocompatibility,
to the type as they exhibitto
of wound weak cellularand
be treated interactions. Sur-
the patient’s
face treatments
clinical conditions aim[2].to reduce hydrophobicity through chemical alterations or enhance
cell adhesion by adding
Table 2 gathers adhesion
the main peptides,
sources for example
for obtaining [40].polymers
natural The mostand commonly used
the primary
strategy involves
pathways combining
for the chemical synthetic
synthesis and natural
of synthetic polymers [5,9,40,41], as the latter con-
polymers.
tribute to their natural biological activity due to their similarity to tissues and the native
ECM [20,40].
Table 2. MainThey mimic
sources for the naturalnatural
obtaining microenvironment
polymers andofchemical
cells in the humanpathways
synthesis body, facil-
of
itating processes
synthetic polymers. such as cell adhesion, proliferation, migration, and differentiation [20].
Blending polymers improves the mechanical properties of natural polymers. However,
Polymers Main Natural
their biocompatibility maySources/Chemical Synthesis
be somewhat affected Pathways
[16]. References
The selection of the polymeric composition of hydrogels
Bovine, porcine, red algae, fish, from species such as Prionace glauca, should consider the most
Oreochromis niloticus, and Lophius litulon, octopuses, starfish,
suitable characteristics according to the type of wound to be treated and the [4,42] patient’s clin-
Collagen
[2]. as Rhopilema esculentum, polar bears, whales, seals,
jellyfish such
ical conditions
and marine sponges
Table 2 gathers the main sources for obtaining natural polymers and the primary
pathways Bovine,
for theporcine,
chemical caprine, mammalian
synthesis tissues,polymers.
of synthetic squid, sponges,
Gelatin [17]
jellyfish, and snails
Table 2. Main sources
Cocoons for obtaining
of Mulberry natural
silkworm Bombyxpolymers and
mori and thechemical synthesis pathways of synthetic
non-mulberry
Silk Fibroin [43]
polymers. silkworm Antheraea assama
Natural polymers

Polymers Brown
Main marine algae
Natural such as Laminaria,
Sources/Chemical Ascophyllum,
Synthesis and
Pathways References
Alginate Macrocystis, red and green marine macroalgae, or bacteria like [1,34,38,44]
Bovine, porcine, red algae,
Pseudomonas andfish, from species such as
Azotobacter
Prionace glauca, Oreochromis niloticus, and Lophius
Natural polymers

Human vitreous humor, joints in the umbilical cord,

Hyaluronic
Collagenacid litulon, octopuses, connective
starfish, jellyfish [45]
tissue such as Rhopilema [4,42]
esculentum, polar bears, whales, seals, and marine
Bacteria strains such as Gluconacetobacter, Rhizobium, Agrobacterium,
Bacterial cellulose sponges [1,16,46,47]
Sarcina, and Rhodobacter
Bovine, porcine, caprine, mammalian tissues, squid,
Gelatin Bacteria, such as Leuconostoc, Weissella, Lactobacillus, [17]
Dextran sponges, [48,49]
andjellyfish, and snails
Streptococcus
Cocoons of Mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori
Insects, marine invertebrates, and crustaceans such and the
as crabs,
Silk Fibroin
Chitosan [43]
[9,16,50–53]
non-mulberry
shrimp, silkworm
and lobster, as well as inAntheraea assama
the cell walls of fungi
Gels 2024, 10, 188 8 of 46

Table 2. Cont.

Polymers Main Natural Sources/Chemical Synthesis Pathways References

Result from the polyaddition polymerization between polyols
Polyurethane (molecules containing hydroxyl groups) and isocyanates, in the [54–56]
presence of a chain extender and a catalyst
Polyethylene glycol Result from the condensation of ethylene oxide and water [57,58]
Synthetic polymers

Results from the hydrolysis, aminolysis, or alcoholysis of

Polyvinyl alcohol [59]
vinyl acetate
Poly-ε-caprolactone Results from the ring-opening polymerization of ε-caprolactone [60]
Poly-N-vinylpyrrolidone Results from high-pressure free-radical polymerizations [61]
Results from the blend of polylactic acid (derives from lactic acid
and results from renewable sources such as corn, starch, or
sugarcane) and polyglycolic acid (results from the hydrating
Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid [9,54,60,62]
carbonylation of formaldehyde, with H2 SO4 as a catalyst, or from
the pyrolysis of renewable sources such as sugar beets, sugarcane,
cantaloupe, and grapes)

4.1. Natural Polymers

Within natural polymers, we can classify them as proteins (collagen, gelatin, and
silk fibroin) and polysaccharides, which can be further subdivided into acidic polysac-
charides (alginate and hyaluronic acid), neutral polysaccharides (cellulose and dextran),
or basic polysaccharides (chitosan) [16]. Figure 1 schematically represents some of the
natural polymers.

4.1.1. Collagen
Collagen is considered the most abundant protein in the human body [16], constituting
approximately 30% of the overall protein content [22]. The main types of collagens present
in the body are types I, II, III, IV, and V. This amino acid is ubiquitously present in the
ECM [4]. Native collagen is insoluble and needs to undergo a pre-treatment where non-
covalent bonds are broken to solubilize and extract it [63].
The main source of commercially used collagen isolation is from marine sources [42],
representing an abundant and environmentally friendly reservoir of collagen [64]. The
process of obtaining collagen from the transformation of by-products of fish skin and scale
is inexpensive and has minimal environmental impact [65].
Although different types of collagen have various structural organizations, they all
share the fibrillar triple helix structure [66], composed of the tripeptide sequence (Gly-X-
Y)n, where Gly (glycine) accounts for 30% of the total amino acids, and X is typically proline
while Y is hydroxyproline [37]. Within the three polypeptide chains, there are repetitive
sequences of specific amino acids, such as RGD (arginine–glycine–aspartic acid), which
interact with integrins present in cells and promote the adhesion and migration of cells
such as keratinocytes and fibroblasts [33,35].
This polymer is highly biocompatible [33,38], eco-friendly [67], and bio-stable. It is
a promising candidate for hydrogel applications due to its water absorption capacity, as
well as its abundance, and plain structure [4]. They are commonly employed as biomimetic
materials for the skin matrix, effectively simulating the natural microenvironment, particu-
larly concerning skin elasticity [68]. Collagen dressings are semi-flexible [69], easily applied
and removed, and serve as scaffolds for cytokines and growth factors [4]. Collagen-based
hydrogels have demonstrated desirable biodegradability, excellent shape consistency at
physiological temperature (37 ◦ C), and good formation of micro and macropores, which
are important for cell adhesion and proliferation [20,70]. Collagen-based scaffolds exhibit a
high level of hydration and transparency, and provide an appropriate surface area for cellu-
lar adhesion, as well as the necessary conditions to ensure their viability, migration, and
Gels 2024, 10, 188 9 of 46

proliferation [70]. Collagen can polymerize in vitro into a fibrillar hydrogel at physiological
temperature, ionic strength, and pH [71].
Collagen stimulates the molecular and cellular cascade of wound healing [16], promotes
debridement of necrotic tissue [4,16], leads to the synthesis of growth factors that stimulate
angiogenesis, and provides a hydrophilic environment that favors re-epithelialization [4].
Collagen acts through a hemostatic effect mechanism [4,46], inducing platelet activation
and aggregation, resulting in the release of coagulation factors that lead to the deposition
of a fibrin clot at the wound site [33] and increasing the availability of fibronectin, which
plays an important role in cell endurance and is essential for the succession of the cell cycle.
Collagen plays a crucial role in maintaining cell viability and preserves immune system
cells such as macrophages and leukocytes [4].
Collagen dressings inhibit the activity of metalloproteinases (stagnate wound healing
in the inflammatory phase), allowing the healing process to proceed [4,46]. In the inflam-
matory phase, the activation of immune cells stimulates the secretion of pro-inflammatory
cytokines, recruiting fibroblasts, endothelial, and epithelial cells. Fibroblasts contribute to
collagen synthesis [4,33].
At the same time, collagen and its degradation products are responsible for various
cellular processes crucial for wound healing, including differentiation, migration, prolif-
eration, and protein synthesis, including collagen itself [35]. Collagen fragments, in turn,
release molecules that attract keratinocytes to the wound area [4] and recruit fibroblasts and
endothelial cells to regulate granulation and re-epithelialization [4,33,35], aiding in the for-
mation of new tissue [16], which is more resistant to remodeling [35]. Collagen also acts in
the remodeling phase (balance between the degradative activity of metalloproteinases and
the formation of the new matrix) determining tensile strength [33] and scar formation [33].
Although marine collagen exhibits a high degree of bio-adhesion, biocompatibility,
biodegradability, and low immunogenicity [4], it has a lower amount of hydroxyproline
amino acids, resulting in lower thermal resistance [72]. When subjected to chemical or
enzymatic hydrolysis, it forms marine collagen peptides with low molecular weight, which
have higher hydrophilicity, strong calcium affinity, and are more easily absorbed [25]. These
peptides possess physiological characteristics that provide activities such as antioxidant
and wound-healing properties [25]. Collagen sponges are commonly used in wound
treatment. They are highly porous materials and absorb a significant amount of water [4,9].
Their elastic nature and absorbent behavior make them resistant to bacterial infections [4].
However, their rapid degradation limits in vivo use [9].
Collagen-based dressings of avian, bovine, or porcine origin are recommended for the
treatment of full- or partial-thickness wounds with minimal to moderate exudate, but they
are contraindicated in allergic or sensitive patients and third-degree burns [16].
Collagen-based hydrogel has some limitations, particularly weak mechanical proper-
ties [73,74] and tissue adhesion [75]. Furthermore, when in contact with living tissues, it
may induce inflammation [74]. On the other hand, the lack of intrinsic antibacterial activity
is also a disadvantage, as it alone cannot protect the wound area from infections [76]. In
addition to the high cost of pure collagen, which makes it economically unfeasible for
large-scale approaches, collagen degradation results in amino acids with the ability to
activate the coagulation cascade and with thrombogenic potential, limiting its application
as a biomaterial [37]. It can quickly lose its shape and stability due to enzymatic degra-
dation [77]. Moreover, the long gelation time and low mechanical strength of printed
collagen-based hydrogels pose additional challenges [78,79].
In a neutral solvent, at a temperature close to physiological, collagen molecules can
autonomously assemble into collagen fibers. The hydrogel is then created through the
interaction among these collagen fibers [22]. The in vitro degradation of collagen hydrogels
occurs by incubating them with a collagenase solution (5 U/mL) at 37 ◦ C, resulting in
complete hydrogel disintegration within 3 h [80].
Almeida Cruz et al. [42] compiled the results of several in vivo (animal models)
studies on marine-derived collagen. Overall, there was an increase in the amount of
Gels 2024, 10, 188 10 of 46

collagen in the wound bed, increased granulation tissue, angiogenesis, and promotion
of re-epithelialization in the animals with skin wounds, burns, or injuries treated with
collagen or collagen peptides extracted from different marine species.
In vitro studies demonstrated that marine collagen peptides isolated from the skin of
Nibea japonica increased the proliferation and migration of NIH-3T3 fibroblast cells and
were classified as non-cytotoxic and hypoallergenic [25,81]. These peptides also showed
antioxidant activity against superoxide anion, hydroxyl, DPPH, and ABTS radicals. In vitro
studies (scratch wound assay) showed that collagen peptides significantly improved scratch
closure rate, and according to another in vitro test (Western blotting), they increased the
expression of proteins such as nuclear factor kB (NF-kB) p65, inhibitory-κB kinase (IKK)
α, and β, from the NF-kB signaling pathway, which regulates the transcription of genes
associated with cellular functions such as adhesion, migration, proliferation, and cell
survival. Moreover, they also increased in vitro (Western blotting) the levels of growth
factors such as EGF, FGF, VEGF, and TGF-β, all related to wound healing [25]. These results
were similar to those obtained with marine collagen hydrolysate regarding skin repair and
tissue regeneration capacity. Collagen isolated from Chum salmon and Nile tilapia skin also
demonstrated excellent wound-healing properties [22].
Feng et al. [18] studied aminated collagen hydrogel, isolated from fish scales, in the
healing of full-thickness wounds. Aminated collagen is highly biocompatible, minimally
immunogenic, eco-friendly, sustainable, and low-cost. The results demonstrated that the
hydrogel improved angiogenesis (in vitro) and was effective in wound healing in vivo (rat
model). Mature and organized collagen deposition was observed at the wound site, along
with re-epithelialization after 14 days, with the formation of tight junctions between the
dermis and epidermis, which are crucial for tissue functional recovery.
Previous studies also indicate that hydrogels with higher collagen concentrations
are stable, enhance cell viability, and allow for the expression of genes related to matrix
macromolecules and cytokines involved in neovascularization and re-epithelialization.
This suggests that concentrated collagen hydrogels could be a novel option for cellular
therapy in the treatment of chronic skin wounds [82].

4.1.2. Gelatin
Gelatin is a natural polymer resulting from the hydrolysis and controlled denaturation
of collagen at high temperatures [6,11,61,83]. It is ubiquitous [84], eco-friendly [67,85,86],
sustainable [85], and recyclable [84].
Similar to collagen, gelatin possesses repetitive sequences of amino acids (Gly-X-Y)n,
where X and Y are typically proline and hydroxyproline, respectively [17]. Additionally, it
contains RGD motifs (arginine–glycine–aspartic acid), which promote cell adhesion, migra-
tion, and proliferation. By providing binding sites for integrins, it facilitates keratinocyte
migration and improves tissue remodeling [27,83,87,88].
Moreover, the structure of gelatin is flexible and contains numerous free functional
groups, such as hydroxyl, amino, and carboxyl groups [31,89], enabling the modification of
its structure through chemical conjugation [27].
Gelatin is highly biocompatible and biodegradable [17,27,83,87]. It is hydrophilic,
capable of absorbing large quantities of water and exudate [27,90], and mimics the native
ECM, making it interesting for wound treatment applications [11,20,38,83,90]. Moreover, its
extraction and synthesis are relatively easy [11,91], and dressings based on gelatin exhibit
good transparency [91–94].
Derived from collagen, the main protein of the dermal ECM, gelatin provides the
necessary ingredients for dermal regeneration and exerts a positive effect on the biological
response [6], without triggering immune responses [6,88]. Compared to collagen, gelatin is
cheaper and has lower antigenicity and immunogenicity, as it is partially denatured [27,83].
Gelatin can be used as a drug delivery system or as a scaffold for cell proliferation [17].
This biopolymer positively affects cell viability, mainly due to the RGD peptide se-
quences, which are responsible for interacting with fibronectin and integrin, acting as
Gels 2024, 10, 188 11 of 46

anchors and enhancing cell adhesion to the ECM and cell proliferation [6,31]. Despite its
cellular adhesion properties, and even though Ma et al.’s study [89] demonstrates that
adding gelatin to the polyacrylic acid and polyacrylamide hydrogel enhances the hydro-
gel’s viscosity and adhesion to surfaces like glass and plastic, the tissue adhesive properties
of gelatin are insufficient [90]. Therefore, it is often functionalized with dopamine, im-
parting adhesive properties to the hydrogel due to its structural resemblance to mussel
adhesive proteins [88,95,96]. The key to the good adhesive properties of mussels lies in the
abundance of catechol groups [88]. In Wang et al.’s study [96], the addition of 0.06% poly-
dopamine to the gelatin–polyacrylamide hydrogel improved the adhesion of the hydrogels
on porcine skin without compromising the ease of removal.
Gelatin undergoes easy and low-temperature processing and exhibits a thermore-
versible gelation process [84]. At ambient temperature, gelatin forms hydrogels, but at
temperatures above 35 ◦ C, it dissolves in water and forms a transparent gel, due to the loss
of hydrogen bonds that connect the chains in a triple helix [17,90]. Furthermore, it has a
high degradation rate and is not very viscous above 27 ± 1 ◦ C, which limits its printability.
To overcome this low formability, gelatin can be combined with other biopolymers such as
alginate and silk fibroin or undergo specific modifications such as methacrylation [11,20].
Gelatin methacrylate, in addition to being a biocompatible and biodegradable polymer,
has high thermal sensitivity and facilitates cell migration, making it attractive for wound
healing applications. Moreover, its ability for UV radiation-induced photopolymerization
provides it with mechanical stability, resulting in high shape fidelity. It also exhibits in situ
and rapid gelling [20,87].
Gelatin hydrogels lack antibacterial activity [97], and their stability decreases at high
temperatures [98], while they exhibit poor mechanical properties [90,95,97,99]. One solution
to improve the mechanical properties of gelatin and reduce its water solubility is through
crosslinking. The strength and stability of the crosslinking depend on the crosslinking
agent, as well as the water absorption capacity. Recently, crosslinking agents such as
lactose, citric acid, and genipin have gained attention due to their biocompatibility. Lactose
reacts through the Maillard reaction and results in non-enzymatic glycation of the gelatin
chains, while citric acid and genipin react with the amino group, but genipin forms a
heterocyclic compound [27]. Lactose has a carbonyl group that reacts with the amino
group of gelatin. The resulting structure is more compact, reducing the water absorption
capacity. Citric acid has three carboxyl groups. Those that do not react can form hydrogen
bonds with polar groups of gelatin. The resulting structure is looser, increasing the water
absorption capacity [27].
Ren et al. [100] prepared a biodegradable, recyclable, sustainable, and environmentally
friendly gelatin hydrogel, avoiding secondary pollution.
Ionescu et al. [90] prepared a film based on a gelatin derivative containing norbornene
functionalities and evaluated its wound healing potential in vivo (rat model). The results
showed that there was no significant degradation during the 3-week study period. There
was a considerable improvement in the wound healing process. Additionally, a high
percentage of wound contraction (80% ± 0.3) was observed at the end of 12 days.

4.1.3. Silk Fibroin

Silk fibroin (SF) is a natural protein-based biopolymer [54,60,101–112]. Silk fibers
are primarily composed of proteins derived from silkworms, namely fibroin, sericin, and
18 different amino acids [56,113]. Among these, alanine, glycine, and serine residues make
up the majority of the amino acid sequence [54,56,101].
Chemically, this fibrous bioproduct possesses abundant amino groups (primary
amines), hydroxyl, and carboxyl groups along its molecular chain that are accessible
for chemical modifications [101,107,112,114].
Furthermore, this structured amphiphilic copolymer is composed of alternatively
repeating units of hydrophilic light chains and disulfide-connected hydrophobic heavy
chains [60,101,115]. In solution, SF adopts metastable amorphous conformations such
Gels 2024, 10, 188 12 of 46

as random coil and α-helix structure (Silk I). When exposed to physical and chemical
stimuli, such as shear forces, high silk concentration, low pH, high temperature, vortexing,
sonication, cross-linking agents, blending with other polymers, or organic solvent treatment,
the amorphous portion of SF can be transformed into stable and insoluble anti-parallel
crystallized β-sheets (Silk II) [106,114–118].
In physiological conditions, the SF protein adopts a low-energy β-sheet conformation
and tends to aggregate, resulting in hydrogel formation through self-aggregation. This
self-assembly approach is relatively simple. However, it can be time-consuming [104,110].
Another technique used to induce hydrogel formation is the ultrasonication technique. The
formation of β-sheets occurs through alterations in hydrophobic hydration. The application
of ultrasound waves promotes intermolecular interactions of fibers, leading to a structural
rearrangement of the protein. This process involves conformational changes from a random
coil to a β-sheet, culminating in hydrogel formation [104,110,115]. Previous studies have
shown that this technique reduced the gelation time of SF from days to minutes, with the
formation of hydrogels reported within 15 to 45 s [110,115].
In general, the SF hydrogel state is preferred for its adaptability and ease of use [111].
The conformation of the SF chain determines the morphological structure and solubility of
the hydrogel. The higher the concentration of SF, the greater the content of the β-sheets
(Silk II) [117]. In turn, the crystalline Silk II structure imparts greater mechanical resistance
and long-term stability to the hydrogel [104,113,116]. The hydrophilic blocks enhance
toughness and elasticity [113].
SF possesses excellent biological properties, including outstanding biocompatibility both
in vitro and in vivo, and tunable biodegradability, forming non-inflammatory by-products. It
also exhibits high tensile strength and robust mechanical properties, along with excellent flexi-
bility, elasticity, and malleability [16,17,54,57,60,104–108,110,112–114,116,117,119,120]. More-
over, it is naturally abundant, bio-sustainable [121], and eco-friendly [121–123].
In addition to addressing biodegradation issues associated with non-biological mate-
rials [115], SF can act as a natural strengthening agent, providing the desired mechanical
strength and hardness, instead of relying on synthetic polymers and chemicals [106,110,113].
Studies have shown that the addition of small amounts of SF improved the physical and
mechanical properties of a collagen scaffold without affecting its biological nature [106].
The SF hydrogel has become a promising biomimetic dressing, given its similarity to
Young’s modulus of the skin and its ability to adjust mechanical properties to match the
desired resilience and elasticity of native tissues. In addition to supporting cell proliferation,
it allows for the controlled release of antibacterial molecules and bioactive compounds for
skin wound regeneration [110,112,114,117,120].
Furthermore, its low immunogenicity, non-toxicity, good accessibility, low cost (especially
when compared with collagen due to the rigorous processing associated with collagen extrac-
tion), easy processability, outstanding stability, and chemical modifiability significantly con-
tribute to its application in the biomedical field [54,57,102,108,110,112,115–117,120,124,125].
Moreover, due to the presence of hydrophilic groups on SF backbones that are easily
hydrated, such as hydroxyl and carboxyl groups capable of forming hydrogen bonds with
water molecules [101,112,114], SF hydrogels can absorb exudate and maintain a moist
environment. This helps keep the wound area hydrated, promoting cell adhesion and
migration [16,17,107,109,112,114,116].
SF hydrogel dressings exhibit excellent inherent potential in wound healing [17,60,102,
107,110,112,116–118,124]. They demonstrate a good water vapor transmission rate, water
retention capacity, gelation behavior, and proper oxygen permeation. Additionally, SF hy-
drogel dressings possess hemostatic properties and support the recruitment of various cell
types, including endothelial cells, macrophages, neutrophils, fibroblasts, and keratinocytes.
Furthermore, they promote cell proliferation and migration, facilitating re-epithelialization
and the formation of granulation tissue [17,104–106,108,109,112,119,126].
Gels 2024, 10, 188 13 of 46

In addition to numerous studies reporting the effectiveness of SF hydrogels in drug

delivery and the regulation of growth factors [60,104], the literature documents indicate
that SF can induce the release of EGF [107].
SF has excellent cell adhesion [125]. In vitro studies have demonstrated that SF-based
hydrogels provide mechanical support and act as a matrix for tissue formation, significantly
enhancing cell adhesion and proliferation. This effect may be attributed to their capacity
to provide nutrients, promote cell–cell interactions, and facilitate the spreading of normal
human keratinocytes and fibroblasts under in vitro conditions [17,54,101,107,109,115].
Moreover, SF-based scaffolds downregulate the expression of pro-inflammatory cy-
tokines, suppressing inflammation [115]. Low-molecular-weight SF can activate the intrin-
sic coagulation cascade, acting during the hemostasis phase [56].
Furthermore, previous studies have shown that SF is used due to its capacity to
stimulate collagen synthesis and contribute to the production and deposition of ECM
components. This makes a direct contribution to the wound repair and tissue regeneration
process [101,107,108,110,112,119].
NF-kB is an important mediator of inflammatory responses. The NF-kB pathway is
crucial in the activation and differentiation of innate immune cells and inflammatory T
cells [102]. SF can activate the NF-kB signaling pathway through the expression of cyclin
D1, vimentin, fibronectin, and VEGF. In addition to modulating cellular activities such as
cell adhesion, differentiation, and proliferation, this activation promotes ECM deposition
and regulates inflammation and ROS elimination. This signaling pathway is closely related
to wound healing and constitutes the underlying mechanism in the healing process of
SF-based dressings [102,104,110,116].
Despite the highlighted promising inherent properties, SF hydrogels present some
limitations, such as the lack of angiogenic activity [115], and antibacterial and antioxidant
properties [110,115,116,124]. Additionally, they have a high gelation time [98].
As a single component, SF may not be sufficient for skin regeneration due to the
lack of cell-specific binding sites [109]. Furthermore, the high cutaneous affinity of SF
hydrogels allows them to adhere easily to the skin surface without the need for biological
adhesives [105,117]. However, in the case of wounds with irregular contours, additional
auxiliary fixation is required since they cannot adapt to deformation [111].
The transparency of SF hydrogels sparks controversy. Some authors acknowledge
their good transparency [121,125], while others assert that the production of hydrogels
leads to microstructures lacking in transparency [127].
The degradation of silk protein is carried out through proteases present in the bio-
logical system. The degradability and degradation rate depend on the type of silk, the
concentration of SF, and the content of β-sheets [106].
Guan et al. [118] developed an SF-based hydrogel and investigated its mechanism
for skin repair and wound healing in a second-degree burn mouse model. The results
showed that the SF hydrogel provided a moist environment conducive to wound healing.
It improved adhesion and migration of fibroblast and keratinocyte cells in vitro through
the Talin 1 pathway, which is closely related to the healing process, and associated pro-
teins (vinculin, paxillin, p-FAK, and FAK). The interconnected porous morphology of the
hydrogel, suitable for cell growth, facilitated nutrient delivery to cells and promoted the
absorption of cellular debris or metabolic waste. In the in vivo study, the treated wound
appeared smooth and moist, with no apparent inflammatory reactions. After 12 days,
the burn skin treated with SF hydrogel exhibited morphology and histology similar to
normal skin, showing complete wound regeneration without edema or granulation tissue.
The hydrogel-treated group demonstrated faster re-epithelialization and wound closure
compared to the control groups.
Li et al. [117] investigated the therapeutic effect of an SF-based hydrogel on hyper-
trophic scars in vivo using rabbit ears. Hypertrophic scars, occurring in 33% to 91% of burn
victims, lack an established optimal treatment method. The findings of the study suggest
that the SF hydrogel exhibits outstanding inhibitory effects on hypertrophic scars, reducing
Gels 2024, 10, 188 14 of 46

their thickness and lightening their color. These effects were attributed by the authors to
the downregulation of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) expression levels. Additionally, the
hydrogel-treated group demonstrated lower collagen fiber density and more organized
arrangements than the blank control and scar removal cream groups.

4.1.4. Alginate
Alginate is a natural polysaccharide primarily found in the cell walls of marine
algae (macroalgae) in the form of alginic acid. Additionally, it can be obtained from
bacteria [34,44]. Bacterial biosynthesis enables the production of alginates with more
defined physical properties and chemical structures compared to those derived from marine
algae. Moreover, the ability to manipulate bacteria has allowed for the customization of
alginate characteristics [34].
Alginate is an unbranched linear anionic polymer composed of repeating units of
(1,4)-linked α-L-guluronic acid and β-D-mannuronic acid, referred to as G blocks and
M blocks, respectively. Depending on the source from which alginate is extracted, these
two types of monomeric acids may be present in varying proportions and assume diverse
structural arrangements, thereby influencing the properties of alginate [1,21,34,44].
It is believed that only the G blocks are involved in the intermolecular binding with di
and trivalent cations [34,44]. A higher content of G blocks enables the formation of stiffer
hydrogels with improved mechanical properties [21] due to the cationic interaction they
establish with ions such as calcium, forming a structure resembling an “egg-box” [1,38].
On the other hand, a hydrogel with a higher content of M blocks tends to be less adhesive
and is capable of stimulating human monocytes to produce cytokines, making it applicable
in wound healing processes [1].
Alginate is an insoluble salt, but it can be extracted through treatment with aqueous
alkaline solutions, typically NaOH, resulting in the formation of water-soluble sodium
alginate [1,34].
It is a highly porous, hydrophilic, moisture-permeable, biostable, highly biocom-
patible, biodegradable, and non-toxic polymer. Furthermore, it is widely recognized
as safe, readily available in nature, inherently non-adhesive, easy to process, and pos-
sesses good resistance in acidic media [1,21,38,39,44,53,128,129] and transparency [78,92].
Moreover, alginate is renewable [130,131], has an eco-friendly nature [131–134], and is
cost-effective [1,39,44,129,130,132,134]. However, it still has some shortcomings, includ-
ing weak mechanical properties and cell adhesion [1,21,44,128], the inability to promote
angiogenesis, inhibit microbial infections, slow hemostasis, and difficulty in reducing
scar formation [129].
While some researchers have found little to no immune response, others have re-
ported that alginates with a high content of M blocks were immunogenic. This observed
immunogenic response was attributed to residual impurities in the alginate itself, such
as endotoxins, polyphenolic compounds, and heavy metals, due to its natural origin [34].
Orive et al. [135] demonstrated that purified alginates had fewer impurities and did not
induce any significant reaction when implanted in animals (mice).
Alginate is widely used either in its hydrated gel form to provide moisture to dry
wounds or in its dry form for wound fluid absorption [34]. It is highly absorbent, par-
ticularly in a lyophilized form, capable of absorbing water or body fluids up to twenty
times its weight [16,21]. It is especially useful in wounds with moderate to high exudate
levels [1,44,77]. Alginate can channel wound exudate towards the surrounding healthy
skin, a phenomenon known as “lateral capillarity”. However, research indicates that a high
content of M blocks hinders this effect [21].
Calcium alginate-based biomaterials (insoluble in water) tend to partially dissolve
when in contact with body fluids. As they absorb wound exudate, an ion exchange occurs
between calcium (from the alginate) and sodium (from body fluids), releasing calcium ions.
This results in the formation of a solubilized gel (sodium alginate), which is conducive to
wound healing, providing a moist microenvironment in the wound area that stimulates re-
Gels 2024, 10, 188 15 of 46

epithelialization, assists in granulation tissue formation and minimizes bacterial infections.

They promote autolytic debridement and do not adhere to tissues, making their removal
almost painless, accelerating wound closure, and preventing secondary injuries during
dressing changes [1,6,16,21,34,38,53,128]. However, the ion exchanges that occur under
physiological conditions limit the long-term stability of ionically crosslinked hydrogels [34].
Alginate biopolymers can be applied as drug delivery systems [1,21,34] and are com-
monly used in biomedical products for the treatment of bleeding/exudating skin wounds
and burns due to their hemostatic properties [16,53,77]. On one hand, calcium ions released
under physiological conditions promote hemostasis, and on the other hand, the hydrogel
itself allows for the aggregation of platelets and red blood cells within its matrix [34].
Alginate stimulates macrophage activation and induces the production of interleukin-6 and
tumor necrosis factor α by monocytes, initiating the second phase of the wound healing
process, the inflammatory phase [21,128].
The removal of alginate-based dressings causes less pain than traditional dressings
and will not induce additional harm to the wound site [1,21]. However, its weak ad-
hesive properties require a secondary dressing to protect and attach it to the wound
area [16,53]. Since the inherent cell adhesion properties of alginate are deficient [20,98],
recently, alginate derivatives have been prepared by chemically introducing adhesive cell
peptides, including the RGD sequence and others like YIGSR (Tyr-Ile-Gly-Ser-Arg) and
DGEA (Asp-Gly-Glu-Ala) [34].
Alginate exhibits relevant rheological properties such as viscosity, rapid gelation,
and the ability to stabilize dispersions [1,98]. However, it has weak mechanical prop-
erties and low tensile strength, which limits its application in wound healing [98,128].
Bahadoran et al. [136] prepared a sodium alginate/polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel and ob-
served that an increase in alginate concentration resulted in more porous structures with
enhanced swelling capacity, improved elasticity, and degradation rate.
Increasing the molecular weight is one way to enhance the physical properties of the
resulting hydrogel. However, an increase in molecular weight raises the viscosity of the
alginate solution, which may compromise the viability of cells or proteins incorporated
into the mixture due to generated shear forces. The viscosity of the pre-gelation solution
and post-gelation stiffness can be controlled independently, so a combination of low-
and high-molecular-weight polymers can be used to increase hydrogel elasticity with a
minimal increase in solution viscosity [34]. The viscosity of alginate solutions remains
unchanged within pH values between 5 and 11. When the pH falls below 5, protonation of
the –COO− groups in alginate occurs, reducing electrostatic repulsion between alginate
chains, facilitating their approximation, and forming hydrogen bonds, leading to increased
viscosity. When the pH exceeds 11, depolymerization occurs, decreasing viscosity [34].
The functional groups of alginate enable it to easily cross-link with other biopolymers,
forming a network that enhances the physical stability of the dressing. The ionic nature of
alginate promotes the formation of bioactive interpolymeric complexes with compounds
such as chitosan, a cationic polysaccharide [1].

4.1.5. Hyaluronic Acid

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is an animal-derived glycosaminoglycan and is a structural
component abundantly present in the ECM found in embryonic mesenchymal tissues [7].
This linear polyanionic heteropolysaccharide consists of alternating units of β-1,3-N-acetyl-
D-glucosamine and α-1,4-D-glucuronic acid [17,137].
HA is a highly biocompatible, biodegradable, non-toxic polymer that can be easily
chemically modified [7,9,19,38,137,138]. It is a non-adhesive, non-immunogenic [139],
and eco-friendly glycosaminoglycan [140,141] with high transparency [142–144]. In the
architecture of the ECM, HA plays regulatory roles in water homeostasis, ensuring proper
tissue hydration during wound repair [137,138]. It is a semi-flexible [145] and water-soluble
macromolecule. HA is one of the most hygroscopic molecules, capable of absorbing and
retaining large amounts of water, increasing its volume by up to 1000 times [7,142]. It has
Gels 2024, 10, 188 16 of 46

several carboxyl and hydroxyl groups in its structure, which impart a highly hydrophilic
character to it, enabling it to absorb exudate [45]. It provides a moist environment and
allows for oxygen permeation [142,146]. At physiological pH, HA carries a negative charge.
The acetamido and carboxyl groups in its structure form hydrogen bonds with water
molecules, stabilizing the polymer’s secondary structure [45].
Most approaches to obtaining HA hydrogel dressings involve high costs and tedious
multi-step reactions [45,146]. Recently, advances in HA extraction technologies have led to
a more stable and cost-effective form of HA [142].
HA-based hydrogels are reabsorbable and easy to scale up [98]. However, HA
hydrogels have relatively weak mechanical properties [45,147], require crosslinking for
stability [98], exhibit low adhesion strength in humid environments [147], and undergo
rapid enzymatic degradation (through the action of hyaluronidases) in physiological envi-
ronments [39,45]. However, its esterification enhances its stability, mechanical properties,
and degradation rate [7,45]. Moreover, crosslinking gelatin with HA-based products al-
lows for increasing the initial HA degradation time from one week to several months [31].
Clinical cases will be presented for two examples of medical devices that use ester deriva-
tives of HA later on, namely, Hyalomatrix and Hyalosafe. This chemical modification
reduces hydrophilic components and increases hydrophobic groups, aiming to enhance
its stability while maintaining its biological properties and initial safety profile. Solubility
depends on the percentage of esterification, which is a controllable process. In vivo data
have demonstrated that the degradation of this material is safe and occurs through ester
bond hydrolysis, resulting in gradual polymer hydration, making it increasingly resemble
native HA. Furthermore, studies have confirmed its biocompatibility. Hyalomatrix and
Hyalosafe are examples of two medical devices that use ester derivatives of HA. When
used in burns, these are alternatives that promote functional recovery and effective repair
of the burned area [7].
HA accelerates wound healing through various mechanisms [137]. It provides 3D
support to the extracellular space, is involved in the proliferation and migration of cells
such as fibroblasts and keratinocytes, stimulates angiogenesis, enables important complex
interactions for the healing process, and contributes to the organized and structured
construction of newly formed tissue. It is a valuable option, especially for application
in deep burns, due to its properties that facilitate nerve regeneration while simultaneously
limiting scar formation [7,19].
High concentrations of HA have been reported in processes of regeneration, remod-
eling, and morphogenesis. Interestingly, this molecule is involved in the early stages of
wound healing and tissue repair, assisting in the organization of endothelial cells and
fibroblasts at the site of injury [7].
In addition to its role in organizing the ECM, depending on the molecular weight, HA
can perform different biological functions [7]. High-molecular-weight HA allows for the
formation of structures with increased stability, viscosity, and viscoelasticity. It is considered
low-molecular-weight if values are below 1–25 × 104 Da, and high-molecular-weight if
values are above 1 × 106 Da [45].
After injury, platelets release high-molecular-weight HA, which accumulates at the
wound site and leads to fibrinogen deposition and clot formation. HA recruits neutrophils
involved in the removal of dead tissue and phagocytosis of debris and induces the release
of interleukin 1β, interleukin 8, and tumor necrosis factor-α. It modulates the inflammatory
phase of the wound healing process, exerting an anti-inflammatory effect and regulating
early inflammation [45,137]. Experimental models have demonstrated that high-molecular-
weight HA inhibits angiogenesis, preventing the supply of oxygen and nutrients, and
consequently, tissue regeneration [7,148]. The secretion of inflammatory cytokines con-
tributes to the fragmentation of high-molecular-weight HA into low-molecular-weight HA,
which, in turn, recruits monocytes and leukocytes. It modulates inflammation by its activity
on free radicals, its antioxidant effect, and the exclusion of lytic enzymes from the cell. Low-
molecular-weight HA is pro-angiogenic, stimulates the production of pro-inflammatory
Gels 2024, 10, 188 17 of 46

cytokines and growth factors responsible for ECM remodeling, and regulates the migration
and proliferation of fibroblasts and keratinocytes, aiding in the proliferative and remodel-
ing phases of the wound healing process. Fibronectin and low-molecular-weight HA play
an important role in wound contraction, as they induce their differentiation into myofi-
broblasts and guide fibroblast proliferation, essential for collagen deposition, which will
form the new granulation tissue matrix, rich in HA itself. In the re-epithelialization phase,
low-molecular-weight HA interacts with keratinocytes, regulating the re-epithelialization
process [7,45,137]. Furthermore, previous studies have demonstrated that enzymes in-
volved in the degradation of HA promote cell proliferation, providing additional evidence
that HA must be broken down to enhance cell growth [148].
Some studies suggest that HA is not suitable for cell adhesion and proliferation [45,145].
While some authors attribute the inability to support cell attachment to insufficient strength [145],
others presume that it is due to the thermodynamic polyanionic and hydrophilic characteris-
tics of HA materials, hindering the adhesion of cells to anionic surfaces. Biomaterials based
on high-molecular-weight HA have shown lower adhesion compared to lower-molecular-
weight counterparts and are, therefore, used in situations where preventing adhesions
is desired, such as post-surgery [31]. Cross-linking it with biopolymers containing free
amine groups, such as gelatin, can enhance its cell adhesion and proliferation properties
due to the much more stable amide bond compared to ester bonds [31]. The main agents
for cross-linking HA chains include carbodiimides, polyfunctional epoxides, hydrazides,
sulfides, and aldehydes. Carbodiimides (water-soluble) are the most commonly used due
to their non-cytotoxicity, biocompatibility, and the fact that they are not incorporated into
the structure after cross-linking. Additionally, their cross-linking reaction is gentle and
easily controlled [31].
The rheological properties of HA depend on the pH, temperature, and ionic strength
of the solution. HA undergoes hydrolytic degradation when the pH of the solution is below
4 or above 11, resulting in a decrease in viscosity and the integrity of the polymer network.
This aspect is significant because the pH of the wound varies during the healing stages.
After an injury, the pH increases at the wound site, reaching approximately eight and
gradually decreasing as the healing process progresses until it reaches five when healing
is complete [45].
Based on current clinical experience, medical devices incorporating HA are considered
a safe and effective therapeutic alternative in burn treatment, demonstrating superior
outcomes in wound healing compared to standard care [7].
In the context of wound healing, exogenous HA has been the subject of investiga-
tion, with promising results emerging. Preliminary in vivo studies have shown that the
topical application of HA promotes skin regeneration in hamsters and rats. However, this
polymer possesses limited properties regarding its residence time and solubility, necessi-
tating chemical modifications to enhance resistance to degradation, prolong the in vivo
residence period, achieve other physicochemical characteristics, and explore different
production methods [7].
A retrospective study involving 11 burn treatment centers was conducted, encompass-
ing 57 patients, with 31 presenting deep partial-thickness burns and 22 full-thickness burns.
Hyalomatrix was applied, and medical follow-up was extended for 37 days. Notably,
after 7 days, enhanced re-epithelialization was observed in cases of deep partial-thickness
burns. By the 37th day, complete wound closure had been achieved in 85.7% of patients.
Hyalomatrix, an advanced, flexible, and conformable dressing, consists of two layers: a
thin, transparent silicone layer on top and a 3D fibrous matrix layer in contact with the
wound, composed of ester-derived HA. Upon contact with the wound, the biodegradable
fibrous matrix spontaneously integrates and undergoes hydrolysis, releasing HA [7]. In
a comparable study involving 300 individuals with deep partial-thickness burns treated
using Hyalomatrix, burns healed within 21 days for 83% of cases. Hypertrophic scars, evi-
dent in almost all individuals, disappeared within one year post-healing in 90% of patients
and after two years in 96% of cases. The incidence of infections decreased from 29.5% to
Gels 2024, 10, 188 18 of 46

10% [7]. The study’s findings underscore the effectiveness of Hyalomatrix as a regenerative
matrix, providing support for cell migration and deposition from the wound margins
while promoting the organization of constituents within the matrix, including fibroblasts
and endothelium in the injured area. The top layer serves as a physical barrier against
microorganisms, prevents excessive fluid loss, and allows for the monitoring of the healing
progress without necessitating dressing removal due to its transparent nature. Importantly,
this layer was designed not to cause pain or damage to newly formed tissue upon removal,
demonstrating a favorable safety profile, even in pediatric populations. For burn victims
undergoing surgical wound preparation involving necrotic tissue removal, this advanced
device safeguards the residual dermal layer and stimulates tissue regeneration from the
wound margins and cutaneous appendages [7].
Hyalosafe, another HA ester, serves as a dressing specifically designed for effective
coverage in treating first and superficial second-degree burns. This transparent HA film is
directly applied to the wound, creating and maintaining an optimal level of moisture in
the wound area. This, in turn, establishes favorable conditions for rapid epithelial renewal
without the risk of tissue maceration. The degradation of ester bonds releases HA, actively
promoting re-epithelialization. Importantly, this membrane is non-adherent, ensuring a
painless removal process [7].
Facial burns pose significant challenges, often requiring hospitalization and accounting
for 25% of pediatric burns. Due to the unique characteristics of facial tissue, there is a
notable risk of fluid loss. A study involving 40 children demonstrated that Hyalosafe
exhibits excellent wound-healing properties in second-degree facial burns, leading to
significant aesthetic outcomes. Remarkably, there were no reports of wound infection [7].

4.1.6. Cellulose
Cellulose stands as the most abundant biopolymer obtained from natural sources [47,
51,52,149,150]. It is considered the safest material on earth and an endless reservoir of re-
sources to develop environmentally friendly materials. It is biocompatible, biodegradable,
and possesses good mechanical strength and flexibility [149–151]. Additionally, it is eco-
friendly, renewable, and low-cost [130,131,149–154]. Consisting of a linear and unbranched
homopolysaccharide composed of β-D-glucopyranose units linked by β-1,4 glycosidic
bonds [17,47], cellulose is readily available, with wood being the primary natural source,
but it is also found in plants such as cotton and flax, as well as in vegetables, fruits, and
biowaste [47,149,150]. In the majority of biowaste materials, cellulose forms fibril structures
enveloped within a matrix composed of lignin and hemicellulose. Cellulose exhibits some
limitations, notably low solubility in both water and most organic solvents due to the pres-
ence of strong inter- and intramolecular hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces [149,150].
Moreover, cellulose is challenging to hydrolyze, and both acidic and enzymatic hydrolysis
(cellulase) can result in the decomposition of the cellulose molecules [150].
Cellulose can also be produced by seaweed, fungi, and bacteria [36,47]. Bacterial
cellulose (BC), as the name suggests, originates from bacteria [16,46].
BC is chemically equivalent to vegetal cellulose. However, it does not contain by-
products such as hemicellulose, pectin, and lignin. BC is obtained through fermentation,
and any secondary metabolites, nutrients, and other substances it may contain are easily
removed [47,150]. Unlike vegetal cellulose, BC does not require purification because it
is already obtained in a pure form (with a high degree of purity), allowing for its nearly
direct use [46,47].
Other advantages of BC over vegetal cellulose include high porosity, high water
absorption capacity (due to a high number of available hydroxyl groups), a higher degree
of crystallinity, mechanical robustness, and permeability to gases and liquids. Despite
having a molecular formula similar to that of vegetal cellulose, BC exhibits significant
differences in its physical and mechanical properties. BC forms cross-linked networks of
fibrils that are 100 times finer than those derived from vegetal cellulose, imparting higher
elasticity, flexibility, resistance, crystallinity, and surface area to the 3D network [47,150].
Gels 2024, 10, 188 19 of 46

Therefore, BC is a natural hydrophilic polysaccharide that is highly biocompatible,

biodegradable, permeable, flexible, non-toxic, non-carcinogenic, and hypoallergenic. It
possesses a high degree of native purity, high porosity, crystallinity, and the ability to retain
large quantities of water. BC also has the potential for chemical modification [8,16,46,47,155].
The two most commonly used techniques for modifying and optimizing the morphological,
mechanical, physical, and chemical characteristics of BC and incorporating components
like antibiotics are ex situ solution impregnation, which involves the physical absorption or
impregnation of molecules into the pure BC chains (without any modification), through
the formation of hydrogen bonds due to the presence of hydroxyl groups in BC. Another
technique is in situ modification, which involves the incorporation of molecules (included
from the beginning in the culture medium) during the synthesis process of the BC fibril
network itself [46].
The properties of BC make it suitable for use as a wound dressing. Its dense nanofib-
rillar network can retain an appropriate amount of moisture in the wound area while
absorbing excess exudate [36,46]. The application of BC in hydrogels has gained promi-
nence due to the 3D arrangement of the BC nanofibrillar network. In addition to its
similarity to the ECM, its high surface area and porosity provide support for cell pro-
liferation [8,16,46,47]. It is flexible, soft, and easily removable without interfering with
wound healing [7,8,13,16,46,53]. Furthermore, it accelerates granulation [16,47], promotes
the re-epithelialization process, and serves as a matrix for tissue regeneration, reducing
pain and healing time [16,156,157]. Additionally, it exhibits excellent mechanical behavior,
similar to synthetic polymers [8,16]. The high mechanical strength, combined with great
flexibility, allows cellulose-based dressings to conform to the wound area [47]. Studies have
demonstrated that BC stimulates wound re-epithelialization, efficiently improving wound
healing. However, it does not possess antibacterial properties [46].
In vitro studies have demonstrated that culturing BC near cells, such as human umbili-
cal vein endothelial cells, adipose stem cells, and fibroblasts, does not alter their morphology
or proliferative capacity [36].
Kwak et al. [155] prepared bacterial cellulose membranes (BCM) for the treatment
of second-degree burns in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. The rats were divided into two
groups: one was treated with BCM, and the other with gauze. The results showed that
compared to the gauze-treated group, rats treated with BCM exhibited a thicker epidermis
and dermis, more blood vessels, reduced mast cell infiltration, decreased expression of
VEGF and angiopoietin-1, and increased collagen expression. Additionally, metabolic
enzymes indicative of kidney and liver toxicity remained at normal levels. These findings
suggest that BCM can enhance the burn healing process by regulating angiogenesis, re-
epithelialization, and stimulating connective tissue formation. Furthermore, they did not
induce specific kidney or liver toxicity.

4.1.7. Dextran
Dextran is a linear, neutral homopolysaccharide composed of repeated D-glucopyranose
units, primarily linked by α-1,6 glycosidic bonds. Additionally, it may include branching
α-1,2, α-1,3, and α-1,4 linkages [54,158–167].
Dextran can be produced by various lactic acid bacteria and results from glucose
condensation through the activity of a secreted dextransucrase enzyme, which transfers
glucose components from sucrose and synthesizes dextrans with different structures, molec-
ular weights, linkages, and branching patterns, depending on the bacterial genus [54,160].
Dextran produced by Leuconostoc mesenteroides contains about 5% of α-1,3-glycopyranosidic
linkages, while that extracted from Weissella strains has a highly linear backbone with only
3–4% α-1,3 branching [49].
This polymer is hydrophilic, biodegradable, highly biocompatible, non-toxic, and
non-immunogenic [158–162,168–170]. In addition to being sustainable, it is safe [171]
and eco-friendly [133,172,173], and is well known for its low cost and wide natural
abundance [130,160–162,167,173].
Gels 2024, 10, 188 20 of 46

Lately, dextran-based hydrogels have attracted significant attention as wound-healing

dressings due to their biocompatibility and flexible and soft characteristics [169]. In ad-
dition, this naturally derived material is promising for soft tissue engineering due to its
similarity to the native ECM [158]. It can provide nutrients and essential elements for tissue
regeneration and support cell proliferation [168].
It possesses excellent water solubility [163,167,170]. However, the high level of branch-
ing (α-1,2, α-1,3, and α-1,4 linkages) negatively impacts its solubility. It has been reported
that dextrans with more than 43% of α-1,3 linkages cannot be dissolved in water [48].
This glucose-containing polysaccharide possesses three hydroxyl groups on each
glucopyranose unit. These not only provide it with high hydrophilicity and good wa-
ter binding capacity but also make it available for chemical functionalization and cross-
linking [158,160,162,164,165]. In addition to effectively absorbing exudate and maintaining
the wound bed with appropriate moisture, dextran hydrogels are transparent, facilitating
the monitoring of the healing process [174].
Dextran-based hydrogels can be obtained by incorporating polymerizable groups into
dextran to facilitate cross-linking [165]. Moreover, the D-glucopyranose residues can be
easily chemically oxidized, resulting in oxidized dextran with aldehyde groups, which,
in turn, can react with polymers such as gelatin and chitosan or their derivatives with
amino side groups, forming in situ hydrogels with novel tissue adhesive characteristics
and hemostatic and antibacterial properties [159].
It has been reported that dextran hydrogel scaffolds can enhance angiogenic properties.
Additionally, they can serve as platforms to incorporate growth factors/drugs for skin
regeneration [169]. Dextran binds to glucan-specific receptors present in human fibroblasts,
which, in turn, induce the expression of growth factors that promote cell proliferation,
accelerating wound healing [158,170,175].
It possesses immunomodulatory functions, and it can activate neutrophils and macro-
phages, stimulate cytokine secretion, and strengthen the immune system [165]. Moreover,
dextran can function as a mild reactive oxygen radicals (ROSs) scavenger and potentially
reduce excessive platelet activation [163].
However, pure dextran hydrogels present some limitations, particularly concerning
low mechanical strength, weak tissue adhesion, poor drug loading ability, and undesirable
degradation, which chemical and physical modifications help to overcome [167,168].
The biodegradation of dextran in the human body is controlled by dextranases [160,162,163].
The modification of the dextran hydrogel provided gradual material degradation, allowing
for proper host tissue integration and ensuring complete skin regeneration [158].
Shen et al. [54] prepared a dextran hydrogel for the treatment of third-degree burn wounds
in pigs, and the hydrogel stimulated rapid wound closure, improved re-epithelialization and
ECM remodeling, and promoted angiogenesis in a third-degree porcine burn model. In
another study on third-degree burns in mice, the dextran-based hydrogel exhibited good
bioactivity, particularly in enhancing angiogenic responses and facilitating complete skin
regeneration in vivo throughout wound healing. In addition, it recruited endothelial
progenitors and cells, promoted epithelial cell migration to the wound area, and supported
epithelial differentiation [54,158,166,169,170].

4.1.8. Chitosan
After cellulose, chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide on the planet,
containing amino and hydroxyl groups in its composition [51,52]. Chitosan results from
the partial deacetylation of chitin [9,16,50–53]. This process can occur under harsh alkaline
conditions, through treatment with sodium hydroxide (chemical hydrolysis), or in the
presence of specific enzymes like chitin deacetylase (enzymatic hydrolysis) [50,52].
There are different degrees of deacetylation, which is an important chemical char-
acteristic of this polymer. During the deacetylation process, the acetyl group (–C2 H3 O)
is replaced by the amino group (–NH2 ) in the polymer chain. Chitosan is a copolymer
composed of units of D-glucosamine ((1,4)-2-amino-2-deoxy-β-D-glucan) and N-acetyl
Gels 2024, 10, 188 21 of 46

D-glucosamine ((1,4)-2-acetamido-2-deoxy-β-D-glucan). To be called “chitosan,” the degree

of deacetylation must be at least 60%, which means it has 60% D-glucosamine units and
40% N-acetyl D-glucosamine [50–52].
Its solubility depends on the degree of deacetylation and the pH of the solution.
Chitosan is soluble in slightly acidic solutions because the pKa value of its amino group
is approximately 6.3. When the pH is lower, protonation of the –NH2 groups occurs,
converting them into –NH3 + , which increases electrical repulsion, resulting in a soluble
cationic polymer [50–52].
Chitosan is a linear cationic hydrophilic polysaccharide that is highly biocompatible
and biodegradable [11,38,46,137]. It is low-cost [98,130,132,134,176,177] and possesses
good swelling properties [78,178], providing a moist environment and promoting effective
hydration of the wound area [179,180]. Furthermore, it is renewable [130,131] and eco-
friendly [67,131–134,154,178].
It is an oxygen-permeable biopolymer, non-toxic, with excellent bioadhesive charac-
teristics, tissue adhesiveness, and hemostatic properties [11,16,46,50,53,137,181]. In other
words, blood coagulation occurs because chitosan, positively charged, binds to red blood
cells due to the negative charge on the cell membrane residues, resulting in hemaggluti-
nation [46,50]. The higher the degree of deacetylation, the greater the number of positive
charges, and thus, the better the tissue adhesiveness and hemostatic properties [52,182].
Hemostatic activity assists in blood clotting and reduces pain by blocking nerve end-
ings [46]. On the other hand, chitosan adsorbs plasma proteins and fibrinogen, resulting
in platelet aggregation [183]. Chitosan has anti-inflammatory activity and wound-healing
properties, accelerating wound closure [16,46]. Chitosan speeds up tissue regeneration
through wound contraction, stimulating cells such as macrophages and fibroblasts [46].
Furthermore, it exerts an immunomodulatory effect, which also contributes to wound heal-
ing [52]. Additionally, its structural similarity to the native ECM promotes cell adhesion
and proliferation [137].
Moreover, it exhibits intrinsic antibacterial activity [9,11,16,46,52,53,137], which de-
pends on its molecular weight, degree of deacetylation, concentration, and type of bac-
teria [184]. Several mechanisms have been proposed to elucidate this activity, with the
most widely accepted one being that chitosan chains contain amino groups that can be
protonated, giving them a positive charge. Electrostatic interactions occur between the
protonated amino groups (–NH3 + ) of chitosan and the negative charges of the microbial
cell membrane, leading to alteration of cell permeability, resulting in cell membrane lysis
and, consequently, cell death [46,50,51,129]. Chitosan demonstrated a bacterial inhibition
rate of 95.6% for Escherichia coli and 99.2% for Staphylococcus aureus [184].
Chitosan degradation produces non-toxic residues, and the degradation rate varies
with the degree of deacetylation (lower degrees result in higher biodegradation) and the
polymer’s molecular weight (shorter chains degrade more rapidly) [50].
Chitosan-based hydrogels can be formed through physical, chemical, or metal ion
coordination cross-linking. Chitosan does not require any toxic additives for gelation. Phys-
ical bonds, such as hydrogen bonds, electrostatic interactions, or hydrophobic interactions,
are reversible and non-covalent. They depend on factors like temperature, pH, and others,
making them relatively unstable. The polycationic nature of chitosan, under acidic condi-
tions, allows for the formation of hydrogels through electrostatic interactions with natural
or synthetic polyelectrolytes or polyanions. Among natural polyanions, proteins (such as
collagen and gelatin) and polysaccharides (like alginate and HA) have been documented.
Examples of synthetic polyanions include polyacrylic acid. Hydrogels formed through
physical cross-linking are soft, flexible, and non-toxic. However, their main disadvantages
include low mechanical strength, the possibility of uncontrolled dissolution (instability),
and the difficulty of controlling pore size. Therefore, chemically cross-linked hydrogels
have been investigated. Chemically cross-linked hydrogels are much more stable because
covalent bonds are irreversible. In this approach, the primary structure (amino groups)
undergoes chemical modifications, which can alter some chitosan properties. There may
Gels 2024, 10, 188 22 of 46

be contamination with catalysts or residues of toxic reagents. Some commonly used cross-
linking agents are glutaraldehyde, glyoxal, ethylene glycol, and diglycidyl ether. However,
all of these can confer toxicity to the resulting hydrogel. Genipin is a naturally derived
cross-linker that has been used as an alternative, but its toxicity is not well-established.
Although chemically cross-linked hydrogels may be toxic, this strategy allows for the pro-
duction of soft, flexible, and stable hydrogels with better control of pore size. In addition
to these two strategies, chitosan hydrogels can be formed through coordination complex
cross-linking using metal ions such as Pd (II), Pt (II), and Mo (VI). However, they are less
suitable for medical use [50].
Carboxymethyl chitosan is derived from chitosan. It is a biocompatible, water-soluble
polymer with wound healing, hemostatic, and antibacterial properties [1,129]. In compari-
son to chitosan, carboxymethyl chitosan has more positive charges, leading to increased
electrostatic interactions and, consequently, higher antimicrobial activity [185]. Previ-
ous studies suggest that carboxymethyl chitosan exhibits healing properties in vitro and
in vivo by activating macrophages, secreting various cytokines, and stimulating fibroblast
proliferation [16].

4.2. Synthetic Polymers

Synthetic polymers are also widely used in biomedical applications, particularly as
wound dressings in the context of healing. Among the most commonly used synthetic
polymers are polyurethane, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohol, poly-ε-caprolactone,
poly-N-vinylpyrrolidone, and poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid. Figure 2 schematically repre-
sents these synthetic polymers.

4.2.1. Polyurethane
Polyurethane (PU) contains repetitive units of the urethane group [54,55]. It is a
polymeric resin [186] and has a microstructure comprising soft and hard segments, which
imparts antithrombotic properties and excellent mechanical properties [55,187,188]. The
soft segment (polyol part) provides better flexibility, while the hard segment (isocyanate
part) imparts strength and hardness [189]. It is possible to adjust the physical properties
based on the type and content of the segments used in the PU chain, according to the
desired final product [190]. For example, the stiffness of the polymer depends on the extent
of crosslinking [56].
This synthetic polymer is highly biocompatible [9,39,54,55,60,187,188,191] and pos-
sesses versatile features such as high strength, durability, excellent elasticity, and adjustable
degradation rates according to the application [39,54,60,190]. In addition to excellent flexi-
bility [9,55,186], PU-based hydrogels also exhibit great transparency, good adhesion, high
mechanical and tensile strength, fatigue resistance, and toughness, similar to biological soft
tissues [186,192,193]. PU hydrogels are non-toxic, easily modifiable [193], provide good
gaseous permeability, and are more economical compared to natural polymers [9].
PU and its derivatives are generally considered biodegradable, with few excep-
tions [60]. The selection of synthesis compounds for PUs enables control over their degra-
dation rate [191,194]. It forms highly porous and permeable hydrogels [188], with ease of
processing and the ability to modify surface functional characteristics [188,190]. Porous
tissue scaffolds possess a structure similar to that of the epidermis and are more suitable
for skin regeneration [194]. The ability to control pore size and polymer chemical proper-
ties allows for the regulation of drug release rates. Therefore, PU-based dressings can be
utilized as drug delivery systems [195].
It is a widely used polymer in the biomedical field, especially in wound dress-
ings [187,188,190]. It promotes cell proliferation, and its matrix allows for the regeneration
of deeper skin layers such as the dermis [11]. However, it has some limitations, such as the
absence of antibacterial properties [188,194,195], and the potential for side effects from its
degradation products [39].
Gels 2024, 10, 188 23 of 46

The primary application of hydrophilic PUs is in wound dressings. The majority of

PUs are hydrophobic. However, it is possible to obtain hydrophilic PUs by introducing
hydrophilic groups into the soft-segment PU structure, with polyethylene glycol being the
most common hydrophilic functional group [196]. It has been reported that PU cannot com-
pletely prevent water permeation due to the presence of various polar functional urethane
groups in its chain, which could be critical when incorporating batteries from biological
moisture or electronic circuits. One solution involves using a highly hydrophobic PU to
prevent water permeability and moisture diffusion [190]. The introduction of polyethylene
glycol gradients into the PU backbone enables it to absorb water effectively [193].
It is described in the literature that hydrophilic PU foams are highly absorbent and
excellent candidates for use as dressings, as they provide a consistently hydrated environ-
ment in the wound area [195]. PU dressings are suitable for the management of highly
exudative wounds, such as burns, because PUs effectively absorb exudate and maintain
wound moisture due to their small and uniform pores. There is a balance between water
absorption, moisture retention, and water loss through evaporation that makes PU effective
as a wound dressing [195]. Moreover, they are cost-effective and have a simple manufac-
turing process [197]. In vitro studies conducted on keratinocyte HaCaT cells indicate that
PU foams are non-cytotoxic [195]. Similarly, hydrophilic porous PU sponges exhibit high
water absorption and moisture retention capacity, as well as good gas permeability. They
are non-cytotoxic and cost-effective [197,198].
Little is known about the tissue adhesion properties of PU-based hydrogels. Wen
et al. addressed this by adding tannic acid to the PU-polyethylene glycol hydrogel. Tannic
acid, with its chemical structure containing multiple catechol groups that bind to ure-
thane groups and form hydrogen bonds, imparts good adhesion to the PU-polyethylene
glycol hydrogel [199].
Although PU is not considered eco-friendly, research has been conducted to develop
more environmentally friendly alternatives [200,201]. The isocyanates commonly used in
the production of most PUs typically derive from the reaction of amines with highly toxic
phosgene compounds [55]. Moreover, the isocyanates themselves are toxic and have been
associated with occupational asthma [202] due to their high volatility and the tendency to
convert in vitro into aromatic diamines, compounds that are toxic, carcinogenic, and/or
mutagenic to humans. Even in minimal amounts, there is a possibility of these toxic residual
compounds leaching from PU-based products [55]. The trend is to replace isocyanates with
alternatives that are less toxic and greener [202].
Efforts have been made to minimize toxicity, notably through the synthesis of PU
using polyisocyanates derived from amino acids that undergo controlled biodegradation,
resulting in non-cytotoxic byproducts. However, there is still the possibility of unreacted
polyisocyanates remaining in the final product [55]. In an attempt to develop alternatives
that do not involve the toxic chemistry of isocyanates, cationic, anionic, and neutral PU
hydrogels were prepared through a non-isocyanate route under mild conditions, without
the need for catalysts. Hydroxyurethane functions were obtained through the aminolysis
of five-membered cyclic carbonates. This approach is safer and more environmentally
friendly [202]. Chen et al. [203] prepared a water-borne PU nanofibrous membrane us-
ing water in its preparation instead of organic solvents, eliminating environmental and
toxicity concerns. The membrane was biocompatible, non-toxic, and biodegraded within
4 to 6 weeks. Waterborne PU is easily functionalized due to its numerous functional groups
(–COONH− and –COO− ), allowing it to interact with other chemicals effectively [204].
It has been widely used as an adhesive. It offers several advantages, including good
toughness, strong mechanical properties, wear resistance, and excellent adhesion [205].
Additionally, waterborne PU is eco-friendly [189,205–208].

4.2.2. Polyethylene Glycol

Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is a synthetic polyether [54,209] that can have linear or
branched structures, including multi-arm or star configurations. The basic structure of PEG
Gels 2024, 10, 188 24 of 46

comprises a PEG diol with two terminal hydroxyl groups. These groups can be converted
into various other functional groups, such as amine, carboxyl, vinyl sulfone, thiol, acetylene,
acrylate, and aldehyde groups, enabling their conjugation with other materials [209,210].
PEG is considered harmless to the human body [58], and is a recognized eco-friendly poly-
mer [211]. It is highly biocompatible, non-toxic, non-immunogenic [17,41,54,60,209,212–214],
a low-cost polymer [215,216], with good water solubility [17,41,60,212,213], flexibility [60],
great permeability [217], and adjustable mechanical properties [209,218]. In addition to
being soluble in water, it is also soluble in various organic solvents, such as ethanol and
acetone [214]. Moreover, PEG demonstrates good large-scale production capabilities, and
hemocompatibility [219].
PEG is often referred to as a “stealth material” [220], due to its resistance to protein
adsorption [17,39,40], and it generally resists cell attachment because of its higher affinity
for water binding [221]. Regarding its tissue adhesion capability, little is known about PEG
on its own. However, Krishnadoss et al. [222] incorporated choline molecules into synthetic
polymers such as PEG to enhance their adhesive strength. Another group of researchers
reported that PEG alone cannot adhere to tissue wounds; however, PEG derivatives,
specifically polyethylene glycol diacrylate, have been utilized as tissue glue, owing to their
capacity to adhere to both skin and injured tissues [223].
Studies have shown that PEG can improve the mechanical strength, stability, and
degradation rate of hydrogels [54,57,209,210]. However, it has also been reported that
PEG hydrogels are brittle and weak [223]. Furthermore, the ease of controlling its chem-
ical composition and scaffold architecture makes this polymer attractive for tissue engi-
neering applications [40]. PEG-based hydrogels exhibit very small variations between
batches, providing robust and reproducible substrates [218]. Some authors consider PEG
as biodegradable [54,58,214,223], while others assert that it is non-biodegradable [39,40].
This polymer has been studied in the context of wound healing due to its high bio-
compatibility, transparency, and ability to provide support for healing [41,54,224]. It is a
hydrophilic material capable of maintaining a moist environment while absorbing wound
exudate [19,30,212]. PEG hydrogels exhibit a high swelling rate [223], allow for gaseous
permeation [30], eliminate bacteria and prevent their proliferation [2]. Furthermore, PEG
hydrogels can also be utilized as drug delivery systems and for cell encapsulation [218,225].
PEG has some limitations, notably its tendency to swell and undergo oxidative degra-
dation in aqueous environments, compromising its mechanical durability and limiting its
long-term effectiveness. Additionally, PEG lacks antibacterial properties [226]. Further-
more, due to their bioinert nature, PEG hydrogels alone are unable to provide an optimal
environment to support cell adhesion and tissue formation [98].

4.2.3. Polyvinyl Alcohol

Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), an eco-friendly polymer [86,227–229], is commonly used as a
wound dressing in the treatment of cutaneous wounds [11,40,54]. Structurally, it is a vinyl
polymer interconnected through carbon–carbon bonds. The presence of hydroxyl groups
in the side chains allows PVA to self-crosslink [40,230].
PVA is a synthetic polymer that is highly biocompatible, biodegradable, and hy-
drophilic, with high water affinity [17,39,60,119,230–235]. It is easily processed [231],
possesses good water solubility [17,40,60,230,233,234,236], high crystallinity, and pH sen-
sitivity [39,60]. Additionally, it has a low tendency for protein adhesion [59,119], good
chemical stability, and is toxicologically harmless [40,236], non-carcinogenic, non-toxic, and
cost-effective [17,59,215,233,237]. PVA possesses desirable physical and mechanical proper-
ties, including good gas permeability [17], and other favorable physical properties such
as a rubbery nature, high expansion index, high water swelling degree, fluid absorption
ability, and good transparency [59,233].
PVA is a promising candidate for the preparation of biomedical hydrogels, typically
prepared by physical crosslinking [236]. PVA-based hydrogels can be prepared without
the addition of a chemical crosslinking agent, through freezing–thawing methods, and are
Gels 2024, 10, 188 25 of 46

simple, safe, and non-toxic [238]. However, it was experimentally observed that pure PVA
hydrogels prepared through the cyclic freezing–thawing process exhibited relatively weak
mechanical performance, attributed to the limited number of crosslinking agents in the
formed polymeric network. Consequently, the combination of PVA with another polymer
is necessary to enhance its mechanical performance [214].
PVA hydrogels can also be formed using chemical methods and irradiation, among
others [234]. For instance, Oliveira et al. [3,239–241] prepared a PVA hydrogel through
gamma irradiation for burn healing and loaded it with silver nanoparticles, resulting in
antimicrobial hydrogels effective against S. aureus, E. coli, and Candida albicans. PVA hydro-
gels are permeable to small molecules [242]. Moreover, characteristics such as transparency,
mechanical resistance, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and the ability to maintain a
hydrated environment and ensure structural stability when hydrated make PVA-based
hydrogels favorable for treating wounds such as burns [54].
There is some controversy regarding certain properties of PVA, particularly its me-
chanical properties and tissue adhesion. Some authors argue that the polymer possesses
good mechanical strength, considering it to be similar to cutaneous tissue [232,236], and it
has even been described in the literature that PVA is often used to enhance the mechanical
performance of other polymers in wound dressings [59], while others claim that its me-
chanical properties are weak [234,243,244]. Regarding adhesive properties, some authors
state that PVA has good adhesive properties [235], while others assert that it exhibits weak
tissue adhesion [234].
PVA has some limitations that restrict its use as a wound dressing, such as a lack of an-
tibacterial properties [234], low elasticity, and poor adhesion to cells and tissues [11,231,234].
Some authors not only argue that PVA’s elasticity is inadequate but also consider its hy-
drophilic characteristics to be incomplete, and its membrane to be rigid. Therefore, it needs
to be combined with other polymers to overcome these limitations [11,59,234].
There are studies in which PVA was combined with chitosan [245], chitosan and honey [230],
chitosan and gelatin [232,233], or BC [234] that have shown promise. Shamloo et al. [232] pre-
pared a PVA-based hydrogel with chitosan and gelatin and found that increasing the
PVA concentration improved the encapsulation efficiency, slowed the degradation rate,
and reduced the drug release rate. Chopra et al. [230] developed a hydrogel based on
PVA and chitosan that was physically cross-linked without the use of organic solvents or
harmful chemicals.

4.2.4. Poly-ε-Caprolactone
Poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) is a semi-crystalline linear petroleum-based polyester [39,
54,60,237,246]. This aliphatic polymer [40,56,246] is eco-friendly [247,248], non-toxic, non-
immunogenic, and has good biocompatibility and biodegradability. However, its degra-
dation rate is slower than other polyesters [39,237,246,249], making it less appealing in
biomedical applications. However, it is more attractive for long-term implant applications
or controlled release systems [59,237]. Currently, there are strategies to accelerate the
biodegradability of this polyester. This includes incorporating a more reactive hydrolytic
group into the structure, using more hydrophilic and acidic end groups, or employing PCL
with a lower molecular weight [250].
Additionally, it has advantageous properties such as excellent mechanical properties,
high toughness, elongation, good elasticity, and flexibility [40,54,60,237,251]. Its hydropho-
bic nature makes it water-resistant and less prone to swelling, and it is also minimally
permeable to water vapor [252]. It is cost-effective [40,253,254]. It possesses a low melting
point (55–65 ◦ C) [40,54,246,249,254], enabling the easy processing of PCL through a variety
of techniques [254], and a glass transition temperature at −60 ◦ C [40,54,246]. Moreover,
PCL exhibits high physical stability, simple preparation methods [54,253], remarkable blend
compatibility, good solubility in many solvents, and high ductility and plasticity, which
facilitate its handling and conformation. Furthermore, PCL dressings are semi-permeable
and occlusive, and are easy to remove, because they are non-adherent [246]. Moreover, it is
Gels 2024, 10, 188 26 of 46

possible to control the mechanical properties, geometry, fiber, and pore size, among other
properties, of PCL scaffolds [250]. PCL is suitable for low-temperature 3D printing [255].
It is widely employed in biomedical applications [249], especially in the context of
wound healing and tissue regeneration, owing to its properties of reducing inflammatory
infiltration and promoting rapid wound healing [59], and as a drug delivery system for
controlled release [54]. Features such as low toxicity, slow biodegradation [256–258], and
great permeability to many drugs allow PCL to be used as microcarriers for the adminis-
tration of active compounds over extended periods [217]. Studies indicate that PCL can
remain intact in the body for long periods before being fully metabolized and excreted.
The low degradation rate is attributed to the presence of five CH2 groups in the polymer’s
composition, making it hydrophobic and less susceptible to hydrolysis [258]. Its degra-
dation by-products are non-toxic [255]. Moreover, short- and long-term biocompatibility
studies were conducted in animal models, and no adverse effects were observed with PCL
scaffolds over 2 years [250].
However, its application in tissue engineering is primarily limited by its high hydropho-
bicity [39,40,60,249], as well as low bioactivity. This limitation arises from the absence of func-
tional groups and proper cell recognition sites on the scaffold’s surface [40,54,249,255]. One
possible solution to address these issues is to combine PCL with other polymers [40,54,249,253].
On the one hand, the high hydrophobicity significantly limits PCL’s ability to absorb wound
exudates [253]. Partial hydrolysis of ester linkages does not compromise the mechanical
properties and increases the concentration of free hydroxyl and carboxyl groups, enhancing
the hydrophilicity and water binding capacity of PCL [253]. Polymers such as PEG create
more hydrophilic structures, exhibiting improved mechanical properties and degradabil-
ity [40,54,259]. Therefore, by moderately increasing hydrophilicity, the exudate absorption
capacity of PCL-based dressings would be enhanced, which is highly desirable in wound
healing processes [253]. On the other hand, the lack of functional groups that facilitate
cellular adhesion reduces its cellular affinity, compromising tissue regeneration [249,253].
Gelatin/PCL scaffold allows for leveraging the suitable mechanical strength of PCL and
capitalizing on the positive aspects of gelatin, including good biodegradation, cell adhesion,
and proliferation [249]. Another drawback of PCL is the lack of antibacterial activity, which
can be addressed by loading the PCL dressing with antibacterial drugs [59].
The ester linkage of PCL is prone to hydrolytic degradation by lipase enzyme, an
ester-like enzyme. Bacteria-producing lipase could be employed for specific and localized
delivery of antibacterial drugs at the infection site [260].
Gupta et al. [261] prepared a PEG-PVA-based hydrogel for burn treatment. The
hydrogel exhibited high elasticity, good long-term stability, robust mechanical strength,
and a favorable water vapor transmission rate. Additionally, it demonstrated a significant
capacity for absorbing bodily fluids (in vivo), resulting in enhanced healing efficiency.

4.2.5. Poly-N-Vinylpyrrolidone
Poly-N-vinylpyrrolidone (PVP) contains a hydrophobic polymeric chain and a hy-
drophilic amide carbonyl group in its structure [262].
This synthetic polymer is widely used as a skin alternative product since it does not
cause skin irritation [40]. It offers several beneficial features, including good biocompatibil-
ity, biodegradability, low cytotoxicity, excellent water vapor transmission, environmental
stability, and high thermal and chemical resistance [17,39,40]. Furthermore, PVP is eco-
friendly [263] and demonstrates good molecular control, large-scale production capabilities,
and hemocompatibility [219].
Due to its molecular structure, PVP is water-soluble and exhibits very good solubility
in most organic solvents, as well as good affinity to complex hydrophobic and hydrophilic
substances [17,39,40,262].
The adhesive properties of PVP surpass those of PEG. While PEG relies on hydrogen
bonds provided by repeated ether groups for adhesion, PVP offers tertiary amides that
provide multiple sites for hydrogen bond formation, significantly enhancing adhesive prop-
Gels 2024, 10, 188 27 of 46

erties [264]. Moreover, it is low-cost [263] and possesses hemocompatibility, temperature

resistance, and pH stability [17].
This hydrophilic polymer has been employed in drug delivery systems and tissue
engineering [262], and in the biomedical field for wound treatment, due to its biocompati-
bility, biodegradability, and low toxicity [265,266]. Moreover, it has been reported that PVP
can be used in the treatment of first- and second-degree burns, as well as severe sunburns,
in the form of PVP-based hydrogels [54,262].
PVP hydrogels, formed through the crosslinking of PVP under ionizing radiation,
resulting in crystal-clear hydrogels with outstanding transparency [54,262]. However,
there is no consensus regarding their swelling capacity. Some authors claim that the
properties are good [262], while others assert that the swelling capacity of these hydrogels
is limited [54]. In vitro and in vivo studies suggest that PVP biomaterials obtained through
ionizing radiation did not exhibit toxic effects and are considered safe. Therefore, they can
be used in contact with the skin, such as wound dressings [262].
The mechanical properties also generate some controversy. On the one hand, some
authors argue that PVP has good mechanical properties [266,267]. On the other hand,
some authors contend that its mechanical properties are weak [54], and PVP needs to be
mixed with polysaccharides [54] or hydrophilic plasticizers such as PEG to overcome these
limitations [268]. Additionally, the combination of PVP with other polymers allows it to
acquire useful characteristics for wound healing, such as the ability to prevent microbial
penetration [40,54].

4.2.6. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) Acid

Polylactic acid (PLA) is an aliphatic polyester that exhibits excellent biocompatibility,
biodegradability, and good integrity, along with tunable mechanical properties, making it
suitable for various biomedical applications [9,39,40,60,237]. Moreover, PLA is hydropho-
bic, non-toxic, chemically inert, structurally highly stable, and inexpensive [9,39,40,60].
Unlike some natural polymers, PLA can be used on contaminated wounds as it effec-
tively inhibits the propagation of bacteria [237]. PLA and its copolymers are considered
eco-friendly [237,269]. The ester backbone is naturally biodegraded through enzymatic
action or hydrolysis under physiological conditions. This process leads to non-harmful
and non-toxic products that are easily absorbed by the body through natural metabolic
pathways [39,40,56]. Its degradation can be properly controlled, and it is relatively mod-
erate [237]. PLA can be employed as drug delivery systems, with low-molecular-weight
PLAs degrading more slowly and proving more efficient in drug release [237].
Polyglycolic acid (PGA) is harmless, non-toxic [270], and eco-friendly [270,271]. PGA
is another linear aliphatic polyester. This polymer is biodegradable and biocompatible, with
high tensile strength and excellent mechanical properties. While more hydrophilic than
PLA, PGA is rapidly biodegraded through hydrolysis, yielding glycolic acid. Excessive
production of glycolic acid leads to a decrease in pH in its microenvironment due to carbon
dioxide production, resulting in local necrosis of cells and tissues. Additionally, it can
trigger an inflammatory response [39,40,251]. In addition to tissue inflammation, PGA can
induce a severe foreign body reaction [237]. Moreover, the glycolic acid released from PGA
may exhibit bacteriostatic properties [237].
Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) is a linear aliphatic polyester copolymer that possesses
good biocompatibility, biodegradability, easy handling, and mechanical strength [40,54,57,60].
It is also eco-friendly [272] and exhibits weak tissue adhesion [237]. PLGA is relatively
hydrophobic [56,237], making it soluble in organic solvents such as acetone, ethyl acetate,
tetrahydrofuran, and chlorinated solvents [56]. If the polymer contains less than 70%
PLA, it is considered unstructured [56]. Its glass transition temperature is between 40 and
60 ◦ C, and it undergoes hydrolysis in the body [60], and its hydrolysis products can be
uptaken in the cellular metabolic pathway [57]. The hydrolysis of PLGA results in the
formation of natural metabolic monomers (salt form of lactic acid and glycolic acid), which
are relatively harmless, minimizing the risk of systemic toxicity [273]. The degradation
Gels 2024, 10, 188 28 of 46

rate can be adjusted by varying monomer ratios [9,39]. The healing process occurs within
a specific time frame and depends on the synchronization of the epithelialization rate
with the degradation rate of PLGA [54]. In vitro studies have shown that PLGA exhibits
excellent cytocompatibility in fibroblasts, with minimal toxicity [237]. It is widely used in
tissue engineering and as a drug delivery system, primarily due to its beneficial character-
istics such as adjustable and controllable mechanical properties [40,54,237,273,274]. It can
transport both hydrophobic or hydrophilic drugs, small or macromolecules [56,273], and
protect them from degradation and control their release [273]. PLGA films are hydrophobic,
stiff, and semi-permeable. They lack the ability to absorb exudates or provide a humid
microenvironment. On the other hand, PLGA nanofibers are highly dense, allowing them
to prevent bacterial invasion. PLGA possesses characteristics that make it suitable for use as
an outer layer, capable of preserving moisture content and isolating a hydrogel matrix from
the external environment [274]. Wang et al. [274] prepared a bilayer membrane scaffold
using 3D printing, consisting of an outer layer made of PLGA and a lower layer of alginate
hydrogel, mimicking the epidermis and dermis, respectively. The multiporous alginate
hydrogel was employed to enhance in vitro cell adhesion and proliferation, while the
PLGA membrane served to prevent bacterial invasion, reduce evaporation, and maintain
the moisture content of the hydrogel.

5. Overview of Critical Attributes of Polymers

Table 3 compiles key information on critical attributes of polymers as candidates for
the ideal wound dressing. The terms used in the table, though relative, aim to facilitate
the interpretation of individual properties of each polymer and enable comparison. To the
best of our knowledge, the literature lacks comprehensive information on all the features
we consider critical for all polymers, both individually and in the form of hydrogels. The
table presents a relative critical analysis on a scale from “-” to “+++” where “-” indicates
the polymer lacks a specific property, and “+++” signifies excellent performance.
It should be noted that regarding moisture, the literature does not clearly distinguish
between the different abilities of hydrogels to provide a hydrated environment in the
wound bed. Similarly, concerning transparency and cost-effectiveness, there is also no clear
distinction among polymers in the literature. Regarding protection, although it is generally
known that hydrogels, to some extent, prevent the entry of microorganisms by forming a
physical barrier between the wound and the external environment, here, we aim to convey
the capacity for protection in terms of having intrinsic antibacterial properties. Regarding
safety, we considered the concept of “non-toxic”. A more in-depth discussion of this issue
may be necessary. Finally, concerning the availability of synthetic polymers, since they are
chemically synthesized, it was not considered. In addition to the commonly considered
critical quality attributes for an ideal wound dressing, we also considered the environmental
aspect and added a column on the environmental sustainability of the polymers.
Gels 2024, 10, 188 29 of 46

Table 3. Polymer critical analysis per critical attribute for wound healing.

Critical Attributes
Eco-
Polymers Flexibility Friendly References
Mechanical Cost-
Moisture Absorption Permeability Protection Transparency Robustness and Adhesiveness Biocompatibility Safety Effectiveness Availability
Elasticity
√
Collagen ++ ++ NA + +++ + ++ + +++ ++ + ++ [4,16,33,37,38,42,64,67–70,73,75,76,78,79]
√
Gelatin ++ +++ NA + +++ + ++ + +++ +++ ++ ++ [17,27,31,67,83–97,99]
√
Natural polymers

Silk Fibroin ++ ++ ++ + CV +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ ++ ++ [16,17,54,57,60,102–110,112–117,119–127]

√
Alginate ++ +++ ++ + +++ + ++ + +++ +++ ++ ++ [1,16,21,34,38,39,44,53,128–134]
√
Hyaluronic acid ++ +++ ++ + +++ + ++ + +++ +++ + ++ [7,9,19,45,137,138,140–147]
√
Bacterial cellulose ++ +++ ++ + NA +++ ++ NA +++ +++ ++ +++ [8,16,36,46,47,51,52,130,131,149–155]
√
Dextran ++ +++ NA + +++ + ++ + +++ +++ ++ ++ [130,133,158–162,167–174]
√ [9,11,16,38,46,50–53,67,78,98,130–
Chitosan ++ ++ ++ ++ NA + ++ +++ +++ +++ ++ +++
134,137,154,176–181]
Polyurethane NA NA * ++ + +++ +++ +++ + +++ + +++ NA X [9,39,54,55,60,186–188,190–195,199,202]
√ [2,17,19,30,41,54,57,58,60,209–
Polyethylene glycol ++ +++ ++ + +++ CV ++ + +++ +++ ++ NA
216,223,224,226]
Synthetic polymers

√ [11,17,39,40,59,60,86,119,215,227–
Polyvinyl alcohol ++ +++ ++ + ++ CV + CV +++ +++ ++ NA
237,243,244]
√
Poly-ε-caprolactone NA + + + + +++ ++ + ++ +++ ++ NA [39,40,54,59,60,237,247–249,251–254]
Poly-N- √
NA CV +++ + +++ CV NA ++ ++ +++ ++ NA [17,39,40,54,262–264]
vinylpyrrolidone
Poly(lactic-co- √
- - + NA ** NA ++ NA + ++ +++ NA NA [40,54,57,60,237,272–274]
glycolic) acid
√
Key: “-” means “does not have”; “+” means “weak”; “++” means “good”; “+++” means “excellent”; “ ” means “applicable”; “X” means “not applicable”; CV—controversial; NA—not
available. * There is only information about foams/sponges. ** There is only information about nanofibers.
Gels 2024, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 31 of 49

Gels 2024, 10, 188 30 of 46

6.
6. Applications
Applications of of Hydrogels
Hydrogels asas Wound Dressings
Wound Dressings
Hydrogels
Hydrogels areare promising
promising candidates
candidates for
for the
the treatment
treatment of
of cutaneous
cutaneous wounds
wounds and
and can
can
be approached
approached in different ways given the potential of their characteristics. Some
Some of the
applications
applications of
of hydrogels
hydrogels as dressings include promoting wound wound healing
healing through
through their
inherent
inherent properties,
properties,delivering
deliveringsubstances
substancessuch
suchas as
drugs andand
drugs growth factors,
growth enabling
factors, cell
enabling
growth within
cell growth theirtheir
within 3D structure, which
3D structure, mimics
which the native
mimics structures
the native of the of
structures skin,
theor, more
skin, or,
recently, incorporating
more recently, biosensors
incorporating for real-time
biosensors monitoring
for real-time of wound
monitoring characteristics.
of wound Fig-
characteristics.
ure 3 provides
Figure a schematic
3 provides representation
a schematic representationof these applications.
of these applications.

Figure
Figure 3.3. Representation
Representationofofsome
someofofthe applications
the of of
applications hydrogels as as
hydrogels wound
wounddressings: intrinsic
dressings: ca-
intrinsic
pacity
capacity to stimulate healing; drug delivery systems or transporters of other substances; support for
to stimulate healing; drug delivery systems or transporters of other substances; support for
cell
cell growth;
growth; real-time monitoring of
real-time monitoring of the
the state
state of
of wounds
wounds through
through the
the incorporation
incorporation of
of biosensors.
biosensors.

Hydrogels with the Intrinsic Ability to Promote Wound Healing

6.1. Hydrogels
Hydrogels can promote
promotewoundwoundhealing
healingthrough
throughtheir
theirintrinsic
intrinsiccharacteristics,
characteristics, notably
nota-
by providing
bly by providing an appropriate
an appropriate cell-friendly microenvironment,
cell-friendly microenvironment, stimulating angiogenesis,
stimulating angiogene-a
key afactor
sis, for tissue
key factor regeneration,
for tissue or, for or,
regeneration, example, recruiting
for example, cells involved
recruiting in the healing
cells involved in the
process process
healing [2,3,11]. [2,3,11].
For instance, Sun et al.
For instance, Sun[275]
et al.prepared a hydrogel
[275] prepared based on
a hydrogel dextran
based and
on dex-
PEG for the treatment of third-degree burns in mice. The results show
tran and PEG for the treatment of third-degree burns in mice. The results show that the that the hydrogel’s
structure allows
hydrogel’s for the
structure infiltration
allows for theof neutrophils,
infiltration which, in turn,
of neutrophils, facilitates
which, thefacilitates
in turn, degradationthe
of the hydrogel
degradation during
of the the repair
hydrogel during phase. This phase.
the repair results This
in the recruitment
results of endothelial
in the recruitment of
progenitorsprogenitors
endothelial and angiogenic cells, stimulating
and angiogenic rapid in vivo
cells, stimulating rapidneovascularization after one
in vivo neovascularization
weekone
after of treatment. Epithelial
week of treatment. repair was
Epithelial repairobserved withinwithin
was observed 14 days, with with
14 days, complete skin
complete
and appendage regeneration (sebaceous glands and hair follicles)
skin and appendage regeneration (sebaceous glands and hair follicles) noted by the end noted by the end of
21 days. Another example is the hydrogel prepared by Yang et
of 21 days. Another example is the hydrogel prepared by Yang et al. [109], composed of al. [109], composed of
SF, HA, and alginate. SF serves as the primary matrix for tissue
SF, HA, and alginate. SF serves as the primary matrix for tissue formation, providing me-formation, providing
mechanical
chanical support
support andand promoting
promoting cell
cell adhesionand
adhesion andproliferation.
proliferation.HA HAenhances
enhancesbiocom-
biocom-
patibility, angiogenesis,
patibility, angiogenesis, andandtissue
tissueregeneration,
regeneration,while whilealginate
alginateimproves
improvesbiocompatibility
biocompatibil-
and hydrophilic performance (Figure 4A). The hydrogel
ity and hydrophilic performance (Figure 4A). The hydrogel mimics mimics the structure of theofECM
the structure the
in native tissue. This 3D porous microstructure possesses soft and
ECM in native tissue. This 3D porous microstructure possesses soft and elastic character-elastic characteristics,
along along
istics, with good physical
with good stability
physical in environments
stability in environments simulating
simulating bodily fluids,
bodily ensuring
fluids, ensur-
adequate mechanical performance. These features enable the adhesion, growth, and prolif-
ing adequate mechanical performance. These features enable the adhesion, growth, and
eration of NIH-3T3 fibroblasts in vitro. In vivo (Figure 4B), the hydrogel creates a favorable
proliferation of NIH-3T3 fibroblasts in vitro. In vivo (Figure 4B), the hydrogel creates a
environment for healing, facilitating enhanced re-epithelialization, increased collagen depo-
favorable environment for healing, facilitating enhanced re-epithelialization, increased
sition, ECM remodeling, and improved angiogenesis, thereby accelerating the burn wound
collagen deposition, ECM remodeling, and improved angiogenesis, thereby accelerating
healing process.
the burn wound healing process.
 Gels 2024, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 32 of 49
Gels 2024, 10, 188 31 of 46

Figure 4. (A) Comparison of wound size over 21 days after treatment with hydrogels. (B) In vivo
observation of burn wound healing over 21 days. (C) In vivo study on EGF delivery and wound healing
Gels 2024, 10, 188 32 of 46

promotion. (D) Schematic representation of EGF loaded in carboxymethyl chitosan and alginate
hydrogel. (E) In vitro inhibition of S. aureus and P. aeruginosa growth after loading ciprofloxacin in
SF hydrogel. (F) In vivo study on partial-thickness burns treatment with hydrogels loaded with ker-
atinocytes and fibroblasts (* means significant difference (p < 0.05) between the groups) (G) Schematic
representation of the operation of a hydrogel incorporated with poly (N-isopropyl acrylamide)
stimuli-responsive particles. Adapted from: [8,109,276–278].

6.2. Hydrogels as Drug Delivery Systems and Other Substance Carriers

Furthermore, the matrix of hydrogels allows for the incorporation of substances, such
as growth factors, cytokines, or drugs, namely, antibacterials and anti-inflammatories,
that assist in the healing process [3,11]. Numerous studies focus on incorporating growth
factors into hydrogels to expedite skin healing, such as β-FGF, primary promoters of cell
proliferation with chemotactic activity, and VEGF, which enhances cell proliferation and
tissue remodeling in wounds [4]. Similarly, in the study conducted by Hu et al. [177]
(Figure 4C), they loaded EGF into a carboxymethyl chitosan and alginate hydrogel to
protect the EGF from proteolytic degradation (ensuring its bioactivity) (Figure 4D) and to
allow for its gradual release, improving cell proliferation. Dong et al. [278] prepared an SF
hydrogel loaded with ciprofloxacin for the healing of deep partial-thickness burns in rats.
The results showed that the hydrogel effectively delivered the antibiotic, inhibiting in vitro
bacterial growth and biofilm formation of S. aureus and P. aeruginosa (Figure 4E). In addition,
the hydrogel promoted autolysis, a reduction in inflammation, fibroblast proliferation
(attributed to the silk protein environment), increased collagen deposition, accelerated re-
epithelialization, formation of granulation tissue, stimulation of angiogenesis, and showed
complete reconstitution of the epidermal layer in rats after 18 days. In the study conducted
by Yin et al. [114], they also prepared an SF-based hydrogel, but this time loaded it with
rhein to simultaneously prevent bacterial colonization/infection and reduce inflammation.
Rhein is a bioactive anthraquinone isolated from the traditional Chinese medicine rhubarb
that possesses good anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties. By incorporating it
into SF hydrogels, the stability and structural integrity of rhein might be improved, thus
enhancing therapeutic efficacy and minimizing negative effects. The SF/Rhein composite
hydrogels combined the excellent biocompatibility and physicochemical properties of
SF, along with the antibacterial and anti-inflammatory efficiency of rhein, accelerating
the bacterially infected burn wound healing rate by reducing inflammation, expediting
angiogenesis, and promoting skin appendages formation.

6.3. Hydrogels as 3D Scaffolds for Cell Adhesion and Proliferation

Hydrogels can serve as a platform for loading cells [3,11]. The 3D matrix of hydrogels
allows for the deposition and organization of cells [8], mimicking the environment of the
natural biological ECM better than two-dimensional substrates [279–281]. The architecture
of the hydrogel, characterized by suitable biocompatibility, morphology, and mechanical
behavior, enables it to function as a temporary support, facilitating cellular processes such
as adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation for the formation of new tissue [282]. The
hydrogel can be loaded with cells such as keratinocytes and fibroblasts, as demonstrated
in the study by Mohamad et al. [8], where they loaded keratinocytes and fibroblasts into
a hydrogel based on BC and acrylic acid. The results were very promising, achieving
complete re-epithelialization of a partial-thickness burn within 13 days (Figure 4F). Fur-
thermore, there was a more organized deposition of type I collagen fibers, attributed to
the synergistic effect of the hydrogel with the incorporated cells in accelerating skin re-
generation and strengthening the dermis. Additionally, the incorporated cells can be stem
cells. It is considered that stem cells promote healing through differentiation into specific
cell types or through paracrine effects to stimulate the host tissue regeneration [19]. Stem
cell therapies have shown promising outcomes in the context of wound healing [283,284].
Dong et al. [19] demonstrated that the HA and poly (ethylene glycol) hydrogel loaded
with adipose tissue-derived stem cells provided an optimized 3D microenvironment, en-
Gels 2024, 10, 188 33 of 46

hancing the therapeutic efficiency of stem cell-based therapies. The hydrogel promoted
cell paracrine secretion and increased the expression of pro-angiogenic growth factors and
cytokines, such as angiopoietin, VEGF, platelet-derived growth factor, stromal cell-derived
factor, contributing to the wound healing treatment in a burn animal model.

6.4. Hydrogels with Integrated Biosensors

Moreover, the incorporation of biosensors into hydrogels can solve various challenges
associated with wounds, such as the early detection of infections and the acquisition of
relevant information about the wound microenvironment in real-time. This information can
be used to provide timely and accurate reports on the evolution of the healing process [9,11].
Villanueva et al. [285] developed a smart antimicrobial wound dressing based on keratin
hydrogels with zinc oxide nanoparticles (nZnO), taking advantage of the pH-responsive
behavior of keratin and the antimicrobial activity of nZnO. Infected wounds exhibit alkaline
pH due to the by-products of bacterial metabolism. As the wound undergoes healing,
the pH becomes acidic. In a clean wound, the dressing acts as a barrier, isolating the
injury from the external environment and protecting it from microbial contamination. In a
bacterially contaminated wound, the increased pH leads to hydrogel swelling, increasing
its pore size, and facilitating the release of the antimicrobial agent into the medium, thereby
controlling the infection. Mostafalu et al. [276] developed an alginate hydrogel sheet
incorporated with poly (N-isopropyl acrylamide) stimuli-responsive particles (a drug-
releasing system), loaded with cefazolin for real-time monitoring of the wound environment
for individualized treatment of chronic wounds (Figure 4G). This automated, smart, flexible
wound dressing comprises pH sensors and a microheater to trigger thermo-responsive
drug carriers containing antibiotics. The pH sensors are connected to a microcontroller
through an electronic module that processes the data measured by the sensors. Once the
pH exceeds an acceptable range, it communicates wirelessly in a closed-loop manner to
smartphones or computers to remotely activate the heater and program the on-demand
release of the antibacterial drug.

7. Future Prospects
As we envision the future of biomedical research, particularly in the field of hydrogel
polymers, numerous promising opportunities emerge, prepared to revolutionize wound
healing and tissue engineering. We will witness an intensified focus on the research
and development of innovative biomaterials, with an emphasis on sustainability and
environmental friendliness. Currently, the concept of sustainability is a foundational pillar
across all scientific domains. The increasing demand for environmentally friendly materials
has driven research towards the exploration and development of biopolymers derived from
natural raw materials that are eco-friendly and sustainable. Thus, biomass-based materials
have gained prominence as candidates for applications that leverage renewable resources
and address environmental concerns [149,150]. Cellulose, in particular, is a biopolymer
that is not only biocompatible, biodegradable, and non-toxic but also renewable, as it is
present in the cell walls of a large number of plants [150]. However, further studies should
be carried out to explore more alternatives to polymers. Additionally, more research is
needed for the development of eco-friendly polymer synthesis and acquisition techniques.
It is crucial to clarify the environmental impacts resulting from the methods used to obtain
both natural and synthetic polymers. Moreover, the possibility of recycling industrial waste
should be considered. As a purely illustrative example, collagen can be extracted from fish
scales. With hundreds of millions of tons of fish annually, a significant amount of waste
is generated in fish shops and processing factories, where scales constitute a major solid
waste. Improper disposal techniques lead to unpleasant odors and environmental pollution.
Therefore, it would be worthwhile to explore solutions to optimize the potential of such
waste for the production of valuable end products. On the other hand, further in-depth
studies on the degradation pathways of polymers, both natural and synthetic, are necessary,
as well as the assessment of the potential formation of toxic compounds and the possible
Gels 2024, 10, 188 34 of 46

risks of degradation products. Due to certain limitations of polymers, most studies involve
polymer blends, and the individual potentials and risks of each polymer are not always
clear. Therefore, additional research is required to elucidate the effective contribution
of polymers to skin wound healing. However, the current well-established knowledge
about the effectiveness of hydrogels and their properties implies new challenges. Future
research should focus on evaluating their biocompatibility and biodegradability to ensure
they are safe for use in patients and degrade naturally without causing environmental
harm. The adjustment of the physicochemical properties of hydrogels to achieve the
desired outcomes, specific needs, and the characteristics of the patient remains a challenge.
In the future, this may be controlled through modifications in the chemical structure of
molecules or by selecting molecular weights and types of cross-linking, thus expanding the
currently available repertoire of natural sources [34]. The incorporation of bioactive agents
promoting wound healing will enable dressings to assume a more active role. Hydrogels
capable of releasing drugs in response to specific stimuli could be employed to design
active reservoirs for therapeutic cells. The dynamic control of drug release using sensors to
determine specific parameters and trigger the release of cells stored in the hydrogel has
the potential to enhance both effectiveness and safety, providing a platform for innovative
therapeutics [34]. In light of the current understanding of wound dressings, it is anticipated
that the future diagnosis and treatment of wounds will be based on a multifunctional
and systematic approach, considering the stage and characteristics of the wound [5]. The
incorporation of sensors into hydrogels may open doors to real-time wound monitoring
without the need for expensive equipment [21]. It is important to highlight a key and
pressing aspect for the advancement of the real-world application of these hydrogels: the
conduct of robust clinical studies to assess the effectiveness of the hydrogels in different
types of wounds, comparing them with conventional treatments. Only this approach will
allow for validation of the efficacy of hydrogels and expand their clinical application.
So, the aspects that will guide the next steps in advancing the development of hydro-
gels for wound healing will necessarily involve the following approaches: exploration of
sustainable biopolymers, recycling of waste, development of multifunctional dressings,
controlled drug release, modifications of hydrogel properties, incorporations of thera-
peutic agents, evaluation of biocompatibility and biodegradability, and performance of
robust clinical studies. The focus will be on improving their effectiveness, safety, and
environmental impact.
The future of polymers is brimming with possibilities, driven by innovation, sustain-
ability, and improved outcomes for patients. By embracing interdisciplinary collaboration
and harnessing cutting-edge technologies, researchers are poised to uncover new frontiers
in wound healing and tissue engineering, ushering in an era of unprecedented therapeutic
efficacy and environmental responsibility.

8. Conclusions
Hydrogels are commonly regarded as one of the most promising wound dressings
due to their inherent properties. The literature extensively describes features such as water
absorption capacity and wound exudate retention, as well as the mechanical characteristics
of each polymer. However, despite the understanding that intrinsic limitations hinder
the characterization of polymers in isolation, notably the lack of appropriate mechanical
properties, it is paramount to clarify, for each polymer (individually and in hydrogel form),
the specific attributes corresponding to the requirements of an ideal dressing. Further
studies addressing these specific topics are necessary to elucidate controversies surrounding
certain properties and facilitate a more accurate comparison and approach. Despite the
existing gaps and the need for additional research, this manuscript can contribute to this
process and serve as a foundation for future investigations. These investigations aim to
expand the potential of hydrogels as promising wound dressings in biomedical applications,
while also considering environmental concerns.
Gels 2024, 10, 188 35 of 46

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.M.-M., C.V. and M.S.; methodology, F.M.-M., C.V.,
M.S. and M.R.; validation, F.M.-M., C.V. and M.S.; formal analysis, F.M.-M., C.V., M.S. and M.R.;
investigation, M.R.; resources, M.R.; writing—original draft preparation, F.M.-M., C.V. and M.S. and
M.R.; writing—review and editing, F.M.-M., C.V., M.S. and M.R.; supervision, F.M.-M., C.V. and M.S.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

3D Three-dimensional
BC Bacterial cellulose
BCM Bacterial cellulose membrane
ECM Extracellular matrix
EGF Epidermal growth factor
FGF Fibroblast growth factor
GA Glycolic acid
HA Hyaluronic acid
NF-kB Nuclear Factor Kappa B
PCL Poly-ε-caprolactone
PEG Polyethylene glycol
PGA Polyglycolic acid
PLA Polylactic acid
PLGA Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid
PU Polyurethane
PVA Polyvinyl alcohol
PVP Poly-N-vinylpyrrolidone
RGD Arginine–glycine–aspartic acid peptide sequences
SF Silk fibroin
TGF-β Transforming growth factor
VEGF Vascular endothelial growth factor

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