Practical class № 2

Causes, Nature and Result of Semantic Change

Problems for Discussion

1. Linguistic and extralinguistic factors accounting for semantic change.

There are two types of factors that cause semantic changes a) extra-linguistic and
b) linguistic causes.
Language factors:
Ellipsis: The omission of a word in a phrase, and its meaning is transferred to
another word. For example, the word "daily" became "daily newspaper" after the
noun "newspaper" was omitted.
Synonym discrimination: the introduction of a new word affects the meaning of its
synonyms. For example, the Old English word "hlaf" changed its meaning to
"loaf" under the influence of the word "bread".
Linguistic analogy: A change in meaning across a synonymous set. If one member
of a set acquires a new meaning, the other members of the set may also change
their meaning. For example, verbs that are synonymous with the word "catch"
(e.g., grab, get) acquire a different meaning - "understand".
Extralinguistic factors:
Historical changes: These are shifts in historical events that affect the meaning of
words. For example, the word 'meat', which originally means 'food in general', now
specifically means 'meat food'.
Economic changes: Changes in economic activity can lead to the appearance of
new objects that require new names or changes in current meanings.
Political, cultural and technological changes: Transformations in the political,
cultural or technological spheres may introduce new concepts or modify existing
ones, leading to semantic changes.
Social changes: Shifts in societal norms and values can affect language, leading to
the creation of new terms or changes in the meanings of existing ones.
2. Types of linguistic causes: ellipsis, discrimination of synonyms,
linguistic analogy.
Ellipsis: The omission of a word in a phrase, and its meaning is transferred to
another word. For example, the word "daily" became "daily newspaper" after the
noun "newspaper" was omitted.
Synonym discrimination: the introduction of a new word affects the meaning of its
synonyms. For example, the Old English word "hlaf" changed its meaning to
"loaf" under the influence of the word "bread".
Linguistic analogy: A change in meaning across a synonymous set. If one member
of a set acquires a new meaning, the other members of the set may also change
their meaning. For example, verbs that are synonymous with the word "catch"
(e.g., grab, get) acquire a different meaning - "understand".
3. Types of association involved in semantic change: metaphor and
metonymy.
Metaphor:
What it is: Comparing two things because they're similar in some way.
Examples:
Looks Similar: "the nose of a kettle," "the bridge of the nose."
Similarity of position in space: "the leg of the table", "the foot of the hill", "the
mouth of the river".
Zoosemia (animal metaphor): The use of animal names to describe people whose
behaviour is similar to that of animals (e.g. "goose" for a simple man, "cow" for a
clumsy woman).
Special Type: Synesthesia - Comparing things based on how they feel or look.
Examples: "a warm feeling," "a bright idea."
Metonymy: - Using one thing to represent another because they're closely
connected.
Examples:
Location Based: "Keep the table amused" (meaning people around the table).
Time Based: "The hall applauded" (meaning people in the hall).
Special Type: Synecdoche - Using a part of something to represent the whole
thing.
Example: Calling a worker a "hand."
In simple terms, metaphor compares things that are alike, and metonymy uses
something connected to represent something else. These associations help
language express ideas in creative ways.
4. The result of semantic change in the denotative component of meaning:
a) restriction (narrowing), specialization of meaning;
Definition: The meaning of a word becomes more specific or limited compared to
its original, broader sense.
Examples:
The modern verb "to starve" originally meant "to die" in Old English but now
specifically means "to suffer or die of hunger."
The term "disease" previously had a broader meaning of "discomfort of any kind"
in Old English.
b) extension, generalization, desemantization of meaning.
Definition:
Extension: The word's application broadens to include a wider variety of referents.
Generalization: The word with an extended meaning enters common use.
Desemantization: Weakening of the word's lexical meaning.
Examples:
Extension: The verb "to help" originally meant 'to treat or cure' and has extended
to mean "do something for the benefit of."
Generalization: The word "camp" initially belonged to military terms but now
denotes "a place where people live in tents or huts for a time."
Desemantization: Verbs of motion losing their original meaning, as seen in
phrases like "to run a risk" or "to fall into disuse."
5. The result of semantic change in the connotative component of
meaning:
a) degradation of meaning; - A word becomes associated with a negative
connotation, which causes it to be less acceptable or positive.
Examples:
The word "silly" originally meant "happy" or "blessed" but gradually acquired a
derogatory meaning of "foolish" or "weak-minded."
b) elevation (amelioration) of meaning. - A word goes through a positive
change in connotation, improving its own perceived value or positivity.
Examples:
The term "minister" originally denoted "a servant or attendant" but now carries a
positive connotation as "a civil servant of higher rank or a person administering a
department of state."
The word "angel," initially meaning "a messenger," developed a positive
connotation of "lovely, innocent, kind, thoughtful."

Practical Assignment

1. Explain the logical associations in the meanings of the same words in the
following word combinations. Define the type of association involved in
semantic change:
A wing of a bird – a wing of a building – on wings of joy:
Крило птаха - крило будівлі - на крилах радості;
Logical Association: Different meanings linked by the idea of extension or
structure.
Type of Association: Metaphor, where the extension of the word "wing" is
applied metaphorically to represent joy.
An eye of a man – an eye of a needle:
око людини - вушко голки;
Logical Association: Different meanings linked by the idea of a small
opening or aperture.
Type of Association: Metonymy, where the word "eye" is associated with
the small opening in a needle.
The heart of a man – the heart of the matter:
серце людини - серце справи;
Logical Association: Different meanings linked by the central or essential
part.
Type of Association: Metaphor, where the word "heart" is used
metaphorically to denote the central or essential part.
A hand of a man – a hand of a clock – a farmhand:
рука людини - стрілка годинника - хліборобська рука;
Logical Association: Different meanings linked by the idea of an extension
or function related to hands.
Type of Association: Metonymy, where the word "hand" is associated with
different aspects related to hands.
A foot of a man – the foot of a mountain:
підніжжя гори
Logical Association: Different meanings linked by the idea of a lower
extremity or base.
Type of Association: Metaphor, where the word "foot" is used
metaphorically to denote the base of a mountain.
The coat of a girl – the coat of a dog:
пальто дівчини - пальто собаки;
Logical Association: Different meanings linked by the idea of an outer
covering.
Type of Association: Metaphor, where the word "coat" is applied to both a
girl and a dog.
A star in the sky – a film star:
зірка на небі - кінозірка;
Logical Association: Different meanings linked by the idea of prominence or
brilliance.
Type of Association: Metaphor, where the word "star" is used
metaphorically to represent a person of prominence.
A green leaf – green years – green with envy:
зелений листок - зелені роки - позеленіти від заздрощів;
Logical Association: Different meanings linked by the idea of color.
Type of Association: Metaphor and Metonymy, where the word "green" is
used metaphorically for youth and metonymically for envy.
Warm weather – a warm welcome:
тепла погода - теплий прийом;
Logical Association: Different meanings linked by the idea of temperature.
Type of Association: Metaphor, where the word "warm" is used
metaphorically to convey a welcoming atmosphere.
Black shoes – black winter – black despair:
чорні черевики - чорна зима - чорний відчай;
Logical Association: Different meanings linked by the idea of color and
mood.
Type of Association: Metaphor, where the word "black" is used
metaphorically to convey a dark or negative mood.
The father of the family – the father of invention:
батько сімейства - батько винаходу;
Logical Association: Different meanings linked by the idea of origin or
creator.
Type of Association: Metaphor, where the word "father" is used
metaphorically to denote the origin or creator.
Nickel (metal) – a nickel (coin):
п'ятак (мета1) - п'ятак (монета);
Logical Association: Different meanings linked by the idea of material or
composition.
Type of Association: Metonymy, where the word "nickel" is associated with
both the metal and the coin made of it.
Bronze – a bronze:
 бронза - бронза;
Logical Association: Different meanings linked by the idea of material or
substance.
Type of Association: Metonymy, where the word "bronze" is associated
with both the material and an object made of it.
Glass – a glass:
стакан - склянка;
Logical Association: Different meanings linked by the idea of material or
container.
Type of Association: Metonymy, where the word "glass" is associated with
both the material and the object made of it.
Ford (proper name) – a Ford (car):
Ford (власне ім'я) - форд (автомобіль);
Logical Association: Different meanings linked by the idea of a brand or
manufacturer.
Type of Association: Metonymy, where the word "Ford" is associated with
both the brand and the car manufactured by that brand.
Kashmir (town in North India) – cashmere:
Кашмір (місто в Північній Індії) - кашемір.
Logical Association: Different meanings linked by the idea of origin or
association.
Type of Association: Metonymy, where the word "Kashmir" is associated
with both the town and the fabric associated with the region.

2. The following are some of the different senses of skirt(s) and head as
adapted from the DCE dictionary (Dictionary of Contemporary English,
Longman). What is likely to be the prototypical meaning of the words?
Point out which process of semantic development (generalization,
specialization) or which type of association (metaphor, metonymy) you
find in each of the cases. Give reasons for your answers.

skirt
a. A piece of outer clothing worn by women and girls which hangs down
from the waist
 Likely Prototypical Meaning: The main or central meaning of "skirt."
 Semantic Development Process/Association: Specialization, as it refers
specifically to a type of clothing for women.
b. The part of a dress or coat that hangs down from the waist
 Likely Prototypical Meaning: A specific type of clothing, emphasizing a
particular part of a garment.
 Semantic Development Process/Association: Specialization, narrowing
down the meaning to a specific part of clothing.
c. The flaps on a saddle that protect a rider’s legs
 Likely Prototypical Meaning: Refers to a specific part of a saddle,
emphasizing its functional aspect.
 Semantic Development Process/Association: Specialization, as it
narrows down to a particular functional feature.
d. A circular flap as around the base of a hovercraft
 Likely Prototypical Meaning: Refers to a specific circular part around
the base of a hovercraft.
 Semantic Development Process/Association: Specialization, narrowing
down to a particular feature of a hovercraft.
e. A bit of skirt: an offensive expression meaning ‘an attractive woman’
 Likely Prototypical Meaning: Refers to a derogatory and objectifying
expression regarding women.
 Semantic Development Process/Association: Degradation of meaning, as
it acquires a negative connotation over time.
f. Skirts of a forest, hill or village etc.: the outside edge of a forest etc
 Likely Prototypical Meaning: Refers to the outer edge or boundary of a
geographical feature.
 Semantic Development Process/Association: Specialization, narrowing
down to the outer edge or boundary.
g. A new road skirting the suburb
 Likely Prototypical Meaning: Refers to the road running along the
outskirts of the suburb.
 Semantic Development Process/Association: Specialization, narrowing
down to a specific type of road.
h. They skirted round the bus.
 Likely Prototypical Meaning: Moving along the perimeter of the bus.
 Semantic Development Process/Association: Metonymy, as it involves
using the action of moving along the edge to represent the act of
avoiding the bus.
i. He was skirting the issue
 Likely Prototypical Meaning: Avoiding or evading the issue without
directly addressing it.
 Semantic Development Process/Association: Metaphor, as it involves
using the action of avoiding the issue to represent the act of evading or
sidestepping it.

head
a. the top part of the body which has your eyes, mouth, brain, etc.
Specialization, as it refers specifically to the top part of the body.
b. the mind: My head was full of strange thoughts.
c. understanding: This book goes over my head.
d. the leader or person in charge of a group: We asked the head for
permission.
 Metaphor: (b) "mind," (c) "understanding," and (d) "leader" use metaphor
to extend the meaning beyond the physical head to represent mental or social
concepts.
e. the top or front of something: Write your name at the head of each page.
 Metonymy: (e) "top or front" uses metonymy, where the head (highest
part) represents the beginning or prominent position of something.
f. calm: Keep one’s head cool.
 Process: Metaphor
 Reasoning: The physical head is often associated with staying calm
under pressure (e.g., keeping a cool head). This meaning transfers that
association to the metaphorical "head" representing emotional control.
g. (for) each person: We paid ten pounds a head for the meal.
 Process: Metonymy
 Reasoning: The head is a prominent part of the body representing the
individual. Counting heads metaphorically translates to counting
people, using the part to represent the whole.

3. Read the words’ stories and identify the results of their semantic
development. These results are:
a) generalization;
b) specialization;
c) elevation;
d) degradation.
1. The noun picture used to refer only to a representation made with paint.
Today it can be a photograph or a representation made with charcoal, pencil
or any other means.
Picture: Generalization. It started specific ("paint") and became broader
("representation").
2. The adjective nice – from the Latin nescius for "ignorant" – at various times
before the current definition became established meant "foolish", then
"foolishly precise", then "pedantically precise", then "precise in a good way"
and then its current definition.
Nice: Elevation. It went from negative ("ignorant") to positive ("pleasant").
3. From 1550 to 1675 silly was very extensively used in the sense "deserving
pity and compassion, helpless". It is a derivative of the Middle English seely
from the German selig, meaning "happy, blissful, blessed, holy" as well as
"punctual, observant of season".
Silly: Degradation. It shifted from positive ("happy") to negative
("foolish").
4. The verb kidnap has come into wide use in the meaning "to take a child
away illegally and usually by force, in order to demand especially money for
their safe return". Now it implies any person, not only a child.
Kidnap: Generalization. It started specific ("child") and became broader
("any person").
5. Crafty, now a disparaging term, originally was a word of praise.
Crafty: Degradation. It went from positive ("skilled") to negative
("deceitful").
6. Target originally meant "a small round shield" but now it means "anything
 that is fired at" and figuratively "any result aimed at".
Target: Generalization and Metaphor. It started specific ("shield") and
became broader ("object fired at") with a metaphorical extension ("desired
outcome").
7. Voyage in earlier English meant "a journey", as does the French voyage, but
is now restricted mostly to journeys by sea.
Voyage: Specialization. It started broad ("journey") and became narrower
("sea journey").
8. Butcher dates from the 13th century as a term denoting the person who
prepared and cut up any kind of meat. Previously it referred to a specialist in
goat's meat, often salted because it was tough – this fact indicates how low
the consumption of beef had been in the Middle Ages.
Butcher: Specialization and Generalization. It started specific ("goat
meat") and then generalized ("any meat") before specializing again ("meat
preparer").