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MET306 ADVANCED MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGG.
MODULE 1
NEED FOR NTMM(Non Traditional Machining Methods)
The requirements that lead to the development of nontraditional machining are
1. Very high hardness and strength of the material. (Above 400 HB.)
2. The work piece is too flexible or slender to support the cutting or grinding
forces.
3. The shape of the part is complex, such as internal and external profiles, or
small diameter holes.
4. Surface finish or tolerance better than that obtainable conventional process.
5. Temperature rise or residual stress in the work piece is undesirable.
COMPARISON BETWEEN TRADITIONAL &NON TRADITIONAL

MACHINING
Traditional Non Traditional

Material removal by shearing of work Alternate energy sources can be used
piece material for material removal and takes place by
melting
&vaporisation,anodicdissolution,impact
erosion etc.
Can be applied to materials Can be applied to all metals & alloys
depending upon the strength &
hardness
Higher MRR Lower MRR
Low power consumption High Power consumption
Chip formation is at macroscopic Chips formed in the microscopic or

level atomic levels
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Not possible to machine many newer Can be used to machine such difficult –
materials developed for aerospace to-machine materials
and nuclear applications
Accuracy & surface finish is low More accurate & high surface finish
Direct contact between tool and work Not necessary for a tool. Even if the
piece and tool should be harder than tool is present it need not be harder
work piece material than work piece material
COMPARISON BETWEEN TRADITIONAL &MICRO MACHINING
Traditional Micro Machining

Miniature features like micro sized Can machine thousands of holes having
holes cannot be machined. a few microns diameter.
Not possible to machine materials Can be used to machine such materials

with extra ordinary properties. having high strength, high heat
resistance and high hardness.
Nano level surface finish on Nano level surface finish on complex

complex geometries are impossible geometries can be achieved on
to achieve conducting or non conducting materials
POWDER METALLURGY
Powder metallurgy is a process of making components from metallic powders.
Initially, it was used to replace castings for metals which were difficult to
melt because of high melting point.

The development of technique made it possible to produce a product

economically, and today it occupies an important place in the field of metal process.
NEED OF P/M (Powder Metallurgy)
Initially powder metallurgy process was used to replace casting for metals
which were difficult to melt because of their high melting point.
The development of techniques made it possible to produce the component

economically, and today it occupied an important place in the field of metal
processing. The number and variety of products made by powder metallurgy are
continuously increasing; and includes the tungsten filament for lamps, contact point
relays, self-lubricating bearings and cemented carbide for cutting tools.etc.
POWDER METALLURGY PRODUCTION STEPS
1. Manufacture of metal powders in suitable size & purity.

2. Blending & compacting of metal powders in suitable die cavity to provide
Green strength.
3. Sintering the compact part at high temperature to provide bonding strength.
4. Secondary processes such as finishing, sizing &heat treatment
Steps in powder metallurgy
POWDER PRODUCTION METHODS

1. Mechanical pulverization
It includes machining, milling or grinding.
Machining: In this method first chips are produced by filing, turning etc. and
subsequently pulverised by crushing and milling. The powders produced by this
method are coarse in size and irregular in shape. Hence, this method is used for
special cases such as production of magnesium powder.
Crushing and Milling: These methods are used for brittle materials. Jaw
crushers, stamping mills, ball mills are used to breakdown the metals by crushing
and impact.
2. Shotting: Dropping the molten metal through a sieve or small orifice in to

water. This produces spherical particles of larger size. This method is
commonly used for metals having low melting point.
3. Electrolytic deposition: Used for producing Cu & Fe powders. This process
is similar to electroplating.
The powders have dendritic structure with low apparent density. This method
consists of depositing metal on cathode plate by conventional electrolysis process.
The cathode plates are removed and deposited powder is scrapped off. The powder
is washed, dried and screened and oversized particles are milled or ground.
The powder is further subjected to heat treatment to remove work hardening

effect. By this method powder produced will be pure and resist oxidation. The cost
of manufacturing is high.

4. Chemical Reduction:
Pure metal is obtained by reducing its oxide with a suitable reducing gas at an
elevated temperature (below the melting point) in a controlled furnace. The
reduced product is then crushed and milled to a powder.
Irregular shaped powder is obtained.
Used for producing Fe,Cu,Ni,Co,Mo,W,Th,Ti
Iron powder is produced this way
Copper powder by
Tungsten, Molybdenum, Ni and Cobalt are made by the method
5. Reduction of carbonyls
This process is based upon the fact that a number of metals can react with carbon
monoxide to form carbonyls such as iron carbonyl can be made by passing carbon
monoxide over heated iron(75ºC) at 50 – 200 bar pressure. The resulting carbonyl is
then decomposed by heating it to a temperature of 200 – 3000ºC yielding powder of
high purity, however, at higher cost.
The carbonyl iron powder obtained after reduction is usually spherical & very
fine.

6. Atomization:(Very Important)
This is the most popular and versatile method available for
manufacturing metal powders. It can be used to make powders of most of the
metals and alloys. Here, the molten metal is converted into a fine spray of
droplets which solidifies into small particles to form a powder.
In this process the molten metal is forced through an orifice into a

stream of high velocity air, steam or inert gas. This causes rapid cooling and
disintegration into very fine powder particles and the use of this process is
limited to metals with relatively low melting point.
Produces spherical particles with smooth surfaces
4 Methods of atomization(Very Important)
1. Gas Atomization
Figures 1 shows two different ways in which gas atomization canbe implemented.
Here, a high velocity stream of gas is used to convert the liquid metal into a fine
spray. The air or inert gas is allowed to flow through an expansion nozzle, which
siphons the liquid metal from the crucible below.

As the liquid metal comes up, it is carried away by the high pressure gas and
is sprayed into a container as shown in figure 1. The spray process creates tiny
droplets of metal which solidify into powder form.
A similar process is shown in figure 2. The molten metal reaches to the gas
nozzle by way of gravity. The gas/air jets immediately atomise the liquid to form
nearly spherical droplets of the liquid metal. The droplets cool down to solid powder
particles which are collected in the chamber provided.
Used for HSS,Titanium,Super alloys(inconel) & Reactive metals(Li,Na,K

etc.)
Fig.1
Fig.2

Process variables are jet distance, jet pressure, nozzle geometry, velocity of
gas and temperature of melts.
Higher pressure or smaller jet distance produce finer powder.
The atomisation method produces spherical powder particles with relative

smooth surfaces.
This method is suitable forforHSS,Titanium,Super alloys(inconel) & Reactive

metals(Li,Na,K etc.)
2. Water Atomization
This process is very much similar to the gas atomisationexcept that a water jet
is used instead of air jet.
Water atomization process is the most common of the atomisation methods,

and is suitable for metals having melting point below 1600°C. As water is coming
into direct contact with the hot liquid metal, the cooling is very fast but the powder
obtained will be having irregular in shape.
The presence of water causes oxidation of the particle surface. To avoid this
problem, water can be replaced with synthetic oil. This method is used for low and
high alloy steels and stainless steel, but the particles are irregular in shape.
In these atomisation processes, particle size of powder is governed by the

velocity of the fluid stream. When velocity of jet is increased, finer particles are
obtained
This method is suitable for suitable for metals having MP below 1600ºC.Used
for LCS &SS.Synthetic oil can also be used.

Water atomisation
3. Centrifugal Atomization
1) Rotating disk method
Rotating disk method is one of the processes under this category. The liquid
metal is allowed to fall on a disk rotating at high velocity. Due to the centrifugal
action, the liquid metal particles are thrown out in all directions.
The arrangement is shown in Figure. The powder particles are collected in the
chamber surrounding the rotating disc.
Rotating disc method

2) Rotating electrode method
Rotating electrode process (REP) is another example of centrifugalatomization.

In this method, a solid metal bar is rotated at a faster rate, while one end is melted
by an electric arc(as shown in figure).
The electric are is established between a tungsten electrode (cathode) and the
solid metal bar (anode). Molten metal spins off from the bar and solidifies
immediately.
The electrodes are enclosed in an inert gas chamber and the powder articles are
collected inside the chamber.
Accurate control of the rotation of anode is important to obtain a proper particle

size distribution for the powder. Diameter of a droplet depends on surface tension of
the liquid and the centrifugal force acting on it.
Rotating electrode method
4. Liquid gas Atomization
This process is of recent origin, in which a cryogenic liquid gas (argon-nitrogen)

at-200°C is used to atomise the molten metal. The liquid gas kept at 300 bar pressure
is used to generate an even stream which atomisesmelt and cools it rapidly. Upon
atomisation, the liquid evaporates quickand the powder is left behind cooled down.
Here the cooling rate is ten times higher than that of gas atomisation. The powder
obtained is much purer than obtained from water atomisation.

Uses cryogenic liquid gas (Ar/N2) at -200ºC at 300 bar. Powder produced is more
pure
CHARACTERISTICS OF METAL POWDER
1. PARTICLE SHAPE:
The particle shape depends largely on the method of powder manufacture.
The shape may be spherical, irregular, angular, and dendritic.
Among these spherical is ideal one which is having maximum apparent density
and flow rate but reduced pressing and sintering capabilities.
The particle shape influences the flow characteristics of powders.
The rounded shape is observed in powders of Al,Cu , Sn& Zn obtained by

atomization method.

2. PARTICLE SIZE
It is defined as the total space occupied by a powder particle . It varies from 0.1
to 1000 microns. The size is obtained by passing the powder through standard sieve
ranging from 45 to 150 µm mesh.
Particle size also controls the flow rate, compressibility, apparent density and
sintering ability.
Fine mesh powder result in poor apparent density and flow rate and maximum
sinterability.
Coarse powder gives good apparent density & flow rate but lower sinterability.
3. SIZE DISTRIBUTION
Each powder material has particles of different sizes , the sizes decreases
continuously from a maximum size down to minimum size.

It is specified in term of a sieve analysis, the amount of powder passing

through 100, 200 etc., mesh sieves. Particle size distribution influences the
packing of powder and its behaviour during moulding and sintering.
4. FLOWABILITY: It is the ability of powder to flow readily and confirm to the

mould cavity. It determines the rate of production and economy.
5. COMPRESSIBILITY:It is defined as volume of initial powder (powder loosely
filled in cavity) to the volume of compact part. It depends on particle size,
distribution and shape.
6. COMPACTABILITY:Ability of powder to achieve a determined volume and
weight at a given compacting pressure.
7. APPARENT DENSITY:It is the mass per unit volume of loose or unpacked
powder. Apparent density depends on density of solid material, particle size,
size distribution and shape of the particle.
8. GREEN STRENGTH:Refer to the strength of the compact part prior to sintering
and it helps to handle the products during mass production. It depends on
compressibility of metal powders.
9. PURITY:Metal powders should be free from impurities as the impurities
reduces the life of dies and affect sintering process. The oxides and the
gaseous impurities can be removed from the part during sintering by use of
reducing atmosphere.
10. SINTERING ABILITY:It is the ability which promotes bonding of the particles
by the application of heat.
BLENDING
The process of mixing powders is called blending.
A single powder may not fulfil all the requisite properties and hence, powders
of different materials with wide range of mechanical properties are blended to
form a final part.
Need for Blending
1. Blending imparts uniformity in the shapes of the powder particles,

2. Blending facilitates mixing of different powder particles to impart wide
ranging physical and mechanical properties,

3. Lubricants can be added during the blending process to improve the flow
characteristics of the powder particles reducing friction between particles and
dies,
4. Binders can be added to the mixture of the powder particles to enhance the
green strength during the powder compaction process.
5. Lubricants such as graphite powder,stericacid,zinc stearate are added in the
blending operation to reduce die wall friction and to aid in the ejection.
COMPACTING
The loose powders are formed into shape by compacting or briquetting.
In this process loose powders are placed in a die and squeezed together to form a
green compact having final shape and size of the component.
It is usually performed at room temperature.
Stages in compaction
In the first stage of powder compaction, density is increased by a rearranging of

the individual powder particles.
Spaces, bridges and gaps are eliminated, and density increases due to a more
efficient packing of the particles with applied pressure.

Effects of compaction
1. Reduces voids between the power particles and enhance the density of the
consolidated powder.
2. Produces bonding of the powder particles to improve green strength in the
consolidated powder particles,
3. Facilitates plastic deformation of the powder particles to conform to the final
desired shape of the part,
4. Enhances the contact area among the powder particles and facilitates the
subsequent sintering process.
Green Strength means the strength of the compact part prior to sintering operation
and helpful for handling of objects.
COMPACTING METHODS
1. Pressing
2. Centrifugal compacting
3. Slip casting
4. Extruding
5. Gravity sintering
6. Rolling
7. Isostatic pressing
8. Explosive compacting
9. Fibre metal process
1. PRESSING:
Metal powders are placed in a die cavity and compressed to form a component
shaped to the contour of the die.
Pressure usually employed is 80 Mpa to 1400 Mpa. Light pressure is applied for
soft metal powders used for porous bearings and high pressure for high density
components from fine and hard metal powders. Mechanical presses are used for
compacting objects at low pressure. Hydraulic presses are for compacting objects at
high pressure.

2. CENTRIFUGAL COMPACTING:
The powder is twirled in a mould and packed uniformly with pressures up to 3 MPa.
The uniform density is obtained for the component.
This method is employed for heavy metals such as tungsten carbide

3. SLIP CASTING:
In this method, the powder is converted into slurry with water and poured into the
mould made of plaster of paris. The liquid in the slurry is gradually absorbed by the
mould leaving the solid compact within the mould. The mould may be vibrated to
increase the density of the compact. The main drawback of this process is relatively
slower process because it takes larger time for the fluid to be absorbed by the
method.
4. EXTRUSION
This method is employed to produce the components with high density. Both cold
and hot extrusion processes are for compacting specific materials.
In cold extrusion, the metal powder is mixed with binder and this mixture is
compressed into billet. The binder is removed before or during sintering. The billet
is charged into a container and then forced through the die by means of ram. The
cross-section of product depends on the opening of the die.
Cold extrusion process is used for cemented carbide drills & cutters.
In the hot extrusion, the powder is compacted into billet and is heated to
extruding temperature in non-oxidising atmosphere. The billet is placed in the
container and extruded through a die.
This method is used for refractory materials, Beryllium and nuclear solid materials.
5. GRAVITY SINTERING:
This process is used for making sheets for controlled porosity.
In this process the powder is poured on ceramic tray to form an uniform layer and
is then sintered up to 48 hours in ammonia gas at high temperature. The sheets are
then rolled to desired thickness.

Porous sheet of stainless steel are made by this process and popularly used for fitters.
6. ROLLING:
This method is used for making continuous strips and rods having controlled
porosity with uniform mechanical properties.
In this method, the metal powder is fed between two rolls which compress and
interlock the powder particles to form a sheet of sufficient strength. It then sintered
rerolled and heat treated if necessary.
The metals that can be rolled are Cu, Brass, Bronze, Ni, Stainless steel and Monel.
7. ISOSTATIC PRESSING(Very important)
In this method, metal powder is placed in an elastic mould which is subjected to gas
pressure in the range of 65-650 Mpa from all sides.
After pressing.the compact is removed from gas chamber. If the fluid is used as press
medium then it is called as hydrostatic pressing.
The advantages of this method are: uniform strength in all directions, higher green
compact strength and low equipment cost.
This method is used for tungsten, molybdenum and reactive materials such as
beryllium,uranium,zirconium, titanium
2 methods of ISOSTATIC PRESSING(Very important)

1. CIP(Cold Isostatic Pressing)

2. HIP(Hot Isostatic Pressing)
1. CIP(Cold Isostatic Pressing)
In CIP the pressing is carried out at room temperature.
The metal powder is placed inside a flexible rubber mould and hydrostatic pressure
is applied to it.
Water or oil is used as the working fluid.
Thus, the powder gets compacted and the green compact is further taken out and
sintered.
This is an economical process which leads to uniform density of compaction.
Since the mould is flexible dimensional accuracy cannot be achieved.
Pressure distribution in CIP
1. At first, the pressure applied in compaction results in repacking of the powders

into an additional efficient arrangement, eliminating 'bridges' formed during
filling, dropping pore space, and rising the number of contacting points among
particles.
2. If the pressure is increased, the particles are plastically deformed, causing the
interparticles make contact with area to boost and additional particles to make
contact.
3. By further reduction in pore volume, this can be done.
4. The progression is illustrated in the following figures.
For P/M compaction, usually mechanical, hydraulic or combination of both

mechanical and hydraulic presses are used.

2. HIP(Hot Isostatic Pressing)
In this process, metal powder is stressed using inert gas in a metal container at
pressure and temperature of 100 MPaand 1000°C respectively.
The container used in this process has very high melting point.
An inert gas is used as the pressing medium.
Here a metal powder is filled into a mold and then it is surrounded by a secondary
pressing medium. After that, vacuum is created and the entire assembly is kept in an
autoclave chamber. Finally it is subjected to HIP (Hot Isostatie Pressing).
Pressure distribution curve

8. EXPLOSIVE COMPACTING:
In this method, the pressure generated by an explosive is used to compact the metal
powder.
Metal powder is placed in water proof bags which are immersed in water container
cylinder of high wall thickness.
Due to sudden detonation of the charge at the end of the cylinder, the pressure of the
cylinder increase.
This pressure is used to press the metal powder to form green compact.
9. FIBRE METAL PROCESS
In this process the metal fibres are mixed with a liquid slurry and poured over a
porous bottom.
The liquid is drained off leaving the green mat of fibre .
The mat in which fibers are randomly distributed is pressed and sintered.
The products are mainly used for filters, battery plates.
10. HOT PRESSING

This involves applying pressure and temperature simultaneously, so that the
compacting and sintering of the powder takes place at the same time in a die.
Its application is limited and can be used for compacting. Fe and Brass powders at
much lower pressure than conventional pressing and sintering operations.
SPARK SINTERING
It is the process of simultaneous pressing and sintering of metal powders by high

energy electric spark. The spark is discharged from capacitor bank and removes the
surface contaminations from powder particles. This causes the particles to form solid
cohesive mass.
Immediately after spark the current is continued for 10 seconds, with high
temperature which further strengthens the bond. This method is best suitable for
sintering Al,Cu,Fe and SS.

SINTERING (Very important)
Sintering is the operation of heating the green compact at high temperature in

a controlled atmosphere containing Ar or H2 gas (reducing atmosphere which
protects oxidation of metal powders.
The sintering increases the bond between the particles and therefore
strengthens a powder metal compact.
Sintering temperature & time of sintering depends on the type of powders and
the strength required in a final product. Furnace temperature also controls sintering
Sintering temperature is usually 0.6 to 0.8 times the melting point of powders.
But in case of mixed powders of widely different melting temperature, the

sintering temperature will usually above the melting point of minor constituent.
(Example:Cobalt in cemented carbide & Cu in W).
MECHANISMS OF SINTERING
1. Diffusion(solid state sintering)

2. Vapour- phase transport
3. Liquid phase sintering
1. Diffusion(solid state sintering)
In this mass transfer occur at high temperature. At high temperature 2 adjacent

particles begin to form a bond by diffusion and mass transport between 2 particles.
As a result strength, density and thermal conductivity of the compact increases. But
as the compact becomes denser, it shrinks in size.

2. Vapour- phase transport
As the material is heated to temperature closer to melting point,some atoms may

evaporate to vapour phase.
At the interphase of particles ,the condition would be favorable for the vapor to
condense and solidify.
Thus the particles are joined by the formation of bond and particle shrink. This
mechanism is not significant in most of the materials.
3. Liquid Phase sintering
The green compact may contain powders of different metals having different
melting temperature . In such cases the metal with lower melting point may melt
and surround the metal particles which are not melted.
This occurs due to surface tension of liquid metal. This mechanism is known as
liquid phase sintering.
Stronger and denser products are obtained through this mechanism.

STAGES IN SINTERING (Very Important)

1.Preheating -Burning of additives
2.Temperature is raised to sintering temperature
3.Temperature is lowered
PORE SHRINKING(Very Important)
During sintering stage of a powder metallurgy product, mass transport between

particle happens. This creates necking and new grain boundaries are formed. The
size of pores are reduced by the formation of new grain boundaries. This is known
as pore shrinking.
DRIVING FORCE FOR PORE SHRINKING
The primary driving force for pore shrinking is the reduction in surface energy of
powder particles.
In the green compact condition total surface area of this particle is very high.

During sintering, by the application of heat the particles are bonded together and
surface area is reduced. Hence the surface energy is also reduced. Due to this pore
shrinkage happens.
SECONDARY OPERATIONS OR FINISHING OPERATIONS IN P/M
Secondary operations intended to provide dimensional tolerances, physical and

better surface finish. They are
1. Sizing 5. Infiltration
2. Coining 6. Heat treatment
3. Machining 7. Plating
4. Impregnation
Sizing: It is repressing the sintered component in the die to achieve the required
accuracy.
Coining: It is repressing the sintered components in the die to increase density and
to give additional strength.
Machining: Machining operation is carried out on sintered part to provide under

cuts, holes, threads etc. which cannot be removed on the part in the powder
metallurgy process. Cutting tools can be used for this purpose.

Impregnation: It is filling of oil, grease or other lubricants in a sintered component

Self-lubricating bearings, gears can be made by oil impregnation. This can be
achieved by immersing the sintered product in a bath of hot oil.
Infiltration: It is filling of pores of sintered product with molten metal to improve

physical properties.
Heat Treatment: The process of heating and cooling sintered parts at a desired rate
to improve
(i) Wear Resistance
(ii) Grain Structure
(iii) Strength
The following heat treatment processes are used to the parts made by powder
metallurgy:
1. Stress relieving
2. Carburising
3. Nitriding
4. Induction Hardening
Plating: Plating is carried out in order to obtain corrosion resistance and better
appearance
1. Import a pleasing appearance (Cr plating)
2. Protect from corrosion (Ni plating)
3. Improve electrical conductivity (Cu and Ag plating)

ADVANTAGES OF POWDER METALLURGY(V.Imp)
1. Wide range of properties such as density, porosity and particle size can be
obtained for particular applications
2. Components can be produced with good surface finish and close tolerance.
3. High production rates.
4. Complex shapes can be produced

5. No wastage of raw material

6. Porous parts can be produced that could not be made any other way.
7. Impossible parts (cutting tool bits) can be produced.
8. Highly qualified or skilled labour is not required.
9. This process facilitates mixing of both metallic and non-metallic powders to
give products of special characteristics.
10. There is usually no need for subsequent machining or finishing operations.
LIMITATIONS OF POWDER METALLURGY PROCESS(V .Imp)
1. The metal powders and the equipment used are very costly.
2. Storing of powders offer great difficulties because of possibility of fire and
explosion hazards.
3. Parts manufactured by this process have poor ductility.
4. Sintering of low melting point powders like lead, zinc, tin etc., offer serious
difficulties.
5. Strength and toughness of the parts produced are inferior to the forgings.
6. Difficult to produce parts with high uniform density.
7. Product size is limited.
APPLICATIONS OF POWDER METALLURGY(V.Imp)
1. Self-Lubricating Bearing and Filters:

Porous bronze bearings are made by mixing copper and tin powder in correct
proportions, cold pressed to the desired shape and then sintered.
These bearings soak up considerable quantity of oil.
Hence during service, these bearings produce a constant supply of lubricant to the
surface due to capillary action. These are used where lubricating is not possible.
2. Porous filters can be manufactured and are used to remove, undesirable

materials from liquids and gases.
3. Friction Materials: These are made by powder metallurgy. Clutch liners and
Brake bands are the example of friction materials.
4. Gears and Pump Rotors: Gears and pump rotor for automobile oil pumps
are manufactured by powder metallurgy. Iron powder is mixed with graphite,
compacted under a pressure of 40 kg/cm2 and sintered in an electric furnace
with an atmosphere and hydrocarbon gas. These are impregnated with oil.

5. Refractory Materials: Metals with high melting points are termed as

refractory metals. These basically include four metals tungsten, molybdenum,
tantalum and niobium. Refractory metals as well as their alloys are
manufactured by powder metallurgy.
The applications are not limited to lamp filaments and heating elements, they also
include space technology and the heavy metal used in radioactive shielding.
6. Electrical Contacts and Electrodes: Electrical contacts and resistance

welding electrodes are made by powder metallurgy.
7. Magnet Materials: Soft and permanent magnets are manufactured by this
process. Soft magnets are made of iron, iron-silicon and iron-nickel alloys.
These are used in D.C. motors, or generators as armatures and in measuring
instruments.
Permanent magnets known as Alnico which is a mixture of nickel, aluminium,

cobalt, copper and iron are manufactured by this technique.
8. Cemented Carbides: These are very important products of powder

metallurgy and find wide applications as cutting tools, wire drawing dies and
deep drawing dies. These consist of carbides of tungsten, tantalum, titanium
and molybdenum.
9. Diamond Impregnated Tools
These are made from a mixture of iron powder and diamond dust. Diamond dust acts
as a cutting medium and iron powder acts as the bond. These tools are used for
cutting porcelain and glass. These bits are welded or brazed to a steel shank.
*****

INTRODUCTION TO METAL CUTTING
In Engineering industry, components are made of metals in different shapes, sizes and
dimensions. Metals are shaped to the required forms by various processes. These processes can be
generally divided into 2 groups.
1. Non cutting shaping process.

2. Cutting shaping process.
In non cutting shaping process the metal is shaped under the action of heat, pressure or both. Here
there is no chip formation. This group includes operations like forging, drawing, spinning,
drawing, extrusion etc.
In cutting shaping process the required shape of metal is obtained by removing the unwanted
material from the work piece in the form of chips.This group includes operations like turning,
boring, milling, drilling, shaping, broaching etc. These operations are known as machining or
metal cutting operations.
Machining Definition
Machining is a manufacturing processinwhich jobs are produced to the desired shape,

dimensionsand surface finish by gradually removing theexcess material from the preformed blank
in theform of chips with the help of cutting tools movedpast the work surface.

TOOL NOMENCLATURE
Nomenclature means systematic naming of the various parts and angles of a cutting tool.

Important Angles in a single point cutting tool

1. Back rake angle
The back rake angle is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel to the base of the
shank in a plane parallel to the side cutting edge.
It is the slope given to the face of the tool. Slope is given from nose along the length of the tool.
2. Side rake angle
It is the angle by which the face of the tool is inclined sideways.
It is also the slope given to the face of the tool.
Slope is given from nose along the width of the tool
The side rake angle and the back rake angle combine to form the effective rake angle. This is also
called true rake angle or resultant rake angle of the tool.
Positive Rake angle
Positive rake or increased rake angle reduces compression, the forces, and the friction, yielding a
thinner, less deformed and cooler chip.
But increased rake angle reduces the strength of the tool section, and heat conduction capacity.

Positive rake angles is recommended
• Machining low strength material

• Low power machine
• Long shaft of small diameter
• Low cutting speed
Negative Rake angle
To provide greater strength at the cutting edge and better heatconductivity, zero or negative rake
angles are employed on carbide,ceramic, polycrystalline diamond, and polycrystalline cubic
boronnitride cutting tools.
Negative rakes increases tool forces but this is necessary to provide added support to the cutting
edge. Negative rake
• Increase edge strength

• Increases life of the tool
• Increases the cutting force
• High cutting speeds
• Requires ample power
Negative rake angles is recommended
• Machining high strength alloy

• Heavy impact loads
• High speed cutting
• With rigid set- up

Zero rakeangle
• To simplify design and manufacturing of the form tools.

• Increases tool strength
• Avoids digging of the tool into the workpiece
• Brass is turned with zero rake angle
Relief angles or clearance angle
Relief angles are provided to minimize physical interference or rubbing contact with machined
surface and the cutting tool.
1. Side relief angle
2. End relief angle
Small relief angles are essential when machining hard and strong materials and they should be
increased for the weaker and softer materials.
3. Side relief angle:
It is the angle between side flank surface and a line perpendicular to the shank of the tool.
The Side relief angle prevents the side flank of the tool from rubbing against the work when
longitudinal feed is given. Larger feed will require greater side relief angle.

4. End relief angle
It is the angle between end flank surface and a line perpendicular to the shank of the tool measured
in a plane perpendicular to the base of the tool.
The End relief angle prevents the end flank of the tool from rubbing against the work.
Cutting edge angle
These are provided to form the cutting edge.
2 cutting edge angles are their
1. Side cutting edge angle
2. End cutting edge angle
5. Side cutting edge angle : It is the angle between the side cutting edge and axis of the tool
6. End cutting edge angle: It is the angle between the end cutting edge and perpendicular
line to the axis of the tool
7. Lip angle or cutting angle: It is the angle between the face and end surface of the tool.
8. Nose radiusIt is the radius of the curved surface joins the side cutting edge & end cutting
edge
ATTRIBUTES OF EACH TOOL NOMENCLATURE
1. Rake angle
The rake angle has the following function:
⚫ It allows the chip to flow in convenient direction.
⚫ It reduces the cutting force required to shear the metal and consequently helps to increase
the tool life
⚫ To reduce the power consumption for cutting.
⚫ It provides sharpness to the cutting edge.
⚫ It improves the surface finish
⚫ Normally rake angle provided in a single point cutting tool is 5 to 10 deg.

2. Clearance angle
⚫ Reduce tool wear
⚫ Increase tool life.
⚫ Must be positive (3deg – 15deg.)
3. Cutting Edge angle
Side cutting edge angleThe following are the advantages of increasing this angle, D
• It increases tool life as, for the same depth of cut; the cutting force is distributed on a wider
surface D
• It diminishes the chip thickness for the same amount of feed and permits greater cutting
speed. D It dissipates heat quickly for having wider cutting edge.
• The side cutting edge angle of the tool has practically no effect on the value of cutting force
or power consumed for a given depth of cut and feed.
• ™ Large side cutting edge angles are lightly to cause the tool to chatter.
• A large end cutting edge angle unnecessarily weakens the tool. It varies from 8 to 15
degrees.
4. Nose radius (Functions of Nose Radius)
⚫ Greater nose radius clears up the feed marks caused by the previous shearing action and
provides better surface finish.
⚫ It provides strengthening of the tool nose and bettersurface finish..
⚫ If nose radius increased cutting force and cutting powerincreased.
⚫ All finish turning tool have greater nose radius than rough turning tools

Tool signature
⚫ It is the system of designating the principal angles of a single point cutting tool.
⚫ The signature is the sequence of numbers listing the various angles, in degrees, and the size
of the nose radius.
⚫ There are several systems available like American standard system (ASA), orthogonal rake
system (ORS), Normal rake system (NRS), and Maximum rake system (MRS).
⚫ The system most commonly used is American Standard Association.
(ASA), which is:
⚫ Bake rake angle, Side rake angle, End relief angle, Side relief angle, End cutting Edge
angle, Side cutting Edge angle and Nose radius.
For example a tool may designated in the following sequence:
8-14-6-6-6-15-1
1. Bake rake angle is 8
2. Side rake angle is 14
3. End relief angle is 6
4. Side relief angle is 6
5. End cutting Edge angle is 6
6. Side cutting Edge angle is 15
7. Nose radius is 1 mm .

METHODS OF METAL CUTTING
Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting
Difference between Orthogonal(2 D) Cutting &Oblique (3D) Cutting

MECHANISM OF CHIP FORMATION
When the tool advances into the work piece, the metal in front of the tool is severely stressed. The
cutting tool produces internal shearing action in the metal. The metal below the cutting edge yields
and flows plastically in the form of chip. Compression of the metal under the tool takes
place. When the ultimate stress of the metal is exceeded, separation of metal takes place. The
plastic flow takes place in a localized area called as shear plane. The chip moves upward on the
face of the tool.
The outward or shearing movement of each successive element is arrestedby work hardening and
the movement transferred to the next element.
The process is repetitive and a continuous chip is formed.
The plane along which the element shears, is called shear plane

TYPES OF CHIPS
There are three different types of chips. They are
1. Continuous chips,
2. Discontinuous chips
3. Chips with built up edge(BUE)
Types of chip depends on
• Work material (ductile, brittle)

• Cutting tool geometry (rake angle, cutting angleetc.)
• Cutting velocity and feed rate.
• Types of cutting fluid and method of application.
Continuous chips
⚫ When the cutting tool moves towards the work piece there occurs a plastic deformation of
the work piece and the metal is separated without any discontinuity and it moves like a
ribbon.

⚫ The conditions that favor the production of continuous chips is small chip thickness, high
cutting speed, sharp cutting edge, large rake angle in cutting tool and fine feed, smooth tool
face and efficient lubricating system.
⚫ Such chips are produced while machining ductile materials like mild steel, copper and
aluminum. Because of plastic deformation of ductile material long and continuous chips
are produced.
⚫ This is desirable because it produces good surface finish, low power consumption and
longer tool life.
⚫ These chips are difficult to handle and dispose off. Further the chips coil in a helix and
curl around work and tool and may injure the operator when it is breaking. The tool face
is in contact for a longer period resulting in more frictional heat. However this problem
could be rectified by the use of chip breakers.
Discontinuous chips :
⚫ These chips are produced when cutting more brittle materials like bronze, hard brass and
gray cast iron.
⚫ Since there chips break up into small segments the friction between chip and tool reduces
resulting in better surface finish.
⚫ These are convenient to handle and dispose off.
⚫ Discontinuous chips are produced in ductile materials under the conditions such as large
chip thickness, low cutting speed, small rake angle of tool etc.
⚫ If these chips are produced from brittle materials, then the surface finish is fair, power
consumption is low and tool life is reasonable however with ductile materials the surface
finish is poor and tool wear is excessive .
Chips with built up edge(BUE) :
⚫ This is nothing but a small built up edge sticking to the nose of the cutting tool. These built
up edge occurs with continuous chips.

⚫ When machining ductile materials due to conditions of high local temperature and extreme
pressure the cutting zone and also high friction in the tool chip interface, there are
possibilities of work material to weld to the cutting edge of tool and thus forming built up
edges.
⚫ This weld metal is extremely hard and brittle. This welding may affect the cutting action
of tool.
⚫ Successive layers are added to the build up edge. When this edge becomes large and
unstable it is broken and part of it is carried up the face of the tool along with chip while
remaining is left in the surface being machined. Thus contributing to the roughness of
surface.
⚫ Conditions favoring the formation of build up edge are low cutting speed, low rake angle,
high feed and large depth of cut,ductile material,Cuttingfluid absent or in adequate This
formation can be avoided by the use of coolants and taking light cuts at high speeds. This
leads to the formation of crater on the surface of the tool.
Reduction or Elimination of BUE
CHIP BREAKERS
During machining, long and continuous chip will affect machining. It will spoil tool, work and
machine. It will also be difficult to remove metal and also dangerous. The chip should be broken
into small pieces for easy removal, safety and to prevent damage to machine and work. The
function of chip breakers is to reduce the radius of curvature of chips and thus break it.

Chip breakers are used to break the long continuous chip into small pieces .The chip breaker
is provided on cutting tool.
Types of chip breakers
The chip breaker classified into groove type and obstruction type
1.Groove type chip breaker: A small groove is provided behind the leading cutting edge of the
tool insert on the rake face . The geometry of groove determines the radius of chip curvature.
2. Step type
In this a step is ground on the face of the tool along the cutting edge.
3.Clamp type
In this a thin carbide plate or clamp is brazed brazed or screwed on the face of the tool.

ANALYSIS OF CUTTING FORCES INORTHOGONAL METAL CUTTING
Assumptions in orthogonal metal cutting
1. No contact at the flank i.e. the tool is perfectly sharp.
2. No side flow of chips i.e. width of the chips remains constant.
3. Uniform cutting velocity.
4. A continuous chip is produced with no built up edge.
5. The chip is considered to be held in equilibrium by the action of the two equal and
opposite resultant forces R and R1 and assume that the resultant is collinear.
Metal cutting Terminologies
Chip thickness ratio ( r ) or cutting ratio.

The outward flow of the metal causes the chip to be thicker after the separation from the parent
metal. That is the chip produced is thicker than the depth of cut.
Letto= chip thickness before cutting(uncut chip thickness)
tc = chip thickness after cutting (cut chip thickness)
Then Chip thickness ratio ( r ) =( to / tc )
Chip thickness ratio is always less than unity. If the ratio “r” is large the cutting action is good.
Chip reduction co efficient, K = (1 / r)
When metal is cut there is no change in volume of the metal.In orthogonal cutting the width of
the chip equals the width of the cut. Considering specific gravity of the metal as constant, the
volume of the chip produced will be equal to the volume of the metal cut. Width of both being
equal, the product of the chip thickness and its length will, therefore be equal to the product of
the thickness of the metal cut and length of metal cut. If L1 and L2 are lengths of the metal cut
and chip respectively.

Derive the relation for shear angle in orthogonal metal cutting operation


VELOCITY RELATIONSHIP IN ORTHOGONAL METAL CUTTING
The relationship of different velocities in orthogonal metal cutting is shown in figure. Let the
velocities are shown in figure
Vc= Velocity of tool relative to work or the cutting velocity
Vf= Velocity of chip flow relative to tool
Vs= Velocity of displacement of the chip along the shear plane relative to work ,or the velocity
of shear.
Of the above 3 velocities cutting velocity Vc is always known . The other 2 can be computed
with the help of the following relations.

CUTTING FORCES
The largest magnitude is the vertical force Fc which in turning is larger than feed force Ff, and Ff
is larger than radial force Fr.
For orthogonal cutting system Fr is made zero by placing the face of cutting tool at 90 degree to
the line of action of the tool.

Forces acting on Chip in two-dimensional cutting
Fs = Shear Force, which acts along the shear plane, is the resistance to shear of the metal in
forming the chip.
Fn = Force acting normal to the shear plane, is the backing up force on the chip provided by
the workpiece. ( Compressive force)
F = Frictional resistance of the tool acting against the motion of the chip as it moves upward
along the tool.
N = Normal to the chip force, is provided by the tool.
Fc = Cutting force
Ft = Feed force or thrust force
Merchant’s Circle Diagram
The following is a circle diagram. Known as Merchant’s circle diagram, which is convenient
todetermine the relation between the various forces and angles. In the diagram two forcetriangles
have been combined and R and R/ together have been replaced by R. the force Rcan be resolved
into two components Fc and Ft.Fc and Ft can be determined by force dynamometers.

The rake angle (α) can be measured from the tool, and force F and N can then be determined. The
shear angle (f) can be obtained from its relation with chip reduction coefficient. Now Fs&Fn can
also be determined.
The procedure to construct a merchants circle diagram
• Set up x-y axis labeled with forces, and the origin in the centre of the page. The cutting
force (Fc) is drawn horizontally, and the tangential force (Ft) is drawn vertically. (Draw in
the resultant (R) of Fc and Ft.
• Locate the centre of R, and draw a circle that encloses vector R. If done correctly, the heads
and tails of all 3 vectors will lie on this circle.
• Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right hand quadrant,taking care to draw the
correct rake angle (α) from the verticalaxis.
• Extend the line that is the cutting face of the tool (at the samerake angle)
through the circle. This now gives the frictionvector (F).
• A line can now be drawn from the head of the friction vector,to the head of the
resultant vector (R). This gives the normalvector (N). Also add a friction angle
(β) between vectors R andN. Therefore, mathematically, R = Fc + Ft = F + N.
• Draw a feed thickness line parallel to the horizontal axis. Nextdraw a chip
thickness line parallel to the tool cutting face.

• Draw a vector from the origin (tool point) towards theintersection of the two
chip lines, stopping at the circle. Theresult will be a shear force vector (Fs).
Also measure the shearforce angle between Fs and Fc.
• Finally add the shear force normal (Fn) from the head of Fs tothe head of R.
• Use a scale and protractor to measure off all distances (forces)and angles
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and vertical cutting
force from Merchant circle diagram



CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
Properties required for a Cutting tool material
1. Hardness:
The tool material must be harder than the work piece material.
Higher the hardness, easier it is for the tool to penetrate the work material
2. Hot hardness
Hot Hardness is the ability of the cutting tool must to maintain its Hardness and
strength at elevated temperatures.

This property is more important when the tool is used at higher cutting speeds, for
increased productivity
3. Toughness
Inspite of the tool being tough, it should have enough toughness to withstand the
impact loads that come in the start of the cut to forcefluctuations due to
imperfections in the work material
4. Wear Resistance
Wear resistance means the attainment of acceptable tool life before tools need to be
replaced.
5. Low friction:
The coefficient of friction between the tool and chip should be low. This would
lower wear rates and allow better chip flow.
6. Thermal characteristics:
Since a lot of heat is generated at the cutting zone, the tool material should have
higher thermal conductivity to dissipate the heat in shortest possible time,
otherwise the tool temperature would become high, reducing its life
The commonly used cutting tool materials are
1. Carbon steel
2. Medium alloy steel
3. High Speed Steel (1900)
4. Cemented Carbides(1926-30)
5. Ceramics (1950s)
6. Stellites
7. Abrasives
8. CBN(Cubic Boron Nitride) (1962)

9. Diamond
Carbon steel
• These are the oldest of the tool materials

• No sufficient hardness and wear resistance
• Low thermal resistance value
• Low hot hardness value (200- 250 ºC)
• Limited to low cutting speed operation (12 m/min)
• Inexpensive, easily shaped, sharpened.
• Used in tools like-files, core drills ,short reamers etc
• Composition C 0.7 to 1%,Si 0.5%, Mn 0.5%
Medium alloy steel
• Similar to carbon steel with the addition of other elements like Cr,Mo,W
• Hot hardness value (250-300ºC)
• Composition C up to 1.3 %, Si up to 0.4%, Mn 0.25-.75%
• Cr 0.4 to 0.8 % W 1 to 5 % Fe (balance)
High Speed Steel
• Mostly used in industries

• They can be used at higher cutting speed( 2 to 3 times higher than for C
Steel) . So it is called HSS.
• Hot hardness value (900ºC)
• Good wear resistance
• High toughness
• Good for positive rake angle tools
• Widely used alloy steel
• Alloy of Tungsten, Chromium, Vanadium, Cobalt& Molybdenum
• They are of 3 types:
• Tungsten HSS (denoted by T), Molybdenum HSS (denoted by M).
Cobalt HSS (Super HSS)

a) 18-4-1 HSS
W-18% Cr-4% V-1% with C-0.6 to 0.7
b) Cobalt HSS (Super HSS)
W-20% Cr-4% V-2% Co-12%
c) Molybdenum HSS
W-6% C r-4% V-2% Mo-6%
Cemented Carbides
Composing of Carbon , Tungsten Carbide, Titanium Carbide.
Manufacturing
⚫ Mixed (tungsten + pure carbon) at 1500 ºC in the ratio of 94:6 by weight
⚫ New compound(now tungsten carbide) mixed with cobalt to control the

toughness of the tool
⚫ Above homogeneous mixture pressed at 1000 to 4200 kg/cm²
⚫ Then heated with the presence of H2
⚫ Cut into different shapes
Two Type
 Titanium –Tungsten type cemented carbide
Tungsten carbide 66 to 85 %
Titanium carbide 5 to 30 %
Cobalt 4 to 10 %
Wear resistance high

 Tungsten Type cemented carbide
Tungsten carbide 92% to 98%
Cobalt 2 to 8%
• Less brittle than Ti-W type (cemented carbide)

• Used for machine brittle material such as cast iron ,bronze
• Hot hardness value 1000 ºC
• Used at cutting speed higher than 6 % that used with HSS
• Good thermal and wear resistance
Ceramics
Low heat conductivity(Used without coolant)
Quite brittle
Cannot be used for tools operating in interrupted cuts
High temp. Resistance (Up to 1200 ºC)
Cutting speed more than 40 times of HSS
Manufacturing
Aluminium oxide powder is taken in mould and pressed at a pressure of 300

kg/cm² and then sintered at 2000 ºC.
Tool tip is prepared and brazed or clamped to the shank of cutting tool
Stellites
Non ferrous cast Alloy
Cobalt 40-48%
Chromium 30 - 35%
Tungsten 10 -20 %
C-Content 1.8-2.5%

 High hardness
 Good wear resistance
 High temperature hardness(Up to1000 ºC)
 No Toughness
 Not widely used in metal cutting because it is too brittle.
 Used for cutting rubber, plastic
CBN(Cubic Boron Nitride)
 Hardest tool material available next to diamond
 This material consist of atoms of nitrogen and boron.
 High hardness, tensile strength, wear resistance
 Traded in the name of BOROZON
 A thin layer of ( 0.5 mm) CBN is applied to cemented carbide tools to

improve machining performance
Diamond
 Hardest , incompressible
 Readily conduct heat , Low coefficient of friction
 Cutting speed 50 times greater than HSS
 Temp Resistance up to1650 ºC
 Used for cutting glass, plastics
 high wear resistance
Coated carbide tools
 Coated with layer of optimum thickness of Titanium carbide ,Titanium

carbonitride,and titanium nitride

 Layer coated is carried out by chemical vapour deposition process
Qn.Why ceramics are normally provided as inserts for tools, and not as entire
tools?
Ceramics are brittle materials and cannot provide the structural strength
required for a tool.
Qn.Explain the Influence of alloying elements in steel properties
Carbon: Carbon presence leads to the formation of carbides ,which contributes

hardness and wear resistance.
Silicon, Manganese: Contributes improved hardness and strength of steel.
Tungsten or Molybdenum: Contributes red hardness
Vanadium: Contributes toughness, hardness.
Chromium: Contributes corrosion resistance.
Cobalt: Provides improved toughness and tensile strength.
THERMAL ASPECTS OF MACHINING
According to the first law of thermodynamics, when work is transformed into heat,
the quantity of heat produced is equivalent to the quantity of work. Heat generated,
through conversion of mechanical energy. The three distinct sources of heat in metal
cutting are given below:
• The shear zone, 1,where the primary plastic or shear deformation takes place
• The chip-tool interface, 2, where secondary plastic deformation due to friction
between the heated chip and tool takes place.
• The work- tool interface, 3, at flanks where frictional rubbing occurs

For example, in a typical study of machining mild steel at 30 m/min at about 750
deg of cutting temperature at tool-chip interface, the distribution of total energy
developed at the shear zone is as follows
• Energy at chip – 60 percent
• Energy to workpiece – 30 percent
• Energy to tool - 10 percent
The rate of energy consumption during orthogonal cutting is given by
Wc = Fc Vc Where FC = Cutting force , N
Vc = cutting speed , m/min
When a material is deformed elastically, the energy used is stored in the
material as strain energy and no heat is generated. However, when a material is
deformed plastically almost all the energy used is converted into heat.
In metal cutting , the material is subjected to extremely high strains and elastic
deformation forms a very small proportion of the total deformation, hence all the
energy is assumed to be converted into heat.
Thus Q = Fc Vc / J where J is mechanical equivalent of heat
The cutting energy is converted into heat in two principal regions of plastic
deformation The shear zone or primary deformation zone AB Secondary
deformation zone BC.
EFFECTS OF THE HIGH CUTTING TEMPERATURE ON TOOL AND WORK

High cutting temperatures are detrimental to both the tool and the job. The major
portion of the heat is taken away by the chips. But it does not matter because chips
are thrown out. So attempts should be made such that the chips take away more and
more amount of heat leaving small amount of heat to harm the tool and the job. The
possible detrimental effects of the high cutting temperature on cutting are:
On tool
• Rapid tool wear , which reduces tool life
• Cutting edges plastically deform and tool may loose its hot hardness
• Thermal flaking and fracturing of cutting edges may take place due to thermal
shock
• Built up edge formation
On work
• Dimension inaccuracy of work duet to thermal distortion and expansion and
contraction during and after machining
• Surface damage by oxidation, rapid corrosion, burning etc.
• Tensile residual stresses and microcracks at the surface and sub surfaces.
DETERMINATION OF CUTTING TEMPERATURE

1. Calorimetric method – quite simple and low cost but inaccurate and
gives only grand average value
2. Decolourising agent – some paint or tape, which change in colour with
variation of temperature, is pasted on the tool or job near the cutting
point; the as such colour of the chip (steels) may also often indicate
cutting temperature
3. Tool-work thermocouple – simple and inexpensive but gives only
average or maximum value
4. Moving thermocouple technique
5. Embedded thermocouple technique
6. Photo-cell technique
7. Infra ray detection method

Tool work thermocouple technique
Tool work thermo couple set up for measurement of temperature.
In a thermocouple two dissimilar but electrically conductive metals are

connected at two junctions. Whenever one of the junctions is heated, the difference
in temperature at the hot and cold junctions produce a proportional current which is
detected and measured by a milli-voltmeter.
In machining like turning, the tool and the job constitute the two dissimilar metals
and the cutting zone functions as the hot junction as shown in Figure . Then the
average cutting temperature is evaluated from the mV after thorough calibration for
establishing the exact relation between mV and the cutting temperature .
TOOL WEAR
Mainly 4 types of wear
1. Flank Wear
2. Crater Wear
3. Chipping off of the cutting edge
4. Rounding of the cutting edge.

1. Flank Wear: Wear occurred on the flanks of the cutting tool.
Reasons
1. Abrasion by hard particles and inclusions in the work piece.
2. Shearing of the micro welds between tool and work material.
3. Abrasion by fragments of built‐up‐edge ploughing against the clearance face of the tool.
4. At low speed flank wear predominates.
If MRR increased flank wear increased.
2. Crater Wear
1) More common in ductile materials which produce continuous chip.
2) Crater wear occurs on the rake face of the cutting tool in the form of a crater.
3) At very high speed crater wear predominates
4) For crater wear temperature is main culprit and tool defuse into the chip material & tool
temperature is maximum at some distance from the tool tip.

3. Chipping of cutting edge
1) Tool material is too brittle
2) Weak design of tool, such as high positive rake angle
3) As a result of crack that is already in the tool
4) Excessive static or shock loading of the tool
WEAR MECHANISMS
1. Abrasion wear:
• occurs when hard constituents of one surface moves to the other side of material
• Amount of wear depends on hardness of contacting surface.
• Constituents causing wear are harder than the matrix of the cutting tool.
2. Adhesion wear:
• occurs when two surfaces are brought into contact under normal loads and form
welded junctions
• When shear load is applied, this junction breaks
• Depends on characteristics of tool and work material
• Occurs at very low cutting speeds
3. Diffusion wear:
• Atoms move from one lattice point to another
• Caused due to increase in temperature
• Occurs when localized temperature is increased sufficiently

4. Chemical or oxidation wear

• The fresh metal will quickly react with oxygen in air to form a fresh oxide layer,
• which will then be scraped off again by asperities in the following cycle.
• Such an "oxidation - scrape", or "chemical - mechanical" cycle repeats during the
oxidation wear process, producing wear debris of finely powdered oxide
TOOL LIFE
Tool life is the time a tool will operate satisfactorily until it is dulled.
Tool failure is mainly happened as tool wear.

In the graph slope of the line represent the value of n
FACTORS AFFECTING TOOL LIFE
1. Cutting speed
2. Feed and depth of cut
3. Tool geometry
4. Tool material
5. Cutting fluid
6. Work material
7. Rigidity of work, tool, and machine
CUTTING FLUIDS
Cutting fluid may be defined as substance which is applied to a tool during a cutting operation to
facilitate removal of chips and heat
FUNCTIONS OF CUTTING FLUIDS IN MACHINING
1) To lubricate chip, tool &work piece
2) To cool the cutting tool and work piece

3) To help carry away the chips from the cutting zone.
4) To lubricate some the moving parts of MT
5) To improve the surface finish
6) To prevent the formation of built-up –edge
7) To protect the work against the rusting
8) To improve surface finish,MRR
REQUIREMENTS OF CUTTING FLUID
1) Long life,
2) free from oxidation
3) High thermal conductivity
4) Low viscosity
5) Should be transparent
6) No fire or Accidental Hazards
7) Should have high flash point
8) Low price ,Easily available
4 categories of cutting fluids
1) Straight oils
2) Soluble oils
3) Semi-synthetic fluids
4) Synthetic fluids
1) Straight oils
• are the oldest class of engineered metal removal fluids.
• Used in machining operations in an undiluted form.
• They are composed of a base mineral or petroleum oil and often
contains polar lubricants such as fats,

• Vegetable oils and esters as well as extreme pressure additives such as

Chlorine, Sulphur and Phosphorus.
• Straight oils provide the best lubrication and the poorest cooling
characteristics among cutting fluids.
• Chemically stable and lower in cost
2) Soluble Oil
• form an emulsion when mixed with water.

• The concentrate consists of a base mineral oil and emulsifiers to help
produce a stable emulsion.
• They are used in a diluted form (usual concentration = 3 to 10%)
• Provide good lubrication and heat transfer performance.
• They are widely used in industry and are the least expensive among
all cutting fluids.
3) Semi-synthetic fluids
 are essentially combination of synthetic and soluble oil fluids
 have characteristics common to both types.
 The cost and heat transfer performance of semi-synthetic fluids lie between
those of synthetic and soluble oil fluids.
4) Synthetic Fluids
 contains no petroleum or mineral oil base
 are formulated from alkaline inorganic and organic compounds along with
additives for corrosion inhibition.
 They are generally used in a diluted form (usual concentration = 3 to 10%).
 Synthetic fluids often provide the best cooling performance among all
cutting fluids.
MACHINABILITY

The ease with which a given work material can be machined under a given set of
cutting conditions.
The machinability of different materials can be compared in terms of the values of

tool life, cutting forces and surface finish under similar cutting conditions.
The maximum production rate consistent with specified surface finish can serve as
criteria for machinability.
Machinability index is a standardized value to express machinability of material.
The index is given as

Machinability index, (%)=Cutting speed of material for 20 minute tool life X100
Cutting speed of standard steel for 20 minute tool life
FACTORS AFFECTING MACHINABILTY

a. MACHINE VARIABLES
1. Cutting speed
2. Feed and depth of cut
3. Tool geometry
4. Tool material
5. Cutting fluid
6. Rigidity of the system
7. Nature of cutting(Continuous or intermittent)
b. MATERIAL VARIABLES
1. Hardness
2. Tensile properties
3. Microstructure
4. Chemical composition
5. Degree of cold working
6. Strain hardenability

7. Shape and dimension of the work

8. Rigidity of workpiece
Tool life: If tool life is higher, then it indicates that the machinability of metal
is higher.
Surface finish: Better surface finish obtained on the work piece indicates
better machinability.
Power consumption: lower power consumption during the machining
process indicates better machinability.
Cutting force: If cutting force required for machining is less, then it shows
that the machinability of the metal is good
Hardness of metals: If the metal is very hard, then it will require more power
consumption and it will generate high temperatures. Hence the tool wear may
occur which leads to poor machinability.
Chemical composition: The cutting force and tool wear are very high while
machining a pure metal. But if a small amount of carbon, manganese, lead,
sulfur and phosphorus are added to the steels, it results in improved
machinability.
Microstructure: If the metal contains abrasive inclusions and non-uniform
structure with large and distorted grains, then the metals will show less
machinability.
Treatment given to metal: Cold worked steels show better machinability as
it increases tool life as well as its machining can be done at high cutting speed.
Machinability of high carbon steels can be increased by their hot working.
****

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MET306 ADVANCED MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGG.

The requirements that lead to the development of nontraditional machining are

COMPARISON BETWEEN TRADITIONAL &NON TRADITIONAL

Traditional Non Traditional

Higher MRR Lower MRR

Low power consumption High Power consumption

Chip formation is at macroscopic Chips formed in the microscopic or

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COMPARISON BETWEEN TRADITIONAL &MICRO MACHINING

Traditional Micro Machining

Not possible to machine materials Can be used to machine such materials

Nano level surface finish on Nano level surface finish on complex

Powder metallurgy is a process of making components from metallic powders.

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The development of technique made it possible to produce a product

NEED OF P/M (Powder Metallurgy)

The development of techniques made it possible to produce the component

POWDER METALLURGY PRODUCTION STEPS

1. Manufacture of metal powders in suitable size & purity.

Steps in powder metallurgy

POWDER PRODUCTION METHODS

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It includes machining, milling or grinding.

2. Shotting: Dropping the molten metal through a sieve or small orifice in to

The powder is further subjected to heat treatment to remove work hardening

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Used for producing Fe,Cu,Ni,Co,Mo,W,Th,Ti

Iron powder is produced this way

Tungsten, Molybdenum, Ni and Cobalt are made by the method

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In this process the molten metal is forced through an orifice into a

Produces spherical particles with smooth surfaces

4 Methods of atomization(Very Important)

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Used for HSS,Titanium,Super alloys(inconel) & Reactive metals(Li,Na,K

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Higher pressure or smaller jet distance produce finer powder.

The atomisation method produces spherical powder particles with relative

This method is suitable forforHSS,Titanium,Super alloys(inconel) & Reactive

Water atomization process is the most common of the atomisation methods,

In these atomisation processes, particle size of powder is governed by the

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Rotating disc method

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2) Rotating electrode method

Rotating electrode process (REP) is another example of centrifugalatomization.

Accurate control of the rotation of anode is important to obtain a proper particle

Rotating electrode method

4. Liquid gas Atomization

This process is of recent origin, in which a cryogenic liquid gas (argon-nitrogen)

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CHARACTERISTICS OF METAL POWDER

The particle shape depends largely on the method of powder manufacture.

The shape may be spherical, irregular, angular, and dendritic.

The particle shape influences the flow characteristics of powders.

The rounded shape is observed in powders of Al,Cu , Sn& Zn obtained by

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It is specified in term of a sieve analysis, the amount of powder passing