M2 Asynch Task

1. Nature and Functions of Major Building Blocks of the Nervous System:

 Neurons: Neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. They
are specialized cells responsible for transmitting electrical and chemical signals throughout
the body. Neurons consist of a cell body, dendrites (which receive signals from other
neurons), and an axon (which transmits signals to other neurons). The main functions of
neurons include receiving, processing, and transmitting information, allowing for
communication within the nervous system and between the nervous system and other parts
of the body.
 Synapses: Synapses are specialized junctions between neurons where communication
occurs. They consist of a presynaptic terminal (axon terminal), a synaptic cleft, and a
postsynaptic terminal (dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron). Communication at
synapses occurs through the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic terminal,
which bind to receptors on the postsynaptic terminal, leading to changes in the electrical
potential of the receiving neuron. Synapses play a crucial role in synaptic transmission, which
underlies various functions such as learning, memory, and motor control.
 Glial Cells: Glial cells, also known as neuroglia or simply glia, are non-neuronal cells that
provide support and protection for neurons in the nervous system. They outnumber neurons
and play diverse roles in maintaining homeostasis, providing structural support, insulating
neurons, and modulating synaptic activity. Glial cells include several types such as astrocytes
(which regulate the extracellular environment and provide metabolic support to neurons),
oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells (which produce myelin sheaths that insulate axons and
facilitate signal conduction), and microglia (which function as the immune cells of the central
nervous system, clearing debris and pathogens).

2. Key Phenomena in Brain Development:

 Synaptogenesis: Synaptogenesis refers to the formation of synapses between neurons,
which occurs predominantly during early development. It involves the establishment of
connections between neurons through the growth and branching of dendrites and axons.
Synaptogenesis is essential for the development of neural circuits and the establishment of
functional connectivity within the brain.
 Differentiation: Differentiation involves the specialization of neuronal cells into distinct cell
types with specific structural and functional properties. During brain development, neuronal
stem cells differentiate into neurons and glial cells, undergoing processes such as cell
migration, axon guidance, and dendritic arborization to acquire their mature phenotypes.
 Synaptic Pruning: Synaptic pruning is the process of selectively eliminating redundant or
inefficient synapses while strengthening and refining the remaining connections. It occurs
throughout development and into adulthood, shaping the neural circuitry of the brain by
eliminating excess synapses and optimizing synaptic connections based on experience and
activity.
 Myelination: Myelination is the process by which axons are ensheathed in myelin, a fatty
substance that acts as an insulator and facilitates the rapid conduction of electrical signals.
 Myelination begins prenatally but continues into adolescence and early adulthood,
enhancing the speed and efficiency of neural communication and supporting cognitive and
motor function.
 Plasticity: Plasticity refers to the brain's ability to reorganize its structure and function in
response to experience, environmental stimuli, or injury. It encompasses mechanisms such
as synaptic plasticity (changes in the strength or number of synaptic connections), structural
plasticity (remodeling of neuronal morphology), and functional plasticity (adaptation of
brain function). Plasticity underlies learning, memory, and recovery from brain injury.
 Sensitive Periods: Sensitive periods are developmental windows during which the brain is
particularly susceptible to environmental influences and experiences. They are characterized
by heightened plasticity and rapid neural development, allowing for optimal learning and
adaptation to specific stimuli. Sensitive periods play a critical role in shaping brain
development and are implicated in various aspects of sensory, motor, and cognitive
development.

3. Ways in Which People May Be "Prewired" to Know or Learn Certain Things:

 Innate Behavioral Predispositions: Humans may be prewired with innate behavioral
predispositions that facilitate learning and adaptation to specific environmental stimuli. For
example, infants are born with reflexes such as the rooting reflex (turning the head towards
touch on the cheek) and the grasping reflex, which support early feeding and exploration
behaviors.
 Genetic Predispositions: Genetic factors can predispose individuals to certain cognitive
abilities or learning styles. For instance, variations in genes related to language development
or synaptic plasticity may influence an individual's predisposition for language learning or
cognitive flexibility.
 Evolutionary Adaptations: Evolutionary pressures have shaped the human brain to be
sensitive to certain environmental cues or social stimuli that were historically relevant for
survival and reproductive success. For example, humans have an innate predisposition for
facial recognition, which facilitates social bonding and communication.

4. Neurological Bases of Learning and Research Cases as Examples:

 Neural Plasticity: Learning involves the establishment of new synaptic connections,
strengthening existing connections, and reorganization of neural circuits in response to
experience. Research has shown that experience-dependent plasticity underlies various
forms of learning, including motor learning, perceptual learning, and associative learning.
For example, studies using animal models have demonstrated that repetitive motor training
leads to structural and functional changes in the motor cortex, enhancing motor skill
acquisition.
 Memory Formation: Memory formation involves the encoding, consolidation, and retrieval
of information in the brain. Neuroimaging studies have identified brain regions such as the
hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and amygdala that are involved in different aspects of
memory processing. For instance, patient HM, who underwent bilateral hippocampal
 removal to treat epilepsy, exhibited severe anterograde amnesia, providing insights into the
critical role of the hippocampus in memory consolidation.
 Social Learning: Social learning involves acquiring new knowledge or skills through
observation, imitation, or interaction with others. Research utilizing techniques such as
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has revealed brain regions such as the mirror
neuron system and the mentalizing network that are implicated in social cognition and
imitation. For example, studies have shown that individuals with autism spectrum disorder
exhibit alterations in the mirror neuron system, contributing to deficits in social
communication and imitation.