Q1.

Why is it difficult to agree with

Psammetichus that Phrygian must have
been the original human language?
The experiment conducted by
Psammetichus, as reported by the Greek
historian Herodotus, involved raising two
infants in isolation to determine whether
human beings have an innate capacity for
speech, and if so, which particular language
is innate. After two years, the children began
to speak, and the word they repeated most
often was “bekos”, which turned out to be
the Phrygian word for bread. From this,
Psammetichus concluded that the capacity
for speech is innate, and that the natural
language of human beings is Phrygian.
However, there are several reasons why it’s
difficult to agree with Psammetichus’s
conclusion:
1. Lack of Control: The experiment lacks
rigorous scientific controls. For instance,
the children could have been influenced by
sounds from their environment, not just the
shepherd’s silence.
2. Limited Sample Size: The conclusion is
based on the behavior of only two
children. This is a very small sample size
to make a generalization about all of
humanity.
3. Language Complexity: Languages are
complex and evolve over time. The
Phrygian language itself, now extinct, was
part of the Indo-European language family.
It’s unlikely that one word (“becos”) could
 determine that Phrygian is the original
human language.
4. Innateness of Language: While it’s
widely accepted that the capacity for
language is innate, the specific language
spoken is generally understood to be
learned, not innate. This contradicts
Psammetichus’s conclusion that Phrygian
is the innate language of humans.
Therefore, while Psammetichus’s
experiment is an interesting historical
anecdote, its conclusions about the origins
of human language are not widely accepted
in modern linguistics.
Q2. Why are interjections such as Ouch
considered to be unlikely sources of
human speech sounds?
Interjections such as “Ouch!” are considered
to be unlikely sources of human speech
sounds for a couple of reasons:
1. Unique Sounds: Interjections contain
sounds that are not otherwise used in
ordinary speech production. This makes
them distinct and less likely to be the basis
for the variety of sounds used in human
languages.
2. Breath Control: They are usually
produced with sudden intakes of breath,
which is the opposite of ordinary talk,
produced on exhaled breath. This
difference in breath control further
separates interjections from the typical
sounds of human speech.
3. Non-Productive: Interjections are often
seen as non-productive, standalone
 utterances. They are spontaneous
emotional outbursts and are often
dismissed as contributing little to a
language’s sentences and syntax.
4. Vocal Gestures: By signaling our basic
human emotional and mental states,
interjections often seem more like vocal
gestures than real language. They are often
equated with the primitive cries of
animals, which are instinctual sounds that
a human can’t help but make when dealing
with all their feelings.
These factors contribute to the view that
interjections are unlikely to be the primary
sources of human speech sounds. However,
it’s important to note that this doesn’t mean
interjections have no role in language—they
do convey meaning and emotion, and they
are a part of our linguistic repertoire. But
they are just one small part of the complex
system that makes up human language.
Q3. Whereis the pharynx and how did it
become an important part of human
sound production?

The pharynx, also known as the throat, is a

muscular tube that starts at the base of the
skull behind the nasal cavity and extends
down to the larynx (voice box) and
esophagus (the tube that leads to the
stomach). It consists of three major sections:
the nasopharynx (the top part of the throat in
the back of the nose), the oropharynx (the
middle part behind your mouth), and the
hypopharynx (the lowest part, found behind
the voice box).
The pharynx plays a crucial role in human
sound production. During vocalizing, the
pharynx serves the purpose of amplifying
the sound waves produced by the vibrating
of the vocal folds in the larynx. The pharynx
contains both circular and longitudinal
muscles. The circular muscles form
constrictions that help push food to the
esophagus, while the longitudinal fibres lift
the walls of the pharynx during swallowing.
These muscles, along with the unique
structure of the pharynx, contribute to the
resonance and quality of our voice.
In addition to its role in sound production,
the pharynx also serves both respiratory and
digestive functions. It takes in air from the
nasal passages as well as food and drink
from the mouth. The complex structure and
function of the pharynx highlight its
importance in our daily lives.
Q4. Why do you think that young deaf
children who become fluent in sign
language would be cited in support of
the innateness hypothesis?
The innateness hypothesis suggests that
humans are born with a special capacity for
language, which is genetically determined
and not dependent on specific physical
adaptations for speech.
In George Yule’s book “The Study of
Language”, it is mentioned that even
children who are born deaf and do not
develop speech become fluent sign language
users very early in life. This supports the
innateness hypothesis in several ways:
1. Language Modality: The fact that
deaf children can become fluent in sign
language indicates that the human
capacity for language extends beyond
speech and can manifest in other
modalities, such as visual-gestural
communication.
2. Language Development: Deaf
children who are exposed to sign
language from an early age often achieve
linguistic milestones at a similar pace to
hearing children learning spoken
languages. This suggests that the ability
to acquire language is not tied to the
 ability to hear, but is a more fundamental
aspect of human cognition.
3. Language Creation: There are
instances where deaf children have been
observed to develop their own sign
languages, further supporting the idea
that the capacity for language is innate.
In conclusion, the ability of young deaf
children to become fluent in sign language
provides strong evidence in support of the
innateness hypothesis, demonstrating that
the capacity for language is a fundamental
part of human cognition, not necessarily tied
to speech, and likely to be genetically
determined.
Q5. With which of the six “sources” would
you associate this quotation? Chewing,
licking and sucking are extremely
 widespread mammalian activities,
which, in terms of casual observation,
have obvious similarities with speech.
The quotation aligns with discussions on the
biological sources of language, highlighting
innate biological predispositions and
behaviors shared among mammals that
could influence language development.
Chewing, licking, and sucking are observed
in various mammalian species, suggesting a
fundamental biological foundation for
communication. These behaviors might
provide insights into the evolutionary
origins of speech and language, as they
demonstrate commonalities and potential
precursors to the complex vocalizations and
articulations involved in human speech.
Therefore, the quotation underscores the
importance of examining biological aspects
in understanding the origins and nature of
language.
Q6. Whatis the connection between the
Heimlich maneuver and the
development of human speech?
The Heimlich maneuver is a technique to
dislodge an object stuck in the throat of a
choking person. It involves applying sudden
pressure on the abdomen, just below the rib
cage, to force air out of the lungs and push
the object out of the airway.
The connection between the Heimlich
maneuver and the development of human
speech is that both are related to the lower
position of the larynx in humans. The lower
larynx is believed to be one of the keys to
the development of human speech, as it
allows for a wider range of sounds and more
precise articulation. However, the lower
larynx also makes humans more prone to
choking, as it creates a longer and narrower
passage between the mouth and the lungs,
where food and other objects can get
stuck. The Heimlich maneuver is a solution
to a life-threatening problem potentially
caused by that development.
Q7. Whatis the connection between the
innateness hypothesis and the idea of a
Universal Grammar?
The connection between the innateness
hypothesis and the idea of a Universal
Grammar is that both of them assume that
humans are born with some innate
knowledge or ability that enables them to
acquire and use language. The innateness
hypothesis, as described in this chapter,
claims that children have a Universal
Grammar that defines a space of possible
human languages, and that language
acquisition involves filling in the details of
this innate blueprint rather than being an
entirely inductive process. The idea of a
Universal Grammar, as proposed by Noam
Chomsky, is that there is a set of principles
and parameters that govern the structure and
function of all human languages, and that
these are part of the genetic endowment of
humans. Both of these views imply that
language is a biological and genetic
phenomenon that is unique to humans, and
that there are some universal features of
language that are independent of the input
and the environment. However, these views
have also been challenged by various
arguments and evidence from different
sources, such as the fossil record, the
archaeological evidence, the contemporary
language diversity, the language acquisition,
and the animal communication. These
sources suggest that language is a complex
and dynamic system that is influenced by
many factors and processes, and that there is
more diversity and variability in language
than universality and innateness. Therefore,
the connection between the innateness
hypothesis and the idea of a Universal
Grammar is not a straightforward or a
conclusive one, but rather a controversial
and a fascinating one.
Q8. Explain Christianity's theory of divine
origin of language with respect to its
story.
According to Genesis 2:19, in the beginning,
God gave the knowledge of words to Adam,
who named all the animals and birds that
God had created from the ground. Then
according to Genesis 11:1-9, after the great
flood, the descendants of Noah began to
speak a common language and settled in the
land of Shinar, which is also known as
Babylonia. They decided to build a city and
a tower that reached the heavens to make a
name for themselves and to avoid being
dispersed over the earth. God saw their pride
and ambition and decided to confuse their
language so that they could not understand
each other. He then scattered them over the
face of the earth and stopped their
project. The city was called Babel, which
means confusion in Hebrew, and it was also
the origin of the word Babylon.
Q9. Explain Hinduism's theory of divine
origin of language with respect to its
story of Brahma.
The belief is based on a myth from the
Rigveda, one of the oldest Hindu
scriptures The myth tells how there was a
wonderful tree that grew in the center of the
earth, called the Udumbara or the world
tree The tree was so tall that it reached
almost to heaven, where it touched
the Soma, the drink of the gods The tree was
proud of his height and beauty, and wanted
to hold its head in heaven and spread its
branches all over the Earth. The tree also
wanted to gather all humans together under
its shadow, and protect them, and prevent
them from separating. The tree thought that
it was the source of all knowledge and
language, and that it could communicate
with the gods
But Brahma, the creator god was not pleased
with the tree’s pride and ambition. He
decided to punish the tree and teach it a
lesson. He cut off its branches and cast them
down on the earth, where they sprang up
as wata trees which are a kind of fig tree He
also made differences of beliefs and speech
and customs to prevail on the earth, to
disperse humans upon its surface. He
wanted to show the tree and the humans that
they were not the masters of the universe,
but only a part of it. He also wanted to show
them that language was not a gift from the
tree, but a gift from him

Q10. Explain America's theory of divine

origin of language with respect to its
story.
The story behind the Aztec belief in the
divine source of language is based on a myth
from the Codex Chimalpopoca, one of the
oldest Aztec scriptures. The myth tells how a
great flood occurred and only a man,
Coxcox, and a woman, Xochiquetzal,
survived, having floated on a piece of bark.
They found themselves on land and beget
many children who were at first born unable
to speak, but subsequently, upon the arrival
of a dove, were endowed with language,
although each one was given a different
speech such that they could not understand
one another. This was a punishment from the
supreme God, Ometeotl, who wanted to
prevent humans from becoming too
powerful and arrogant. The myth also
explains the origin of the different ethnic
groups and languages of Mesoamerica, as
the children of Coxcox and Xochiquetzal
dispersed and founded different nations.
Q11. Explain Africa's theory of divine
origin of language with respect to its
story.
The Wa-Sania belief in the divine source of
language is a mythological view that
language diversity was a result of a divine
curse.
According to this belief, language was
originally a gift from God that enabled
humans to communicate and cooperate with
each other. However, during a severe
famine, humans became greedy and selfish,
and God punished them by making them
mad and confused. As they wandered in all
directions, they started to speak different
languages that they could not understand.
This caused them to separate and form
different tribes and nations.
Q12. Explain Australia's theory of divine
origin of language with respect to its
story.
The Australian aboriginal belief in the divine
source of language is a mythological view
that language diversity was a result of a
divine gift from Wurruri, the old woman
who died. According to this belief, language
was originally unknown to humans, who
lived in silence and ignorance. However,
when Wurruri died, her body became a
source of nourishment and knowledge for
the hungry and curious people. As they ate
different parts of her body, they acquired
different languages that enabled them to
communicate and understand the world.
Q13. Who were Homo Erectus and what
is their relation to the development of
language?
Homo erectus was an extinct species of
human that lived from about 2 million years
ago to about 100,000 years ago. It was the
first human ancestor to have a more modern
body shape, to use fire, and to migrate out of
Africa to different parts of Eurasia
The relation between Homo erectus and the
development of language is not clear, but
some researchers have suggested that they
may have had some form of primitive
speech or communication. This is based on
evidence such as their brain size, their social
behavior, their tool use, and their possible
seafaring abilities. However, other
researchers have argued that Homo erectus
lacked the genetic and anatomical features
necessary for complex language, and that
they may have only used simple
vocalizations or gestures
The debate on whether Homo erectus had
language or not is still ongoing, and more
fossil and genetic evidence is needed to
resolve it. Language is one of the key
features that distinguish modern humans
from other animals, and understanding its
origins and evolution is a major scientific
challenge.
Q14. Who were Homo Neanderthalensis
and what is their relation to the
development of language?
Homo neanderthalensis, or Neanderthals,
were an extinct species or subspecies of
archaic humans who lived in Eurasia until
about 40,000 years ago. They are closely
related to modern humans, and interbred
with them in some regions.
There is evidence that Neanderthals had the
ability to speak and communicate like
modern humans. They had a similar hyoid
bone, a structure in the neck that supports
speech production. They also had a similar
hearing range and ear anatomy to modern
humans, which would allow them to process
speech sounds. Moreover, some researchers
suggest that Neanderthals shared genes and
cultural traits with modern humans, such as
symbolic art and burial practices, which
imply language use.
Therefore, it is possible that Neanderthals
and modern humans had a common origin of
language, or that they influenced each
other’s language development through
interbreeding and cultural exchange.
Q15. Why did Plato disagree with
language deprivation experiments?
Plato disagreed with language deprivation
experiments because he believed that
language was innate and not learned from
the environment. He argued that humans
have a natural capacity for rational thought
and knowledge, which is expressed through
language. He also claimed that language
reflects the eternal and universal forms or
ideas that exist beyond the physical
world. Therefore, he thought that isolating
children from human speech would not
reveal the origin or nature of language, but
rather deprive them of their natural potential
and harm their souls.
Q16. How did the physical adaptation of
early humans enable them to produce
speech sounds and possibly develop
language?
 Human speech was made possible by the
evolution of certain physical features that
set humans apart from other animals.
These features included the shape and
position of the skull, the larynx, the
tongue, and the vocal tract.
 One of the key changes that enabled
speech was the transition to upright
posture and bipedal locomotion, which
freed the front limbs and allowed more
control over breathing and vocalization.
This also affected the shape and size of the
rib cage, the diaphragm, and the lungs,
which are involved in producing sound.
 Another important change was the
reduction of the jaw and the flattening of
the face, which occurred in the ancestors
of Neanderthals and modern humans. This
allowed the development of a larger brain,
which is essential for language and
cognition. It also enabled the production of
some consonant-like sounds, such as
labials and dentals, which are absent in
most primates.
 The most distinctive feature of human
speech, however, was the ability to
produce a wide range of contrasting vowel
sounds, which are crucial for building
words and sentences. This was achieved
by the partial adaptations of the larynx, the
tongue, and the vocal tract, which occurred
 in different stages in the evolution of
Homo sapiens.
 The larynx, or the voice box, is the organ
that produces sound by vibrating the vocal
cords. In most mammals, the larynx is
located high in the throat, near the nasal
cavity, which allows them to breathe and
swallow at the same time. However, in
humans, the larynx is lower in the throat,
creating more space for the tongue to
move and shape the airflow into different
sounds.
 The tongue is the organ that manipulates
the airflow and creates different sound
patterns. In most primates, the tongue is
high and flat, limiting the range of
movements and sounds that it can make. In
humans, the tongue is lower and rounder,
 allowing more flexibility and precision in
the vocal tract.
 The vocal tract is the tube that connects
the larynx to the mouth and the nose, and
it is where the sound is modified into
speech. In most primates, the vocal tract is
straight and uniform, producing only one
vowel sound. In humans, the vocal tract is
curved and variable, producing many
vowel sounds.
 These features were more streamlined and
coordinated in humans than in other
primates, which may have facilitated the
production of a wider range of sounds and
the integration of speech and gesture.
However, these features themselves may
not have triggered speech, but rather
indicated that the creatures possessing
 them were capable of speech. Speech also
required cognitive, social, and
environmental factors to develop.
Q17. How does the theory of language's
physical adaptation relate to human
teeth?
 The theory of language’s physical
adaptation proposes that human speech
evolved from the movements of the mouth,
tongue and lips that were used for other
purposes, such as chewing, licking and
sucking.
 Human teeth are different from other
animals in that they are aligned in a flat
row, which allows for more precise control
of airflow and sound production.
 Human teeth also play a role in the
formation of consonants and vowels,
which are essential elements of
language. For example, the front teeth are
used to produce sounds like /f/ and /v/,
while the back teeth are used to produce
sounds like /k/ and /g/.
 Human teeth are influenced by a gene
called FOXP2, which is also involved in
the nervous and muscular control of
speech. Mutations in this gene can affect
the development of teeth and the ability to
produce language.
Q18. How does the theory of language's
physical adaptation relate to human
lips?
The theory of language’s physical
adaptation relates to human lips in the
following ways:
 Human lips have more complex muscle
interlacing than other primates, which
allows them to produce a variety of
sounds such as P, B, and M.
 Human lips are flexible and mobile,
which enables them to coordinate with
the tongue, teeth, and larynx to produce
speech sounds.
 Human lips are suitable for chewing,
which may have facilitated the
development of speech by reducing the
need for jaw movements and freeing the
tongue for articulation.
Q19. How does the theory of language's
physical adaptation relate to human
mouth and tongue?
The theory of language’s physical
adaptation relates to human mouth and
tongue in the following ways:
 Human mouths are smaller than other
animals, which allows them to have an
extended vocal tract with an L-shape,
not a straight path from front to back.
This shape enables humans to produce a
wide range of speech sounds by
changing the configuration of the vocal
tract.
 Human tongues are larger and more
muscular than other primates, which
gives them more control and flexibility
for articulation. Human tongues can
produce complex motions and coordinate
with the lips, teeth, and larynx to
produce consonants and vowels.
 Human tongues are freed from the jaw
movements required for chewing, which
may have facilitated the development of
 speech by allowing the tongue to focus
on sound production. Human tongues
can also retract the back part (the tongue
root) to create more space for the vocal
tract.
Q20. How does the theory of language's
physical adaptation relate to human
larynx and pharynx?
The larynx, also known as the voice box, is
an organ that contains the vocal cords and
manipulates pitch and volume, which are
essential for phonation. The larynx is
located at the top of the neck and connects
the pharynx with the trachea1
The pharynx, also known as the throat, is a
muscular tube that connects the nose and
mouth to the larynx and esophagus. The
pharynx is part of both the respiratory and
digestive systems, and it carries food to the
esophagus and air to the larynx.
The larynx in humans is lower than that of
other primates, allowing more space for the
tongue to move during speech production.
The descended tongue root (i.e. the back of
the tongue) allows additional degree of
freedom for vocal tract acrobatics during
speech production. This mobility of the
tongue allows it to produce highly
coordinated motions, and therefore giving
humans the ability to produce consonants
and vowels.
The descent of the larynx in humans may
have been influenced by selective evolution,
as it is also found in some other animals,
such as koalas, deers, and lions. However,
these animals do not use language like
humans, suggesting that other factors, such
as nervous and muscular control, are also
involved in the evolution of the vocal tract.
The pharynx plays a role in both swallowing
and breathing, and it has to coordinate these
functions to prevent food from entering the
larynx and the lungs. The epiglottis is a flap
of cartilage that covers the larynx during
swallowing, and the pharyngeal muscles
contract to push the food down the
esophagus.
The pharynx also contributes to the
resonance and quality of the voice, as it acts
as a resonating chamber for the sound waves
produced by the larynx. The shape and size
of the pharynx can be altered by the
pharyngeal muscles, which affect the pitch
and timbre of the voice.
 Q21. Critique the physical adaptation
source of language.
The physical adaptation source of language
is a theory that suggests that human
language evolved from the physical features
and processes that are distinct from other
animals, such as upright posture, revised
role for the front limbs, and descended
larynx This theory implies that these
adaptations enabled speech production and
communication among humans
However, this theory has some limitations
and criticisms. For example:
 It does not explain how language evolved
from speech sounds to complex grammar
and syntax
 It does not account for the cognitive and
social aspects of language, such as meaning,
intention, and cooperation
 It does not address the diversity and
variation of human languages across
cultures and regions
 It does not consider the evidence that some
animals, such as birds and whales, also have
complex vocalizations and communication
systems
 It does not acknowledge that a descended
larynx is not unique to humans, and that it
may have other functions besides speech,
such as size exaggeration or
thermoregulation
Therefore, the physical adaptation source of
language is not a sufficient or
comprehensive explanation for the origin
and evolution of human language. It may be
one of the factors, but not the only or the
main one
Q22. How does the theory of language's
tool-making source relate to brain?
What is meant by lateralization?
The theory of language’s tool-making
source
This theory suggests that language and tool-
making skills evolved at the same time,
because they both depend on complex
planning and the coordination of actions
According to this theory, the physical
adaptations regarding teeth and mouth were
preceded by the manual adaptation
regarding right-hand preference and the
manipulation of objects This implies that the
brain regions that control the muscles of the
arms and hands, and the brain regions that
control the articulatory muscles of the face,
jaw and tongue are located close to each
other in the left hemisphere
Lateralization of brain function
Lateralization of brain function is the
tendency for some neural functions or
cognitive processes to be specialized to one
side of the brain or the other The human
brain is divided into two hemispheres, left
and right, connected by the corpus callosum
Although the two hemispheres appear to be
almost identical, they have different
compositions of neuronal networks that
allow for specialized functions For example,
the left hemisphere is associated with
language functions, such as grammar,
vocabulary and literal meaning, while the
right hemisphere is associated with more
visuospatial functions, such as visualization,
depth perception and spatial navigation
Lateralization of brain function is based on
general trends, but there are individual
variations and exceptions
Q23. Critique the theory of genetic
source of language.
 The experiment was based on a false assumption that there is a natural or original
language that all humans are born with. However, there is no evidence to support
this idea, and it contradicts the fact that languages evolve and change over time.

 The experiment was ethically questionable, as it involved depriving the children

of human contact and care, which could have harmed their physical and mental
development. It also violated their rights and dignity as human beings.
 The experiment was methodologically flawed, as it did not control for other
variables that could have affected the outcome. For example, the shepherd who
raised the children may have unintentionally communicated with them through
gestures, facial expressions, or body language. The children may have also heard
other sounds from animals, nature, or human activities.
 The experiment was not replicated or verified by other researchers, which makes
it unreliable and unscientific. The only source of information about the experiment
is Herodotus, who was not an eyewitness and may have distorted or embellished
the story. There is no independent confirmation or documentation of the
experiment or its results.