Cat1 C

does loading.
Executing program: Execution is the last step. In this step program starts
execution. Its instructions start working and output of the program display on the
screen.
Pseudocode: is an artificial and informal language that helps programmers develop

algorithms. Pseudocode is very similar to everyday English.
Algorithm:
An algorithm is a description of a procedure which terminates with a result. Algorithm is a
step-by-step method of solving a problem.
Properties of an Algorithm:
1) Finiteness: - An algorithm terminates after a finite numbers of steps.
2) Definiteness: - Each step in algorithm is unambiguous. This means that the action
specified by the step cannot be interpreted (explain the meaning of) in multiple ways & can
be performed without any confusion.
3) Input: - An algorithm accepts zero or more inputs
4) Output:- An algorithm should produce at least one output.
C PROGRAMMING Page 11
5) Effectiveness: - It consists of basic instructions that are realizable. This means that the
instructions can be performed by using the given inputs in a finite amount of time.
Writing an algorithm
An algorithm can be written in English, like sentences and using mathematical
formulas. Sometimes algorithm written in English like language is Pseudo code.
Examples
1) Finding the average of three numbers
1. Let a,b,c are three integers
2. Let d is float
3. Display the message “Enter any three integers:”
4. Read three integers and stores in a,b,c
5. Compute the d = (a+b+c)/3.0
6. Display “The avg is:” , d
7. End.
 Example 1: Write an algorithm to determine a student‟s final grade and indicate whether
it is passing or failing. The final grade is calculated as the average of four marks.
Pseudocode::
 Input a set of 4 marks
 Calculate their average by summing and dividing by 4
 if average is below 50
Print “FAIL”
else
Print “PASS”
 Detailed Algorithm :
 Step 1: Input M1,M2,M3,M4
Step 2: GRADE  (M1+M2+M3+M4)/4
Step 3: if (GRADE < 50) then
Print “FAIL”
else
Print “PASS”
endif
Flowcharts :
The pictorial representation of algorithm is called flowchart.
Uses of flow chart:
1 : flow chart helps to understand the program easily.
2 : as different symbols are used to specify the type of operation performed, it is easier to
understand the complex programs with the help of flowcharts.
Flowchart Symbols
S.NO Description Symbols
1 Flowlines : These are the left to right or top to

bottom lines connection symbols. These lines
shows the flow of control through the program.
2 Terminal Symbol : The oval shaped symbol

Start
always begins and ends the flowchart. Every
flow chart starting and ending symbol is End
terminal symbol.
3 Input / Output symbol : The parallelogram is

used for both input (Read) and Output (Write)
is called I/O symbol. This symbol is used to
denote any function of an I/O device in the
program.
4 Process Symbol : The rectangle symbol is called

process symbol. It is used for calculations and
initialization of memory locations.
5 Decision symbol : The diamond shaped symbol

is called decision symbol. This box is used for
decision making. There will be always two
exists from a decision symbol one is labeled YES
and other labeled NO.
6 Connectors : The connector symbol is

represented by a circle. Whenever a complex
flowchart is morethan one page, in such a
situation, the connector symbols are used to
connect the flowchart.
Algorithm to find whether a number even or odd:
Step1: Begin Step1: START

Step2: Take a number Step2: Read num
Step3: if the number is divisible by2 then Step3: if(num%2=0) then
print that number is even print num is even
otherwise print that number is odd otherwise
print num is odd
Step4: End Step4: STOP
(Algorithm in natural language) (Algorithm by using pseudo code)
FLOWCHART : start
read num
If
num%2=0
print num print num

is even is odd
stop
System Development:
Or
Systems Requirements
Analysis
Design
Coding
System Test
Maintenance
1. Statement of Problem
a) Working with existing system and using proper questionnaire, the problem should be
explained
clearly.
b) What inputs are available, what outputs are required and what is needed for creating workable
solution, should be understood clearly.
2. Analysis
a) The method of solutions to solve the problem can be identified.
b) We also judge that which method gives best results among different methods of solution.
3. Design
a) Algorithms and flow charts will be prepared.
b) Focus on data, architecture, user interfaces and program components.
4. System Test
The algorithms and flow charts developed in the previous steps are converted into actual
programs in the high level languages like C.
a. Compilation
The process of translating the program into machine code is called as Compilation. Syntactic
errors are found quickly at the time of compiling the program. These errors occur due to the
usage of wrong syntaxes for the statements.
Eg: x=a*y+b
There is a syntax error in this statement, since, each and every statement in C language ends with
a semicolon (;).
b. Execution
The next step is Program execution. In this phase, we may encounter two types of errors.
Runtime Errors: these errors occur during the execution of the program and terminate the
program abnormally.
Logical Errors: these errors occur due to incorrect usage of the instructions in the program. These
errors are neither detected during compilation or execution nor cause any stoppage to the
program execution but produces incorrect output.
5. Maintenance
We are maintenance the software by updating the information, providing the security and license
for the software.
What is C?
C is a programming language developed at AT & T‟s Bell Laboratories of USA in 1972. It
was designed and written by Dennis Ritche. Dennis Ritchie is known as the founder of c
language.
It was developed to overcome the problems of previous languages such as B, BCPL etc.
Initially, C language was developed to be used in UNIX operating system.
Features of C
1. Portability or machine independent
2. Sound and versatile language
3. Fast program execution.
4. An extendible language.
5. Tends to be a structured language.
Historical developments of C(Background)
Year Language Developed by Remarks
1960 ALGOL International committee Too general, too abstract
1967 BCPL Martin Richards at Could deal with only specific

Cambridge university problems
1970 B Ken Thompson at AT & Could deal with only specific

T problems
1972 C Dennis Ritche at AT & T Lost generality of BCPL and B

restored
General Structure of a C program:
/* Documentation section */
/* Link section */
/* Definition section */
/* Global declaration section */
main()
{
Declaration part
Executable part (statements)
}
/* Sub-program section */
The documentation section is used for displaying any information about the
program like the purpose of the program, name of the author, date and time written
etc, and this section should be enclosed within comment lines. The statements in
the documentation section are ignored by the compiler.
The link section consists of the inclusion of header files.
The definition section consists of macro definitions, defining constants etc,.
Anything declared in the global declaration section is accessible throughout
the program, i.e. accessible to all the functions in the program.
main() function is mandatory for any program and it includes two parts, the
declaration part and the executable part.
The last section, i.e. sub-program section is optional and used when we require
including user defined functions in the program.
First C Program
Before starting the abcd of C language, you need to learn how to write, compile and run the first
c program.
To write the first c program, open the C console and write the following code:
1. #include <stdio.h>
2. #include <conio.h>
3. void main(){
4. printf("Hello C Language");
5. getch();
6. }
#include <stdio.h> includes the standard input output library functions. The printf() function
is defined in stdio.h .
#include <conio.h> includes the console input output library functions. The getch() function is
defined in conio.h file.
void main() The main() function is the entry point of every program in c language. The void
keyword specifies that it returns no value.
printf() The printf() function is used to print data on the console.
getch() The getch() function asks for a single character. Until you press any key, it blocks the
screen.
C TOKENS: The smallest individual units are known as tokens. C has six types of tokens.
1: Identifiers
2: Keywords
3: Constants
4: Strings
5: Special Symbols
6: Operators
Identifiers:
Identifiers refer to the names of variables, constants, functions and arrays. These are user-defined
names is called Identifiers. These identifier are defined against a set of rules.
Rules for an Identifier
1. An Identifier can only have alphanumeric characters( a-z , A-Z , 0-9 ) and underscore( _
).
2. The first character of an identifier can only contain alphabet( a-z , A-Z ) or underscore ( _
).
3. Identifiers are also case sensitive in C. For example name and Name are two different
identifier in C.
4. Keywords are not allowed to be used as Identifiers.
5. No special characters, such as semicolon, period, whitespaces, slash or comma are

permitted to be used in or as Identifier.
6. C‟ compiler recognizes only the first 31 characters of an identifiers.
Ex : Valid Invalid
STDNAME Return
SUB $stay
TOT_MARKS 1RECORD
_TEMP STD NAME.
Y2K
Keywords: A keyword is a reserved word. All keywords have fixed meaning that means we
cannot change. Keywords serve as basic building blocks for program statements. All keywords
must be written in lowercase. A list of 32 keywords in c language is given below:
auto break case char
const continue default do
double enum else extern
float for goto if
int long return register
signed short static sizeof
struct switch typedef union
unsigned void volatile while
Note: Keywords we cannot use it as a variable name, constant name etc.
Data Types/Types:
 To store data the program must reserve space which is done using datatype. A datatype is a
keyword/predefined instruction used for allocating memory for data. A data type specifies
the type of data that a variable can store such as integer, floating, character etc . It used for
declaring/defining variables or functions of different types before to use in a program.
There are 4 types of data types in C language.
Types Data Types
Basic Data Type int, char, float, double
Derived Data Type array, pointer, structure, union
Enumeration Data Type enum
Void Data Type void
Note: We call Basic or Primary data type.
The basic data types are integer-based and floating-point based. C language supports both signed
and unsigned literals. The memory size of basic data types may change according to 32 or 64 bit
operating system. Let‟s see the basic data types. Its size is given according to 32 bit
architecture.
Size and Ranges of Data Types with Type Qualifiers

Type Size (bytes) Range Control String
char or signed char 1 -128 to 127 %c
unsigned char 1 0 to 255 %c
int or signed int 2 -32768 to 32767 %d or %i
unsigned int 2 0 to 65535 %u
short int or signed short 1 -128 to 127 %d or %i

int
unsigned short int 1 0 to 255 %d or %i
long int or signed long 4 -2147483648 to 2147483647 %ld

int
unsigned long int 4 0 to 4294967295 %lu
float 4 3.4E-38 to 3.4E+38 %f or %g
double 8 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308 %lf
long double 10 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932 %Lf
Variables
A variable is a name of memory location. It is used to store data. Variables are changeable,
we can change value of a variable during execution of a program. . It can be reused many
times.
Note: Variable are nothing but identifiers.
Rules to write variable names:

1. A variable name contains maximum of 30 characters/ Variable
name must be upto 8 characters.
2. A variable name includes alphabets and numbers, but it must start
with an alphabet.
3. It cannot accept any special characters, blank spaces except under
score( _ ).
4. It should not be a reserved word.
Ex : i rank1 MAX min Student_name

StudentName class_mark
Declaration of Variables : A variable can be used to store a value of any data type. The
declaration of variables must be done before they are used in the program. The general format
for declaring a variable.
Syntax : data_type variable-1,variable-2,------, variable-n;

Variables are separated by commas and declaration statement ends with a semicolon.
Ex : int x,y,z;
float a,b;
char m,n;
Assigning values to variables : values can be assigned to variables using the assignment
operator (=). The general format statement is :
Syntax : variable = constant;
Ex : x=100;
a= 12.25;
m=‟f‟;
we can also assign a value to a variable at the time of the variable is declared. The general format
of declaring and assigning value to a variable is :
Syntax : data_type variable = constant;
Ex ; int x=100;
float a=12.25;
char m=‟f‟;
Types of Variables in C
There are many types of variables in c:
1. local variable
2. global variable
3. static variable
Constants
Constants refer to fixed values that do not change during the execution of a program.
Note: constants are also called literals.
C supports several kinds of constants.
CONSTANTS
Numeric Constants Character Constants
Integer Constants Real Constants Single Character Constants String Constants
TYPES OF C CONSTANT:
1. Integer constants
2. Real or Floating point constants
3. Character constants
4. String constants
5. Backslash character constants
Integer constants:
An integer constant is a numeric constant (associated with number) without any fractional or
exponential part. There are three types of integer constants in C programming:
 decimal constant(base 10)

 octal constant(base 8)
 hexadecimal constant(base 16)
For example:
 Decimal constants: 0, -9, 22 etc

 Octal constants: 021, 077, 033 etc
 Hexadecimal constants: 0x7f, 0x2a, 0x521 etc
 In C programming, octal constant starts with a 0 and hexadecimal constant starts with a
0x.
1: Decimal Integer : the rules for represent decimal integer.
a) Decimal Integer value which consist of digits from 0-9.
b) Decimal Integer value with base 10.
c) Decimal Integer should not prefix with 0.
d) It allows only sign (+,-).
e) No special character allowed in this integer.
Ex : valid invalid
7 $77
77 077
+77 7,777
-77
2 : Octal : An integer constants with base 8 is called octal. These rules are :
a) it consist of digits from 0 to 7.
b) It should prefix with 0.
c) It allows sign (+,-).
d) No special character is allowed.
EX : VALID INVALID
0123 123 -> it because no prefix with 0
+0123 0128 -> because digits from 0 to 7.
-0123
3 : Hexadecimal : An integer constant with base value 16 is called Hexadecimal.

a) It consist of digits from 0-9,a-f(capital letters & small leters.
Ex : 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
b) it should prefix with 0X or 0x.
c) it allows sign (+,-).
d) No special character is allowed.
EX : OX1a, ox2f
Floating point/Real constants:

A floating point constant is a numeric constant that has either a fractional form or an exponent
form. For example:
-2.0
0.0000234
-0.22E-5
Note: E-5 = 10-5
Real Constants : Real constant is base 10 number, which is represented in decimal 0r

scientific/exponential notation.
Real Notation : The real notation is represented by an integer followed by a decimal point and
the fractional(decimal) part. It is possible to omit digits before or after the decimal point.
Ex : 15.25
.75
30
-9.52
-92
+.94
Scientific/Exponential Notation: The general form of Scientific/Exponential notation is
mantisha e exponent
The mantisha is either a real/floating point number expressed in decimal notation or an integer
and the exponent is an integer number with an optional sign. The character e separating the
mantisha and the exponent can be written in either lowercase or uppercase.
Ex : 1.5E-2
100e+3
-2.05e2
Character Constant:
Single Character Constant : A character constant is either a single alphabet, a single digit, a
single special symbol enclosed within single inverted commas.
a) it is value represent in „ „ (single quote).

b) The maximam length of a character constant can be 1 character.
EX : VALID INVALID
„a‟ “12”
„A‟ „ab‟
String constant : A string constant is a sequence of characters enclosed in double quote, the
characters may be letters, numbers, special characters and blank space etc
EX : “rama” , “a” , “+123” , “1-/a”
"good" //string constant
"" //null string constant
" " //string constant of six white space
"x" //string constant having single character.
"Earth is round\n" //prints string with newline
Escape characters or backslash characters:
a) \n newline
b) \r carriage return
c) \t tab
d) \v vertical tab
e) \b backspace
f) \f form feed (page feed)
g) \a alert (beep)
h) \‟ single quote(„)
i) \” double quote(“)
j) \? Question mark (?)
k) \\ backslash (\)
Two ways to define constant in C

There are two ways to define constant in C programming.
1. const keyword
2. #define preprocessor
3.
1) C const keyword
The const keyword is used to define constant in C programming.
1. const float PI=3.14;
Now, the value of PI variable can't be changed.
3. void main(){
4. const float PI=3.14;
5. clrscr();
6. printf("The value of PI is: %f",PI);
7. getch();
8. }
Output:
The value of PI is: 3.140000
2) C #define preprocessor
The #define preprocessor is also used to define constant.
C#define
The #define preprocessor directive is used to define constant or micro substitution. It can use any
basic data type.
Syntax:
#define token value
Let's see an example of #define to define a constant.
#include <stdio.h>
1. #define PI 3.14
2. main() {
3. printf("%f",PI);
4. }
Output:
3.140000
Formatted and Unformatted Console I/O Functions.
Input / Output (I/O) Functions : In „C‟ language, two types of Input/Output functions are
available, and all input and output operations are carried out through function calls. Several
functions are available for input / output operations in „C‟. These functions are collectively
known as the standard i/o library.
Input: In any programming language input means to feed some data into program. This can be
given in the form of file or from command line.
Output: In any programming language output means to display some data on screen, printer or
in any file.
The Standard Files
C programming treats all the devices as files. So devices such as the display are addressed in the
same way as files and the following three files are automatically opened when a program
executes to provide access to the keyboard and screen.
Standard File File Pointer Device
Standard input stdin Keyboard
Standard output stdout Screen
Standard error stderr Your screen
Input / Output functions are classified into two types
I / O Functions
Formated I/O Functions Unformated I/O Functions

Input Output Input Output
scanf() print() getc() putc()

fscanf() fprintf() getchar() putchar()
gets() puts()
getch()
getche()
. Formated I/O Functions : formatted I/O functions operates on various types of data.
1 : printf() : output data or result of an operation can be displayed from the computer to a
standard output device using the library function printf(). This function is used to print any
combination of data.
Syntax : printf(“control string “, variable1, variable2, -----------, variablen);
Ex : printf(“%d”,3977); // Output: 3977

printf() statement another syntax :
Syntax : printf(“fomating string”);
Formating string : it prints all the character given in doublequotes (“ “) except formatting
specifier.
Ex : printf(“ hello “);-> hello
printf(“a”); -> a
printf(“%d”, a); -> a value
printf(“%d”); -> no display
scanf() : input data can be entered into the computer using the standard input „C‟ library
function called scanf(). This function is used to enter any combination of input.
Syntax : scanf(“control string “,&var1, &var2,----, &varn);
The scanf() function is used to read information from the standard input device (keyboard).
Ex : scanf(“ %d “,&a);-> hello
Each variable name (argument) must be preceeded by an ampersand (&). The (&) symbol gives
the meaning “address of “ the variable.
Unformatted I/O functions:

a) Character I/O
b) String I/O
a) character I/O:
1. getchar(): Used to read a character from the standard input

2. putchar(): Used to display a character to standard output
3. getch() and getche(): these are used to take the any alpha numeric characters
from the standard input
getche() read and display the character
getch() only read the single character but not display
4. putch(): Used to display any alpha numeric characters to standard output
a) String I/O:
1. gets(): Used for accepting any string from the standard input(stdin)
eg:gets()
2. puts(): Used to display a string or character array Eg:puts()

3. Cgets():read a string from the console eg; cgets(char *st)
4. Cputs():display the string to the console eg; cputs(char *st)
OPERATORS AND EXPRESSIONS:
Operators : An operator is a Symbol that performs an operation. An operators acts some
variables are called operands to get the desired result.
Ex : a+b;
Where a,b are operands and + is the operator.
Types of Operator :
1) Arithmetic Operators.
2) Relational Operators.
3) Logical Operators.
4) Assignment Operators.
5). Unary Operators.
6) Conditional Operators.
7) Special Operators.
8) Bitwise Operators.
9) Shift Operators.
Arithmetic Operators
An arithmetic operator performs mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction and
multiplication on numerical values (constants and variables).
C Program to demonstrate the working of arithmetic operators
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a = 9,b = 4, c;
c = a+b;
printf("a+b = %d \n",c);
c = a-b;
printf("a-b = %d \n",c);
c = a*b;
printf("a*b = %d \n",c);
c=a/b;
printf("a/b = %d \n",c);
c=a%b;
printf("Remainder when a divided by b = %d \n",c);
Output
a+b = 13
a-b = 5
a*b = 36
a/b = 2
Remainder when a divided by b=1
Relational Operators. A relational operator checks the relationship between two operands.
If the relation is true, it returns 1; if the relation is false, it returns value 0.
Operands may be variables, constants or expressions.
Relational operators are used in decision making and loops.
Operator Meaning Example Return value

< is less than 2<9 1
<= is less than or equal to 2<=2 1
> is greater than 2>9 0
>= is greater than or equal to 3>=2 1
== is equal to 2==3 0
!= is not equal to 2!=2 0
// C Program to demonstrate the working of relational operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a = 5, b = 5, c = 10;
printf("%d == %d = %d \n", a, b, a == b); // true
printf("%d == %d = %d \n", a, c, a == c); // false
printf("%d > %d = %d \n", a, b, a > b); //false
printf("%d > %d = %d \n", a, c, a > c); //false
printf("%d < %d = %d \n", a, b, a < b); //false
printf("%d < %d = %d \n", a, c, a < c); //true
printf("%d != %d = %d \n", a, b, a != b); //false
printf("%d != %d = %d \n", a, c, a != c); //true
printf("%d >= %d = %d \n", a, b, a >= b); //true
printf("%d >= %d = %d \n", a, c, a >= c); //false
printf("%d <= %d = %d \n", a, b, a <= b); //true
printf("%d <= %d = %d \n", a, c, a <= c); //true
return 0;
Output
5 == 5 = 1
5 == 10 = 0
5>5=0
5 > 10 = 0
5<5=0
5 < 10 = 1
5 != 5 = 0
5 != 10 = 1
5 >= 5 = 1
5 >= 10 = 0
5 <= 5 = 1
5 <= 10 = 1
Logical Operators.
These operators are used to combine the results of two or more conditions. An expression
containing logical operator returns either 0 or 1 depending upon whether expression results true
or false. Logical operators are commonly used in decision making in C programming.
Operator Meaning Example Return value

&& Logical AND (9>2)&&(17>2) 1
|| Logical OR (9>2) || (17 = = 7) 1
! Logical NOT 29!=29 0
Logical AND : If any one condition false the complete condition becomes false.
Truth Table
Op1 Op2 Op1 && Op2
true true true
true false false
false true false
false false false
Logical OR : If any one condition true the complete condition becomes true.
Truth Table
Op1 Op2 Op1 // Op2
true true true
true false true
false true true
false false false
Logical Not : This operator reverses the value of the expression it operates on i.e, it makes a
true expression false and false expression true.
Op1 Op1 !
true false
false true
// C Program to demonstrate the working of logical operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a = 5, b = 5, c = 10, result;
result = (a = b) && (c > b);
printf("(a = b) && (c > b) equals to %d \n", result);
result = (a = b) && (c < b);
printf("(a = b) && (c < b) equals to %d \n", result);
result = (a = b) || (c < b);
printf("(a = b) || (c < b) equals to %d \n", result);
result = (a != b) || (c < b);
printf("(a != b) || (c < b) equals to %d \n", result);
result = !(a != b);
printf("!(a == b) equals to %d \n", result);
result = !(a == b);
printf("!(a == b) equals to %d \n", result);
return 0;
Output
(a = b) && (c > b) equals to 1
(a = b) && (c < b) equals to 0
(a = b) || (c < b) equals to 1
(a != b) || (c < b) equals to 0
!(a != b) equals to 1
!(a == b) equals to 0
Assignment Operators. Assignment operators are used to assign a value (or) an expression
(or) a value of a variable to another variable.
Syntax : variable name=expression (or) value (or) variable
Ex : x=10;
y=a+b;
z=p;
Compound assignment operator:
„C‟ provides compound assignment operators to assign a value to variable in order to assign a
new value to a variable after performing a specified operation.
Operator Example Meaning

+= x+=y x=x+y
-= x-=y x=x-y
*= x*=y x=x*y
/= x/=y x=x/y
%= x%=y X=x%y
// C Program to demonstrate the working of assignment operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a = 5, c;
c = a;
printf("c = %d \n", c);
c += a; // c = c+a
c -= a; // c = c-a
c *= a; // c = c*a
c /= a; // c = c/a
c %= a; // c = c%a
return 0;
Output
c=5
c = 10
c=5
c = 25
c=5
c=0
Increment and Decrement Operators /Unary Operators:
Unary operators are having higher priority than the other operators. Unary operators, meaning
they only operate on a single operand.
Increment Operator in C Programming
1. Increment operator is used to increment the current value of variable by adding integer 1.
2. Increment operator can be applied to only variables.

3. Increment operator is denoted by ++.
We have two types of increment operator i.e Pre-Increment and Post-Increment Operator.
Pre-Increment
Pre-increment operator is used to increment the value of variable before using in the expression. In
the Pre-Increment value is first incremented and then used inside the expression.
b = ++y;
In this example suppose the value of variable „y‟ is 5 then value of variable „b‟ will be 6 because
the value of „y‟ gets modified before using it in a expression.
Post-Increment
Post-increment operator is used to increment the value of variable as soon as after executing
expression completely in which post increment is used. In the Post-Increment value is first used
in a expression and then incremented.
b = x++;
In this example suppose the value of variable „x‟ is 5 then value of variable „b‟ will be 5 because
old value of „x‟ is used.
Note :
We cannot use increment operator on the constant values because increment operator operates on
only variables. It increments the value of the variable by 1 and stores the incremented value back
to the variable
b = ++5;
or
b = 5++;
The syntax of the operators is given below.

++<variable name> --<variable name>
<variable name>++ <variable name>--
The operator ++ adds 1 to the operand and – subtracts 1 from the operand. These operators in
two forms : prefix (++x) and postfix(x++).
Operator Meaning
++x Pre increment
- -x Pre decrement
x++ Post increment
x-- Post decrement
Where
1 : ++x : Pre increment, first increment and then do the operation.
2 : - -x : Pre decrement, first decrements and then do the operation.
3 : x++ : Post increment, first do the operation and then increment.
4 : x- - : Post decrement, first do the operation and then decrement.
// C Program to demonstrate the working of increment and decrement operators

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 10, b = 100;
float c = 10.5, d = 100.5;
printf("++a = %d \n", ++a);
printf("--b = %d \n", --b);
printf("++c = %f \n", ++c);
printf("--d = %f \n", --d);
return 0;
}
Output
++a = 11
--b = 99
++c = 11.500000
++d = 99.500000
Multiple increment operators inside printf
#include<stdio.h>
void main() {
int i = 1;
printf("%d %d %d", i, ++i, i++);
}
Output : 3 3 1
Pictorial representation
Explanation of program
I am sure you will get confused after viewing the above image and output of program.
1. Whenever more than one format specifiers (i.e %d) are directly or indirectly related with
same variable (i,i++,++i) then we need to evaluate each individual expression from right
to left.
2. As shown in the above image evaluation sequence of expressions written inside printf
will be – i++,++i,i
3. After execution we need to replace the output of expression at appropriate place
No Step Explanation
Evaluate
1 At the time of execution we will be using older value of i = 1
i++
Evaluate At the time of execution we will be increment value already modified after
2
++i step 1 i.e i = 3
2 Evaluate i At the time of execution we will be using value of i modified in step 2
Postfix and Prefix Expression in Same Statement
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main() {
int i = 0, j = 0;
j = i++ + ++i;
printf("%d\n", i);
printf("%d\n", j);
}
Output :
2
2
Explanation of Program
Conditional Operator/ Ternary operator:

conditional operator checks the condition and executes the statement depending of the condition.
A conditional operator is a ternary operator, that is, it works on 3 operands.
Conditional operator consist of two symbols.
1 : question mark (?).

2 : colon ( : ).
Syntax : condition ? exp1 : exp2;
It first evaluate the condition, if it is true (non-zero) then the “exp1” is

evaluated, if the condition is false (zero) then the “exp2” is evaluated.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char February;
int days;
printf("If this year is leap year, enter 1. If not enter any integer: ");
scanf("%c",&February);
// If test condition (February == 'l') is true, days equal to 29.
// If test condition (February =='l') is false, days equal to 28.
days = (February == '1') ? 29 : 28;
printf("Number of days in February = %d",days);
return 0;
}
Output
If this year is leap year, enter 1. If not enter any integer: 1
Number of days in February = 29
Bitwise Operators:
Bitwise operators are used to manipulate the data at bit level. It operates on integers only. It
may not be applied to float.In arithmetic-logic unit (which is within the CPU), mathematical
operations like: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are done in bit-level which
makes processing faster and saves power. To perform bit-level operations in C programming,
bitwise operators are used.
Operator Meaning
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise XOR
<< Shift left
>> Shift right
~ One‟s complement.
Bitwise AND operator &

The output of bitwise AND is 1 if the corresponding bits of two operands is 1. If either bit of an
operand is 0, the result of corresponding bit is evaluated to 0.
Let us suppose the bitwise AND operation of two integers 12 and 25.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
Bit Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
& 00011001
________
00001000 = 8 (In decimal)
Example #1: Bitwise AND
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 12, b = 25;
printf("Output = %d", a&b);
return 0;
}
Output
Output =8
Bitwise OR operator |
The output of bitwise OR is 1 if at least one corresponding bit of two operands is 1. In C
Programming, bitwise OR operator is denoted by |.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
Bitwise OR Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
| 00011001
________
00011101 = 29 (In decimal)
Example #2: Bitwise OR

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 12, b = 25;
printf("Output = %d", a|b);
return 0;
}
Output
Output =29
Bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) operator ^

The result of bitwise XOR operator is 1 if the corresponding bits of two operands are opposite. It
is denoted by ^.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
Bitwise XOR Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
| 00011001
________
00010101 = 21 (In decimal)
Example #3: Bitwise XOR

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 12, b = 25;
printf("Output = %d", a^b);
return 0;
}
Output
Output = 21
Bitwise complement operator ~

Bitwise compliment operator is an unary operator (works on only one operand). It changes 1 to 0
and 0 to 1. It is denoted by ~.
35 = 00100011 (In Binary)
Bitwise complement Operation of 35
~ 00100011
________
11011100 = 220 (In decimal)
Twist in bitwise complement operator in C Programming
The bitwise complement of 35 (~35) is -36 instead of 220, but why?
For any integer n, bitwise complement of n will be -(n+1). To understand this, you should have
the knowledge of 2's complement.
2's Complement
Two's complement is an operation on binary numbers. The 2's complement of a number is equal
to the complement of that number plus 1. For example:
Decimal Binary 2's complement
0 00000000 -(11111111+1) = -00000000 = -0(decimal)
1 00000001 -(11111110+1) = -11111111 = -256(decimal)
12 00001100 -(11110011+1) = -11110100 = -244(decimal)
220 11011100 -(00100011+1) = -00100100 = -36(decimal)
Note: Overflow is ignored while computing 2's complement.
The bitwise complement of 35 is 220 (in decimal). The 2's complement of 220 is -36. Hence, the
output is -36 instead of 220.
Bitwise complement of any number N is -(N+1). Here's how:
bitwise complement of N = ~N (represented in 2's complement form)
2'complement of ~N= -(~(~N)+1) = -(N+1)
Example #4: Bitwise complement
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
printf("complement = %d\n",~35);
printf("complement = %d\n",~-12);
return 0;
Output
Complement = -36
Complement = 11
There are two Bitwise shift operators in C programming:
 Right shift operator

 Left shift operator.
Right Shift Operator
Right shift operator shifts all bits towards right by certain number of specified bits. It is denoted
by >>.
Left Shift Operator
Left shift operator shifts all bits towards left by certain number of specified bits. It is denoted by
<<.
Special Operators
1 ) Comma Operator :The comma operator is used to separate the statement elements such as
variables, constants or expressions, and this operator is used to link the related expressions
together, such expressions can be evaluated from left to right and the value of right most
expressions is the value of combined expressions
Ex : val(a=3, b=9, c=77, a+c)

First signs the value 3 to a, then assigns 9 to b, then assigns 77 to c, and finaly80(3+77) to
value.
2 ) Sizeof Operator : The sizeof() is a unary operator, that returns the length in bytes o the
specified variable, and it is very useful to find the bytes occupied by the specified variable in the
memory.
Syntax : sizeof(variable-name);
int a;
Ex : sizeof(a); //OUTPUT-----2bytes
Example #6: sizeof Operator

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a, e[10];
float b;
double c;
char d;
printf("Size of int=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(a));
printf("Size of float=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(b));
printf("Size of double=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(c));
printf("Size of char=%lu byte\n",sizeof(d));
printf("Size of integer type array having 10 elements = %lu bytes\n", sizeof(e));
return 0;
}
Output
Size of int = 4 bytes

Size of float = 4 bytes
Size of double = 8 bytes
Size of char = 1 byte
Size of integer type array having 10 elements = 40 bytes
Expressions
Expressions : An expression is a combination of operators and operands which reduces to a

single value. An operator indicats an operation to be performed on data that yields a value. An
operand is a data item on which an operation is performed.
A simple expression contains only one operator.
Ex : 3+5 is a simple expression which yields a value 8, -a is also a single expression.

A complex expression contain more than one operator.
Ex : complex expression is 6+8*7.
Ex ; Algeberic Expressions C-expression

1 : ax2+bx+c 1: a*x*x+b*x+c
2 : a+bx 2 : a+b*x.
3 : 4ac/b 3 : 4*a*c/b.
4 : x2/y2-1 4 : x*x/y*y-1
Operator Precedence : Arithmetic Operators are evaluvated left to right using the
precedence of operator when the expression is written without the paranthesis.They are two
levels of arithmetic operators in C.
1 : High Priority * / %
2 : Low Priority + -.
Arithmetic Expression evaluation is carried out using the two phases from left to right.
1 : First phase : The highest priority operator are evaluated in the 1st phase.
2 : Second Phase : The lowest priority operator are evaluated in the 2nd phase.
Ex : a=x-y/3+z*2+p/4.
x=7, y=9, z=11, p=8.
a= 7-9/3+11*2+8/4.
1st phase :
1 : a = 7-3+11*2+8/4
2 : a = 7-3+22+8/4
3 : a = 7-3+22+2
2nd phase :
1 : a = 4+22+2
2 : a = 26+2
3 : a = 28
The order of evaluation can be changed by putting paranthesis in an expression.

Ex : 9-12/(3+3)*(2-1)
Whenever parentheses are used, the expressions within parantheses highest priority. If two or
more sets of paranthesis appear one after another. The expression contained in the left-most set is
evaluated first and the right-most in the last.
1st phase :
1 : 9-12/6*(2-1)
2 : 9-12/6*1
nd
2 phase :
1 : 9-2*1
2 : 9-2.
3rd phase :
1 : 7.
Rules for Evaluation of Expression :
1 : Evaluate the sub-expression from left to right. If parenthesized.

2 : Evaluate the arithemetic Expression from left to right using the rules of precedence.
3 : The highest precedence is given to the expression with in paranthesis.
4 : When parantheses are used, the expressions within parantheses assume highest priority.
5 : Apply the associative rule, if more operators of the same precedence occurs.
Operator Precedence and Associativity :

Every operator has a precedence value. An expression containing more than one
oerator is known as complex expression. Complex expressions are executed according to
precedence of operators.
Associativity specifies the order in which the operators are evaluated with the same
precedence in a complex expression. Associativity is of two ways, i.e left to ringht and right to
left. Left to right associativity evaluates an expression starting from left and moving towards
right. Right to left associativity proceds from right to left.
The precedence and associativity of various operators in C.

Operator Description Precedence Associativity
() Function call 1 L-R (left to right)
[] Square brackets.
+ Unary plus 2 R-L (right to left)
- Unary minus
++ Increment
-- Decrement
! Not operator
~ Complement
* Pointer operator
& Address operator
sizeof Sizeof operator
* Multiplication 3 L-R (left to right)
/ Division
% Modulo division
+ Addition 4 L-R (left to right)
- Subtraction
<< Left shift 5 L-R (left to right)
>> Right shift
< <= > >= Relational Operator 6 L-R (left to right)
== Equality 7 L-R (left to right)
!= Inequality
& Bitwise AND 8 L-R (left to right)
^ Bitwise XOR 9 L-R (left to right)
| Bitwise OR 10 L-R (left to right)
&& Logical AND 11 L-R (left to right)
|| Logical OR 12 L-R (left to right)
?: Conditional 13 R-L (right to left)
= *= /= %= += Assignment operator 14 R-L (right to left)
-= &= ^= <<=
>>=
, Comma operator 15 L-R (left to right)
Type Conversion/Type casting:

Type conversion is used to convert variable from one data type to another data type, and after
type casting complier treats the variable as of new data type.
For example, if you want to store a 'long' value into a simple integer then you can type cast
'long' to 'int'. You can convert the values from one type to another explicitly using the cast
operator. Type conversions can be implicit which is performed by the compiler automatically,
or it can be specified explicitly through the use of the cast operator.
Syntax:
(type_name) expression;
Without Type Casting:
1. int f= 9/4;
2. printf("f : %d\n", f );//Output: 2
With Type Casting:
1. float f=(float) 9/4;

2. printf("f : %f\n", f );//Output: 2.250000
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf( "%c\n", (char)65 );
getchar();
or
Type Casting - C Programming
Type casting refers to changing an variable of one data type into another. The compiler will
automatically change one type of data into another if it makes sense. For instance, if you assign
an integer value to a floating-point variable, the compiler will convert the int to a float. Casting
allows you to make this type conversion explicit, or to force it when it wouldn‟t normally
happen.
Type conversion in c can be classified into the following two types:
1. Implicit Type Conversion
When the type conversion is performed automatically by the compiler without programmers
intervention, such type of conversion is known as implicit type conversion or type promotion.
int x;
for(x=97; x<=122; x++)
printf("%c", x); /*Implicit casting from int to char thanks to %c*/
2. Explicit Type Conversion
The type conversion performed by the programmer by posing the data type of the expression of
specific type is known as explicit type conversion. The explicit type conversion is also known as
type casting.
Type casting in c is done in the following form:
(data_type)expression;
where, data_type is any valid c data type, and expression may be constant, variable or
expression.
For example,
int x;
for(x=97; x<=122; x++)
printf("%c", (char)x); /*Explicit casting from int to char*/
The following rules have to be followed while converting the expression from one type to
another to avoid the loss of information:
All integer types to be converted to float.
All float types to be converted to double.
All character types to be converted to integer.
Example
Consider the following code:
int x=7, y=5 ;
float z;
z=x/y; /*Here the value of z is 1*/
If we want to get the exact value of 7/5 then we need explicit casting from int to float:
int x=7, y=5;
float z;
z = (float)x/(float)y; /*Here the value of z is 1.4*/
Integer Promotion
Integer promotion is the process by which values of integer type "smaller" than int or unsigned
int are converted either to int or unsigned int. Consider an example of adding a character with an
integer −
#include <stdio.h>
main()
int i = 17;
char c = 'c'; /* ascii value is 99 */
int sum;
sum = i + c;
printf("Value of sum : %d\n", sum );
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −
Value of sum : 116
Here, the value of sum is 116 because the compiler is doing integer promotion and
converting the value of 'c' to ASCII before performing the actual addition operation.
Usual Arithmetic Conversion
The usual arithmetic conversions are implicitly performed to cast their values to a common
type. The compiler first performs integer promotion; if the operands still have different types,
then they are converted to the type that appears highest in the following hierarchy –
UNIT II
STATEMENTS
A statement causes the computer to carry out some definite action. There are three different
classes of statements in C:
Expression statements, Compound statements, and Control statements.
Null statement
A null statement consisting of only a semicolon and performs no operations. It can appear
wherever a statement is expected. Nothing happens when a null statement is executed.
Syntax: - ;
Statements such as do, for, if, and while require that an executable statement appear as the
statement body. The null statement satisfies the syntax requirement in cases that do not need a
substantive statement body.
The Null statement is nothing but, there is no body within loop or any other statements in
C.
Example illustrates the null statement:
for ( i = 0; i < 10; i++) ;
or
for (i=0;i<10;i++)
//empty body
Expression
Most of the statements in a C program are expression statements. An expression statement is

simply an expression followed by a semicolon. The lines
i = 0;
i = i + 1;
and printf("Hello, world!\n");
are all expression statements. In C, however, the semicolon is a statement terminator. Expression
statements do all of the real work in a C program. Whenever you need to compute new values for
variables, you'll typically use expression statements (and they'll typically contain assignment
operators). Whenever you want your program to do something visible, in the real world, you'll
typically call a function (as part of an expression statement). We've already seen the most basic
example: calling the function printf to print text to the screen.
Note -If no expression is present, the statement is often called the null statement.
Return
The return statement terminates execution of a function and returns control to the calling
function, with or without a return value. A function may contain any number
of return statements. The return statement has
syntax: return expression(opt);
If present, the expression is evaluated and its value is returned to the calling function. If
necessary, its value is converted to the declared type of the containing function's return value.
A return statement with an expression cannot appear in a function whose return type is void . If
there is no expression and the function is not defined as void , the return value is undefined. For
example, the following main function returns an unpredictable value to the operating
system:
main ( )
return;
Compound statements
A compound statement (also called a "block") typically appears as the body of another statement,
such as the if statement, for statement, while statement, etc
A Compound statement consists of several individual statements enclosed within a pair of

braces { }. The individual statements may themselves be expression statements, compound
statements or control statements. Unlike expression statements, a compound statement does not
end with a semicolon. A typical Compound statement is given below.
pi=3.14;
area=pi*radius*radius;
The particular compound statement consists of two assignment-type expression

statements.
Example:
Selection Statement/Conditional Statements/Decision Making Statements
A selection statement selects among a set of statements depending on the value of a controlling
expression. Or
Moving execution control from one place/line to another line based on condition
Or
Conditional statements control the sequence of statement execution, depending on the value of a
integer expression
C‟ language supports two conditional statements.
1: if
2: switch.
1: if Statement: The if Statement may be implemented in different forms.
1: simple if statement.
2: if –else statement
3: nested if-else statement.
4: else if ladder.
if statement.
The if statement controls conditional branching. The body of an if statement is executed if the
value of the expression is nonzero. Or if statement is used to execute the code if condition
is true. If the expression/condition is evaluated to false (0), statements inside the body of if is
skipped from execution.
Syntax : if(condition/expression)
true statement;
}
statement-x;
If the condition/expression is true, then the true statement will be executed otherwise the true
statement block will be skipped and the execution will jump to the statement-x. The „true
statement‟ may be a single statement or group of statement.
If there is only one statement in the if block, then the braces are optional. But
if there is more than one statement the braces are compulsory
Flowchart
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
main()
int a=15,b=20;
if(b>a)
printf("b is greater");
Output
b is greater
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int number;
printf("Enter an integer: ");

scanf("%d", &number);
// Test expression is true if number is less than 0

if (number < 0)
{
printf("You entered %d.\n", number);
}
printf("The if statement is easy.");
return 0;
}
Output 1
Enter an integer: -2
You entered -2.
The if statement is easy.
Output 2
Enter an integer: 5
The if statement in C programming is easy.
If-else statement : The if-else statement is an extension of the simple if statement. The
general form is. The if...else statement executes some code if the test expression is true (nonzero)
and some other code if the test expression is false (0).
Syntax : if (condition)
{
true statement;
}
else
{
false statement;
}
statement-x;
If the condition is true , then the true statement and statement-x will be executed and if the
condition is false, then the false statement and statement-x is executed.
Or
If test expression is true, codes inside the body of if statement is executed and, codes inside the
body of else statement is skipped.
If test expression is false, codes inside the body of else statement is executed and, codes inside
the body of if statement is skipped.
Flowchart
Example:
// Program to check whether an integer entered by the user is odd or even
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int number;
printf("Enter an integer: ");
scanf("%d",&number);
// True if remainder is 0
if( number%2 == 0 )
printf("%d is an even integer.",number);
else
printf("%d is an odd integer.",number);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter an integer: 7
7 is an odd integer.
Nested if-else statement

When a series of decisions are involved, we may have to use more than on if-else statement in
nested form. If –else statements can also be nested inside another if block or else block or both.
Syntax : if(condition-1)
{ {
if (condition-2)
{
statement-1;
}
else
{
statement-2;
}
}
else
{
statement-3;
}
statement-x;
If the condition-1 is false, the statement-3 and statement-x will be executed. Otherwise it
continues to perform the second test. If the condition-2 is true, the true statement-1 will be
executed otherwise the statement-2 will be executed and then the control is transferred to the
statement-x
Flowchart
Example
#include<stdio.h>
int var1, var2;
printf("Input the value of var1:");
scanf("%d", &var1);
printf("Input the value of var2:");
scanf("%d",&var2);
if (var1 !=var2)
{
printf("var1 is not equal to var2");
//Below – if-else is nested inside another if block
if (var1 >var2)
{
printf("var1 is greater than var2");
}
else
{
printf("var2 is greater than var1");
}
}
else
{
printf("var1 is equal to var2");
}
…
Else if ladder.
The if else-if statement is used to execute one code from multiple conditions.
Syntax : if( condition-1)
{
statement-1;
}
else if(condition-2)
{
statement-2;
}
else if(condition-3)
{
statement-3;
}
else if(condition-n)
{
statement-n;
}
else
{
default-statement;
}
statement-x;
Flowchart
Example
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
int number=0;
clrscr();
printf("enter a number:");
if(number==10){
printf("number is equals to 10");
}
else if(number==50){
printf("number is equal to 50");
}
else if(number==100){
printf("number is equal to 100");
}
else{
printf("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");
}
getch();
}
Points to Remember
1. In if statement, a single statement can be included without enclosing it into curly braces { }
2. int a = 5;
3. if(a > 4)
4. printf("success");
No curly braces are required in the above case, but if we have more than one statement
inside if condition, then we must enclose them inside curly braces.
5. == must be used for comparison in the expression of if condition, if you use = the expression will
always return true, because it performs assignment not comparison.
6. Other than 0(zero), all other values are considered as true.

7. if(27)
8. printf("hello");
In above example, hello will be printed.
Switch statement : when there are several options and we have to choose only one option
from the available ones, we can use switch statement. Depending on the selected option, a
particular task can be performed. A task represents one or more statements.
Syntax:
switch(expression)
{
case value-1:
statement/block-1;
break;
case value-2:
statement/block t-2;
break;
case value-3:
statement/block -3;
break;
case value-4:
statement/block -4;
break;
default:
default- statement/block t;
break;
}
The expression following the keyword switch in any „C‟ expression that must yield an integer
value. It must be ab integer constants like 1,2,3 .
The keyword case is followed by an integer or a character constant, each constant in each
must be different from all the other.
First the integer expression following the keyword switch is evaluated. The value it gives
is searched against the constant values that follw the case statements. When a match is found, the
program executes the statements following the case. If no match is found with any of the case
statements, then the statements follwing the default are executed.
Rules for writing switch() statement.

1 : The expression in switch statement must be an integer value or a character constant.
2 : No real numbers are used in an expression.
3 : The default is optional and can be placed anywhere, but usually placed at end.
4 : The case keyword must terminate with colon ( : ).
5 : No two case constants are identical.
6 : The case labels must be constants.
Valid Switch Invalid Switch Valid Case Invalid Case

switch(x) switch(f) case 3; case 2.5;
switch(x>y) switch(x+2.5) case 'a'; case x;
switch(a+b-2) case 1+2; case x+2;
switch(func(x,y)) case 'x'>'y'; case 1,2,3;
Example
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int a;
printf("Please enter a no between 1 and 5: ");
scanf("%d",&a);
switch(a)
{
case 1:
printf("You chose One");
break;
case 2:
printf("You chose Two");
break;
case 3:
printf("You chose Three");
break;
case 4:
printf("You chose Four");
break;
case 5: printf("You chose Five.");
break;
default :
printf("Invalid Choice. Enter a no between 1 and 5"); break;
}
}
Flowchart
Points to Remember
It isn't necessary to use break after each block, but if you do not use it, all the consecutive block
of codes will get executed after the matching block.
1. int i = 1;
2. switch(i)
3. {
4. case 1:
5. printf("A"); // No break
6. case 2:
7. printf("B"); // No break
8. case 3:
9. printf("C");
10. break;
11. }
Output : A B C
The output was supposed to be only A because only the first case matches, but as there is no
break statement after the block, the next blocks are executed, until the cursor encounters a
break.
default case can be placed anywhere in the switch case. Even if we don't include the default case
switch statement works.
Iteration Statements/ Loop Control Statements
How it Works
A sequence of statements are executed until a specified condition is true. This sequence of
statements to be executed is kept inside the curly braces { } known as the Loop body. After
every execution of loop body, condition is verified, and if it is found to be true the loop body is
executed again. When the condition check returns false, the loop body is not executed.
The loops in C language are used to execute a block of code or a part of the program several
times. In other words, it iterates/repeat a code or group of code many times.
Or Looping means a group of statements are executed repeatedly, until some logical condition
is satisfied.
Why use loops in C language?
Suppose that you have to print table of 2, then you need to write 10 lines of code.By using the
loop statement, you can do it by 2 or 3 lines of code only.
A looping process would include the following four steps.
1 : Initialization of a condition variable.
2 : Test the condition.
3 : Executing the body of the loop depending on the condition.
4 : Updating the condition variable.
C language provides three iterative/repetitive loops.
1 : while loop
2 : do-while loop
3 : for loop
While Loop: Syntax :
variable initialization ;
while (condition)
statements ;
variable increment or decrement ;
while loop can be addressed as an entry control loop. It is completed in 3 steps.
 Variable initialization.( e.g int x=0; )
 condition( e.g while( x<=10) )
 Variable increment or decrement ( x++ or x-- or x=x+2 )
The while loop is an entry controlled loop statement, i.e means the condition is evaluated
first and it is true, then the body of the loop is executed. After executing the body of the loop,
the condition is once again evaluated and if it is true, the body is executed once again, the
process of repeated execution of the loop continues until the condition finally becomes false and
the control is transferred out of the loop.
Example : Program to print first 10 natural numbers

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
int x;
x=1;
while(x<=10)
printf("%d\t", x);
x++;
getch();
Output
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C Program to reverse number
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
int n, reverse=0, rem;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
while(n!=0)
rem=n%10;
reverse=reverse*10+rem;
n/=10;
printf("Reversed Number: %d",reverse);
getch();
Flowchart
do-while loop
Syntax : variable initialization ;
do{
statements ;
variable increment or decrement ;
}while (condition);
The do-while loop is an exit controlled loop statement The body of the loop are executed first
and then the condition is evaluated. If it is true, then the body of the loop is executed once again.
The process of execution of body of the loop is continued until the condition finally becomes
false and the control is transferred to the statement immediately after the loop. The statements
are always executed at least once.
Flowchart
Example : Program to print first ten multiple of 5
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
int a,i;
a=5;
i=1;
do
printf("%d\t",a*i);
i++;
}while(i <= 10);
getch();
Output
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Example
main()
int i=0
do
printf("while vs do-while\n");
}while(i= =1);
printf("Out of loop");
Output:
while vs do-while
Out of loop
For Loop:
 This is an entry controlled looping statement.
 In this loop structure, more than one variable can be initialized.
 One of the most important features of this loop is that the three actions can be taken at a
time like variable initialization, condition checking and increment/decrement.
 The for loop can be more concise and flexible than that of while and do-while loops.
Syntax : for(initialization; condition; increment/decrement)
Statements;
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
int x;
for(x=1; x<=10; x++)
printf("%d\t",x);
getch();
Output
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Various forms of FOR LOOP
I am using variable num in all the below examples –
1) Here instead of num++, I‟m using num=num+1 which is nothing but same as num++.
for (num=10; num<20; num=num+1)
2) Initialization part can be skipped from loop as shown below, the counter variable is declared
before the loop itself.
int num=10;
for (;num<20;num++)
Must Note: Although we can skip init part but semicolon (;) before condition is must, without
which you will get compilation error.
3) Like initialization, you can also skip the increment part as we did below. In this case
semicolon (;) is must, after condition logic. The increment part is being done in for loop body
itself.
for (num=10; num<20; )
//Code
num++;
4) Below case is also possible, increment in body and init during declaration of counter variable.
int num=10;
for (;num<20;)
//Statements
num++;
5) Counter can be decremented also, In the below example the variable gets decremented each
time the loop runs until the condition num>10 becomes false.
for(num=20; num>10; num--)
Program to calculate the sum of first n natural numbers
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int num, count, sum = 0;
printf("Enter a positive integer: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
// for loop terminates when n is less than count
for(count = 1; count <= num; ++count)
sum += count;
printf("Sum = %d", sum);
return 0;
Output
Enter a positive integer: 10
Sum = 55
Factorial Program using loop
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
int i,fact=1,number;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number: ");
for(i=1;i<=number;i++){
fact=fact*i;
printf("Factorial of %d is: %d",number,fact);
getch();
Output:
Enter a number: 5
Factorial of 5 is: 120
Flow Chart of for Loop :
Infinitive for loop in C
If you don't initialize any variable, check condition and increment or decrement variable in for
loop, it is known as infinitive for loop. In other words, if you place 2 semicolons in for loop, it is
known as infinitive for loop.
for(; ;){
printf("infinitive for loop example by javatpoint");
Basis of Difference For Loop While Loop Do While Loop
The for loop is

appropriate
The other two loops i.e. while and do
when we know in
while loops are more suitable in the
advance
situations where it is not known before
how many times the
hand when the loop will terminate.
loop
will be executed.
In case if the
Where to
test condition In case if the test
Use for Loop, while Loop
fails at the condition fails at the
and do while Loop
beginning, and beginning, and you
you may not may want to execute
want to execute the body of the loop
the body of the atleast once even in
loop even once the failed condition,
if it fails, then then the do while
the while loop loop should be
should be preferred.
preferred.
A for loop initially A while loop A do while loop will

initiates a counter will always always executed the
variable (initialization- evaluate the code in the do {} i.e.
expression), then it test-expression body of the loop
checks the initially. It the block first and then
How all the three loops
test-expression, and test-expression evaluates the
works?
executes the body of becomes true, condition. In this
the loop if the test then the body of case also, the counter
expression is true. the loop will be variable is initialized
After executing the executed. The outside the body of
body of the loop, update the loop.
the update-expression expression
is executed which should be
updates the value of updated inside
counter variable. the body of the
while. However,
the counter
variable is
initialized
outside the body
of the loop.
Position of the statements

:
In for loop, all the
 Initialization In while and do while loop, they are
three statements are
placed in different position.
 test-expression placed in one position
 update-expression
for (
initialization-
exp.(s);
while(test- do {
test-expression(s); expression)
body-of-the-
update- { loop;
expression(s)
body-of-the- update-
Syntax of Loops
) loop; expression(s);
{ update- }
expression(s);
body-of-the-loop while (test-
; } expression);
do while loop is an
exit controlled loop,
Which one is Entry
Both loops i.e. for loop and while loop are means means that
Controlled Loop
entry controlled loop, means condition is condition is placed
and
checked first and if the condition is true after the body of the
Which one is Exit
then the body of the loop will executes. loop and is evaluated
Controlled Loop ?
before exiting from
the loop.
int i = 1; int i = 1;
: :
:
: :
Conversion of one Loop :
to another Loop do
while (i<=10)
or for (int i=1; i<=10;
Example : Print numbers i++) { {
from 1 to 10 using all the
{ Printf(“%d”,i);
three loops.
Printf(“%d”,i); ++i;
Printf(“%d”,i); }
++i }
} while (i<=10)
Nested for loop

We can also have nested for loops, i.e one for loop inside another for loop. nesting is often used
for handling multidimensional arrays.
Syntax:
for(initialization; condition; increment/decrement)
for(initialization; condition; increment/decrement)
{
statement ;
Example:
main()
for (int i=0; i<=5; i++)
for (int j=0; j<=5; j++)
printf("%d, %d",i ,j);
Example : Program to print half Pyramid of numbers
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
int i,j;
for(i=1;i<5;i++)
printf("\n");
for(j=i;j>0;j--)
printf("%d",j);
getch();
Output
21
321
4321
54321
Jump Statements
Jumping statements are used to transfer the program‟s control from one location to another, these
are set of keywords which are responsible to transfer program‟s control within the same block or
from one function to another.
There are four jumping statements in C language:

 goto statement
 return statement
 break statement
 continue statement
goto statement : goto statement doesnot require any condition. This statement passes control
anywhere in the program i.e, control is transferred to another part of the program without testing
any condition.
Syntax : goto label;
.....
.....
label:
statements;
Inthissyntax, label isan identifier.

When, the control of program reaches to goto statement, the control of the program will jump to
the label: and executes the code below it.
Or
The goto statement requires a label to identify the place to move the execution. A label is a valid
variable/identifier name and must be ended with colon ( : )
Flowchart
Example
int main()
int age;
Vote:
printf("you are eligible for voting");
NoVote:
printf("you are not eligible to vote");
printf("Enter you age:");
scanf("%d", &age);
if(age>=18)
goto Vote;
else
goto NoVote;
return 0;
}
Output
Enter you age:19
you are eligible for voting
Enter you age:15
you are not eligible to vote
Break Statement
Break is a keyword. The break statement terminates the loop (for, while and do...while loop)
immediately when it is encountered. The break statement is used/ associated with decision
making statement such as if ,if-else.
Syntax of break statement
break;
Flowchart
How break statement works?
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(){
int i=1;//initializing a local variable
clrscr();
//starting a loop from 1 to 10
for(i=1;i<=10;i++){
printf("%d \n",i);
if(i==5){//if value of i is equal to 5, it will break the loop
break;
}//end of for loop
getch();
Output
12345
Continue Statement
Continue is keyword exactly opposite to break. The continue statement is used for continuing
next iteration of loop statements. When it occurs in the loop it does not terminate, but it skips
some statements inside the loop / the statements after this statement. . The continue statement is
used/ associated with decision making statement such as if ,if-else.
Syntax of continue Statement
continue;
Flowchart of continue Statement
How continue statement works?
Example
3. void main(){
4. int i=1;//initializing a local variable
5. clrscr();
6. //starting a loop from 1 to 10
7. for(i=1;i<=10;i++){
8. if(i==5){//if value of i is equal to 5, it will continue the loop
9. continue;
10. }
11. printf("%d \n",i);
12. }//end of for loop
13. getch();
14. }
Output
1234678910
Comparision between break and continue statements
Break Continue
1 : break statement takes the control to the 1 :continue statement takes the control to
ouside of the loop the beginning of the loop..
2 : it is also used in switch statement. 2 : This can be used only in loop

statements.
3 : Always associated with if condition in 3 : This is also associated with if

loops. condition.
ARRAYS
Using Arrays in C

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Pseudocode: is an artificial and informal language that helps programmers develop

Uses of flow chart:

1 : flow chart helps to understand the program easily.

S.NO Description Symbols

1 Flowlines : These are the left to right or top to

2 Terminal Symbol : The oval shaped symbol

3 Input / Output symbol : The parallelogram is

4 Process Symbol : The rectangle symbol is called

5 Decision symbol : The diamond shaped symbol

6 Connectors : The connector symbol is

Algorithm to find whether a number even or odd:

Step1: Begin Step1: START

print num print num

Initially, C language was developed to be used in UNIX operating system.

1960 ALGOL International committee Too general, too abstract

1967 BCPL Martin Richards at Could deal with only specific

1970 B Ken Thompson at AT & Could deal with only specific

1972 C Dennis Ritche at AT & T Lost generality of BCPL and B

General Structure of a C program:

printf() The printf() function is used to print data on the console.

4. Keywords are not allowed to be used as Identifiers.

5. No special characters, such as semicolon, period, whitespaces, slash or comma are

6. C‟ compiler recognizes only the first 31 characters of an identifiers.

_TEMP STD NAME.

auto break case char

const continue default do

double enum else extern

float for goto if

int long return register

signed short static sizeof

struct switch typedef union

unsigned void volatile while

Note: Keywords we cannot use it as a variable name, constant name etc.

There are 4 types of data types in C language.

Basic Data Type int, char, float, double

Derived Data Type array, pointer, structure, union

Enumeration Data Type enum

Void Data Type void

Note: We call Basic or Primary data type.

Size and Ranges of Data Types with Type Qualifiers

char or signed char 1 -128 to 127 %c

unsigned char 1 0 to 255 %c

unsigned int 2 0 to 65535 %u

short int or signed short 1 -128 to 127 %d or %i

unsigned short int 1 0 to 255 %d or %i

long int or signed long 4 -2147483648 to 2147483647 %ld

unsigned long int 4 0 to 4294967295 %lu

float 4 3.4E-38 to 3.4E+38 %f or %g

double 8 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308 %lf

long double 10 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932 %Lf

Note: Variable are nothing but identifiers.

Rules to write variable names:

Ex : i rank1 MAX min Student_name

Syntax : data_type variable-1,variable-2,------, variable-n;

Syntax : variable = constant;

Syntax : data_type variable = constant;

There are many types of variables in c: