Vitamins & Minerals

Vitamins: essential organic nutrients, required in

small amounts, that cannot be synthesized
by the body. Required for growth,
maintenance, reproduction and lactation.
Vitamin deficiency: decline in health due to the lack of
a vitamin in a ration.
Fat soluble vitamin: a vitamin that can be stored and
accumulated in the liver and other fatty tissues.
Water soluble vitamin: a vitamin that cannot be stored
in the tissues. Must be provided regularly as
deficiencies can develop in a short time.
Minerals: essential inorganic compounds, required in
small amounts. Required for growth,
maintenance, reproduction and lactation.
Macrominerals: required in large amounts.
Microminerals required in small amounts.
 Classes of Vitamins
Fat Soluble Vitamins: Water Soluble Vitamins:
stored in tissues not stored in tissues, must
have constant supply
Examples Examples
A B, B1, B2, B6 & B12
D Niacin
E Folic Acid
K C
Function, Deficiency Signs & Sources
Vitamin A (Retinol)
• The product of the conversion in the
animal’s body of carotene which is
found in feeds.
• True vitamin A is not found in feeds.
• Because vitamin A is converted from
carotene, the carotene is regarded as a
precursor of vitamin A.
• Beta-carotene is the standard used.
Vitamin A
• Different animal species convert
carotene to vitamin A at different rates.
• When the feed source supplied enough
carotene, the animal can usually meet
its requirements for vitamin A from the
diet.
 Vit A Functions
• Normal maintenance of the eyes,
membrane tissue, respiratory, digestive,
reproductive, nerve, and bone growth.
• Vitamin A has anti-infective property. It
helps to establish and maintain a
resistance to infection in the body.
• Plays role in carbohydrate
metabolism (formation of glucose
from triose molecules).
Vit A Deficiency
• Night blindness is a symptom of severe
vitamin A.
• Animals may become permanently blind
because of a vitamin A deficiency.
• Eye infections and constriction in the
optic nerves can be less severe
symptoms.
• Excessive watering of eyes. Cornea
ulcerations are indications of possible
vit A deficiency.
Vitamin A Deficiency
• Diarrhea, reduced appetite, poor growth
and weight loss are also indicators of
vit. A deficiency.
• Reproductive problems, poor
conception, reduced fertility in males,
shortened gestation, retained placenta
and still born can also be indicators.
Vitamin A Sources
• Carotene is found in good quality, fresh,
green forages in amounts generally sufficient
to supply the needs of livestock.
• Green, leafy hays that have been in storage
less than one year, legume hays, good
quality grass or legume silages.
• Dried sun-cured forages contain less
carotene.
• Bleached, low quality forages have little
carotene content.
 Vitamin A storage
• Stored in the liver and fatty tissues of
the body.
• The animal can use this stored vitamin
A during periods of feeding when the
diet is deficient in carotene.
• A horse can go for 3-6 months when Vit
A is deficient, sheep 200 days.
 Vitamin A Ration
Considerations
May need to supplement when:
• Poor quality or low levels of forage are
available.
• Limited amounts of colostrum .
• Fed primarily corn silage and low
carotene concentrates.
• Grazing during drought, rations of
cereal grains.
 Vitamin A Ration
Considerations
• Intramuscular injections of vitamin A
may be used.
• Stress conditions such as low
temperature or exposure to infectious
bacteria will increase the vit A
requirements.
 Excess Vit A in Diet
• Feeding excessive amount of vit A to
horse over along period of time may
result in fragile bones, thickening of
bony tissue, flaking off of the epithelium.
 Vitamin D
• Important for calcium absorption, Ca
and P metabolism.
• Fat soluble, stored in the body.
• Less critical in mature versus younger
animals.
• Most important in animals in the third
trimester of pregnancy.
 Vitamin D Forms
• Plant forms of vitamin D is ergocalciferol
(Vitamin D2).
• Animal forms of vitamin D is
cholecalciferol (Vitamin D3).
• The liver converts cholecalciferol to 25-
hydroxy D3, which is the main form in
which the vitamin circulates in the body.
 Functions
• Absorption of calcium and phosphorus from
GIT.
• Mineralization of bone
• Reabsorption of phosphorus from kidney.
• Increases the activity of enzyme phytase in
the intestine.
• Stimulates the incorporation of phosphorus
into phospholipids of intestine mucosa.
 Vitamin D Deficiency
• Development of rickets, because of
reduced Ca and P absorption.
• Indicators are decreased appetite,
slower growth, digestive disturbances,
stiffness in gait, labored or fast
breathing, irritability weakness and
sometimes the development of tetany.
• Symptoms develop more quickly in
younger animals.(Ricket and retarded
growth).
 Vitamin D Deficiency
• In adult animals causes
osteomalacia.(Softening of bones due
to reabsorption of calcium from bone)
• Pregnant animals may give birth to
dead, weak or deformed young as a
result of a vitamin D deficiency.
• In poultry,bone and beak beomes
soft,deteriotation of egg quality,bowed
legs,retarded growth.
Fig 1. Flared costochondral junction, rachitic rosary,
with irregular and elongated growth cartilage
(arrows).

Fig 2. Multiple distal rib fractures with callus

formation (arrows).
 Vitamin D Sources
• Diets that include sun-cured forages
generally provide sufficient vitamin D.
• Animals regularly exposed to sunlight or
ultrviolet light also will not develop
symptoms of vitamin D deficiency.
• Green forages, barn cured hay and
silages have some vitamin D.
• Grains and grain by products have
practically no vitamin D.
 Vitamin D Sources
• Vitamin D is more stable than vitamin A,
does oxidize, has poor stability when
mixed with minerals, especially calcium
carbonate.
• Rations with adequate levels of Ca and
P will require less vitamin D.
• Cod liver oil,kidney,egg
yolk,liver,milk,fish oil,sun dried
grasses,UV rays.
 Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
• Functions as an antioxidant, which helps in
the abosorption and of storage of vitamin A.
• Vitamin E also plays an important role in
the development and function of the
immune system.
• After absorption from intestine,the vitamin
is stored in the liver and various organs and
tissues of the body.
• Vitamin E is also involved in the regulation
of cell signalling and gene expression.
 Deficiency symptoms
• Vitamin E deficiency results in symptoms
similar to selenium, white muscle disease,
muscular dystrophy.
• Deficiency signs: poor growth, "crazy
chick" disease, Muscular Dystrophy, "white
muscle" disease in ruminants and swine
and "stiff lamb" disease (affects the nerves
and muscles).
Sources: synthetic for poultry and swine, cereal grains
and wheat germ oil, green forages, protein
concentrates, oil seeds (peanut and soybean oil).

Vitamin E rapidly destroyed in rancid or spoiled fats.

That is why these may cause white muscle disease.
Utilization of Vitamin E is dependent on adequate
selenium.
 Vitamin K(Phylloguinoine)
• Necessary for the formation of prothrombin, (material
needed to maintain normal blood coagulation).
• Feeding moldy feeds may cause vitamin K deficiency
leading to a bleeding syndrome.
• Deficiencies of vitamin K rarely occur because it is
synthesized in the rumen.
• In chicks it is needed to be supplemented by the feed
from outside.
• It is found in high concentration in green leaves.
Vitamin k2 (Prenyl-menaquinone) is synthesized by
bacterial flora in the gut of animal.
• Vitamin k3 is synthetic compound which is about 3.3
times potent than biologically active vitamin K2.
 Functions
• For the formation of prothrombin,which
is the intermediate of the blood clotting
process.
• In biochemical function, involved in
electron transport system.
 Deficiency signs:
• blood loses its power to clot or the time needed
for clotting is longer and serious hemorrhages
can result from slight wounds or bruises.
• In ruminants under normal conditions,deficiency
symptoms hasnot been reported but when
spoiled sweet clover forage is fed,the coumarin
which it contain is converted to dicumarol which
is an anti-Vitamin of K at the same time bleeding
syndrome develops throughout the animal body.
• In poultry symptoms of delayed clotting
time of blood, birds when injured may
bleed to death.
• Chicks show anaemia due to loss of
blood or development of hypoplastic
bone marrow.
 Sources
• Green leafy feeds, soybeans, solvent
process soybean meal are good
sources,liver,fish meal,egg yolk are the
good sources of vitamin K.
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)

Function: has an effect on the metabolism of calcium in the

body (Not required in rations of farm animals.).
• Essential for collagen formation.
• It aids in conversion of folic acid to tetrahydrofolic acid.
• It aids iron to stay in reduced state,which is very important
for body.
• It participates in synthesis of steroid hormones by adrenal
cortex.
• It helps in the metabolism of lipids as blood cholesterol level
appears to fall with the administration of ascorbic aid.
• it aids in conversion of tryptophan to serotonin.
• It is involved in the hydroxylation of proline,lysine,and
aniline which are important for the normal physiology of
animals.
Deficiency signs: none demonstrated in livestock.

Human deficiency: scurvy (swollen and painful joints and

bleeding gums) and brittleness of bones.

Sources: citrus fruits, tomatoes, leafy vegetables and

potatoes.
Vitamin Coenzyme or prosthetic group Enzyme or other func
Thiamin Thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP) Oxidative decarboxyla
Riboflavin Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) Hydrogen carrier
Riboflavin Flavin adenine dinucleotide Hydrogen carrier
(FAD)
Nicotinamide Nicotinamide adenine Hydrogen carrier
dinucleotide (NAD)
Nicotinamide Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide Hydrogen carrier
phosphate (NADP)
Pyridoxine Pyridoxal phosphate Transaminases,
decarboxylases
Pantothenic acid Coenzyme A (CoA) Acyl transfer
Folic acid Tetrahydrofolic acid One carbon transfer
Biotin Biotin Carbon dioxide transfe
Cyanocobalamin Methylcobalamin Isomerases, dehydrase
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
Function: required for the normal metabolism of
carbohydrates.

Deficiency signs:
• loss of appetite, muscular weakness, severe nervous
disorders, general weakness and Beri-Beri (difficult in
walking and paralysis).

• In pigs, appetite and growth are adversely affected and

the animals may vomit and have respiratory troubles.

• Chicks reared on thiamin deficient diets have poor

appetites and consequently are emaciated. After about
10 days they develop polyneuritis, which is
characterised by head retraction, nerve degeneration
and paralysis.
In ruminants, microbial synthesis of the vitamin in the digestive tract,
together with that present in the diet, will normally provide adequate
amounts of thiamin to satisfy the animal’s requirements.

However, under certain conditions, bacterial thiaminases can

be produced in the rumen, which destroy the vitamin, thereby
causing the deficiency condition known as cerebrocortical necrosis
(dysfunction cerebrum) .

This condition is characterised by circling movements, head pressing,

blindness and muscular contraction.
Sources:
Raw, whole grains and especially their seed coats and embryos;
fresh green forage; and yeast, milk and rumen synthesis.

Outer layers of seeds, the germ, and in the growing areas of

roots, leaves and shoots.

Fermentation products, such as brewer’s yeast, are rich sources.

Animal products rich in thiamin include egg yolk, liver, kidney

and pork muscle.
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

Function: necessary for normal embryo development, important in the

metabolism of amino acids and carbohydrates.

Sources: milk and dairy by-products, yeast, green forages, whole

grains, wheat bran and synthetic riboflavin rumen synthesis.

Deficiency signs:
 curly toe paralysis in chicks,
 digestive disturbances,
 general weakness and eye abnormalities.
• In pigs, deficiency symptoms include poor appetite, with consequent
retardation in growth, vomiting, skin eruptions and eye
abnormalities.
• Riboflavin is essential in the diet of sows to maintain normal oestrus
activity and prevent premature parturition. Chicks reared on a
riboflavin-deficient diet grow slowly and develop ‘curled toe
paralysis’, a specific symptom caused by peripheral nerve
degeneration, in which the chicks walk on their hocks with the toes curled
inwards.
 Nicotanimide (Niacin)
• In most of the farm animals it is synthesized in
the body hence not need to supplemented from outside.
• Its function in animal body is as coenzyme like
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).
Deficiency symptoms

• In pigs, deficiency symptoms include poor growth,

poor hair and skin condition, anorexia (eating
disorder and serious mental health condition), enteritis
(inflammation of intestine), vomiting and dermatitis
known as pig pellagra.
• In fowls, a deficiency of the vitamin causes bone
disorders, feathering abnormalities, and inflammation of
the mouth and upper part of the oesophagus called as
black tongue.
Sources:

• Rich sources of the vitamin are liver, yeast, groundnut

and sunflower meals.
• Although cereal grains contain the vitamin, much of it
is present in a bound form that is not readily available
to pigs and poultry.
• Milk and eggs are almost devoid of the vitamin,
although they contain the precursor tryptophan.
 Pyridoxine(Vitamin B6)

• The vitamin exists in three forms, which

are interconvertible in the body tissues.
• The parent substance is known as
pyridoxine, the corresponding aldehyde
derivative as pyridoxal and the amine as
pyridoxamine.
 Deficiency symptoms
• Because of the numerous enzymes requiring pyridoxal phosphate, a large
variety of biochemical lesions are associated with vitamin B6 deficiency.
• These lesions are concerned primarily with amino acid metabolism, and a
deficiency affects the animal’s growth rate.
• Convulsions (affect brain function) a sudden, violent, irregular movement of the
body, caused by involuntary contraction of muscles may also occur, possibly
because a reduction in the activity of glutamic acid decarboxylase results in an
accumulation of glutamic acid.
• In addition, pigs reduce their food intake and may develop anaemia.
• Chicks on a deficient diet show jerky movements; in adult birds, hatchability
and egg production are adversely affected.
• In practice, vitamin B6 deficiency is unlikely to occur in farm animals because
of the vitamin’s wide distribution.
 Sources
• The vitamin is present in plants as
pyridoxine, whereas animal products
may also contain pyridoxal and
pyridoxamine.
• Pyridoxine and its derivatives are
widely distributed: yeast, pulses, cereal
grains, liver and milk are rich sources.
 Pantothenic Acid (Vit. B5)
• Pantothenic acid, another member of
the vitamin B complex, is an amide of
pantoic acid and b-alanine .
• It is the prosthetic group of coenzyme in
many reactions in carbohydrate,fat and
amino acid metabolism.
• It is needed for the synthesis of fatty
acids.
 Deficiency symptoms

• Deficiency of pantothenic acid in pigs causes slow

growth, diarrhoea, loss of hair, scaliness of the skin and
a characteristic ‘goose-stepping’ gait; in severe cases,
animals are unable to stand.
• In the chick, growth is retarded and dermatitis occurs.
• In mature birds, hatchability is reduced.
• Pantothenic acid, like all the B complex vitamins, can be
synthesized by rumen microorganisms.
• Pantothenic acid deficiencies are considered to be rare in
practice because of the wide distribution of the vitamin,
although deficiency symptoms have been reported in
commercial herds of Landrace pigs.
 Sources
• The vitamin is widely distributed; indeed, the
name is derived from the Greek pantothen,
‘from everywhere’, indicating its ubiquitous
distribution.
• Rich sources are liver, egg yolk, groundnuts,
peas, yeast and molasses.
• Cereal grains and potatoes are also good
sources of the vitamin.
• The synthetically prepared calcium
pantothenate is the commonest product used
commercially.
 Folic Acid (Vitamin M)
• The active form of the vitamin is
tetrahydrofolic acid (FH4).
• Folic acid are important in the
biosynthesis of purine and pyrimidines
and in certain methylation reactions.
• Its role is in growth and reproduction od
the cells.
 Deficiency symptoms

• Poor growth, anaemia, poor bone

development and poor egg hatchability.
• Folic acid deficiency symptoms rarely
occur in other farm animals because of
synthesis by intestinal bacteria.
 Sources
• Folic acid is widely distributed in nature; green leafy materials,
cereals and ex- tracted oilseed meals are good sources of the
vitamin.
• Folic acid is reasonably stable in foods stored under dry
conditions, but it is readily degraded by moisture, particularly
at high temperatures.
• It is also destroyed by ultraviolet light.
 Biotin (Vitamin H)
• Biotin deficiency can be induced by giving animals
avidin, a protein present in the raw white of eggs, which
combines with the vitamin and prevents its absorption
from the intestine.
• It is also known as Vitamin H, and coenzyme R.
• It serves as the prosthetic group of various enzymes.It
also acts as coenzyme in various biological system.
 Biotin deficiency
• In pigs, biotin deficiency causes foot lesions, alopecia (hair loss)
and dry scaly skin. In growing pigs, both growth rate and food
utilization are adversely affected. In breeding sows, a deficiency
of the vitamin can adversely influence reproductive performance.

• In poultry, biotin deficiency causes reduced growth, dermatitis,

leg bone abnormalities, cracked feet, poor feathering, and fatty
liver and kidney syndrome (FLKS).
• This last condition, which mainly affects 2- to 5-week-old chicks,
is characterised by a lethargic state with death frequently
following within a few hours. On autopsy, the liver and kidneys,
which are pale and swollen, contain abnormal depositions of lipid.
 Sources
• Biotin is widely distributed in foods: liver, milk, yeast,
oilseeds and vegetables are rich sources.
• However, in some foods, much of the bound
vitamin may not be released during digestion and
hence may be unavailable.
• Studies with chicks and pigs have shown that the
availability of biotin in barley and wheat is very low,
whereas the biotin in maize and certain oilseed meals,
such as soya bean meal, is completely available.
 Choline
• It is a component of lecithins, which play a vital role in cellular structure and activity.
• It also plays an important part in lipid metabolism in the liver, where it converts excess fat
into lecithin or increases the utilisation of fatty acids, thereby preventing the accumulation
of fat in the liver.
• Choline is a component of acetylcholine, which is responsible for the transmission of
nerve impulses.
• Choline serves as a donor of methyl groups in transmethylation reactions that involve folic
acid or vitamin B12.
• Although other compounds, such as methionine and betaine, can also act as methyl donors,
they cannot replace choline in its other functions.
• Choline can be synthesized in the liver from methionine; the exogenous requirement for
this vitamin is therefore influenced by the level of methionine in the diet.
 Deficiency symptoms

• Deficiency symptoms, including slow growth and

fatty infiltration of the liver, have been produced
in chicks and pigs.
• Choline is also concerned with the prevention of
perosis or slipped tendon in chicks.
• The choline requirement of animals is unusually
large for a vitamin, but in spite of this, deficiency
symptoms are not common in farm animals
because of its wide distribution and its high
concentrations in foods, and because it can be
readily derived from methionine.
 Sources

• Green leafy materials, yeast, egg yolk

and cereals are rich sources of choline.
 Vitamin B12
(Cyanocobalamin)
• Vitamin B12 interact in the metabolism
of folic acid, pantothenic acid, choline
and methionine.
• Vitamin B12 and folic acid require for
the formation of DNA and vitamin B12
alone being necessary for the synthesis
of RNA.
• Folic acid and Vitamin B12 are essential
for the maturation of RBC.
 Deficiency symptoms

• Adult animals are generally less affected by a

vitamin B12 deficiency than are young growing
animals, in which growth is severely retarded and
mortality high.
• In poultry, in addition to the effect on growth,
feathering is poor and kidney damage may
occur.
• Hens deprived of the vitamin remain
healthy, but hatchability is adversely
affected.
• On vitamin B12-deficient diets, baby pigs grow poorly and show
lack of coordination of the hind legs.
• In older pigs, dermatitis, a rough coat and suboptimal growth
result.
• Intestinal synthesis of the vitamin occurs in pigs and poultry.
• Organisms that synthesise vitamin B12 have been isolated from
poultry excreta; this fact has an important practical bearing on
poultry housed with access to litter, where a majority, if not all, of
the vitamin requirements can be obtained from the litter.
• Vitamin B12 and a number of biologically inactive vitamin B12 analogues are
synthesised by microorganisms in the rumen and, in spite of poor absorption of
the vitamin from the intestine, the ruminant normally obtains an adequate amount
of the vitamin from this source.
• However, if levels of cobalt in the diet are low, a deficiency of the vitamin can arise
and cause reduced appetite, emaciation and anaemia .
• If cobalt levels are adequate, then except with very young ruminant animals, a
dietary source of the vitamin is not essential.
• Horses also are supplied with sufficient B12 from microbial fermentation when
sufficient cobalt is supplied.
• Parasitized horses have responded to vitamin B12 supplementation,
presumably as a result of impaired digestive activity.
 Night blindness? Bleeding gums &
A Scurvy?
C

Blood won’t clot?

K Lameness?
D&E

Childless/
reproductive
Poor posture? dysfunction?
Ca & P B2 & A
 Minerals
• Essential inorganic nutrients, required in
small amounts.
• As many as 20 minerals may be
required.
• Required for growth, maintenance,
reproduction and lactation.
Classified into two categories
• Macro minerals: Minerals which are
required in relatively larger amount and
in most of the cases they are used in the
synthesis of structural tissues
Calcium,Phosphorus,Magnesium,
Sodium,Potassium,Chlorine and
Sulphur.
• Their concentration is expressed in
terms of percentages.
• Micro Minerals: These are required in the trace amounts
usually functions as activators or as a component part of
enzyme system.
• Their concentration is expressed in terms of part per
million (PPM).
• The important trace elements are: Iron, Copper, iodine,
cobalt, zinc, manganese, fluorine, selenium, molybdenum,
chromium, nickel, silicon, tin and vanadium.
General functions of minerals
A. In tissue growth and repair
1. Bone and teeth formation
2. Teeth,hair,hooves and horn formation
3. Soft tissue formation
4. Blood cells formation
B.Minerals as a body regulators
1. In regulating body process,minerals
function in different forms
• In ionic form
• In molecular form
• Component of vitamins
• In the formation of enzymes and
hormones etc.
2.Minerals and mineral containing enzymes,hormones and
various metabolic cycles
• Various metabolic cycles
• Molecular concentration makes body fluids physiologically
compatible with the tissues.
• Acid base balance to maintain the PH.
• Nerve irratibility
• Musle stimulation and activity
• Milk Production
The Macrominerals
• Calcium Ca
• Phosphorous P
• Potassium K
• Sulfur S
• Sodium Na
• Chlorine Cl
• Magnesium Mg
Calcium (Ca)

Functions:
• Major component of bones and teeth, 99% of the Ca of the body present
in bone and teeth. Ratio of Ca and P is 2:1 in bone.
• Essential for blood coagulation.
• For irritation of nerve tissues.
• It is the major constituents of milk.
• Essential for shell formation.
• It helps in utilization of Vitamins.
• Calcium ion is directly related with the muscle contraction.
• For activation of various enzymes.
 Deficiency Symptoms
• Rickets-Satisfactory bone formation doesnot
occur. Misshapen of bones, enlargement of
joints,lameness and stiffness of joints. It occurs
in young animals.
• Osteomalacia: In adult animals disturbed
calcium metabolism results in a condition
called osteomalacia. Bones become
weak,porous and soft. Continuous
mobilization of calcium from the bone for
higher demand with low intake.
• Osteoporosis: This is characterized by decreased bone mass.It is due to bone
reabsorption being greater than the bone formation.It is prominent in ageing
and related to gonadal hormone deficiency.

• Milk Fever (Calcium Tetany, Parturient peresis (hypocalcemic): Shortly

after parturition, high yielding cows suffer from milk fever. Serum glucose goes
down,and there muscular spasm and in extreme cases paralysis.
• Breeding difficulties, calves may be born dead or very weak,infertility and there
may be loss in milk production too.
• In poultry, soft bone and beak, curled toes, lower egg production, thin
shelled eggs are seen.
 Sources of calcium
• Milk, green leafy crops, especially legumes, and sugar beet pulp are good
sources of calcium; cereals and roots are poor sources.
• Animal by-products containing bone, such as fish-meal, are excellent
sources.
• Calcium-containing mineral supplements that are frequently given to
farm animals, especially lactating animals and laying hens, include
ground limestone, steamed bone flour and dicalcium phosphate.
• If rock calcium phosphate is given to animals it is important to ensure that
fluorine is absent, otherwise this supplement may be toxic.
• High levels of fat in the diet of monogastric animals result in the formation of
calcium soaps of fatty acids, which reduce the absorbability of calcium.
 Calcium : Phosphorus ratio
• When giving calcium supplements to animals it is
important to consider the calcium : phosphorus ratio
of the diet, since an abnormal ratio may be as
harmful as a deficiency of either element in the diet.

• The calcium : phosphorus ratio considered most

suitable for farm animals other than poultry is
generally within the range 1 : 1 to 2 : 1, although
there is evidence that suggests that ruminants can
tolerate rather higher ratios providing that the
phosphorus requirements are met.
• The proportion of calcium for laying hens is much larger,
since they require great amounts of the element for
eggshell production.
• The calcium is usually given to laying hens as ground
lime-stone mixed with the diet or, alternatively,
calcareous grit may be given ad libitum.
• Granular limestone is more effective since the large
particles are retained in the gizzard for a longer time.
 Requirement
• Cattle for maintenance 14g/day,per kg
milk production 2.3 g.
• Poultry chick 1% in feed,layers 2% in
feed.
 Phosphorus
• Phosphorus occurs in phosphoproteins, nucleic acids and phospholipids.
• The element plays a vital role in energy metabolism in the formation of sugar-
phosphates and adenosine di- and triphosphates.
• The phosphorus content of the animal body is considerably less than
that of calcium content.
• Whereas 99 per cent of the calcium found in the body occurs in the bones and
teeth, the proportion of the phosphorus in these structures is about 80–85 per
cent of the total; the remainder is in the soft tissues and fluids, where it serves
the essential functions.
• The control of phosphorus metabolism is different from that
of calcium.
• If it is in an available form, phosphorus is absorbed well even
when there is an excess over requirement. The excess is
excreted via the kidney or the gut (via saliva).
• In monogastric animals, the kidney is the primary route of
excretion.
• Plasma phosphorus diffuses into saliva and in ruminants the large
amount of chewing during rumination results in saliva being the
major input of phosphorus into the rumen rather than the food.
 Functions
• Formation of bone and teeth, about 80% Phosphorus is stored.
• Maintains normal level of blood calcium and its proper activity.
• Plays active role in formation of phospholipid in cells, as well as nucleic acid,
coenzyme, phosphoprotein.
• Plays vital role in energy metabolism in the formation of sugar phosphate and
adenosine di- and tri-phosphates.
• As a component of protein in soft tissues.
• Milk and egg production.
• Plays major role in reproduction.
 Deficiency symptoms
• Rickets
• Osteomalacia
• Pica: affected animals have abnormal appetites and chew wood, bones, rags
and other foreign materials. Animal becomes weak and dies. In chronic
phosphorus deficiency, animals may have stiff joints and muscular weakness.
• Poor fertility,dysfunction of ovaries and irregularities in estrus.
• Decrease in milk production.
• Subnormal growth in young animals and low live weight in mature animals.
 Sources
• Bone meal, dicalcium phosphate,grain and grain
byproducts, oilcakes and barn.
• Fishmeal, meat meal, wheat bran, rice barn, rice
polish.
• Most of the phosphorous is present in the cereals and their
byproducts is in the form of phytates which are insoluble.
Due to microbes, ruminants can utilize the phytate. In chicks
10% of total phytates are utilized.
• Feeding with high levels of phosphorus should be
avoided as the excess is ex- creted and contributes to
pollution by encouraging the growth of algae in water
courses.
• High phosphorus intake in association with magnesium
can lead to the formation of mineral deposits in the
bladder and urethra (urolithiasis or urinary calculi) and
blockage of the flow of urine in male sheep and cattle.
 Magnesium
• It is closely associated with the Ca and P, about 70% of the
total magnesium is found in skeleton.
• Plays important role in enzyme activation.
• Plays important role in Ca and P metabolism
• Helps in growth and development of young animals.
• Plays role in neuromuscular activities.
 Deficiency symptoms
• Magnesium Tetany: It is also known as grass staggers or
grass tetany in adult animals. This occurs due to hormonal
disturbance and faulty interrelationship of calcium,
Phosphorus and magnesium.
• This occurs in lactating cow grazing lush rapid growing
pastures highly fertilized with nitrogen or potassium
during cool season.
• Unable to stand, stiff muscle, Convulsions.
Milk tetany: The least prevalent is that calves fed on all milk diet
without any other supplement for a prolonged period.
• Hormonal disturbances
• Nervousness, stiffness
Hypomagneseaimic tetany: is associated with low blood level of
magnesium below 0.5 mg per 100 ml characterized by convulsion,
hyperirritability, twitching of facial muscles, staggering gait and
ultimately tetany.
• Symptoms can be nervousness, stiff gait, staggering, convulsions
and paralysis.
 Sources
• Most of the commonly fed roughages and concentrates
contain 0.1%, therefore magnesium tetany is not common
in our country.
• Barn and oilcakes,leguminous fodders are the rich sources
of magnesium.
• Magnesium oxide,green fodder,cotton seed meal and
linseed cake.
 Potassium
• Potassium plays a very important part, along with sodium,
chlorine and bicarbonate ions, in osmotic regulation of the
body fluids and in the acid–base balance in the animal.
• Sodium is the main inorganic cation of extracellular tissue
fluids,potassium functions principally as the cation of cells.
• Potassium plays an important part in nerve and muscle
excitability and is also involved in carbohydrate metabolism.
 Functions
• Maintains acid base equilibrium and osmotic
pressure in the body.
• Help in nerve transmission and heart relaxation.
• Activates certain enzymes.
• Helps in the uptake of certain amino aids.
 Deficiency symptoms
• In lactating cattle,include a marked decrease in feed
intake.
• Reduced weight gain.
• Decreased milk production.
• Pica
• Hair loss
• Decreased pliability of hides
• Muscular weakness
• Poor intestinal tone
 Sources
• Forage contain high potassium.Milk also
contains potassium.
• Requirement is about 0.8% of the dry
matter intake for lactating cows.
 Sodium and Chloride
• Useful in metabolism of water,protein,fat and carbohydrates.
• It controls body fluid concentration (Osmotic pressure).
• Plays role in contraction of nerves and muscles.
• Control Ph of body fluid.
• Maintain the neutrality in body tissue.
• Chlorine is used in the formation of hydrochloric acid of the gastric
juice.
• Sodium chloride helps in the digestion.
 Deficiency symptoms
• When a diet severely deficient in salt is fed to the cattle an
intense carving for salt and pica manifested by liking and chewing
various objects can occur within 3-4 weeks.
• Terminal symptoms include shivering incoordination,
weakness, cardia arrhythmia (irregular heart beat), and death.
• When adequate salt supplementation is made cows recover
quickly and completely.
• Dereased or loss of appetite, unthrifty haggard (lack of
sleep), lusterless eyes, rough hair coats, decreased
milk production and rapid weight loss.
• Fall of body temperature,weakness of heart, neuro
muscular disturbances, disease of eye, loss of milk
production in lactating animals.
 Requirements
• 0.5% in the diet or 2.3 g/day.
• Cattle are able to tolerate a relatively
high level of salt in the diet.
Sources:
Sodium chloride or common salt
 Sulphur
• Most of the sulphur in the animal body occurs in
the animal body occurs in the amino acids
cystine,cysteine and methionine.
• Wool is rich in cysteine and contains 4% sulphur,
Keratin the protein of hair,hoofes etc are rich in
sulphur containing amino acids.
 Functions
• Essential element for protein and vitamin
synthesis.
• By taking part in enzyme system sulphur plays
important role in the metabolism.
• It combines with iron and is used for the formation of
haemoglobin in red blood cells.
• Wool is rich in cysteine and contains about 4% of
sulphur.
 Deficiency symptoms
• Poor growth and development of body
• Metabolic activity of the body is
disturbed.
• In sheep deficiency causes production
of poor quality of wool.
 Sources
• All balanced rations,muscles,wings of
the birds,horns,hairs nails,bile
juice,saliva ,RBC ,Nervous system and
hoof of the animals contains certain
amounts of sulphur.

Cattle requirements:0.2 % on DM basis

The Microminerals
Iodine (I)
Copper (Cu)
Iron (Fe)
Selenium (Se)
Manganese (Mn)
Molybedenum (Mo)
Zinc (Zn)
Copper (Cu)

Function: should be present in animal tissues for iron

to be properly utilized, hemoglobin formation and
synthesis of keratin for fur and wool growth.

Deficiency signs: Ataxia (poor muscle control), loss

pigmentation of feathers, stringy wool, sway back
lambs, lack of muscle coordination and anemia.
Coast disease (Neck ill) this disease is caused by
deficiency of cobalt in diet of cattle and sheep.

Sources: forages and copper salts.

Requirements: Cattle:5-7 mg/kg ration,Horse:5-
8mg/kg ration.
Sheep :10mg/kg ration.
Swine: 6mg/kg and Chickens:4 mg/kg ration.
Iron (Fe):

Function:
• Essential for the function of every organ and tissue of the body (Hemoglobin),
• Transport of oxygen to the tissue, for the maintenance of oxidative enzyme
system within the cells, concerned in melanin formation, it is the component
of many enzymes.
Deficiency signs: seldom occurs in older animals, nutritional anemia
(anaemia due to iron deficiency), Piglet anaemia, labored breathing and pale
eyelids, ears and nose.
Sources: forages and copper or trace mineral salts. Requirements: Animals:80
mg/kg of the diet. Cattle-500mg/day, Poultry: 20 mg/kg of diet.
 Iodine
• Animal body contains very minute quantities of iodine, More
than half of it is found in the thyroid gland where it is
incorporated in the triodothyronine T3 and thyroxine T4, a
hormone secreted by thyroid gland.
• It is necessary for the proper functioning of the thyroid
gland.
• Increases oxygen consumption.
• Controls metabolic activities and for the proper growth
and development.
 Deficiency symptoms
• Deficiency results in Goiter (enlargement of the thyroid gland). In
this condition the thyroxine production is very much reduced. To
produce for physiological functions the cells of thyroid gland
becomes overactive and thyroid gland becomes enlarged.
• Pigs-falling of hair and rough,hard skin.
• Deficient pregnant animals give birth to the hairless, weak
and dead young.
• Reproductive failure
• Retarted growth rate, poor mental and sexual development.
 Sources
• Fish meal, cod liver oil, iodized salts
such as sodium and potassium iodide.

Requirements: Livestock: 0.1mg/kg ration

• Swine:0.2mg/kg ration
• Chicken: 0.35mg/kg ration
Cobalt (Co)

Function: required as a nutrient for the microorganisms in ruminants

and thereby aids in rumen synthesis of Vitamin B12. Because swine
cannot manufacture B12 from cobalt, the diets are supplemental with
vitamin B12 instead.

Deficiency signs: lack of appetite, loss of weight, rough hair coat,

anemia, decreased milk and wool production and death in extreme
cases.

Sources: legume forages and salt containing cobalt. Requirements:

Cattle: 0.05-1.07mg/kg ration Sheep:0.08mg/kg ration
Horse:5-8 mg/kg
 zinc
• It is stored in the body in bones rather than the liver
where most of the trace minerals are stored.
• It is also found in skin, hair and wool than other tissue
of the body.
• Zinc is the constituent of several enzymes of the
body.
 Functions
• Important for proper growth and development of hair
and wool.
• It is essential part of the insulin hormone which plays
role in carbohydrate metabolism.
• Acts as a cofactor of the different enzymes.
 Deficiency symptoms
• Poor fertility, loss of hair, loss of appetite, lower feed
efficiency.
• In calves: inflammation of nose and mouth, stiffness
of joints, swollen feet and parakeratosis (skin
disease characterized by sore and itchiness)
• Pigs: Subnormal growth, depressed appetite, poor
FCR,Parakeratosis.
• Chicks:Retarded growth, Frizzled feathers,
parakeratosis.
 Sources of Zinc
• Barns are the rich source.
• Feed and fodder
Requirement
Cattle:20-30mg/kg ration,sheep 18-22
mg/kg, Swine 50mg/kg,chicken : 35
mg/kg
 Manganese
• Most tissues contain traces of the element, the
highest concentrations occurring in the bones, liver,
kidney, pancreas and pituitary gland.
• Manganese is important in the animal body as an
activator of many enzymes such as hydrolases and
kinases and as a constituent of arginase, pyruvate
carboxylase and manganese superoxide dismutase.
 Functions
• Plays important role in formation of bones.
• Important for normal growth,reproduction,egg
production and for the prevention of perosis in poultry.
• Important in animal body as an enzyme activators
such as phosphate transferase,decarboxylase
concerned with TCA cycle.
 Deficiency Symptoms
• Cattle: Deficiency shows poor growth, leg disorders,
skeletal abnormalities, ataxia of newborn and reproductive
failures.
• Swine: Poor growth of bones with shortening of leg
bones,enlarged hocks, muscular weakness, increase in back
fat and irregular oestrous cycle.
• Poultry: Perosis or slipped tendon, a
malformation of leg bones. Perosis in
young birds may be aggravated by high
dietary intakes of calcium and
phosphorus.
• In breeding birds reduces hatchability
and shell thickness and causes head
retraction in chicks.
 Source and requirements
• Maize,oat,wheat,green fodder and
brans.
Requirements:
Cattle: 10-20 mg/kg ration
Swine: 10 mg/kg
Chickens: 55 mg/kg
 Selenium
• Body tissues contains 20-25 ppb
selenium.
• Selenium has a sparing effect on
vitamin E by ensuring normal absorption
of the vitamin.
• Vitamin E and selenium have roles in
the immune system and protect against
heavy metal toxicity.
 Functions
• Traces of selenium is required for
normal metabolism.
• Important for prevention of white
muscles diseases.
• Helps in proper growth, development
and reproduction.
 Deficiency symptoms

• Almost similar to Vitamin E deficiency.

• The major sign of selenium deficiency is White muscle diseases
(Nutritional muscular dystrophy).
• Heart failure and paralysis of hind legs.
 Toxic effect
• Excess amount is toxic.
• The disease condition called as alkali disease or
blind staggers.
• Symptoms are stiffness of
joints,lameness,loss of hair .
• Requirements: 0.1 mg or less per kg diet
• Over 5mg/kg diet may produce toxic symptoms.
 Molybdenum
• Mammals contains about 4ppm in their body.
• It is available in pasture grasses, liver, intestinal tissues and
milk of the animals. Molybdenum and copper are antagonistic
to each other in animal body.
• Toxic molybdenum levels interfere with Copper
metabolism and increase copper will reduce or eliminate
toxicity. If copper is low small amount of molybdenum is also
toxic.
 Functions
• Component of coenzyme xanthine oxidase, it is
important to poultry for uric acid formation.
• Stimulates activity of rumen
microorganisms.
• Stimulates growth of lambs, chicks and pullet.
 Toxic effect
• Ruminants suffer from extreme
diarrohea,losss in weight and reduced
milk yields.
• Due to copper deficiency,molybdenum
toxicity is also seen.
Requirement: 0.01mg/kg of the ration
Thank you for your patience!!!