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Contents
From the Editor i
Murray
Montessori Elder and Dementia Care, and Trauma-Informed Approaches: A Thematic Analysis
Examining Connections Between the Models 66
Phillips
Book Review: Powerful Literacy in the Montessori Classroom: Aligning Reading Research
and Practice
by Susan Zoll, Natasha Feinberg, and Laura Saylor 80
Feez
The other review article provides Susan Feez’s (University of New England, Australia) thoughtful assessment
of the recently published book Powerful Literacy in the Montessori Classroom: Aligning Reading Research
and Practice by Susan Zoll, Natasha Feinberg, and Laura Saylor, with a foreword by Daniel Willingham.
The first two research articles in this issue will be of particular interest to Montessori educators because they
address important considerations for classroom practice. Andrea Koczela and Kateri Carver share the re-
sults of a study of Montessori teachers’ circle time practices and preferences while Jaap de Brouwer, Lida T.
Klaver, and Symen van der Zee synthesize Montessori’s writings on citizenship education.
For the third article, Joel Parham conducted an extensive analysis of primary source documents to reconsider
details and implications of Maria Montessori’s 1915 California visit. He argues that, while her eight months in
California did positively influence the growth of the Montessori movement, the impact on mainstream educa-
tion was limited and led to declining interest in Montessori education in the United States.
Finally, Bernadette Phillips demonstrates how the Montessori approach to dementia care is trauma-responsive,
although she suggests it could be strengthened by incorporating a greater understanding of the neurobiology
of trauma into training programs.
Sincerely,
i
ii Journal of Montessori Research Fall 2021 Vol 7 Iss 2
Understanding Circle Time
Practices in Montessori Early
Childhood Settings
Andrea Koczela and Kateri Carver, University of Wisconsin-River Falls
Keywords: circle time, line time, large group, whole group, Montessori education, Early Childhood education, literacy,
language development
Abstract: Circle time is commonplace in traditional preschools, yet there are few references to the practice in
Montessori’s writings or in major Montessori organizations’ teacher education standards. This article investigates
whether circle time is frequent in Montessori 3–6-year-old classrooms using data from a widely distributed Qualtrics
survey. The results, from 276 respondents spanning all 50 states, provide insight into the circle time practices of
United States-based preschool Montessori teachers, also known in Montessori classrooms as guides. We present novel
information regarding circle time duration and frequency, types of circle time activities, Montessori guides’ circle time
training and planning, whether children’s circle time attendance is free choice or compulsory, and the nature of circle
time in programs associated with Association Montessori Internationale versus American Montessori Society. Results
revealed that 92% of survey participants have circle time every day or most days; most participants hold circle time
for 20 minutes or less; the most common circle time events were show-and-tell, calendar work, vocabulary lessons,
Grace and Courtesy lessons, read aloud discussions, dancing and movement, snack time, general conversation, read
aloud (stories), and birthday celebrations. We found that many of the most frequent circle time activities do not align
with children’s preferences, teacher preferences, or Early Childhood best practices. Our work invites Montessorians to
engage in the work of reconstructing the traditional practice of circle time to better align with Montessori hallmarks of
choice, development of the will, and joyfulness.
Figure 3
Circle Time Duration
Participants were able to report their typical circle a list of activities and asked participants whether these
time duration by choosing one of six responses ranging activities usually, sometimes, or never occurred during
from less than five minutes to up to 30 minutes. Figure circle time. Figure 5 shows our results.
3 illustrates that a large majority of participants held The most frequently occurring circle time activities,
circle time for 20 minutes or less. Only a small number of according to survey responses, received the same or
respondents held circle time for 25 minutes or 26 to 30 nearly the same number of results. They are: show-and-
minutes. The largest segment of respondents has circle tell (196 responses), discussion of day/month/season
time lasting between 11–15 minutes, corresponding to (calendar work; 196 responses), vocabulary lessons
the recommendations of Bustamante et al. (2018), who (194 responses), and Grace and Courtesy lessons (194
advocated decreasing the length of circle time gatherings responses).
from their study’s average time of 20 minutes. Interesting- According to survey participants’ perceptions (see
ly, the composition of the 11–15-minute group included Figure 6), children most enjoy the following circle time
the participants with the most teaching experience, activities: singing, read aloud (stories), dancing and
suggesting an area for further research regarding teacher movement, music/rhythm work, and birthday celebra-
experience and circle time practices. tions. This list is closely aligned to the participants’ most
enjoyed activities (see Figure 6): singing, read aloud (sto-
Circle Time Activities ries), general conversation, dancing and movement, and
In this section, we detail the frequency of specific music/rhythm work. These preferences are nearly identi-
circle time activities and then discuss the most popular cal in content and order, apart from birthday celebrations
circle time activities for children and survey partici- and general conversation. Curiously, they do not match
pants. Questions 15 through 17 of our survey provided the most frequent circle time activities (see Figure 5).
Figure 6
Children’s Ten Most Preferred Circle Time Activities with Participant Preferences
Circle Time Training and Preparation AMI-associated participants felt their TEP had never
Our third data section investigates aspects of circle prepared them for circle time versus AMS-associated
time preparation. First, we explore whether participants participants. Fisher’s exact test found that our results are
feel prepared for circle time by their TEP. Then, we statistically significant, p = .01, Cramer’s V = .20, suggest-
examine how often participants themselves prepare for ing a small effect (Kotrlik et al., 2011).
circle time. Figure 8 illustrates all participant responses to the
Figure 7 provides an overview of all participant question “How often do you prepare for circle time?” as
responses to the question, “Do you feel that your train- well as participant responses by AMI or AMS school as-
ing/teacher education program prepared you for circle sociation. Again, we emphasize that survey respondents’
time?” It also compares participant responses based on association refers to their current workplace and not their
their AMI or AMS perceived school association. We are teacher training.
including this comparison because the results demon- The largest segment of participants reported that they
strated significant differences. A slight majority of re- do not actively prepare for circle time and instead follow
spondents felt that their TEP always or usually prepared their inspiration. A nearly equal number responded
them for circle time. A large segment felt that their TEP that they prepare for circle time daily. Smaller groups of
prepared them sometimes. Only a small group never felt respondents prepare every few days or once a week. Ac-
prepared by their TEP. However, these numbers took cording to our data, children almost never lead circle time
on new significance when we analyzed responses by the in these Early Childhood classrooms. Our results become
participants’ school association. Over half of AMS-as- more interesting when we review participants’ approach-
sociated respondents always or usually felt their TEP es to circle time preparation according to their per-
had prepared them for circle time versus about a third ceived AMI or AMS association. Almost twice as many
of AMI-associated respondents. Over twice as many AMS-associated respondents prepare every day versus
AMI-associated respondents. Twice as many AMI-asso- than a third of AMI-associated respondents require that
ciated participants do not actively prepare for circle time children attend circle time (again, except when there are
versus AMS-associated participants. Fisher’s exact test behavioral issues) and instead, most allow children to
found that our results are statistically significant, p < .001, choose whether to attend. Fisher’s exact test found that
Cramer’s V = .37, suggesting a medium effect (Kotrlik et our results are statistically significant, p < .001, Cramer’s
al., 2011). V = .49, suggesting a medium to large effect (Kotrlik et al.,
2011).
Circle Time Attendance and Choice Next, we explore whether children must remain at
Our final results section investigates questions of circle time or are free to leave. We see in Figure 10 that
freedom and obligation as they relate to circle time. We all or most participants say children stay for the duration
discuss whether children must attend circle time, how of circle time and only about one quarter of participants
long they must stay, whether they are eager to attend, and say that children may choose to leave circle time before it
whether guides are required to have circle time gatherings ends. Yet when we correlate responses based on respon-
in their classrooms. dents’ perceived school association, we see a substan-
More than half of participants require that children tial difference. Half of AMI-associated participants say
attend circle time except when children have behavior is- children must stay at the circle for its duration (unless
sues or special needs (see Figure 9). Children may choose there are behavior issues) while over three fourths of
whether to attend the circle times in about a third of AMS-associated participants say children must stay at the
respondents’ classrooms. However, we see a large shift in circle (unless there are behavior issues). Fisher’s exact test
these percentages when we view the data by participants’ found that our results are statistically significant, p = .008,
school association. AMS-associated respondents require Cramer’s V = .46, suggesting a medium effect (Kotrlik et
that children attend circle time almost three fourths of al., 2011).
the time (except when there are behavioral issues); less
Figure 10
Duration of Children’s Attendance
In evaluating questions of freedom and choice, ticipants across all perceived associations are not required
Figure 11 provides an important perspective. Almost all to have circle time during the school day, we see that there
participants across both AMI and AMS school associ- is a significant element of obligation (perceived or other-
ations report children are eager to attend circle time or wise) for AMS-associated survey participants; over half
at least participate willingly. Only a tiny percentage of of AMS-associated respondents answered that they are
participants perceive that children avoid circle time or are always, usually, or sometimes required to offer circle time.
reluctant to join. Fisher’s exact test found that our results are statistically
Finally, we report on whether guides are required to significant, p < .001, Cramer’s V = .22, suggesting a small
include circle time in the school day. Figure 12 demon- effect (Kotrlik et al., 2011).
strates that for half of survey participants, circle time is
never a school requirement. Yet there does appear to be Discussion
some level of obligation for others: one third answered
that circle time is always or usually required, and a smaller The primary goal of our research was to determine
segment responded that it is sometimes required. This the nature and frequency of circle time gatherings in
picture becomes clearer when we review the matter by Montessori environments. Our results reveal that circle
AMI/AMS association. A small fraction of AMI-associat- time is widespread in Montessori classrooms. We identi-
ed participants is always or usually required to offer circle fied several other trends in U.S. Montessori practice: most
time versus almost half of AMS-associated participants. participants hold circle time as the last event of the morn-
Over three fourths of AMI-associated participants are ing; most participants require that children attend circle
never required to offer circle time versus over a third of time; most children attend circle time for its duration;
AMS-associated participants. While the majority of par- most participants hold circle time for 20 minutes or less;
half of participants feel that their TEP prepared them for shorter among AMI-associated respondents. Interestingly,
circle time. Finally, we found differences in AMI- and participants with the most teaching experience (regard-
AMS-associated schools with AMS-associated schools less of perceived AMI or AMS association) tend to have
demonstrating more support for circle time activities as a shorter circle time durations, which may reflect increased
regular part of their day. awareness of children’s needs in light of higher incidents
of behavior issues and student disengagement during long
Circle Time Scheduling circle times. The role of teacher experience in circle time
Research demonstrates the risks of lengthy circle practices remains a fertile area for further research.
time gatherings and points to resulting student disen-
gagement and challenging classroom behavior with one Circle Time Activities
study suggesting that it may be ideal to limit circle time Among our survey participants, calendar work and
to 20 minutes or less (Bustamante et al., 2018). Our show-and-tell are the two most common circle time
results indicate that the majority of survey participants activities, but there is ample evidence that calendar work
align with current best practice, holding circle time for may be inappropriate until after kindergarten (Beneke et
20 minutes or less regardless of AMI or AMS school al., 2008; Eliot, 2001; Friedman, 2000). The frequency
association. Even so, circle time duration tends to be of calendar activities among our survey participants, de-
Please only participate in this survey if you are a current or former Montessori lead, co-lead, intern, or student
teacher in a 3–6-year-old classroom.
First, we would like to ask a few questions about you and your classroom.
1. What is your primary role in the classroom?
o Montessori lead
o Montessori co-lead
o Montessori assistant
o Montessori student teacher
o Retired/former Montessori lead
o Other
o Prefer not to answer
Keywords: Montessori, citizenship education, peace education, moral development, sense of responsibility
Abstract: The purpose of this study is to synthesize Montessori’s writings on citizenship education to support the
implementation of a Montessorian view. This synthesis demonstrates that Montessori was of the explicit conviction
that a better world can be achieved through citizenship education, as it strives for a peaceful and harmonious society.
We approach this topic through the Dutch context. Although schools in the Netherlands are required by law to
promote active citizenship and social cohesion, this law does not stipulate which of the many different views on
citizenship education schools must adhere to. Schools have the liberty to devise their own citizenship curricula if
they can substantiate their views and choices. For Montessori schools, this requires insight into Montessori’s view
on citizenship education. Although Montessori’s views are still largely appropriate in our time, an ongoing dialogue
about citizenship education is required, as Montessori lived and worked in a specific geopolitical context. Based on our
analysis, we have identified seven themes that characterize Montessori’s view on citizenship education: one common
citizenship goal; preparation for independent thinking and action; image of the future citizen; adapted and critical
citizens; humanity for harmony; knowledge as prerequisite, personality development as goal; and an ever-expanding
worldview. The results of this study provide valuable insights for designing and teaching citizenship education through
a Montessorian lens.
Citizenship education is a hot topic in the Nether- the Montessori Method has been understood, devel-
lands (e.g., De Groot et al., 2022). While the recently oped, and implemented liberally from its inception in
passed Dutch Citizenship Education Act provides 1914 (de Brouwer et al., 2023). Since the twentieth
some direction, schools are largely left to explicate their century, schools have added elements to Montessori
views on citizenship education and implement prac- education and have put an emphasis on certain aspects
tices accordingly. Dutch Montessori schools naturally in response to developments in education and in society.
want to base their practice on Montessori’s ideas, but Despite the flexible ways in which Montessori principles
Montessori schools’ and teachers’ views on citizenship are being implemented, all schools affiliated with the
education may differ from her original vision. This is Dutch Montessori Association adhere to the Montessori
especially likely to be the case in the Netherlands where philosophy.
Journal
28 of Montessori
Journal ResearchResearch Fall 2023 Vol 9 Iss 2
of Montessori
Fall 2023, Volume 9, Issue 2
The aim of this study is to synthesize Montessori’s stitutions, civic morality, and patriotism. When and how
writings on citizenship education to support the imple- citizenship education developed in democratic countries
mentation of a Montessorian view, which will support depends on varying factors such as immigration, religion
Dutch Montessori schools in fulfilling their legal obliga- and secularism, voting rights, military conflict, multicul-
tion and pedagogical ambitions regarding the implemen- turalism, globalization, and the formation of supranation-
tation of citizenship education. Although there has been al institutions such as the European Union.
some writing on Montessori’s work in light of citizenship
education, these works are mostly essays, published in Citizenship Education in the Netherlands
non-peer reviewed journals (e.g., Hacker, 2015; Leonard, Dutch citizenship education was influenced by a
2015). Only four of her works have been systematically wide array of political and pedagogical thinkers such as
reviewed with a focus on citizenship education through Johan Rudolph Thorbecke, Philip Kohnstamm, Marti-
a literature-based, qualitative content analysis related to nus Langeveld, and, more recently, Micha De Winter, as
global citizenship and sustainability in Lower and Upper well as by the prevailing political climate and disrupting
Elementary and in middle school. In this review, Gynther events such as the attacks of September 11, 2001, and the
and Ahlquist (2022) focused on how to promote citizen- murder of the Dutch politician Pim Fortuyn (De Jong,
ship competencies and sustainability within Montessori 2021; Doppen, 2010). Different religious opinions and
education rather than on Montessori’s original intent. different ideas about the role of religion in education led
Deeper insight into Montessori’s views can help inform to the so-called School Struggle (schoolstrijd), which was
educational practices as schools formulate a Montessori- finally settled with Article 23, often referred to as Free-
an view on citizenship education. dom of Education (Rietveld-van Wingerden et al., 2003).
In what follows, we briefly describe the importance Through this article, the constitution stipulates that the
and history of citizenship education with a specific focus government decides on core educational objectives and
on the Netherlands. Our argument that views on citizen- supervises educational quality, but schools themselves are
ship education diverge quite substantially supports the free to choose their educational methods and adapt the
motivation for and context of our study. Summarizing curriculum how they see fit. Because of Freedom of Edu-
these differing views allows us to consider Montessori’s cation, the Netherlands now has great diversity in publicly
perspective within the range of possible ideas about funded schools with regards to religious orientation (e.g.,
citizenship education. We then provide a brief description Protestant, Catholic, and Islamic) and has publicly fund-
of Montessori’s life, with special attention to the geohis- ed schools with a range of pedagogical orientations (e.g.,
torical context of her time in relation to her ideas about Montessori, Dalton).
citizenship education. All schools can develop their own methods for and
outlook on citizenship education as long as they adhere to
Citizenship Education the core educational objectives determined by the Dutch
Convictions on the objectives of citizenship educa- government. Citizenship education became obligatory
tion have widely differed since ancient times. For exam- in all types of secondary education in 1968, when social
ple, while the education system in Sparta trained males studies (maatschappijleer) became part of the curriculum
to become loyal citizens through discipline and military (De Jong, 2021). This subject was meant to provide an
skills, the Greek and Roman elites, along with military introduction to modern society, but its objectives and
training, were taught math, reading, art, philosophy, and who should teach it were left unclear and became a
music as well (Heater, 2002). In the late 18th and 19th subject of debate. More recently, since the 1990s, social
centuries, mass schooling became the favored strategy cohesion, individualization, multiculturalization, and
of European states for nation building and citizenship national identity have become major themes in the dis-
development (Ramirez & Boli, 1987). What citizenship cussion about the importance of citizenship education.
education precisely entailed depended on the different To promote active citizenship and social integration, a
states’ ideologies (Heater, 2002). Democratic citizenship law on citizenship education (burgerschapsonderwijs)
education developed as a result of Enlightenment ideals, was passed in 2006 (De Groot et al., 2022). Moreover,
while totalitarian states, such as Nazi Germany, used to support the development of a shared national iden-
education to indoctrinate the young into the regime’s tity, the Dutch historical canon became a required part
ideology. Democratic citizenship education meant that of primary and secondary school curriculum in 2009
education promoted, for instance, knowledge about in- (Doppen, 2010).
Table 2
Example of Systematically Ordered Retrieved Citations, Using the Framework of Views on Citizenship Education
View on citizenship edu- Society (government, school, parents) may decide what kind of citizen children should be. /
cation Children themselves may decide what kind of citizen they want to be.
“One of the tasks of the child is to build himself adapted to the environment. (…) Adaptation is
the starting point, the ground we stand on” (Montessori, 2019a, p. 11).
“The adult defeats the child; and once the child reaches adulthood the characteristic signs of
the peace that is only an aftermath of war—destruction on one hand and painful adjustment
on the other—remain with him for the rest of his life. The age-old, superficial notion that the
Montessori citations development of the individual is uniform and progressive remains unchanged and the mistaken
idea that the adult must mold the child in the pattern that society wishes still holds sway. (…)
The child is not simply a miniature adult. He is first and foremost the possessor of a life of his own
that has certain special characteristics and that has its own goal” (Montessori, 1949/1992, p. 15).
“The only true freedom for an individual is to have the opportunity to act independently”
(Montessori, 1949/1992, p. 55).
ety of perspectives. Furthermore, although it is tempting al, growth-oriented, individualistic society, which tends to
to adopt Montessori’s thinking on citizenship education isolate people and undermine the harmony and solidarity
and align educational practice with it, we must recognize that is at the heart of Montessori’s thinking (Han, 2022).
that Montessori’s ideas arose in a particular time and The challenges for implementing Montessori’s vision of
context with specific characteristics and challenges. If citizenship education were quite different from those
she had lived today, perhaps her ideas would have been faced by educators today.
different. She could not have determined once and for all Neoliberal society focuses on individual success
and for everyone what citizenship is. Just as the interpre- and the adapted citizen. The ideal citizen, according
tation of Montessori’s works must take into account the to this narrative, is someone who conforms to the
time in which she lived, the interpretation of contempo- existing societal structures, contributes to them, strives
rary citizenship education must take into account mod- towards individual success, and does not question
ern society. The society in which Montessori developed social conditions. What is missing in this dominant
her philosophy and method has given way for a neoliber- narrative, from a Montessorian point of view, is the
Parents/caregivers are a potential risk for Parents/caregivers should determine the direc-
democratic education. tion of education.
The school is primarily responsible for The goals of citizenship education are a joint
achieving the goals of citizenship educa- social responsibility (of sport clubs, cultural
tion. organizations, parents, school, etc.).
Society (government, school, parents) may
Children themselves may decide what kind of
decide what kind of citizen children should
citizen they want to be.
be.
What is the ideal citizen? The focus of citizenship education should
The focus of citizenship education should main-
mainly be on treating each other well,
ly be on engagement with politics and political
taking each other into account, and dealing
issues.
with differences and diversity.
Citizenship education should mainly Citizenship education should mainly stimulate
stimulate certain emotions, attitudes, and that children themselves critically think about
behaviors (for instance, empathy and soli- what good emotions, attitudes, and behaviors
darity) in children. are.
The focus of citizenship education should The focus of citizenship education should main-
mainly be on loyalty, togetherness, unity, ly be on judging independently and critically,
community spirit, and sense of nationality. and civil disobedience if necessary.
Keywords: Maria Montessori, Montessori Method of education, Panama–Pacific International Exposition (San Francisco),
Panama–California Exposition (San Diego), Adelia McAlpin Pyle, Helen Parkhurst
Abstract: Maria Montessori’s visit to California in 1915—her second visit to the United States—coincided with
multiple events in the region: San Francisco’s Panama–Pacific International Exposition (PPIE), San Diego’s Panama–
California Exposition (PCE), and the National Education Association of the United States (NEA) annual meeting in
Oakland. Her visit also came at a time when the American Montessori movement was splintering, and the academic
elite increasingly criticized her educational model. These circumstances made Montessori’s visit to California a
potentially valuable opportunity to rekindle interest in Montessori education across the United States. Discussions of
Montessori’s visit in 1915 have been framed around her training course and demonstration school at the PPIE. Based
on information from primary sources (e.g., newspapers and archival materials), some of which have been overlooked,
this article asserts that her visit to California had broader implications. While her eight months in California did have a
positive impact on the growth of the Montessori movement, Montessori’s engagement with mainstream education had
limited impact and it gave way to waning interest in Montessori education in the United States.
In 1915, Maria Montessori made her second visit in 1914. Due to her father’s health and the outbreak of
to the United States. During her initial visit in 1913, World War I, her return trip was delayed until 1915 (C.
her itinerary was situated around East Coast cities (e.g., Montessori, 2015, pp. vii–x).
Washington, D. C., New York City, and Boston; see Gutek After her 1913 visit, the demand for more Montessori
& Gutek, 2016). This first visit to the United States was training within the United States went unsated. The
successful at inserting Montessori education into the primary factor inhibiting this—and an exponential spread
American educational zeitgeist and it left an American of Montessori education—was Montessori’s tight control
audience hungry for more training courses enabling over who was qualified to provide training courses. She
more individuals to become Montessori educators and asserted that training conducted by anyone other than
thus establish Montessori schools. As a direct result of herself was unauthorized and invalid (Gutek & Gutek,
this, Montessori intended to return to the United States 2020; Cohen, 1972, pp. 369–370). Americans’ demand
Journal
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Fall 2023, Volume 9, Issue 2
for more training courses, combined with Montessori’s Diego, as well as the National Education Association of
restrictions and the uncertainty of Montessori’s return, the United States (NEA) annual meeting in Oakland,
led to some of her former students from the East Coast which coincided with an International Congress on
leading unauthorized Montessori training courses Education also in Oakland. During her visit to California,
(“American Montessori training school for teachers,” Montessori attended and lectured at these events in
1914; WES21). Many of these individuals were aligned addition to delivering speeches and courses in other cities
with the Montessori Educational Association (MEA), the across the Golden State (e.g., Los Angeles and Pasadena).
first Montessori organization established in the United The PPIE and the PCE were both large world’s fairs
States. Learning about this, Montessori interpreted these organized to celebrate the completion and opening of the
actions as direct affronts to her declarations, and she Panama Canal. The PPIE took place during most of 1915
questioned the interests and loyalty of the leaders of the in San Francisco and, somewhat confusingly, the PCE
American Montessori movement—specifically, the MEA happened in San Diego during the same general period.
and its affiliates (e.g., Samuel S. McClure, Alexander While both events were world’s fairs, the PPIE was much
Graham Bell, Mabel Hubbard Bell, and Anne E. George; larger in scale and notoriety. Many of the secondary
Gutek & Gutek, 2020). The MEA was directly involved sources that discuss this period of Montessori’s biography
in Montessori’s 1913 trip to the United States, but these emphasize the role of her participation in the PPIE, going
actions related to training course offerings, among others, so far as to frame it as the crux of her travels (Bonsteel,
led to a rift and resulted in Montessori’s decision to rebuff 1995; Buckenmeyer, 2018; Kramer, 1976) while some
their involvement in her 1915 visit (Cohen, 1972; Gutek sources have generally overlooked her involvement in the
& Gutek, 2020; Povell, 2010, pp. 101–102). Additionally, PCE (Gutek & Gutek, 2020; Kramer, 1976; Standing,
in 1915, Montessori issued a formal declaration regarding 1998).
the establishment of Montessori associations which, as Simultaneous to these overlapping events in
Cohen (1972) asserted, “disavowed the MEA” (p. 369). California, World War I was underway in Europe, and
According to Cohen (1972), this declaration, titled Montessori’s relationship with her original East Coast
“General Regulations for the Formation of an Authorized American disciples and the MEA was disintegrating.
Montessori Society,” had specific clauses declaring While her 1913 visit was sponsored and coordinated
that Montessori would have complete control over the by the MEA and Samuel S. McClure (see Gutek &
creation of any Montessori society (pp. 369–370). These Gutek, 2016), her 1915 visit purposely avoided their
events thrust the American Montessori movement into an involvement. Instead, she relied on financial support from
existential crisis. the wealthy family of Adelia McAlpin Pyle, Montessori’s
Regardless, Montessori was intent upon visiting former student and an ardent disciple. Mario Montessori,
America to share her educational Method with the other former students (e.g., Katherine Moore and Helen
masses. While her 1913 visit to the East Coast was Parkhurst), and her longtime friend Anna Fedeli also
primarily geared toward the private sphere, her 1915 visit assisted her (Gutek & Gutek, 2020, pp. 190–192).
to the West Coast focused on the public sphere as well as Her visit also came at a time of personal and
general appeal. professional tumult. Her father, Alessandro Montessori,
was ailing and her relationship to her son, Mario, who had
Coming to America been born out of wedlock, was becoming increasingly
discussed in the American press.2 On the professional
Maria Montessori and her son, Mario Montessori side, in addition to the rift with the MEA, 1915 was
(the Montessoris), traveled to California at a convergence the year that William Heard Kilpatrick published his
of national and international events happening across highly critical evaluation of the Montessori education
the region. There were two world’s fairs, the Panama– Method, Montessori Examined. Kilpatrick was a highly
Pacific International Exposition (PPIE) in San Francisco influential pedagogue who wielded immense power over
and the Panama–California Exposition (PCE) in San the educational practices in the United States from his
1
All newspaper articles with unknown authorship have been assigned 2
Across different news reports, he was identified as her nephew,
an alphanumeric identifier, based on the publication name, which are cousin, adopted son, or son. For further details regarding the evolution
referenced in-text. These references and identifiers are listed in the of Maria’s and Mario’s relationship, see Babini & Lama (2000, pp.
“Newspaper Articles” subsection of the reference list. 107–109).
Figure 1b
Duca degli Abruzzi Passenger List – Maria Montessori and Mario Montesano (page 2)
Figure 2b
Ancona Passenger List – Anna Fedeli (page 2)
Located in the Palace of Education, this is an interior view of the Montessori demonstration classroom with
children gathered around a table and adults standing in the background. Records indicate there were 30
children enrolled in the class yet there are 35 children seated at the table in this photo. The adults standing in
the background include Maria Montessori, Adelia Pyle, Helen Parkhurst, Anna Fedeli, and Mario Montessori,
among others. Just beyond the windows, an audience is peering in, watching the young children. Though this
photograph does not include a specific date, it was likely taken on the classroom’s opening day, August 4, 1915.
Source: Edward A. Rogers Panama–Pacific International Exposition photograph collection, University of
California, Berkeley, Bancroft Library (BANC PIC 2015.013:15989--NEG). https://oac.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/
k6zp4dxk
Note. As is evident from this list, there are discrepancies among sources as to who attended the demonstration class. For instance,
of the 39 children, 20 of them are listed in both sources, 11 are unique to SDET8, and 8 are unique to SDET7. Another source
indicates that “there will be about forty little pupils,” which seems to confirm the above list of 39 children (SDET9). Children in
the demonstration class ranged in age from three to six and were taught by Anna Fedeli, Helen Parkhurst, Helen Little, and Edith
Little. The demonstration class was conducted on Tuesdays and Thursdays at 3:30 p.m. The model school was conducted in the art
studio of the San Diego State Normal School, not on the Exposition grounds as was initially planned (Robinson, 1915).
a
SDET8.
b
SDET7.
Abstract: According to the World Health Organization, there are currently more than 55 million people living with
dementia worldwide, and this figure is expected to triple by 2050. Recent studies suggest that there may be a link
between childhood trauma (which refers to exposure to overwhelmingly stressful experiences before the age of 18
years) and the onset of dementia in later life. Therefore, in communities caring for persons living with dementia, some
residents may have been exposed to trauma in childhood. Currently, there is an increasing awareness of the negative
impact of childhood trauma on later adult health and well-being, and a corresponding recognition of the need for
services, including for dementia care, to be trauma-informed. In the last decade, the Montessori Method has become
established as a legitimate approach to elder/dementia care. However, it has not yet been examined as a trauma-
informed approach. The aim of this paper is to address that gap by (a) highlighting how Maria Montessori took steps
to integrate interdisciplinary knowledge of trauma into her Method when she began to understand the potential of
childhood trauma to adversely impact adult health and well-being, and (b) outlining how the Montessori Method,
when applied to dementia care, incorporates many of the core principles of trauma-informed practice. This paper
concludes that the Montessori Method for dementia care has the built-in capacity to be trauma-sensitive and trauma-
responsive, but that its ongoing rollout should follow Montessori’s lead by specifically integrating knowledge about the
neurobiology of trauma into its training programs.
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According to the Centers for Disease Control with adversity-experienced individuals of the need for
and Prevention, “Dementia is not a specific disease human services—including services for dementia care—
but is rather a general term for the impaired ability to to be ACE-aware and trauma-informed. Being trauma-
remember, think, or make decisions, that interferes with informed means being aware of the potentially negative
doing everyday activities” (Centers for Disease Control impact of exposure to adversity and trauma on individuals
and Prevention, 2023). Dementia results from a variety (Cations et al., 2020, 2021; Couzner et al., 2022).
of injuries and diseases that affect the brain, including This recognition of the need to make dementia care
vascular diseases and strokes. The most common form of become trauma-informed has an important bearing on
dementia, accounting for 60-80% of cases, is Alzheimer’s the relatively recent use of the Montessori Method in the
disease (Alzheimer’s Association, 2023). Although care of people living with dementia. Given the possible
dementia is not a normal part of aging, the prevalence link between early exposure to trauma and the onset of
of dementia is increasing year on year (World Health dementia in later life, it is important that Montessori
Organization, 2023). This prevalence is occurring for a practitioners for dementia programs are aware of
number of reasons, including increased longevity. Global how childhood trauma can impact the progression of
dementia cases are forecasted to triple by 2050 (GBD dementia and how a trauma-informed approach can
2019 Dementia Forecasting Collaborators, 2022). result in better care practices. This paper highlights how
Recent studies (Corney et al., 2022; Couzner et al., Montessori understood the potential of unaddressed
2022; Radford et al., 2017; Schickedanz et al., 2022; Tani childhood trauma to adversely impact later adult health
et al., 2020) suggest that a link exists between exposure and well-being, and in response took steps to integrate
to adversity or trauma in childhood and the onset of interdisciplinary knowledge on trauma into her Method
dementia in later life. Childhood adversity includes such (Montessori, 2013a/1917). It also outlines how the
stressors as exposure to neglect, abuse, domestic violence, Montessori Method, when applied to dementia care,
parental substance misuse, parental mental health incorporates (perhaps unconsciously) many of the
problems, and parental divorce (Felitti et al., 1998). These core principles of trauma-informed practice. This paper
types of experiences overlap with what is considered concludes that the Montessori Method for dementia
childhood trauma, which refers to exposure to stressful care has the in-built capacity to be trauma-sensitive and
experiences that overwhelm children and adolescents trauma-responsive, but that its ongoing rollout should
under the age of 18 in the absence of a supportive follow Montessori’s lead by specifically integrating
adult (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services knowledge about trauma and trauma-informed practice
Administration, 2014). The groundbreaking Adverse into its training programs.
Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study (Felitti et al., 1998)
found that adverse experiences in childhood are common Method
and are found in all socioeconomic groups. Therefore,
in communities caring for elders and persons living This paper examines connections between the
with dementia, it is likely that some of the residents may Montessori Method for elder and dementia care, and
have been exposed to adversity or trauma in childhood. trauma-informed approaches. To conduct this study,
Building on the findings of the ACE study, an increasing Braun and Clarke’s (2022) analytical approach to
body of literature highlights the negative impact of thematic analysis was used. This approach involved six
childhood trauma on later adult health and well-being steps. The first step was to become familiarized with the
(Bellis et al., 2019; Burke Harris, 2019; Shonkoff et al., data in the literature listed in Table 1, and to take note
2012; van der Kolk, 2014). Chandrasekar and colleagues of any recurring features and initial thoughts on how
found that exposure to adversity in childhood predisposes to code the data. The second step involved extracting
an individual to multimorbidity, i.e., living with two or pieces of text and highlighting them with different colors
more chronic conditions such as cardiovascular disease, to create initial codes or meaningful labels that could
diabetes, or mental illnesses such as anxiety or depression identify recurring ideas in the data set. For example,
(Chandrasekar et al., 2023). Their findings showed that when reading Montessori’s pamphlet about the World
“Childhood adversity was associated with a progressively War I French and Belgian refugee children (Data Group
increasing burden of multimorbidity across adulthood F), I extracted several pieces of text from which I created
into early old age” (p. 2). Accompanying these findings the initial codes “war,” “trauma,” “physical wounds,”
is a corresponding recognition by professionals working “psychological wounds,” and “human degeneration.”
Camp, C. J. et al. 2006 Montessori-based activities for persons with dementia. Vol 2 Book
Camp, C. J. 2012 Hiding the stranger in the mirror: Book
A detective’s manual for solving problems associated with Alzhei-
mer’s disease and related disorders.
Brenner, T. & Brenner, K. 2020 The Montessori Method for connecting to people with dementia: Book
A creative guide to communication and engagement in dementia
care.
Brush, J. 2020 Montessori for elder and dementia care. Book
Resources on the possibility of a link between childhood trauma and dementia
Radford et al. 2017 Childhood stress and adversity is associated with late-life demen- Article
tia in Aboriginal Australians.
Tani et al. 2020 Association between adverse childhood experiences and demen- Article
tia in older Japanese adults.
Schickedanz et al. 2022 The association between adverse childhood experiences and Article
positive dementia screen in American older adults.
Corney et al. 2022 The relationship between adverse childhood experiences and Article
Alzheimer’s disease: A systematic review.
Cations et al. 2021 The case for trauma-informed age care. Article
Couzner et al. 2022 Delivering trauma-informed care in a hospital ward for older Article
adults with dementia: An illustrative case series
Resources on trauma-informed principles
Fallot, R. & Harris, M. 2009 Creating cultures of trauma-informed care: A self-assessment and Article
planning protocol.
SAMSHA 2014 SAMSHA’s concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-in- Report
formed approach.
Resources on adverse childhood experiences and trauma
Felitti et al. 1998 Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to Report
many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Child-
hood Experiences (ACE) Study.
Perry, B. D. 1999 Memories of fear: How the brain stores and retrieves traumatic Book chapter
experience.
Resources on Montessori’s involvement with trauma-affected children
Montessori, M. 2013/1917 The white cross Pamphlet
C: The need for trauma- Past history of neglect or abuse, personal care There is a real need for aged-care staff
informed aged care issues. to be trauma-informed to prevent re-
traumatization.
D: Trauma-informed principles The need for safety, trust, peer support, Is the Montessori Method for dementia a
collaboration, choice, empowerment. trauma-informed approach?
E: Adverse childhood Neglect, abuse, caregiver mental instability; The impact of childhood adversity on later
experiences and trauma household substance abuse; domestic physical and mental health.
violence; incarceration of family member;
death of caregiver; separation from caregiver.
F: Montessori’s involvement War/trauma/physical wounds/psychological Montessori’s involvement with trauma-
with trauma-affected children wounds. affected children.
These initial codes and references to the data sources that they were distinct enough from other emerging themes
support them are listed in Table 2. The third step involved to stand alone. The fifth step involved naming the themes
identifying potential or emerging themes. In this respect, such that they would be engaging and of interest to a
I took a deductive approach in that my choice of themes potential reader. The sixth step involved the write up of
was influenced by my existing knowledge. This step the article using the themes as the structure.
also involved grouping some of my codes into broader
themes. For example, from the initial codes, I created the Theoretical Framework
following emerging themes: Montessori’s involvement
with trauma-affected children; Montessori’s concerns This study is based on the pioneering research
for trauma-affected children’s exposure to criminality; of Cameron Camp, through which he discovered the
Montessori’s concerns for trauma-affected children’s potential of the Montessori Method to help persons
mental and physical health; Montessori’s concerns for living with dementia to live meaningful and fulfilling lives
trauma-affected children’s later adult health. Emerging despite their particular challenges (Camp, 1999, 2010,
themes from the data groups are listed in Table 2. The 2012; Camp et al., 2006; Camp & Shelton, 2023). It is
fourth step involved reviewing the potential themes also anchored on the groundbreaking ACE study (Felitti
against the data to establish relevance, usefulness, and that et al., 1998) and the concept of trauma and trauma-
How the Montessori Method Provides a Sense of This paper offers an original contribution to
Belonging and a Strength of Community—Powerful Montessori research in that it examines connections
Factors in Promoting Healing from Trauma between Montessori elder and dementia care and trauma-
The third sub-theme of theme three relates to how informed approaches. To my knowledge, this is the first
the Montessori Method, when applied to dementia study to do this. Currently, the Montessori Method is
care, provides a sense of belonging and a strength of recognized as a legitimate and helpful approach to caring
community, which are powerful factors in promoting for elders and people living with dementia. This paper
healing from trauma. It offers an individual the warmth has shown that this approach naturally incorporates what
and sense of community or what Perry and Winfrey call are now generally recognized as the six key principles of
“the power of connectedness,” which has been shown trauma-informed practice. However, what is not clear
to be a powerful factor in bringing healing from trauma is to what extent the four Rs emphasized by SAMHSA
(2021, p. 254). Perry and Winfrey write, “the brain is are incorporated into Montessori for dementia training
continually scanning the social environment for signals programs. To be able to realize the widespread impact of
to tell you if you do or don’t belong. When a person gets trauma, to recognize the signs and symptoms of trauma,
the signals—many of which are subconscious—that they to respond by fully integrating knowledge about trauma
belong, their stress response systems quiet down, telling into policies, procedures, and to actively resist re-
them they’re safe” (p. 263). In this respect, Montessori traumatization requires interdisciplinary knowledge about
Methods for dementia have a unique capacity to make the neurobiology of trauma, and the impact of trauma
a person feel that sense of community, that sense of on the mind and body. This kind of interdisciplinary
belonging described by Perry and Winfrey. knowledge can best be gained through attendance of staff
Relatively recent research shows that the Montessori at trauma-informed programs or by integrating modules
approach to dementia care is having a positive effect on on trauma and trauma-informed practice into the general
residents’ emotions and behaviors. Brush and colleagues, training of Montessori for dementia personnel.
describing the implementation of Montessori for While, initially, it might look as if the possible
dementia care, explain that the program aims to form association of childhood trauma with dementia
and maintain a caring community that is attuned to the complicates matters, it may well turn out to be the very
needs, interests, and abilities of the elders living in it by reverse. If we have an understanding of the neurobiology
creating an environment that is carefully prepared to of trauma, how trauma affects our brain and body, our
provide opportunities for choice, independence, self- stress response systems, the role of adaptive responses,
initiated activity, and success. Brush and colleagues say the problem of trauma triggers, and most importantly,
that elder persons’ lives are, therefore, enriched through what caregivers can do to help a person to regulate their
their engagement in routines, roles, and activities, which mind and body when they become hyper-aroused as the
fosters a sense of belonging and community and that this result of a trauma trigger (which could take the form of
promotes well-being (Brush et al., 2018a, 2018b). Brush a memory, a color, a smell, a sound, or a sight), we will
and colleagues also state that “elders reported significantly be in a better position to understand, empathize with,
more positive emotions” (Brush et al., 2018a, p. 42). and help persons with dementia. This is what Montessori
Maria Montessori argued that the classroom she the corresponding sounds, learning to hold and control
established in 1907 for children under school age left a writing implement using Metal Insets, and composing
unsupervised during the day in an impoverished area of familiar words using a Moveable Alphabet. Montessori
Rome opened the way for “putting into practice those (1964) famously described how these young children
new principles of science” which were revolutionizing were soon using chalk to cover the walls and floor of
the “work of education” (Montessori, 1964, p. 1). She the classroom with familiar words before subsequently
noted that to “prepare teachers in a method of the rushing to read and act out commands written on little
experimental sciences is not an easy matter,” while, at cards.
the same time, she warned her readers of the dangers A century on, as young children in Montessori
of applying the experimental sciences to pedagogy in “a classrooms around the world continue to engage with
barren and mechanical way” (p. 7). For Montessori, a true Sandpaper Letters, Metal Insets, Moveable Alphabets,
scientific pedagogy was only possible if the classroom was and Reading Command cards, an accumulation of studies
organized as a social environment that enabled teachers into how children learn to read from across a range of
to observe children’s activity generated by materials disciplines has generated an influential body of research
and lessons that capture their interest (see, for example, evidence that has been dubbed the science of reading.
Montessori, 1964, p. 107). Lessons that captured the The science of reading is currently being used to shape
interest of the children in that first Montessori classroom education policy and mandated curriculum documents,
included tracing Sandpaper Letters and pronouncing especially in the English-speaking world. For this reason,
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the comparative analysis of the Montessori approach and Chapter 2 concludes by drawing attention to the
the science of reading presented in Powerful Literacy in overlapping principles that underpin both Montessori
the Montessori Classroom: Aligning Reading Research and pedagogy and instructional practices based on the
Practice will be welcomed by many Montessori educators. science of reading. This overlap embraces multisensory,
The book is organized into eleven chapters. The first systematic, explicit, and interactive teaching approaches
two chapters provide overviews of Montessori education alongside opportunities for the extended practice and
and the science of reading. Chapter 1 includes a brief repetition that lead to word recognition automaticity and
synopsis of the provenance and history of Montessori comprehension—the ultimate goal of reading instruction.
education with a focus on its early adoption in the The overview chapters are followed by two separate
United States following the first international Montessori parts of the book organized, as noted above, according to
training course. The authors review key features of the the strands of the Reading Rope framework. Including
pedagogy; these features include personalized instruction a short introduction and conclusion, “Part I: Word
and a systematic, structured learning progression across Recognition” comprises three chapters: “Phonological
all learning areas, as well as learning materials designed Awareness” (Chapter 3), “Decoding” (Chapter 4), and
to isolate difficulty and control error. This section “Sight Recognition” (Chapter 5). Similarly, “Part II:
also helpfully describes the features of the prepared Language Comprehension” has a short introduction and
Montessori environment in terms of five classroom conclusion, and five chapters: “Background Knowledge”
design elements found by Barrett et al. (2013) to improve (Chapter 6), “Vocabulary” (Chapter 7), “Language
student learning. This evaluation of the Montessori Structures” (Chapter 8), “Verbal Reasoning” (Chapter
environment through the lens of a comparatively recent 9), and “Literacy Knowledge” (Chapter 10). Each of the
evidence-based conceptual framework foreshadows chapters in Parts I and II are structured in the same way:
the use in subsequent chapters of the Reading Rope an introduction followed by a summary of the featured
taxonomy to align the Language component of the reading skill and how to teach it from the science of
Montessori curriculum with evidence emerging from reading point of view, a selection of materials and lessons
science of reading research. used in Montessori early years classrooms to address the
The overview of the science of reading in Chapter 2 skill, and, finally, exemplar activities for teaching this skill
begins by establishing what is meant by science of reading drawn from the structured literacy approach.
for the purposes of this book. This is an important step The three chapters of Part 1, mapped against
because, as the authors note, the term science of reading the word recognition strands of the Reading Rope
is interpreted in varying ways in the multiple contexts in Framework, cover knowledge and skills that, ideally, are
which it is used, including inaccurately in many popular taught systematically, are learned relatively quickly, and
contexts when the term is conflated with phonics only. are assessed comparatively easily during initial instruction
This chapter also provides an example of science of in the early years of school (Paris, 2005). In each chapter,
reading translated into practice, an acknowledgement the science of reading principles underpinning each of
that science “is one kind of thing (empirical findings these strands are reviewed in summaries that will become
and explanatory theories)” while “educational practice useful resources for teacher education programs or
is another (activities that promote learning in real world teachers wishing to refresh their knowledge. The authors
settings)” (Seidenberg et al., 2020, p. S121). ensure key terms are clearly defined while distinguishing
Chapter 2 includes a section that reviews three between commonly confused terms, for example,
seminal reports presented as the “foundations of reading phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, phoneme, and
research” (p. 34) followed by an explanation of the phonics. They also draw attention to the fact that while
Simple View of Reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986; phonological awareness is the foundation on which
Hoover & Tunmer, 2021) and its elaboration in the sound-letter knowledge (decoding) is built, which in turn
well-known Reading Rope framework (Scarborough, supports sight recognition, as these skills develop, they
2001). The Reading Rope framework expands into reinforce each other, indicating that integrated instruction
their constituent skills the two main components of in all three is the most effective approach.
skilled reading identified in the Simple View of Reading: As the authors point out, the Montessori lessons
Word Recognition and Language Comprehension. and materials that support the word recognition
This framework is used very effectively to organize the strands of reading development are largely located in
subsequent chapters of the book. the Language area of the classroom and include iconic
Book Review 81
Montessori materials such as the Sandpaper Letters and of every dimension of reading comprehension. Relevant
Moveable Alphabet. The authors should be commended materials described in Part II include the three-part
for highlighting both sound discrimination in general classification cards and definition booklets that feature
as a skill that makes phonological awareness possible in every Montessori learning area as the culmination
and the Montessori Sensorial materials, through which of series of lessons that have their origin in concrete
children develop and refine this skill, including the experience (Table 6.1), alongside charts such as the
Sound Cylinders and the Bells. In the decoding chapter “Fundamental Needs of Humans” and the “Timeline of
(Chapter 4), the authors highlight Montessori materials, Life.” Chapter 7, “Vocabulary,” highlights morphology
specifically the Geometric Cabinet, Geometric Solids (word study) in Montessori classrooms, important
and Metal Insets, that build visual discrimination and fine because English orthography is morphophonemic,
motor skills to support the ability to distinguish between the alphabetic code not only being used to represent
and form the letters of the alphabet. They also describe sounds (phonemes), but also meaningful parts of words
in detail how, in Montessori settings for young children, (morphemes). Unfortunately, there is no mention in
the alphabetic principle—the relation between sounds this chapter of the study of etymology, which is such
and letters—is introduced during three period lessons a distinguishing feature of Montessori elementary
with the Sandpaper Letters. From this point, encoding— classrooms.
making words using the Moveable Alphabet—precedes Chapter 8, “Language Structures,” highlights another
and prepares for later decoding. distinctive feature of the Montessori curriculum: the
Chapter 5 provides an overview of the evolving series of Functions of Words and Grammar Box activities
use of the term sight words, originally used for words through which young children build both reading fluency
that are not easily sounded out but which, from the and knowledge about grammar using manipulable
science of reading perspective, is applied to all words materials. The authors could have expanded upon the
that a reader can recognize automatically on sight, role of the Montessori grammar materials as a bridge that
including high frequency words. The chapter provides leads children from decoding words to comprehending
a review of the approach for teaching writing and the meanings of connected text. They also could have
reading in English-speaking Montessori classrooms pointed out the ways interaction with the Montessori
developed by Muriel Dwyer (1977) to address the fact grammar materials support children’s development of
that sound-letter correspondence is far less consistent “Verbal Reasoning” (Chapter 9).
in English orthography than in Italian, the language By comparing the Montessori reading curriculum
used in Montessori’s first classrooms. The authors argue with instructional practices aligned with the science
convincingly that in light of science of reading evidence, of reading, the authors of Powerful Literacy in the
Montessori teachers in English-speaking classrooms may Montessori classroom have achieved their goal of helping
need to review some elements of this approach, including Montessori educators “see the familiar in a new way”
the notion of puzzle words. The original list of puzzle (p. 12). Realizing the full potential of this project,
words in Dwyer (1977, p. 14) includes words not easily however, is beyond the scope of one publication. The
sounded out such as I, the, put, was, one, are. Interestingly, matrix on Montessori Materials and science of reading
the examples used in Chapter 5 (that, them, this) can in the appendix demonstrates that there are many more
be sounded out quite easily and are better described as Montessori materials and activities to consider in terms
high frequency words, thus illustrating the shift in our of their alignment with the science of reading. Readers
understanding of sight words over recent decades, and looking forward to using this matrix should be aware that,
perhaps underscoring the need for Montessori educators unfortunately, the e-book version of this handy resource
to clarify the current use of the term puzzle words. is not easy to follow.
“Part II: Language Comprehension Overview” draws The wider Montessori community would benefit if
attention to language skills underpinning skilled reading, this book prompted further investigations into how or
skills that develop from infancy across the lifespan where Montessori pedagogy aligns with evidence-based
(Paris, 2005). As well as summarizing the five strands teaching practice. This suggestion is made with several
of language comprehension from a science of reading caveats. First, for every strand of the Reading Rope,
perspective, these chapters reveal how the knowledge- in addition to selected Montessori activities aligned
rich Montessori curriculum supports the development with that strand, the authors have provided exemplar
Book Review 83
Hoover, W. A., & Tunmer, W. E. (2021). The primacy of (Eds.), Handbook for research in early literacy (pp.
science in communicating advances in the science of 97–110). Guilford Press.
reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 57(2), 399–408. Seidenberg, M. S., Borkenhagen, M. C., & Kearns, D. M.
https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.446 (2020). Lost in translation? Challenges in connecting
Lillard, A. S. (2012). Preschool children’s development reading science and educational practice. Reading
in classic Montessori, supplemented Montessori, and Research Quarterly, 55(S1), S119–S130. https://doi.
conventional programs. Journal of School Psychology, org/10.1002/rrq.341
50(3), 379–401. Shanahan, T. (2020). What constitutes a science of
Lillard, A. S., & Heise, M. J. R. (2016). An intervention reading instruction. Reading Research Quarterly,
study: Removing supplemented materials from 55(S1), S235–S247. https://doi.org/10.1002/
Montessori classrooms associated with better child rrq.349
outcomes. Journal of Montessori Research, 2(1), Share, D. L. (2021). Is the science of reading just the
16–26. https://doi.org/10.17161/jomr.v2i1.5678 science of reading English? Reading Research
Lillard, A. S., Heise, M. J. R., Eve, M., Tong, X., Hart, A., Quarterly, 56(S1), S391–S402. https://doi.
& Bray, P. M. (2017). Montessori preschool elevates org/10.1002/rrq.401
and equalizes child outcomes: A longitudinal study. Thomas, P. (2022). The science of reading movement:
Frontiers in Psychology, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/ The never-ending debate and the need for a different
fpsyg.2017.01783 approach to reading instruction. National Education
Montessori, M. (1964). The Montessori Method. Shocken Policy Center. https://nepc.colorado.edu/
Books. publication/science-of-reading
Paris, S. G. (2005). Reinterpreting the development of Wyse, D., & Bradbury, A. (2022). Reading wars or
reading skills. Reading Research Quarterly, 40(2), reading reconciliation? A critical examination of
184–202. robust research evidence, curriculum policy and
Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language teachers’ practices for teaching phonics and reading.
and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, Review of Education. https://doi.org/10.1002/
theory, and practice. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson rev3.3314
Abstract: Action research is the term used for investigations done in the field, often by practitioners, and typically
with a pragmatic rather than theoretical purpose (Willis & Edwards, 2014). This type of research is a key part of
many Montessori teacher education programs, but the value of this important work is often lost to the field because
the papers reside in separate institutional repositories with limited indexing. The Journal of Montessori Research is
introducing a new annual review article series which features selected graduate student action research studies. The
authors of this recurring series of articles represent Montessori teacher preparation programs and other university-
based research roles. They will select studies that they believe are particularly high quality and relevant to the journal’s
readers. We are calling this series of articles “Rediscovering the Child” to honor Maria Montessori’s seminal work
and to acknowledge that all Montessori teachers engage in an ongoing process of rediscovering the children in their
classrooms. When this process is formalized, action research is the result. This article is the first in the series and
highlights six studies from University of Wisconsin-River Falls and St. Catherine University. In the coming issues, we
will likely refine some aspects of our selection and review processes and expand the programs represented.
In the first chapters of Discovery of the Child, unlearned. But since we are constantly hampered
Montessori (1967) recounts the experiences leading by our habits and prejudices, I never thought of
up to her most noteworthy work in the first Casa dei applying these same methods on preschool children.
Bambini. After explaining that she was a student of The opportunity of doing so came to me by pure
philosophy and took courses in experimental psychology, chance. (p. 33)
she stated,
Reading like a personal journal, she described the ideal
I wanted to experiment with the various methods opportunity that the San Lorenzo housing project
used successfully by Seguin with children when they presented to develop a scientific method for discovering
first came to school at the age of six untrained and the child. She continued,