UNIT-III

Instrumentation
The process in which the set of various interconnected electrical, measurement, and control
instruments measure, analyse, and control electrical and non-electric physical quantities is
called Instrumentation.

Introduction of virtual instrumentation (VI)

 The virtual instrumentation is a system that uses computer equipped with powerful
application software and hardware.
 The system is capable of functioning as traditional instrumentation system and it can
perform the task of testing and automation
 The traditional instrumentation system is oriented to hardware whereas virtual
instrumentation is software oriented. Virtual instrumentation can be organized as per
the requirement i.e., it is used defined.
 All the signal handling and control action is done through software.

Fig.1 Software based virtual instrumentation

 Virtual instrumentation is flexible and suitable for innovations. It has two components
software and hardware.
 Virtual instrumentation has power supply, PC processor with operating system,
software PC interface bus, control, modular hardware, user interface and
communication parts based on GPIB, ENLT or USB, etc.
 Virtual instruments are compatible with conventional instruments and provides
libraries for interfacing with common ordinary instrumentation buses such is GPIB,
Ethernet.
 Software runs on PC processor. The software achieves the functions of virtual
instrumentation which allows plug in hardware and access through a network.
 All these lower cost, lower development and maintenance, cost, accuracy and
precision.
Difference between Traditional and Virtual Instrumentation

S.No. Traditional Instrumentation Virtual Instrumentation

1. It is hardware concentric. It is software concentric
2. Data handling is complicated Data handling capacity is easier and better
3. Data analysis is difficult Due to computers data analysis is easy and quick.
4. This lack is portability Powerful software is available with new operating
systems (Windows XP, Net etc.) So, this is portable.
5. It cannot work for customized It can work for customized application effectively.
applications effectively.
6. It makes the customer to pay for It lets the customer to pay for “What they need”.
“What they use”.
7. It requires more power It requires less power
8. Not as economical as virtual It is economical
instrumentation
9. More secured Security is less since data is to be handled through
computer.

Graphical Programming:

Graphical programming languages provide a different method of coding. Instead of the high-
level statements in procedural languages, like C and Object-Oriented languages like C++ or
Java, graphical languages are coded by selecting objects, connecting them, and adding
functionality.

Graphical Programming Technique

(LAB VIEW- Software used for virtual instrumentation)

 Lab VIEW is a short name of Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench.

It is a system-design platform and development environment for a visual programming
language from National Instruments.
 It is a dataflow programming language.
 Execution is determined by the structure of a graphical block diagram on which the
programmer connects different function-nodes by drawing wires.
 Lab VIEW is a graphical programming language that uses icons instead of lines of text
to create applications.
 With LabVIEW, you can design custom virtual instruments by creating a graphical user
interface on the computer screen through which you
 Operate the instrumentation program
 Control selected hardware
 Analyse acquired data
 Display results
 LabVIEW programs are called virtual instruments (VIs). Controls are inputs and
indicators are outputs.
 Each VI contains three main parts,
 Front Panel - How the user interacts with the VI.
Block Diagram-The code that controls the program.
Icon/Connector - Means of connecting a VI to another VIs.
 In LabVIEW, you build a user interface by using a set of tools and objects. The user
interface is known as the front panel. You then add code using graphical representations
of functions to control the front panel objects.
 The block diagram contains this code. In some ways, the block diagram resembles a
flowchart.
 Users interact with the Front Panel when the program is running.
 Users can control the program, change inputs, and see data updated in real-time.
 Controls are used for inputs such as adjusting a slide control to set an alarm value,
turning a switch on or off or to stop a program.
 Indicators are used as outputs. 'Thermometers, lights, and other indicators display
output values from the program. These may include data, program states, and other
information.
 Every front panel control or indicator has a corresponding terminal on the block
diagram.
 When a VI is run, values from controls flow through the block diagram, where they are
used in the functions on the diagram, and the results are passed into other functions or
indicators through wires.

 The Functions Palette is a hierarchical list of VIs, functions and constants for
programming on the Block Diagram. Elements are categorized to make navigation
easier and help focus on specific topics.
 The functions palette is accessible either by right-clicking any empty location on
the Block Diagram or clicking on the View-->Functions Palette menu item.
Alternatively the functions palette can be pinned in place so that it stays open as a
floating window by clicking the push pin icon on the top-left corner of the palette
window.
 If accessed by right-click, the palette immediately dismisses itself after an element is
selected. If pinned or accessed by menu item the palette will remain open after an
element is selected.
 Different palette functions are programming, measure I/O, instrument I/O signal
processing, etc.

Advantages of virtual instrumentation:

 Performance- VI interfaces often utilize a great deal of processing power which allow
them to quickly perform complex tasks.

 Platform-Independent Nature- A benefit of the LabVIEW environment is the

platform-independent nature of the G-code, which is portable between the different
LabVIEW systems for different operating systems (Windows, Linux).
 Flexibility- VI can be modified and adapted to the particular needs. The functions
would be performed by software running on the PC processor. We can extend the set
of functions easily, limited only by the power of the software used.

 Lower Cost- By employing virtual instrumentation solutions, lower capital costs,

system development costs, and system maintenance costs are reduced.

 Minimising Set-Up and Configuration Time Costs

Once the users have specified and purchased measurement hardware, the real task of
developing the application begins. However, the user must first install the hardware and
software, configure any necessary setting and ensure that all pieces of the system
function properly. This set-up and configuration stage also includes any necessary
fixturing, such as sensor connection, wiring and any preparation of the unit under test.
Therefore, saving time in set-up and configuration can result in a large reduction in the
total application cost.

Data Types:

 Data types, as the name suggests, denotes the type of variables or data that can be used
in LabView.
 Data types are important to remember as it helps us in determining what kind of data
we have used in our program and what else we can use.
 In LabView, the data types cannot be interconnected i.e. if a variable is of integer type,
then its value must also be the type of integer otherwise the LabView will give you an
error.
 Data types basically indicate the type of objects, inputs, and outputs that can be wired
together.
 There are some unique colours assigned to different data types, which is focused on
ensuring that they are not interconnected to each other.
 Every data type has data stored according to its specific type i.e. integer can only store
integer value and can only display integer type of data.

 Boolean:

Boolean data types consist of only two values i.e. true and false. It is a logical data type
providing the output in the form of 0 or 1 specifying false and true respectively. The
Boolean data type is indicated by green data wires. LabView stores the Boolean data
as 8-bit values.

 Numeric:

Numeric data types in LabView are represented as floating point numbers, complex
numbers, signed-unsigned integers, and fixed-point numbers. All the Integers either
signed or Unsigned are indicated by blue data wires. Double and single precision and
complex numbers are represented by orange data wires in LabView. The only
difference in the numeric data is determined by the type of their values and the number
of bits they store.
  Strings:

Any sequence of displayable and non-displayable ASCII characters in the LabView

data is known as Strings data type. It is indicated by pink data wire on the block
diagram.

 Array:

 Arrays can be distinguished as a group of specific data types. They are

determined by thicker data wires. In array, we can store numeric, string, double
or even Boolean data types.
 An array control or indicator is created by first choosing the array shell and then
depositing a data object into it.
 Initially, the block diagram terminal of the array shell is black to indicate that
the data type is not defined. Once a data type is assigned to the array shell, the
block diagram takes the colour and lettering (in [ ] brackets) of the data type.

Array Operations:

LabVIEW provides many functions to manipulate arrays. Some of the commonly used
functions are Array size, Initialize Array, Build Array.
Array Size: The Array Size function returns the number of elements in each dimension of
array. If the input array is n-dimensional, the output will be a one-dimensional array with n-
elements.
Initialize Array: The Initialize Array function creates an n-dimensional array with elements
with values specified at the input. One important use of this function is to allocate memory for
arrays. The data type of the array is determined by what is connected to the input.
Build Array: The Build Array function is used to concatenate multiple arrays or to append
extra elements to an array.

 Cluster:

 Clusters are the data type which consists different type of data in a single unit i.e.,
you can combine Boolean, numeric and string in a single value. This data type is
indicated by thicker brown colour data wire.
 Custers group data elements of mixed types, such as a bundle of wires, as in a
telephone cable, where each wire in the cable represents a different element of the
cluster.
 A cluster is similar to a record or a structure and text-based programming languages.
 T Clusters of numeric sometimes referred to as points, have a brown wire pattern
and data type icon.
 Numeric clusters can be wired to numeric functions, such as add or square root, to
perform the same operation simultaneously on all elements of the cluster.

 Waveform:
 The waveform data type that is used to store and display periodic signal measurements.
The waveform creates a graph and charts of the particular data. It provides you with
exact and precise information about your data in charts and graphs form.

 Enum:

Enums are the combination of data types mainly consisting of a pair of data values i.e.,
string and a numeric value.

Concept of WHILE & FOR Loops:

 LabVIEW consists of FOR Loop and WHILE Loop. These loops are used to control
repetitive operations.
 LabVIEW includes structures like the While Loop, For Loop, Case structure, Sequence
structure and Formula Node.

While Loop in LabVIEW

A While Loop is a structure you use to execute a block of LabVIEW code repeatedly until a
given condition is met. When the VI runs, the code inside the While Loop executes, and then
the terminal condition is evaluated. While Loop execution does not depend on iteration count;
thus, a While Loop executes indefinitely if the condition never occurs.

Fig. 2 While Loop Flowchart

While Loops should be used when:

 You want your code to run indefinitely.
 You want to run code until a condition is met

For Loops in LabVIEW

A For Loop is a structure you use to execute a block of code a set number of times. When the
VI runs, the iteration count is evaluated, and then the code is executed. A For Loop can be
configured to conditionally stop code execution in addition to its iteration-based exit. In these
cases, the code will execute until the count terminal setting is reached or the condition is met
– whichever happens first.
 Fig. 3 LabVIEW For Loop flowchart

For Loops should be used when:

 You need to run code for a certain number of times.
 You want to run code until a condition is met OR a set number of iterations, whichever
comes first.

Graph:

 Graphs display only the most recent array of values written to them and do not have a
history of data.
 Graphs and charts differ in the way they display and update data.
 Virtual instrumentation with graphs usually collects the data in an array and then plot
the data to the graph, which is like a spreadsheet that first stores the data then generates
a plot of it.
 In contrast, a chart appends new data points to those already in the display. On a chart,
the current reading or measurement in context with data previously acquired can be
viewed.

Structures
It contains one or more sub diagrams or cases exactly one of which executes when the structures
execute. The value wired to the case selector determines which case to execute.

Sequence Structure:

 A sequence of a structure is used especially when the program needs to be executed in

a linear process (especially in sequential order).
 Within LabVIEW, it is quite hard to take control of the execution order. If a calculation
is happening in a linear function, i.e., the next calculation is actually dependant on the
current input, then the process will be executed in sequential order.
 But, if the calculations are happening in parallel, it gets complex and the process cannot
be managed in a sequential structure. So, most of the calculations are actually forced to
take up a sequential structure approach.
Case structure:

Case structures are widely used in the scenarios where the program or the users have to take a
decision. The decision is categorized into two options, i.e. True or False. At any point of
execution, only one condition (or case, i.e. True or False) will be executed.

Components of case structure

 Selector label- Displays the value(s) for which the associated case executes. You can
specify a single value or a range of values. The selector label to specify the default case.
 Sub-diagram(case)- Contains the code that executes when the value wired to the case
selector matches the value that appears in the selector label
 Case selector- Selects which case to execute based on the value of the input data. The
input data can be a Boolean, string, integer, enumerated type, or error cluster

Formula Nodes:

It is a software that is a convenient, text-based node you can use to perform complicated
mathematical operations on a block diagram using the C- syntax structure. It is most useful for
equations that have many variables. The text-based code simplifies the block diagram and
increases its readability.

Need of software-based instruments for industrial automation:

 Industrial Automation software such as Siemens- Simatic Manager is used to control

and monitor the process (automatic) from a longer distance. An operator or Engineer
does not need to go where the manual switches are to start the process. He/she just
needs to start the process from the software. And another reason is, now a days we don’t
need to use timers and different kind of relays in the field. Everything is available in
the software. So, its cost-effective.
 The foundation of Industry 4.0 is the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT). The basis of
this connectivity is the sensors that transmit data to a control computer. Without sensors
collecting information, the IIoT doesn't exist.
 Industry 4.0 is a structured system, that uses the concept of a Smart Factory and uses
the cybernetic solution and digital communication in industrial products and services.
It is a transversal process irrespective of the business area, that makes industrial
production entirely automated and interconnected.
 Smart manufacturing to establish remote and monitoring assistance system, a solution
that actively contributes to improving the performance in industrial plant.
 Companies can supervise, check, and set the variables of the machine or the entire
production process.

Industrial Instrumentation
The process of measuring and controlling various quantities in production processes using
various instruments or industrial elements is defined as “industrial instrumentation”.

Purpose of Industrial Instrumentation

 To control any quantity, one must primarily measure that particular quantity. After
measuring the desired quantity, the measured values are transmitted for indication,
calculation, or control purposes, either with manual or automatic operation.
  In an automatic control operation, the quantity can be controlled using the control signal
sent by the CPU to the control devices.
 In practice, the sensors read the different field data such as flow, pressure, displacement,
vibrations, etc., and transmit them to the control systems that will regulate these
variable quantities.
 In industry, control is normally carried out by programmable logic controllers (PLC) or
Distributed control systems (DCS).

A practical example of industrial instrumentation.

 The thermostat of the electric geyser is an example of a measurement and control
system, in which the temperature of the water is the “Process” under control.
 In this example, the thermostat typically has two functions. One is sensing and the other
is control, while the heater coil adds heat to the water to increase the temperature. Input
water from the overhead tank extracts heat from the geyser to decrease the temperature.
 The job of this control system is to keep the water temperature at a comfortable level.
Desired hot water temperature at desired value (called the set-point).

Main elements of industrial instrumentation

1. Sensors
There are various sensors used as input devices in real-time control and instrumentation
applications, but the most commonly used sensors are pressure sensor, flow sensor, temperature
sensor, level sensor, position and displacement sensor, etc.

2. Controllers
Most controllers or valves are generally implemented using mechanical or electronic systems.
But recent industrial controllers in systems used in the industry rely on computers. Hence, it
makes it easier to implement complex control algorithms. The most used control systems in
industrial instrumentation are,
 PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)
 DCS (Distributed Control Systems)
 SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition system)

3. Actuators
The actuator is used to control the mechanism or the system based on the signal given to it by
converting the electrical signal into a large power action. The output signal from controllers or
control systems like DCS, SCADA, or PLC used in industrial instrumentation is used to control
the actuators. Actuators are generally controlled by electrical current, fluid pressure, pneumatic
pressure, and this energy is converted into mechanical energy or power.

There are different types of actuators to know:

 Hydraulic actuator
 Pneumatic actuator
 Electrical actuator
 Mechanical actuator
These actuators are used to control output devices such as valves, motors, relays, contactors,
emergency lights, etc.