Human Factors In Aviation

4. Factors Affecting Performance

Fitness and Health

An AMEs job can be physically demanding. Some work may have to be carried out in widely varying physical environments,
including cramped spaces, extremes of temperature, on the ramp, at night, etc. There are two aspects to fitness and health: the
disposition of the engineer prior to taking up employment and the day-to-day well being of the engineer once working in an
aviation organisation.

Pre-Employment Disposition
There are no specific legislation requirements for the physical or mental fitness of engineers and maintenance staff before they
start their careers. Even though ICAO Annex 11 states: “An applicant shall, before being issued with any [engineering] licence or
rating, meet such requirements in respect of age, knowledge, experience and where appropriate, medical fitness and skill...”
...it’s left up to each organisation to set their own standards and prepare an induction programme such as aptitude,
intelligence, phobic tests and interviews before employing an individual. Some employers expect a prospective employee
pass a medical before commencing employment. This allows them to judge the fitness and health of all applicants, as well as
satisfying pension or insurance requirements.
There is an obvious effect upon an engineer’s ability to perform maintenance or carry out inspections if they are constrained in
some way due to poor health. In addition, the IAA may consider these factors significant and may judge the condition to be of
such significance that a licence could not be issued.
For example, engineering staff should not have colour-defective vision, since this will directly affect their ability to see and
identify critical information listed on, for example, an Airbus ECAM system. The displays relies on changes in colour to announce
changes in system status , such as green text for correct operation, orange text for standby or passive modes and red text for
fault or emergency situations.
This would not, however, affect the person’s ability to obtain alternative employment within the industry where fitness and
health requirements are less important.

Day-to-Day Fitness and Health

EASA legislation requires that “certifying staff must not exercise the privileges of their certification authorisation if they know or
suspect that their physical or mental condition renders them unfit.”
Responsibility falls upon the individual AME to determine whether they are well enough to work on a particular day. Cases of
subtle physical or mental illness may not always be apparent to the individual but since engineers often work in teams, any
substandard performance or unusual behaviour should be noticed by colleagues or supervisors so that appropriate action can be
taken. In fact, it is a legal requirement for AMEs to make sure they are fit for work.
Many conditions can impact on the health and fitness of an engineer, including...

Minor illness (such as colds, ‘flu, etc.); or major illnesses (such as malaria, depression, etc.);

Minor injury (such as a sprained wrist, etc.) or a major injury (such as a broken arm, etc.);

Ongoing deterioration in physical condition (such as hearing loss, visual defects, obesity, heart problems, etc.);

Affects of toxins and other foreign substances (such as carbon monoxide poisoning, alcohol, illicit drugs, etc.).
An unwell AME may rationalise that they are letting down colleagues if they ‘go sick’ so they show up for work anyway. This
should never be encouraged, especially if they have something contagious. However, management should have a contingency
plan in place, so the individual should not be pressured into turn up to work in this case. There is a problem if contract staff fall
ill, they will loose earnings or even the contract itself. It is tempting to disguise their illness, or may not wish to admit to
themselves or others that they are ill. This is irresponsible, as the contractor’s standard of work may suffer as a result.

Positive Measures
AMEs can take common sense steps to maintain their fitness and health. These include:

Eating regular meals and a well-balanced diet;

Taking regular exercise;

Stop or else don’t start smoking;

Maintain a sensible alcohol intake

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 Human Factors In Aviation

Stress: Domestic and Work Related

In engineering, stress can be defined as any applied force on an object, increasing internal pressures and eventually causing a
physical deformation known as strain.
From a human viewpoint, stress results from the imposition of any demands which require us to react, adapt or behave
in a particular manner in order to cope with or satisfy them. Stress can result from physical, psychological or social
pressures. Up to a point, such demands are stimulating and useful, but if they are beyond our personal capacity to deal with
them, the resulting stress becomes a problem.

Causes and Symptoms

Stress is usually something experienced due to the presence of some form of stressor, which might be a one-off stimulus (such
as a challenging problem or a punch on the nose), or an ongoing factor (such as an extremely hot hangar or an acrimonious
divorce). From these, we get acute stress (typically intense but of short duration) and chronic stress (frequent recurrence or
of long duration) respectively. A stressor can and does affect different people in different ways.

There are three main types of stressor, such as:

Physical - such as heat, cold, noise, vibration, presence of something damaging to health (e.g. carbon monoxide);

Psychological - such as emotional upset (e.g. due to bereavements, domestic problems, etc.), worries about real or
imagined problems (e.g. due to financial problems, ill health, etc.);

Reactive - such as events occurring in everyday life (e.g. working under time pressure, emergency situations, etc.)

A stress problem can manifest itself by signs of irritability, forgetfulness, sickness absence, mistakes, or alcohol/drug abuse.
Management have a duty to identify individuals who may be suffering from stress and to minimise workplace stresses. Individual
cases can be helped by sympathetic and skilful counselling which allows a return to work.

In brief, the possible signs of stress can include:

1. Physiological symptoms - such as sweating, dryness of the mouth, etc.;
2. Health effects - such as nausea, headaches, sleep problems, diarrhoea, ulcers, etc.;
3. Behavioural symptoms - such as restlessness, shaking, nervous laughter, taking longer over tasks, changes to appetite,
excessive drinking, etc.;
4. Cognitive effects - such as poor concentration, indecision, forgetfulness, etc.;
5. Subjective effects - such as anxiety, irritability, depression, moodiness, aggression, etc.

It should be noted that individuals respond to stressful situations in very different ways. Generally speaking, people tend to
regard situations with negative consequences as being more stressful than when the outcome of the stress will be
positive (e.g. the difference between being made redundant or being present at the birth of a son or daughter).

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 Human Factors In Aviation

Domestic Stress
Domestic stress typically results from major life changes at home, such as marriage, birth of a child, a son or daughter leaving
home, bereavement of a close family member or friend, marital problems, or divorce.
When AMEs are at work, they cannot always leave the stresses associated with home behind. Preoccupation with domestic
issues can play on your mind during the working day, distracting you from the task. Inability to concentrate fully may impact
on the engineer’s task performance and ability to pay careful attention to safety.

Work Related Stress

AMEs experience work-related stress for two main reasons...

The task or job they are undertaking at that moment, or are about to start.

The general organisational environment.
Stress can be felt when carrying out certain tasks that are particularly challenging or difficult. This stress can be increased by
lack of guidance or training in this situation, or time pressures to complete the task. This type of stress can be reduced by
careful management, good training, etc.
Within the organisation, the social and managerial aspects of work can be stressful such as shift patterns, lack of control over
personal workload, company reorganisation and job uncertainty can also be sources of stress.

Stress Management
Once an individual is put in a stressful situation, whether they are aware of it or not, they generally respond to it by using one of
two strategies: defence or coping.
Defence strategies involves reducing the signs of stress (taking medication, alcohol, etc.) or reducing the anxiety (e.g.
denying to yourself that there is a problem (denial), or blaming someone else).

Can you list three recent occasions where you used DEFENCE strategies to ‘block out stress?’
1. 2 3

Coping strategies involve dealing with the source of the stress rather than just the symptoms (e.g. delegating workload,
prioritising tasks, sorting out the problem, etc.).
Coping is the process whereby the individual either adjusts to the demands of the situation or changes the situation itself.

Can you list three recent occasions where you used COPING strategies to ‘deal with stress?’
1. 2 3

It is not always possible to deal with the problem if it is outside your control (such as during an emergency), but there are
various techniques for helping individuals to cope with stress. Stress management techniques include:

Relaxation exercises;

Careful regulation of sleep and diet;

A regime of regular physical exercise;

Counselling - ranging from talking to a friend or colleague to seeking professional advice.
Unfortunately, there is no magic formula to cure stress and anxiety, just COMMON SENSE and PRACTICAL ADVICE.

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 Human Factors In Aviation

Time Pressure and Deadlines

This might be actual pressure where clear deadlines are imposed by management or supervisors and given to AMEs, or
perceived pressure where AMEs ‘feel’ that there is some time limit when carrying out tasks, even when no definitive deadlines
have been set. In addition, it may be self-imposed pressure, in which case AMEs set themselves deadlines to complete work
(e.g. completing a task before a break or before the end of a shift).
Management have contractual obligations to ensure an aircraft is released to service within a time frame agreed with
customers. Trying to increase overall output means that more maintenance must be accomplished in the same amount of time,
with this work frequently being done during the night shift. If management promise more than can be delivered, it can impact
on flight punctuality, passenger satisfaction and the company’s reputation. Thus, AMEs have two driving forces: the deadlines
handed down to them and their responsibilities to carry out a job safely.

The Effects of Time Pressure and Deadlines

As with stress, it is generally thought that a certain amount of time-related pressure is stimulating and may actually improve task
performance. However, it is almost certainly true that excessive time pressures (either actual or perceived, external or
self-imposed), is likely to mean that due care and attention when carrying out tasks diminishes and more errors will be made.
Ultimately, these errors can lead to aircraft incidents and accidents.

Managing Time Pressure and Deadlines

One potential method of managing time pressures exerted on engineers is through regulation. For example, the amount of
time spent physically working and completing paperwork is controlled so that staff do not become overworked and suffer from
fatigue or stress. Ideally, airworthiness issues should always take precedence over commercial and time pressures. Continuous
organisational time pressures can result in making ‘cutting corners’ a cultural norm. It’s only after an incident or accident that
these ‘norms’ will be revealed.

Those responsible for setting deadlines and allocating tasks should consider:

Prioritising work that need to be done;

The actual time available to carry out work (considering breaks, shift handovers, etc.);

The personnel available throughout the whole job (allowing a contingency for illness);

The most appropriate utilisation of staff (considering an engineer’s specialisation, and strengths and limitations);

Availability of parts and spares.

It is important that staff at all levels are not afraid to voice concerns over inappropriate deadlines, and if necessary, cite
the need to do a safe job to support this. As mentioned earlier, responsibility should be spread across all personnel who are
involved in aircraft maintenance. Thus, the AME should not feel that the ‘buck stops with me’ and take all the pressure onto
themselves.

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 Human Factors In Aviation

Workload - Overload and Underload

A certain amount of stimulation is beneficial to an AME, but that too much stimulation can lead to stress or over-commitment in
terms of time. It is also understood that too little stimulation can also cause problems. Before going on to describe workload, it
is important to consider this optimum level of stimulation or arousal.

Arousal
Arousal in its most general sense, refers to the readiness of a person for performing work. To achieve an optimum level of task
performance, it is necessary to have a certain level of stimulation or arousal. This level of stimulation or arousal varies from
person to person. There are people who are overloaded by having to do more than one task at a time; on the other hand there
are people who appear to thrive on stress,
being happy to take on more and more work
or challenges.
At low levels of arousal, our attention
mechanisms will not be particularly active
and our performance capability will be low
(complacency and boredom can result).
At the other end of the curve, performance
deteriorates when arousal becomes too high.
To a certain extent, this is because we are
forced to shed tasks and focus on key
information only (narrowing of attention).
Best task performance occurs somewhere in
the middle.

Factors Determining Workload

The degree of stimulation exerted on an individual caused by a task is generally referred to as workload, and can be separated
into physical workload and mental workload.
Humans have limited mental capacity to deal with information and also limited physically, in terms of visual acuity, strength,
dexterity and so on. Thus, workload reflects the degree to which the demands of the work we have to do, eats into our own
mental and physical capacities.

Workload is subjective (i.e. experienced differently by different people) and is affected by:
The nature of the task, such as the:

physical demands (e.g. strength required, etc.);

mental demands (e.g. complexity of decisions to be made, etc.).

The circumstances under which the task is performed, such as the:

standard of performance required (i.e. degree of accuracy);

time available to accomplish the task (and thus the speed at which the task must be carried out);

need to carry out two or more simultaneous tasks (multi-tasking);

perceived control of the task (i.e. is it imposed by others or under your control, etc.);

environmental factors existing at time (e.g. extremes of temperature, etc.).

The persons state, such as:

skills (both physical and mental);

experience (particularly familiarity with the task in question);

current health and fitness levels;

emotional (e.g. stress level, mood, etc.).

As the workload of the engineer may vary, they may experience periods of overload and underload. This is a particular feature
of some areas of the industry such as line maintenance.

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 Human Factors In Aviation

Overload
Overload occurs at very high levels of workload (when the AME is over-aroused). Performance deteriorates when arousal
becomes too high and we are forced to shed tasks and focus on key information. Susceptibility to error also increase.
Overload can occur for a wide range of reasons. It may happen suddenly (e.g. if asked to do another task or remember some
information whilst already trying to analyse a large amount of data), or gradually, where the workload progressively getting
lager and larger and the AME cannot keep up.
Legislation tries to address this issue by stating... “The Part-145 AMO must employ sufficient personnel to plan, perform,
supervise and inspect the work in accordance with the AMO’s approval”, and “the Part-145 AMO should have a production man
hours plan showing that it has sufficient man hours for the work that is intended to be carried out”.
Although the intention is clear, it does not prevent individuals from becoming overloaded from time to time. AMEs who are
overloaded tend to make mistakes.

Underload
Underload occurs at low levels of workload (when the AME becomes under-aroused). It can be just as problematic as overload,
since it too causes a deterioration in performance and an increase in errors. Underload can result from a task an AME finds
boring, repetitive, easy, or even if there is little to do. The nature of the maintenance industry means that available work
fluctuates, depending on time of day, maintenance schedules, and so forth. Hence, unless stimulating ‘housekeeping’ tasks are
available, underload can be difficult to avoid. AMEs who are underloaded tend to become complacent.

Workload Management
Unfortunately, in a commercial environment, it is seldom possible to make large amendments to maintenance schedules, nor
eliminate time pressures. The essence of workload management in aircraft maintenance should include:

ensuring that staff have the skills needed to do the tasks they have been asked to do and the proficiency and
experience to do the tasks within the timescales they have been asked to work within;

making sure that staff have the tools and spares they need to do the tasks;

allocating tasks to teams or individuals that can be accomplished in the time available;

providing human factors training to those responsible for planning so that the performance and limitations of staff are
taken into account;

encouraging individual engineers, supervisors and managers to recognise when an overload situation is building up.

If an overload situation is developing, methods to help relieve this include:

seeking a simpler method of carrying out the work (that is just as effective and still legitimate);

delegating certain activities to others to avoid an individual engineer becoming overloaded;

securing further time in order to carry out the work safely;

postponing, delaying tasks/deadlines and refusing additional work.

Thus, although workload varies in aircraft maintenance engineering, the workload of engineers can be moderated. Much of this
can be done by careful forward planning of tasks, manpower, spares, tools and training of staff.

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 Human Factors In Aviation

Sleep, Fatigue and Shift Work

Circadian Rythms and Zietgebers

The body naturally works to a daily cycle, called a circadian rhythm. Without any external influences the circadian rhythm is
about 25 hours long, slightly longer than a day. The circadian 'day' is controlled down to 24 hours by external influences
such as night and day and social patterns like meal times. The external influences are called zietgebers, a name which in
German means 'time givers'.
The circadian rhythm controls patterns of sleep and wakefulness as well as body temperature. Under normal
circumstances these two rhythms work together so that the lowest body temperature coincides with the time that it is
hardest to stay awake, around 5am.
Although time spent awake is an important factor in
determining the readiness for sleep, the circadian rhythm
also is important. Sleep is easier and lasts longer when
the body temperature is falling and becomes harder
as the body temperature rises.
The circadian rhythm also affects our performance at
different tasks. Simple jobs involving visual searches
and manual dexterity follow the pattern of body
temperature with efficiency improving through the day
and declining at night to a low point just before dawn.
Performance on short term memory tasks, like
remembering names and telephone numbers, declines
through the day from an optimum in the morning and
tasks that require active thought such as verbal
reasoning and mental arithmetic are completed with peak
efficiency at mid-day.

The Nature of Sleep

There are five stages of sleep (unimaginatively!) named stage 1, stage 2, stage 3 and stage 4 sleeps. Stages 3 & 4 are classified
as slow wave sleep and the fifth stage is associated with dreaming is and called Rapid Eye Movement (REM).

Sleep Cycles
During a typical night's sleep, an individual will initially descend rapidly into stage 4 sleep, followed by REM sleep after about 90
minutes have elapsed. The first REM stage lasts about 10 minutes. The 90-100 minute cycle repeats itself throughout the night
with stage 4 sleep becoming less common and REM sleep longer. A typical night's sleep will contain four or five REM stages.
Slow wave sleep and REM sleep appear to have different functions. Slow wave sleep increases after exercise and is
associated with the restoration of the body. REM sleep seems to be a way of strengthening and organising memory.
It has been shown that REM sleep increases when an individual is learning new skills.
If the body is deprived of either
form of sleep it tends to make up
for it the following night, this tends
to reinforce the idea that the body
needs both types of sleep.

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 Human Factors In Aviation

Brain Activity During Sleep

The stages of sleep are defined by brain activity measured by an electroencephelogram (EEG). Brain activity is rhythmical
and can be divided into characteristic patterns, the most important for us are alpha, beta, and delta rhythms.
Alpha rhythms are slow oscillations of 8Hz to 13Hz and are associated with a relaxed person, usually with the eyes closed.
Beta rhythms are more agitated and lower amplitude and are seen when a person is alert and actively thinking. Delta
rhythms are slow, high amplitude rhythms associated with deep sleep.
An individual that is awake displays predominantly beta wave activity. In stage 1 sleep the beta activity is replaced with the
alpha waves associated with relaxation. In stage 2, 3 and 4 sleep the alpha waves have gradually lower amplitudes and are
progressively replaced in turn with delta waves so that by the time stage 4 sleep is present nearly all the activity is delta.
While the subject is drifting into deeper sleep other changes can be detected in the body. Stage 1 sleep shows muscle activity
and rolling eye movements which decrease markedly in the deeper stages.
The final stage of sleep, REM sleep, is peculiar. The brain activity is the same as you would get from an individual that is
awake, a mixture of alpha and beta rhythms with no delta activity. The eyes twitch rapidly (REM) but the muscles are
completely relaxed. REM sleep is alternatively known as paradoxical sleep because, apart from the relaxed muscles and
the closed eyes, it is as if the person is awake.

The Required Amount of Sleep

The amount of sleep needed varies from individual to individual, the bottom line is that you should sleep as much as you
need. Lack of sleep causes low alertness and reduced performance but, the body tends to be self-compensating and in
the end it catches up with even the most disturbed sleep patterns.
In general women sleep longer than men but have more sleep problems. Older people need less sleep but the flexibility of the
sleeping pattern is reduced making shift work more difficult to handle.

Sleep Disorders

Narcolepsy is a disorder that causes people to drop off to sleep at any time of day, even when in sleep credit and even when
driving or flying.
Sleep Apnoea causes people to stop breathing for periods varying from a few seconds to up to a minute during the night
Sleep walking (somnabulism) and sleep talking (somniloquism) are common in children and less common in adults. When
they do occur they cause little problem, unless you flying as part of the relief crew in an aircraft.
Clinical insomnia is the inability to sleep even in normal favourable conditions.
Situational insomnia is the inability to sleep because of disrupted working and resting patterns. Situational insomnia is the
sleep problem most frequently reported by aircrew.
Jet Lag (circadian dysrhythmia) occurs when the body is moved to a different time zone where the circadian rhythm is out of
synchronisation with the zietgebers of night and day. External influences occuring, as far as the human body is concerned, at
the new and unusual times, lead to disrupted sleep and an eventual sleep deficit.

Note: Alcohol should not be used as an aid to sleep. Although it does induce sleep, there is a reduction in the amount of REM
sleep and early waking is likely. After a night of alcohol-induced sleep, you do not feel rested (and usually much worse!).

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 Human Factors In Aviation

Fatigue
Fatigue can be either physiological or subjective. Physiological fatigue reflects the body’s need for replenishment and
restoration. It is tied in with factors such as recent physical activity, current health, consumption of alcohol, and with circadian
rhythms. It can only be satisfied by rest and eventually, a period of sleep. Subjective fatigue is an individual’s perception of
how sleepy they feel. This is not only affected by when they last slept and how good the sleep was, but also other factors
such as motivation.
Fatigue is typically caused by delayed sleep, sleep loss, desynchronisation of normal circadian rhythms and
concentrated periods of physical or mental stress or exertion. In the workplace, working long hours, working during
normal sleep hours and working on rotating shift schedules all produce fatigue to some extent.

Symptoms of fatigue (in no particular order) may include:

diminished perception (vision, hearing, etc.) and a general lack of awareness;

diminished motor skills

slow reactions;

short-term memory problems;

channelled concentration - fixation on a single issue, to the neglect of others and failing to maintain awareness;

being easily distracted by unimportant matters;

poor judgement and decision making leading to increased mistakes;

Mood swings - erratic changes in mood, depressed, periodically elated and energetic;

diminished work standards.
“Tiredness and fatigue can adversely affect performance. Excessive hours of duty and shift working, particularly with multiple
shift periods or additional overtime, can lead to problems. Individuals should be fully aware of the dangers of impaired
performance due to these factors and of their personal responsibilities.”

Shift Work
Most aircraft movements occur between 6 a.m. and 10 p.m. to fit in with the requirements of passengers. AMEs are required to
work whenever aircraft are on the ground, such as during turn-arounds. However, this scheduling means that aircraft are often
available for more significant maintenance during the night. Thus, AME work is clearly a 24 hour business and shift work is
inevitable. Some AMEs permanently work the same shift, but the majority work through rolling shifts.

Rolling Shift Patterns

When an engineer works rolling shifts and changes from one shift to another (e.g. ‘day shift’ to ‘night shift’), the body's internal
clock is not immediately reset. It continues on its old wake-sleep cycle for several days, even though it is no longer possible for
the person to sleep when the body thinks it is appropriate, and is only gradually resynchronised. However, by this time, the
engineer may have moved onto the next shift. Generally, it’s easier on the human body if shift rotations move towards the
later shifts (i.e. early shift to late shift to night shift) instead of rotations the other way.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Shift Work

There are pros and cons to working shifts. Some people welcome the variety of working different times associated with regular
shift work patterns. Advantages may include more days off and avoiding peak traffic times when travelling to work.

The disadvantages of shift working are mainly associated with:

working ‘unsociable hours’, meaning that time available with friends, family, etc. will be disrupted;

working when human performance is known to be poorer (i.e. between 4am and 6am);

problems associated with general desynchronisation and disturbance of the body’s various rhythms (principally
sleeping patterns).

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 Human Factors In Aviation

Continuity of Tasks and Shift Handovers

Many maintenance tasks often span more than one shift, requiring tasks to be passed from one shift to the next. The
outgoing personnel are at the end of anything up to a twelve hour shift and are consequently tired and eager to go home.
Therefore, shift handover is an area where human error can and does occur. Whilst longer shifts may result in greater
fatigue, the disadvantages may be offset by the fact that fewer shift changeovers are required (i.e. only 2 handovers with 2
twelve hour shifts, as opposed to 3 handovers with 3 eight hour shifts). Shift Handovers are described later in these notes.

Sleep, Fatigue, Shift Work and the AME

Most individuals need approximately 8 hours sleep in a 24 hour period, although this varies between individuals, some needing
more and some needing less than this to feel fully refreshed. All people can usually perform adequately with less that this for a
few days, building up a temporary sleep ‘deficit’. However, any sleep deficit will need to be made up, otherwise performance will
start to suffer.

Sleep Credits
Isolated from the circadian rhythm, sleep patterns can be considered in terms of credit points accumulated while sleeping and
points lost while awake. Each hour asleep creates two sleep credit points and each hour awake removes one point. In
a simple example, a full night of eight hours sleep builds a sleep credit of 16 points. Sixteen hours later having burnt off sixteen
points, the body is tired and ready for sleep again.

A good rule of thumb is that one hour of high-quality sleep is good for two hours awake/activity.

As previously noted, fatigue is best tackled by ensuring adequate rest and good quality sleep are obtained. The use of
blackout curtains if trying to sleep during daylight hours may help. It is also best not to eat a large meal shortly before
trying to sleep, but on the other hand, the engineer should avoid going to bed hungry.
As fatigue is also influenced by illness, alcohol, etc., it is very important to get more sleep if feeling unwell and drink only in
moderation between duties. Taking over-the-counter drugs to help sleep should only be used as a last resort.
When rotating shifts are worked, it is important that the engineer is disciplined in eating and sleeping times. Moreover,
out of work activities have to be carefully planned. For example, it is obvious that an individual who has been out night-clubbing
until the early hours of the morning will not be adequately rested if rostered on an early shift the following day. The same goes
for parents of new-born babies, maternal/paternal leave exists for a reason.
Shift working patterns encountered by aircraft maintenance engineers may include three or four days off after the last night
shift. It can be tempting to work additional hours, taking voluntary overtime, or another job during one or more of these days
off. This is especially the case when first starting a career in aviation when financial pressures may be higher. Engineers should
be aware that their vulnerability to error is likely to increase when tired or fatigued, and they should try to ensure that
any extra hours worked are kept within reason. Don’t rely on others to keep an eye on you.
It is always sensible to monitor your own performance, especially when working additional hours. Reduction in your
performance can be gradual with the first signs of chronic fatigue being moodiness, headaches or finding that familiar tasks
seem more complicated than usual.
Finally, it is worth noting that, although most engineers adapt to shift working, it becomes harder to work rotating shifts
as you get older.

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 Human Factors In Aviation

Alcohol, Medication and Drug Abuse

Alcohol
An AME’s performance will be affected by alcohol, medication or illicit drugs. Under European legislation it is an offence for
safety critical personnel to carry out their duties whilst under the influence of alcohol or drugs .
Alcohol acts as a depressant on the central nervous system, dulling the senses and increasing mental and physical reaction
times. It is known that even a small amount of alcohol leads to a decline in an performance and causes poor judgement.
Alcohol is metabolised from the blood at a fixed rate and it cannot be speeded up in any way (e.g. by drinking strong
coffee). In fact, sleeping after drinking alcohol actually slows down the process, as the body’s metabolic systems run slower.
Alcohol has similar effects to tranquillisers and sleeping tablets and may remain circulating in the blood for a considerable time,
especially when taken with food. As a general rule, AMEs should not work for at least eight hours after drinking
alcohol and increase this time if more has been taken. The affects of alcohol can be made considerably worse if the individual
is fatigued, ill or using medication.

Medication
Any medication, no matter how common, can have direct or side effects that may impair an engineer’s performance in the
workplace. Medication can be regarded as any over-the-counter or prescribed drug used for therapeutic purposes.
An AME should be particularly careful when taking a medicine for the first time, and should ask a doctor whether any prescribed
drug will affect work performance. It is also wise with any medication to take the first dose at least 24 hours before any
duty to ensure that it does not have any adverse effects. Medication is usually taken to relieve symptoms of an illness, so
consider whether the illness has made you unfit for work.

Analgesics are used for pain relief and to treat the symptoms of colds and flu. Paracetamol, aspirin and ibuprofen are
considered safe if used as directed.

Antibiotics may have short term or delayed effects which will affect work performance. Their use indicates that an
infection exists and apart from the antibiotic effect, the side-effects of the infection will almost always render an
individual unfit for work.

Anti-histamines are used widely in the treatment of allergies. This group of medicines tend to make the user feel drowsy,
meaning their use is likely to be unacceptable when working as an AME.

Cough suppressants are generally safe in normal use, but if an over-the-counter product contains anti-histamine,
decongestant, etc., the engineer should exercise caution about its use when working.

Decongestants may contain chemicals such as pseudo-ephedrine hydrochloride (e.g. ‘Sudafed’) and phenylphrine. Side-effects
reported, are anxiety, tremors, rapid pulse and headache. Therefore, it’s use is unacceptable when working as an AME,
since it will compromise skilled performance.

‘Pep’ pills are used to maintain wakefulness. They often contain caffeine, dexedrine or benzedrine. Their use is often habit
forming. Headaches, dizziness and mental disturbances may result. If coffee is not enough, you are not fit for work.

Sleeping tablets (often anti-histamine based) tend to slow reaction times and generally dull the senses. The duration of
effect is variable from person to person. Individuals should obtain expert medical advice before taking them.

If an aircraft maintenance engineer has any doubts about the suitability of working whilst taking medication,
they must seek appropriate professional advice - Ignorance is not an excuse!

Drugs
In two words... forget it! Drugs such as ecstasy, cocaine and heroin all affect the central nervous system and impair mental
function. They are known to have significant, negative effects upon performance and have no place in aviation. Smoking
cannabis or hash can subtly impair performance for up to 24 hours. In particular, it affects concentration, memory retention and
make reasoned judgements, especially on difficult tasks.

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